UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

MBA 2.8 SOFT SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
30 Hours
2 Credits

Introduction
1. What are soft skills??
Soft skills are personal attributes that enhance an individual's interactions, job
performance and career prospects. It includes a person's "EQ" (Emotional Intelligence
Quotient), the cluster of personality traits, social graces, communication, language,
personal habits, friendliness, and optimism that characterize relationships with other
people.

Soft skills are often described by using terms often associated with personality traits, such
as optimism, common sense, responsibility,a sense of humor,integrity; and abilities that
can be practiced (but require the individual to genuinely like other people) such as
empathy, teamwork, leadership, communication, good manners, negotiation, sociability,
the ability to teach etc.
The following are included in soft skillso The Emotional IQ (intelligence Quotient)
o Interpersonal skills- between people-social
Communication
Leadership
Etiquette
Conflict Resolution
Persuasion
Friendliness
o Intrapersonal Skills-Relating to and Knowing oneself
Decision making
Motivation
Self discipline
Optimism
Personal habits

2. How is it different from hard skills?

Hard skills are a persons skill set and ability to perform a certain type of task or activity.
Hard skills are ones specific to a job such as operating a computer or a cash register. Hard
skills are usually related to professional knowledge, tools, or techniques that allow us to
work within our profession. Examples of hard skills are designing a bridge; developing
software; applying taxation laws; and injecting a vaccine.

Hard skills are specific and can be easily taught, such as being able to read or type a
letter. They represent the minimum skills necessary to do a job and are the first screen
employers use to weed out applicants who are obviously not qualified for the position at
hand. Hard skills are typically easy to observe, quantify and measure. They're also easy to
train, because most of the time the skill sets are brand new to the learner and no
unlearning is involved.

On the other hand soft skills are behavioural competencies. Soft skills are interpersonal
and broadly applicable as it does not relate to any specific job or task. Also known as
Interpersonal Skills, or people skills, they include proficiencies such as communication
skills, conflict resolution and negotiation, personal effectiveness, creative problem
solving, strategic thinking, team building, influencing skills and selling skills etc.. Soft
skills are more elusive and intangible. Soft skills" (also called "people skills") are
typically hard to observe, quantify and measure.
It's often said that hard skills will get you an interview but you need soft skills to get (and
keep) the job.

3. Which is more important? Hard skills or soft skills?

It depends highly on the career an individual chooses. The reasons are as follows:

Careers can be put into 3 kinds of categories.

1) Careers that need hard skills and little soft skills (example: Physicists) This is
where you see brilliant people who cannot deal well with people. They can still be very
successful in their career eg- Albert Einstein

2) Careers that need both hard and soft skills many careers are in this category
(example: Accountants, Lawyers they need to know the rules of accounting or law well
but they also depend on selling to clients to build a successful career. Dealing well with
clients require excellent soft skills like communication skills, relationship skills etc)

3) Careers that need mostly soft skills and little hard skills (example: sales. A car
salesman dont really need to know that much about cars, just a little more than the
consumer. His job is more dependent on his ability to read his customers, communicate
his sales pitch, persuasion skills, and skills to close to deal. These are all soft skills)
4. Which is more important for business/ managers?
Soft skills are more important in most business careers than hard skills. There are many
senior people who doesnt seem that smart (limited hard skills). The fact remains that
they are in senior positions because they have exceptional soft skills (e.g., know how

to leverage politics to further their careers, leadership skills, management skills, self
promotion skills etc).
Important Soft Skill Attributes for MBAs
Communication/Interpersonal Skills
Ability to work well within a team
Personal ethics and integrity
Analytical and problem solving ability
Work ethic
Leadership potential
Strategic thinking
Fit corporate culture
Skills for ENTRY-LEVEL Success

5. What is the importance of soft skills?

Soft skills are very important for the following reasons:a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Helps in ones individual and professional development

It helps to handle interpersonal relations
Helps in taking appropriate decisions
Aids in communicating effectively
To have good impression and impact to gain professional development
It increases happiness at work , lowers stress levels, less absenteeism etc.

** 70% of the time people of average intelligence outperform people with the highest levels
of intelligence
** Emotional Intelligence, the ability to manage emotions make good decisions & having
good relationships, accounts for 58% of job performance

6. How can one develop soft skills?

Soft skills can be developed through training by providing five key elements:

Exposure
Practice
Feedback
Reflection
Personal experience

At individual level:

Start with Intrapersonal

o Self actualization
o Skills establishment
o Goal setting
Then relate to Interpersonal
o Social skills
o Etiquette
o Friendliness
o Overcoming shyness etc..
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Module I
1. Verbal Communication includes Planning, Preparation, Delivery, Feedback
a. Group Discussion
b. Public speaking
c. Oral Presentation skills
d. Presentation skills
e. Listening and observation skills
f. body language
g. use of Presentation aids
2. Written communication
a. Project Proposals
b. Brochures

c. Newsletters
d. Articles
e. Business letters

I. Verbal Communication
1. What is communication?
Communication can be defined as the exchange of ideas, information and
knowledge between sender and receiver through an accepted code of symbols.
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. There
are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any time. The different
categories of communication are:
1. Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television or other media.
2. Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act - even our scent.
3. Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.

Communication theory states that communication involves a sender and a receiver (or receivers)
conveying information through a communication channel.
The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which simply
'happens', but should be seen as a process which involves participants negotiating their role in
this process, whether consciously or unconsciously.
Senders and receivers are of course vital in communication. In face-to-face communication the
roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct as both parties communicate with each other,
even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language.
There are many other subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even unintentionally) with
others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to our mood or emotional state, whilst
hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.
In written communication the sender and receiver are more distinct. Until recent times, relatively
few writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word.
Today we can all write and publish our ideas on the Internet, which has led to an explosion of
information and communication possibilities.

2. Explain the communication process.

A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a

receiver, or to multiple receivers. The sender must encode the message (the information being
conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then
decodes the message to understand its meaning and significance.

The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is through
the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the
receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the
opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession. Effective
communication leads to understanding.
The communication process is made up of four key components. Those components include
encoding, medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two other factors in
the process, and those two factors are present in the form of the sender and the receiver. The
communication process begins with the sender and ends with the receiver.
The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication. This source
is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's experiences, attitudes,
knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written words, spoken
words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the
message as intended by the sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All communication begins with
the sender.
The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey
meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message in
the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates the ideas or
concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols can take on numerous

forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into
messages that others can understand.
When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to transmit.
This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the receivers knowledge and
assumptions, along with what additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It is
important for the sender to use symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for
the sender to improve encoding their message, is to mentally visualize the communication from
the receiver's point of view.
To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also called a medium).
The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are either oral or written,
but currently visual channels are becoming more common as technology expands. Common
channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters, and reports.
The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the
communication. For example, when immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication
channels are more effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a
situation where the message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written
channels are often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should
be used because one supplements the other.
If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not reach the
right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the appropriate channel
will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's understanding. The sender's decision to
utilize either an oral or a written channel for communicating a message is influenced by several
factors. The sender should ask him or herself different questions, so that they can select the
appropriate channel. Is the message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or
a permanent record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the
message going to someone inside or outside the organization? What oral and written
communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender has answered all of these
questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.
After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the decoding stage of
the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is
received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to assign some
type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to
interpret the symbols sent by the sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences
in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the
receiver correctly interprets the sender's message.
The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The extent to
which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of factors, which include
the following: how much the individual or individuals know about the topic, their receptivity to
the message, and the relationship and trust that exists between sender and receiver. All
interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills,
perceptions, and culture. It is similar to the sender's relationship with encoding.

Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a message,
the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender. The signal may take
the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a smile, or some other action.
"Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without
feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.
Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the sender to
evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an opportunity for the
sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood message. "Feedback plays an
important role by indicating significant communication barriers: differences in background,
different interpretations of words, and differing emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).
The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective communication.
When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the sender's message will be
understood by the receiver. Although the communication process seems simple, it in essence is
not. Certain barriers present themselves throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that
have a negative impact on the communication process. Some common barriers include the use of
an inappropriate medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words that conflict
with body language, and technical jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can occur
during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is anything that distorts a message by
interfering with the communication process. Noise can take many forms, including a radio
playing in the background, another person trying to enter your conversation, and any other
distractions that prevent the receiver from paying attention.
Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the implementation
of the communication process. All members within an organization will improve their
communication skills if they follow the communication process, and stay away from the different
barriers. It has been proven that individuals that understand the communication process will
blossom into more effective communicators, and effective communicators have a greater
opportunity for becoming a success.
3. What is verbal communication? What are its purpose?
Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message. It serves as a
vehicle for expressing desires, ideas and concepts and is vital to the processes of learning and
teaching. In combination with nonverbal forms of communication, verbal communication acts as
the primary tool for expression between two or more people.
Verbal communication has many purposes, but its main function is relaying a message to one or
more recipients. It encompasses everything from simple one-syllable sounds to complex
discussions and relies on both language and emotion to produce the desired effect. Verbal
communication can be used to inform, inquire, argue and discuss topics of all kinds. It is vital to
teaching and learning, as well as forming bonds and building relationships with other people.
Although all species communicate, language itself is a purely human phenomenon that allows for
more precision than the communication methods of other beings.

4. What are the various types of verbal communication?

Interpersonal communication and public speaking are the two basic types of verbal
communication. Whereas public speaking involves one or more people delivering a message to a
group, interpersonal communication generally refers to a two-way exchange that involves both
talking and listening.

According to Robert M. Krauss, professor of psychology at Columbia University, signs and

symbols are the major signals that make up verbal communication. Words act as symbols, and
signs are secondary products of the underlying message and include things like tone of voice,
blushing and facial expressions.
5. What are the challenges of verbal communication? How to solve the issues?
A variety of challenges may arise when using verbal communication to express oneself.
Misunderstandings can arise because of poor word choice, differing perspectives and faulty
communication techniques, and subjective opinions regarding acceptable language may result in
breakdowns in communication.
Language barriers are a major cause of confusion when attempting to communicate verbally.
According to the University of Louisville, differences in language influenced by geographic
location, education and social status can create barriers even among those who speak the same
language.

Although difficulties with verbal communication can't be completely avoided, it is possible to

increase your chances of communicating successfully. Consider the message you wish to
communicate before speaking and communicate with respect for the recipient's point of view Pay
attention to what you say and how you say it. Speak clearly and enunciate your words and be
conscious nonverbal aspects such as eye contact, posture and facial expressions.

I.a. Group Discussion

Nowadays Group Discussion is being extensively used along with personal interviews for the
final selection of candidates. It plays a main role in selecting the best among the best. Having
scored high marks, students who get selected for a higher/another course or employment are
placed on a par - on equal footing - based on their age, qualification and experience. It becomes
necessary to conduct further screening for choosing a few among many. It is here, the Group
Discussion plays an important part. It helps in choosing the socially suitable candidate among the

academically superior achievers. It is one of the best tools to study the behavioral and attitudinal
responses of the participants.
Rightly speaking, Group Discussion is more a technique than a conventional test. In fact it is one
of the most important and popular techniques being used in a number of personality tests. It is a
technique or a method used for screening candidates as well as testing their potential. It is also
designed as a situation test wherein a sample of a candidate's group worthiness and potential as a
worker comes out quite explicitly
Features Of Group Discussion
1.Group Discussion, as the name itself indicates, is a group activity carried out by participating
individuals. It is an exchange of ideas among the individuals of a group on a specific topic.
2 It is used as reliable, testing device - mainly as a tool to assess all the candidates in a group at
one go -in order to select the best in comparative perspective.
3.Group Discussion is an informal discussion in which participants of the same educational
standard discuss a topic of current interest.
4.It is also known as leaderless discussion. It means its aim is to find out the natural leadership
level of the candidates. Strictly speaking, no one from the group or outside will be officially
designated as leader or president or chairman or anything of the sort. Even the examiner or
supervisor who launches the discussion will retire to the background. No one will participate or
intervene in the deliberations of the group.

Process of GD
Group discussion is a group activity carried by 8 to 10 members group for 15-20 minutes. GD is
designed to exchange the thoughts and ideas among the members of the group on a particular
subject. It is the best tool to select the prospective candidates in a comparative perspective. It is a
useful tool to screen the candidates potential as well as their skills.
A selected topic will be given the group members and 2-3 minutes time will be given for
thinking. Group discussion takes 10-15 minutes time based on the given topic. GD evaluation is
done by the subject experts based on the discussions. A report will be prepared on analyzing the
facts at the end of the discussion.

Q1 : Define Group Discussion. Explain evaluative components of GD as a Part of the

Selection Process.
Group discussion is a systematic oral exchange of information, views, issues, problems, and
opinions about a topic, or situation among members of a group who share certain common

objects. Group discussion is a systematic and purposeful interactive process. Group discussion
can judge the candidate, his ability of communication, personality, knowledge, convincing
p ower and ability to manage organization. Group discussions can be arranged among
8 to 10 candidates in the time limit of 15-20 minutes.

Skills Evaluated in a GD
.
(1) Subject Knowledge - Subject knowledge is very important in G.D.Wide knowledge on
general topics,current affairs, can be achieved by newspaper, magazines, television.
In group discussion the person is evaluated on the basis of how he thinks and not on what he
thinks
(2) Presentation:Along with knowledge, the powerful presentation of knowledge is also
required.In group discussions, an effective communication skill also plays an important role.

(3) Language:The selection committee observes the language proficiency, verbal expressions,
vocabulary power, sentence structure and clarity of language. Your language should be accurate
,free from grammatical errors ,also it should be direct, clear, and precise.

(4)Logic, Clarityand Body Language: Discussions should be logical and clear in thoughts and
expressions.The selection panel observes candidates appearance, frequency of eye contact,
postures, gestures and facial expressions.Positive attitude and proper body language plays major
role in G.D.

(5) Leadership Potential: The success of any team depends on its leader. A group cannot carry
out assigned work effectively without leader. Though there is no appointed leader in a group
discussion for selection, a leader will emerge as the discussion proceeds. The candidate who
possesses both functional ability and coordinating ability will emerge as a leader.
Leadership is one of the key skill on which candidates are assessed during a Group Discussion.
Inherent ability to lead a team is desired out of a Manager.
Example:
Initiate the group discussion and give proper directions to the discussion.
Intervene and guide the group when the discussion goes off track.

Encouraging all members to participate in the discussion & share their opinion.
Moderate group if discussion gets chaotic.

(6) Appropriate Body Language: The selection panel observes candidate appearance,
frequency of eye contact, postures, gestures, and facial expressions.

(7)Interpersonal skills:
Candidates are also evaluated on their Interpersonal skill such as adaptibility, maturity, coordination, interaction with peers. While participating in GD one should give due consideration
to other members view point and should not be pushing too hard to make his own point alone be
heard. At the same time if a candidate raises an absurd or irrelevant point one should politely
reject the point by giving proper reasoning. One should try to coordinate as much as possible
with all group members. One should not sound rude or inflexible in accepting good points raised
by others.
Example:
Keep your cool throughout the Group Discussion.
Do not take things personally even if someone provokes you.
Should understand the goal of discussion and should try to keep the focus on Topic of
discussion.

(8) Persuasive skills:

This is very important attribute expected in a Manager doesn't come easily in a candidate. In our
daily life also we have seen many people who are not heard much even though have a very good
points or idea. Due to their inhibitions they don't speak much once someone tries to counter their
point.
Example:
To persuade the group to accept the points made by them (only if it is valid and genuine one.
Remember you should not be over persuasive as well)
To make people accept your view point without hurting or making fun of any other members.
Persuade the group to analyze the problems from different perspectives and help other members
ideas to be heard and understood.
Analyze and persuade others to see the problem from multiple perspectives without hurting the
group members.
(9)Problem solving skills:
One important aspect of Group Discussion is it is very spontaneous and dynamic in nature. You
need to recollect all your thoughts on the fly and present them to the group. Also while other
members are speaking you need to be listening carefully because that could trigger an altogether
new point in your mind and may give you a chance to speak again. You need to be really

involved in the discussion to handle the counter arguments and answer them well while
speaking.
Example:
Analyze the problem from different angles.
Answer the counter arguments without hurting any group member.
Should be able to think and speak spontaneously.
Resolve difficult situations by proper moderation and reasoning.
(10)Listening & Conceptualizing Ability:
After making one's point heard to the group, one should be attentive and listen carefully when
other are speaking. Should try to gather as much ideas and facts being put forward. Assimilate
the points raised by others and try to add something new to the discussion.
Example
At the end a good listener who has good conceptualizing ability could very well summarize the
outcomes of discussion in few sentences.
(11)Attitude:
Attitude is another important parameter of most othe Group Discussion. Candidates are expected
to:
-have positive attitude,
-encourage others for participation,
-not to put someone down during the discussion
-be good listeners when others are speaking
-accepting other view points (if its a valid one)
-not showing stubbornness and harshness
-should speak maturely
-should not raise voice unnecessarily
Example:
One should handle Group Discussion very maturely and should not raise his voice too much that
he sounds harsh.
Should be supporting for other members and should be easy going.
Should show keen interest in discussion and be an avid listener.
(12)Reasoning Ability:
Candidates are expected to substantiate the points raised by them through proper reasoning. Just
raising a point without able to justify the same during a GD would not help and may result in
negative marks as well. Also another member could use the same point and well justify it
with reasoning. One should logically be able to think of pros and cons of points made by him and
put forward the same to the group.
Example:
While bringing up any point be prepared with answers such as:
-What is the point you are raising? How is it going to help with the problem under discussion?
Why you feel so? Give Any Examples?
Say Scams in India, Just saying scams are not good without backing the sentence with any
justification is as good as not raising the point. One should say scams are not good because its
hurting the Indian economy badly and hindering the growth of our Nations. Examples: Foreign

institutions are not willing to invest due to scams in country and poor Governance. Also these
scams adversely impact the business by attracting organizations with lesser capability to execute
projects.
(13)Team Player:
Corporate world is all about working as a team, if the team succeeds everyone in the team
succeeds; similarly a failure of team is failure of each members of the team. Candidates
participating in GD are also evaluated for their ability to work in a team.
Example:
Be polite and cordial in your communication.
Accept others viewpoint and encourage each member to put forward their points.
Don't lose your cool if someone counter argues the points which you had raised and accept ideas
politely.
Avoid any arguments.
Help the group to achieve its goal on time at the same time fostering participation from each
member
(14)General Awareness:
The topics given in Group Discussion are mostly of current affairs; at times any abstract topic is
given. If the topic is from current affairs it is expected of the candidate to be aware of the
happenings around the world. The idea a candidate put forwards clearly demonstrated his
maturity and interests in the current affairs impacting the society, nation or the world.
Example:
While speaking on any topic the points which you raise or put forward to group clearly
demonstrates your knowledge about the topic, thus defining you as an intellectual who has avid
interest in happenings around him.

Dos and Donts of participating in Group Discussion

s you have to participate in a Group Discussion. several questions spring across your mind. You
want to know what actions and gestures can get you positive points and what can cost you the
selection. Heres a list of Dos and Donts of participating in the GD.
Dos of participating in a GD:

Listen to the subject carefully

Put down your thoughts on a paper
Initiate the discussion if you know the subject well
Listen to others if you dont know the subject
Support you point with some facts and figures

Make short contribution of 25-30 seconds 3-4 times

Give others a chance to speak
Speak politely and pleasantly. Respect and recognize the contribution of every member
(and show it with a nod or a smile!)
Disagree politely and agree with what is right. Disagree politely because its a discussion
and not an argument! Be firm but gracious
Do a mental revision of what you are going to say. Think of how you can best answer the
question or contribute to the topic
Stick to the theme of discussion and not wander into other discussion / irrelevant
information
Follow GD etiquettes, when speaking
Summarize the discussion if the group has not reached a conclusion.

Donts of participating in a Group Discussion

Initiate the discussion if you do not have sufficient knowledge about the given topic.
Over speak, intervene and snatch others chance to speak.
Lose your temper. Its a GD, not an argument
Argue and shout during the GD
Look at the evaluators or a particular group member
Talk irrelevant things and distract the discussion
Pose negative body gestures like touching the nose, leaning back on the chair, knocking
the table with a pen etc.
Gestures like finger pointing and table thumping can appear aggressive, so limit your
body gestures
Dominate the discussion. Confident speakers should allow the quieter, a chance to speak
up/ contribute
Draw too much on personal experience or anecdote
Interrupt when someone else is speaking. Wait for a speaker to finish before you speak.
Mention erratic statistics.
Display low self confidence with shaky voice and trembling hands.
Put others in an embarrassing situation by asking them to speak if they dont want.

Important Points to Remember in a GD

1. Communication skills listen and then talk, be precise and clear and let others speak
2. Knowledge and ideas read consistently, knowledge will make you confident and
convincing
3. Capability to co-ordinate and lead display tactics, skill; have knowledge and
understanding on varied topics and motivate & influence others
4. Exchange of thoughts listen first, articulate well, lead the discussion and treat every
member with respect
5. Addressing the group as a whole dress conservatively, use formal and simple language
to address the group and maintain group discussion etiquette

6. Thorough preparations read voraciously, so that your thoughts come to you naturally

I b. Public Speaking
What is Public Speaking?
Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate
manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. Public speaking is commonly
understood as a kind of face-to-face speaking between individuals and audience for the purpose
of communication.
The biggest barrier in public speaking is fear. While most people fear public speaking there are
some very simple ways to get around it

Practice
Practice
Practice
By practicing you get around the reason for the fear: saying something stupid or messing
up in front of people.

How to prepare for public speaking

Before the presentation

Preparation is key!
Figure out a thesis for your paper.
Write down the structure for your presentation.
Introduction, body, and conclusion.
Read it out loud.
Edit your writing.
Read it out loud again.
Put it into your presentation.
Practice again.

Basics of Public Speaking

1. Know your topic

Your are the expert of the topic you have chosen.

Nobody in the room knows more than you so make sure that you know it
thoroughly so you can teach others.

2. Know your audience

What do they find funny? What are they interested in? What would they like to
hear about your topic?

3. Find a hook

A hook is an interesting, funny, or creative beginning to your presentation. The

first 30 seconds of a presentation are very important, so a good hook will keep
your audience focused.

4. Be yourself

If you try to do what your friends would do, you will mess up. Just be yourself
and you will feel the most comfortable!

5. Stay on point

Do not discuss topics that are not important to your presentation. They will
distract your audience and you will lose your focus.

6. Do not repeat yourself

Do not repeat yourself. Repeating a point more than a few times sounds as if
you do not have anything else to say. So avoid repetition.

7. Project a calm, confident tone while speaking.

You are the expert on the topic, so you have nothing to worry about!
Audience members can tell when you are nervous or do not know what you are
talking about.
Confidence can be gained through good preparation and effective practicing

Tips for effective public speaking

Attitude is everything!
Preparation is key
Confidence comes with practice
Refer to sources correctly
You will need to have outside sources for your information in the presentation.
Make sure to know how to pronounce names and the authors main idea correctly.

First 30 seconds are the most important!

This is the hook.
If you have a creative, witty, or interesting introduction, you can hold the
audiences attention for the rest of the presentation.
Strong conclusion
Just like the introduction, have a strong message the audience can take away from
your presentation.
Avoid just repeating your introduction and your thesis statement.
Action statements make good conclusions.

Speech Outlining Process - has three stages

1) Developing a preparation outline- Speech Preparation Outline is a way for you to
organize your speech both clearly and logically. You should always create a speech outline. It
helps you select and order your supporting material. Also, it helps you focus on and choose
appropriate and eloquent words, etc.
A wise person once said, If effort is organized, accomplishment follows. Thus a clearly and
logically structured speech helps your audience remember what you say. A logical structure also
helps you feel more in control of your speech, and greater control helps you feel more
comfortable while delivering your speech.
2 ) Editing the speech
a. Review your specific purpose
b. Consider your audience
c. Simply say it
i. Eliminate phrases that add no meaning to your message
ii. Avoid narrating your speaking technique
d. Keep only the best supporting material
e. Ask a listener to help you cut material
f. Look at your introduction and conclusion
3) Developing a delivery outline and speaking notes
g. Make the outline as brief as possible
h. Include the introduction and conclusion in much shortened form
i. Include supporting material and signposts
j. Do not include your purpose statement in your delivery outline
k. Use standard outline form

Parts of a speech
I. Introduction

You will gain or lose your audience's attention in the first few seconds, so pay close attention to
your opening statement and make eye contact to establish a rapport with the audience. The
Writing Center at Colorado State University (CSU) cites six elements of your speech
introduction: getting the audience's attention, making a thesis statement, identifying the speech
with the audience (adaptation), establishing your authority, previewing the main points of your
speech, and transitioning to the main body of the speech.
Purpose of Introduction
o
o
o
o
o

Get the audiences attention

Give the audience a reason to listen
Introduce the subject
Establish your credibility
Preview your main ideas

Greeting and Attention Getting Device

A. Illustration
B. Humor
C. Questions
D. References to a historical event
E. References to a recent event
F. Personal Reference
G. References to the occasion
H. References to preceding speeches
I. Rhetorical question
J. Story
K. Quote
L. Refer to a place, event, etc.
M. Startling fact, statistics, data, etc
N. Poem

Establish speaker-audience-topic connection. Motivate audience to listen. Tell your audience

why they should listen to you.
Establish ethos/credibility - Preview of the speaker/orient the audience (tell us who you are,
you will not need to introduce yourself, but you will need to establish ethos/credibility. Thus
you will need to explain to the audience why you are qualified to speak about the
subject/topic.
Note: The goals of this section are simply to focus audience attention and interest, put yourself
in your presentation, preview the message, and set the emotional tone!

II. Body

This is where your organization is critical. Remember that even if you are asked to speak for 30
minutes, your audience will not remember everything you said. Choose the main points that are
critical and organize your content around those points. The Writing Center at CSU suggests you
organize your points chronologically, by cause and effect; directionally, such as logistics or
geographical area; or using sub-topics. Certain types of organization will make more sense with
certain speech topics.
An example is:I.
First main/major point
A. Support for I (the first main point)
B. Further support for I (details, examples and/or visual aids)
Transition: connect the first major point to the second
II.

Second main/major point

A. Support for II (the second main point)
B. Further support for II (details, examples and/or visual aids)
Transition: connect the second major point to the third

III.

Third main/major point

A. Support for III (the third main point)
B. Further support for III (details, examples and/or visual aids)
Transition: connect the third major point (or all main points) to the conclusion

III. Conclusion
A great opening can also be a great closing with a little modification. It is a way to "wrap things
up" by re-stating your main thesis succinctly and demonstrating how you have made a strong
case by linking it to the main points in your body. It is also where you can make your call for
action or offer a promise, if warranted; appeal to the audience's emotions; or re-establish your
common ground or identification you have with the audience. Often times a dramatic statement,
famous quotation, or effective analogy can provide a memorable way to leave your audience
feeling good about your speech.
Purpose of Conclusion leaves an equally important final impression.

o Summarize the speech

o Reemphasize the central idea in a memorable way
o Restate the main ideas
o Provide closure
Use the following effective conclusions:
o Illustrations or anecdotes
o Startling facts or statistics
o Quotations
o Humor

o Questions
o References to the introductions - (please refer to the introduction for other alternatives)
o Or use any of the approaches used for introductions
o Inspirational appeals or challenges but you want to be careful because you dont want to
persuade your audience. You are to inform the audience not persuade the audience!
*Summary summarize your main ideas and restate your central idea in a memorable
way.
*Reemphasize the main idea in a memorable way and
*Motivate your audience to respond

I.

Closure Provide closure/feedback. Your speech should sound finished. Make sure
that you pause between the body of your speech and its conclusion
Slow your speaking rate down
Move out from behind the podium to make a final impassioned plea to your
audience
Signal with falling vocal inflection that you are making your final statement
Also, dont forget to ask if there are any questions - this is part of the
feedback loop

ETTIQUETTE

What is Etiquette ?
Etiquette in simpler words is defined as good behaviour which distinguishes human beings from
animals.
Human Being is a social animal and it is really important for him to behave in an appropriate
way. Etiquette refers to behaving in a socially responsible way.
Etiquette refers to guidelines which control the way a responsible individual should behave
in the society.

Need for Etiquette

Etiquette makes you a cultured individual who leaves his mark wherever he goes.

Etiquette teaches you the way to talk, walk and most importantly behave in the society.
Etiquette is essential for an everlasting first impression. The way you interact with your
superiors, parents, fellow workers, friends speak a lot about your personality and upbringing.
Etiquette enables the individuals to earn respect and appreciation in the society. No one
would feel like talking to a person who does not know how to speak or behave in the
society. Etiquette inculcates a feeling of trust and loyalty in the individuals. One becomes
more responsible and mature. Etiquette helps individuals to value relationships.

Types of Etiquette
1. Social Etiquette- Social etiquette is important for an individual as it teaches him how to
behave in the society.
2. Corporate Etiquette- Corporate Etiquette refers to how an individual should behave
while he is at work. Each one needs to maintain the decorum of the organization. Dont
loiter around unnecessary or peep into others cubicles.
3. Meeting Etiquette- Meeting Etiquette refers to styles one need to adopt when he is
attending any meeting, seminar, presentation and so on. Listen to what the other person
has to say. Never enter meeting room without a notepad and pen. It is important to jot
down important points for future reference.
4. Telephone Etiquette- It is essential to learn how one should interact with the other
person over the phone. Telephone etiquette refers to the way an individual should speak
on the phone. Never put the other person on long holds. Make sure you greet the other
person. Take care of your pitch and tone.
5. Eating Etiquette- Individuals must follow certain decorum while eating in public. Dont
make noise while eating. One should not leave the table unless and until everyone has
finished eating.
6. Business Etiquette- Business Etiquette includes ways to conduct a certain business.
Dont ever cheat customers. It is simply unethical.
7. Email etiquette-With fast advancement in technology, all companies have shifted to
emails for their communication, both internal and external. It is important to know the
ways to effectively communicate using emails. There are several dos and donts while
sending emails.

Social Etiquette- Social etiquette is important for an individual as it teaches him how to behave
in the society. You have to maintain some code of conduct when you are amidst others. There
are many situation which arise in our daily life where one has to maintain certain etiquettes. A
few are listed below

HOW TO BE A GOOD GUEST

As a guest you are likely to share the responsibility for the success of a party. But are you the
kind of guest that gets regularly invited? Well, here are a few tips to make you the kind of good
guest who is welcome at anybody's table.
Respond to your invitation. Let your host know (and no later than the stated RSVP date)
whether or not you can attend the party. This way your hosts can make plans knowing the exact
number of guests who will be attending.
Ask if you can contribute anything to the meal/party. The hostess may be relieved to have
someone take charge of one of the courses, such as an appetizer, side dish or dessert.
If you have the time, offer to come a little earlier than the other guests to help with pre-party
setup. But if your offer is accepted, don't be late - your hostess will be counting on you.
Arrive at a dinner party on-time. Most people love to start a party or meal s on time. You
wouldn't want to hold up the meal and spoil the food for everyone else.
When the meal is over, ask your hostess if you can help clear the table. But if her answer is "no
thanks", then just relax and leave things alone. If you see the hostess frantically cleaning in the
kitchen after the meal is over, offer to help.
Be friendly and make conversation with other guests. Your acceptance to mingle with others is
what will lead to the partys success.
Do not raise a conversation of a sensitive topic; especially one that you know will cause
dissension among that particular group of guests.
Drink responsibly. Your host may be serving alcoholic beverages to complement the meal, but
it doesn't mean he/she wants to have a group of sloppy drunks on their hands at the end of the
party.
WHEN YOURE IN A FLIGHT

Nowadays airlines are trying inventive ways to enforce new rules for a better flying experience.
In fact after boarding a flight everyone wants to enjoy the benefits, but no one wants to make a
sacrifice. Here are some basic airplane etiquettes you should keep in mind while in flight.
Don't be a bore. There is nothing worse than being held captive by a talkative seat mate. Don't
force a conversation on the person next to you.

 If someone is driving you crazy with their (dull) life story -- it is acceptable to tell them you're
too busy, tired, sick or whatever to talk. But don't be rude. Some people are nervous fliers and
talk compulsively.
Don't grab the seat in front of you while getting up -- it is very disruptive to the person sitting
there. Use your arm rests to get up.
Don't stand in front of the in-flight movie. You may not like the feature, but don't block others
view.
Don't hold business meetings in the passageway. It is very annoying to fellow passengers. Also,
you never know when a competitor is listening.
Don't clog up the passageway while the flight attendants are using the food and beverage carts.
Let them do their jobs.
Be careful with food trays and hot liquids. Take care when you open the plastic salad dressing,
condiment and beverage containers. They spatter easily.
The bathroom is not a make-up table or dressing room. Be quick and clean up after yourself. If
you do spill something on someone; apologize and offer to pay for dry cleaning.
Dont spread out your work papers everywhere. Be neat. Likewise try not to read your seat
mates work documents or laptop screen. It is really obnoxious.
Try not to kick the seat in front of you.
Don't shout into the air phone. Converse quietly.
The impact of alcohol is magnified at high altitudes. Don't get drunk.

TELEPHONE ETIQUETTES

hat are Telephone Etiquettes ?

Telephone is an important device with the help of which people separated by distance can easily
interact and exchange their ideas. Got a brilliant idea and want to convey it to your friend
staying out of the country, use the telephone. Telephone is one of the easiest and cheapest modes
of communication.
Telephone etiquettes - An individual needs to follow a set of rules and regulations while
interacting with the other person over the phone. These are often called as telephone
etiquettes. It is important to follow the basic telephone etiquettes as our voice plays a very
important role in creating an impression of our personality, education, family background as
well as the nature of job we are engaged in. The person giving the information is called the
sender and the second party is the recipient.
Let us now study the various telephone etiquettes. Please find below the various telephone

etiquettes.

Always remember your voice has to be very pleasant while interacting with the other
person over the phone. Dont just start speaking, before starting the conversation use
warm greetings like good morning, good evening or good noon depending on the
time.
Never call any person at odd hours like early morning or late nights as the person will
definitely be sleeping and will not be interested in talking to you.
In any official call, dont use words like Any guess who I am? as the person on the
other side might be occupied with something and can get disturbed. Always say Is it
Ted?, and do ask him, Is it the good time to talk to you? and then start
communicating. If the person sounds busy always wait for the appropriate time.
Make sure your content is crisp and relevant. Dont play with words, come to the
point directly and convey the information in a convincing manner. First prepare your
content thoroughly and then only pick up the receiver to start interacting.
After dialing, always reconfirm whether the person on the other side is the desired person
whom you want to interact with. Always ask Am I speaking to Mike? or Is this
Jenny? before starting the conversation.
Always carefully dial the numbers, never be in a rush or dial the numbers in dark as it
would lead to a wrong call. If by mistake you have dialed a wrong number, dont just
hang up, do say sorry and then keep the phone courteously.
Never put the second party on a very long holds. Always keep the information handy
and dont run for things in between any call as the listener is bound to get irritated.
While interacting over the phone, dont chew anything or eat your food. First finish your
food and then only dial the number. If you are reading, please leave the book aside, first
concentrate what the other person wishes to convey and then continue with the book.
After completing the conversation, dont just hang up. Reconfirm with the receiver
whether he has downloaded the correct information or not and do end your conversation
with pleasant words like Take care, nice speaking with you and a warm bye. Never
say Goodbye.
Always speak each and every word clearly. The person on the other hand cant see your
expressions so remember your tone should be apt to express your feelings in the correct
form.
Dont take too long to pick up any call. If you miss the call, make sure you give a call
back as the other person might have an important message to convey. Avoid giving
missed calls at work places as it irritates the other person.
In professional talks, never keep the conversation too long as the other person might be
busy. Always keep the content crisp and relevant and do come to the point after formal
greetings.
If you are not the correct person and the speaker needs to speak to your fellow worker
always say one moment please- I will call him in a minute. If the colleague is not in the
office premises, always take a message on his behalf and dont forget to convey him
when he is back.
Decrease the volume of the television or turn off the speakers while speaking over the
phone as noise acts as a hindrance to effective communication

If there is any disturbance in the network, dont just keep speaking for the sake of it; try
to call after sometime with a better line.

Remember all the above telephone etiquettes must be practiced for an effective and healthy
telephonic discussion and smooth flow of information.

Politeness Counts
A. Project a positive image to the caller
Three basic factors affect the image you project on the telephone. You should strive to keep
these in mind:

Use clear diction, proper volume, and appropriate speed

Remember your posture

Never eat, drink, or chew gum

1. Use clear diction, proper volume, and appropriate speed
Your words must be clear, distinct, and spoken at an appropriate volume and speed. Taking the
time to enunciate your words clearly is more efficient and professional sounding than having to
repeat yourself for the caller.
2. Remember your posture
Posture is an important factor in telephone communication, even though the parties do not
physically see each other. An individual who is sitting up straight will tend to sound businesslike
and professional.However, a person slouched in a chair is more likely to project a careless
demeanor.
3. Never eat, drink, or chew gum
You should never eat, drink, or chew gum while you are using the telephone. These activities are
rude,usually obvious to the other party, and give an unprofessional impression of you and your
company.
B. Establish rapport
Building rapport is the process of determining and building on what you have in common with
the caller. There are three ways to build rapport with a caller:
Use the caller's name
Find common ground
Match the caller's speaking rate
Use the caller's name
Occasionally, you should use the name of the caller during the conversation. Personalizing the
call builds rapport and increases the caller's confidence in your desire to help them.
Find common ground
When you are able to find common ground with the caller, you are more likely to build rapport
with them. These small connections will demonstrate that you are working toward mutual goals.
Match the caller's speaking rate

Matching the speaking rate of your caller is a subtle way of gaining and focusing the attention of
the caller in order to build rapport. A person with a naturally slow rate of speech will tend to be
suspicious of a fast speaking rate, and callers who speak more quickly can become very
frustrated by a slow rate ofspeech.

Making a Good Impression

Callers appreciate a courteous response. The following four behaviors will enhance your ability
to project a courteous image when you receive telephone calls:
Answering promptly
Using appropriate identification
Using positive language
Being helpful
Answering promptly
All calls should be answered by the third ring. If you are unable to answer the telephone in this
amount of time, your first words to the caller should be an apology. The caller does not always
hear the same number of rings you do, so they may have heard five rings when you heard only
four.
Using appropriate identification
Answer all calls with the appropriate identification. If the only calls you receive are from within
the company, you need to identify your department first and then yourself.
However, if you receive calls from customers, vendors, or other outside parties, you should begin
your introduction by identifying the company first, and then the department and yourself.
Using positive language
In general, positive words and messages are easy to understand and convey a strong image. They
implyaction and results, and instill confidence in the other party. A phrase such as, ''She's away
from her desk,'' is stronger than the negative, ''She's not here.'' Negative phrases are more likely
to be misunderstood.
Being helpful
When you take a call for someone who is not available, offer the caller alternatives, such as
holding, leaving a message, or calling back. Both the caller and the individual they are trying to
reach will benefit when you are helpful, and the caller will appreciate your concern.

Handling Difficult Callers

You will likely encounter situations in which communicating with the person on the other end of
the line is somewhat challenging. Being aware of the different types of difficult callers you may
encounter will help you be prepared for such situations:
Talkative callers
Indecisive callers
Demanding callers

Callers who are fast talkers

Callers who are slow talkers
Callers with foreign accents
Talkative callers
Talkative callers tend to get off the subject and talk about irrelevant issues. Although they can be
enjoyable to speak with, these callers can waste time that could be spent more productively. You
need to control conversations with talkative callers in order to prevent wasted time by following
three steps:
1. Ask closed-ended questions. Closed-ended questions which require ''yes'' or ''no'' responses
prevent the caller from providing you with more information than you need.
2. Keep your responses short. By limiting the length of your own responses, you will decrease
the amount of unrelated discussion and keep the conversation directed toward the business at
hand.
3. Speed up your responses. Speaking slightly more quickly will help you shorten the amount of
time between your responses and, therefore, give the caller less time to interrupt.
Indecisive callers
Sometimes you will encounter a caller who is not sure which department or individual they need
to speak to, what information they need, or how to ask for a specific service. Helping indecisive
callers determine what they need is not only courteous, but saves the time that could be wasted
waiting for them to make a decision. Follow four steps to guide indecisive callers:
1. Listen to the caller. Being attentive to the caller allows you to identify their needs.
2. Ask specific questions. Ask the caller specific questions that will help pinpoint their exact
needs.
3. Offer the caller options. After you have identified the specific needs of the caller, offer them
appropriate options. However, do not offer more than two or three, or the caller will feel
overwhelmed with the choices.
4. Recommend the best option. Help the caller choose the best option based on their needs by
making a recommendation.

Demanding callers
Demanding callers are driven individuals who want results and do not care about the details of a
situation. They focus on the bottom line and usually get to the point quickly. In order to handle
demanding callers successfully, follow these guidelines:
Be direct in your responses and use a strong and confident tone of voice.
Interact in a fast-paced manner to match the caller's need for quick results.
Avoid engaging in non-business discussion, but remain friendly and courteous.
Callers who are fast talkers
When faced with a fast talker, wait for the caller to pause or take a breath. When they do,
interject by letting the caller know that you are having some difficulty understanding them. It is
important not to use accusing language, but instead approach the situation by letting the caller
know that in order to meet their needs, you need them to slow down.

For example, avoid phrases such as, ''Steve, slow down-I can't understand anything you're
saying!'' Use language that demonstrates your desire to help the caller, such as, ''Steve, I'm afraid
I'm having some difficulty understanding you. Could you slow down just a bit so I can make sure
I know what information you need?''
The same principle applies to callers who speak softly and are difficult to hear. Politely let the
caller know that you need them to speak up so you can understand them better. It is important
that the caller not feel responsible for any communication problem.
Callers who are slow talkers
Slow talkers are often indecisive individuals, so the most effective way to address a slow talker
is to guide the conversation by asking them what they need. By asking a slow talker questions,
you can speed up the conversation by prompting them to provide you with the information you
need to help them. Offering the slow talker a variety of options encourages
them to make decisions and quickens the pace of the conversation.
For example, if a caller is slowly trying to tell you who they need to speak with, you can speed
the conversation by asking a question that offers them options, such as, ''Do you need to speak
with our customer service department, or are you calling to place an order?''
In addition, you may also want to take notes while speaking with a slow talker. Taking notes can
help improve your concentration during the conversation.
Callers with foreign accents
Given the diverse nature of our society, you are likely to encounter a caller who speaks with a
heavy foreign accent that may impair your ability to understand them. To professionally handle
these situations, follow these guidelines:
Be patient. It is important not to rush through these calls. You will need to listen extra
carefully to callers with foreign accents in order to identify what they need.
Be honest. Don't pretend to understand the caller if you are not clear about something they
said.
Let the caller know that in order to help them you need them to slow down or repeat what they
said.
Be polite. When asking the caller to slow down or repeat what they said, do so in a tactful and
courteous manner.
Be resourceful. If a caller's accent is so heavy that you know you cannot assist them,
determine if a co-worker or supervisor is bilingual in the caller's language and ask for their
assistance.

EMAIL ETIQUETTES
Email has become the most used medium of communication especially official communication.
However, most people now no longer find e-mail simple or fun. E-mail messaging now exceeds
telephone traffic and is the dominant form of business communication. A recent Wall Street
Journal report indicates that soon employees will spend three to four hours a day on e-mail.

There are certain professional standards expected for e-mail use. Here are some things to keep in
mind regarding professional e-mail conduct:

1. Start with a salutation Your email should open by addressing the person youre writing to.
Sure, you can get away with leaving out the salutation when youre dashing off an email to your
friend, but business-like messages should begin with:

Dear Mr Jones, or Dear Professor Smith, (for someone you dont know well, especially if
theyre a superior)
Dear Joe, or Dear Mandy, (if you have a working relationship with the person)

Its fine to use Hi Joe, Hello Joe or just the name followed by a comma (Joe,) if you know
the person well writing Dear Joe to one of your team-mates will look odd!

2. Be informal, not sloppy. Your colleagues may use commonly accepted abbreviations in email, but when communicating with external customers, everyone should follow standard writing
protocol. Your e-mail message reflects you and your company, so traditional spelling, grammar,
and punctuation rules apply.
3. Keep messages brief and to the point. Just because your writing is grammatically correct
does not mean that it has to be long. Nothing is more frustrating than wading through an e-mail
message that is twice as long as necessary. Concentrate on one subject per message whenever
possible.
4. Use sentence case. USING ALL CAPITAL LETTERS LOOKS AS IF YOU'RE SHOUTING.
Using all lowercase letters looks lazy. For emphasis, use asterisks or bold formatting to
emphasize important words. Do not, however, use a lot of colors or graphics embedded in your
message, because not everyone uses an e-mail program that can display them.

Never write a whole sentence (or worse, a whole email) in capitals

Always capitalise I and the first letter of proper nouns (names)
Capitalise acronymns (USA, BBC, RSPCA)
Always start sentences with a capital letter.

5. Use the blind copy and courtesy copy appropriately. Don't use BCC to keep others from
seeing who you copied; it shows confidence when you directly CC anyone receiving a copy. Do
use BCC, however, when sending to a large distribution list, so recipients won't have to see a
huge list of names. Be cautious with your use of CC; overuse simply clutters inboxes. Copy only
people who are directly involved.
6. Don't use e-mail as an excuse to avoid personal contact. Don't forget the value of face-toface or even voice-to-voice communication. E-mail communication isn't appropriate when

sending confusing or emotional messages. Think of the times you've heard someone in the office
indignantly say, "Well, I sent you e-mail." If you have a problem with someone, speak with that
person directly. Don't use e-mail to avoid an uncomfortable situation or to cover up a mistake.
7. Remember that e-mail isn't private. E-mail is considered company property and can be
retrieved, examined, and used in a court of law. Unless you are using an encryption device
(hardware or software), you should assume that e-mail over the Internet is not secure. Never put
in an e-mail message anything that you wouldn't put on a postcard. Remember that e-mail can be
forwarded, so unintended audiences may see what you've written. You might also inadvertently
send something to the wrong party, so always keep the content professional to avoid
embarrassment.
8. Be sparing with group e-mail. Send group e-mail only when it's useful to every recipient.
Use the "reply all" button only when compiling results requiring collective input and only if you
have something to add. Recipients get quite annoyed to open an e-mail that says only "Me too!"
9. Use the subject field to indicate content and purpose. Don't just say, "Hi!" or "From Harry"
Agree on acronyms to use that quickly identify actions. For example, your team could use <AR>
to mean "Action Required" or <MSR> for the Monthly Status Report. It's also a good practice to
include the word "Long" in the subject field, if necessary, so that the recipient knows that the
message will take time to read.
10. Don't send chain letters, virus warnings, or junk mail. Always check a reputable antivirus
Web site or your IT department before sending out an alarm. If a constant stream of jokes from a
friend annoys you, be honest and ask to be removed from the list. Direct personal e-mail to your
home e-mail account.
11. Remember that your tone can't be heard in e-mail. Have you ever attempted sarcasm in
an e-mail, and the recipient took it the wrong way? E-mail communication can't convey the
nuances of verbal communication. In an attempt to infer tone of voice, some people use
emoticons, but use them sparingly so that you don't appear unprofessional. Also, don't assume
that using a smiley will diffuse a difficult message.
12. Sign off the email
For short internal company emails, you can get away with just putting a double space after your
last paragraph then typing your name. If youre writing a more formal email, though, its
essential to close it appropriately.

Use Yours sincerely, (when you know the name of your addressee) and Yours faithfully,
(when youve addressed it to Dear Sir/Madam) for very formal emails such as job
applications.
Use Best regards, or Kind regards, in most other situations.
Even when writing to people you know well, its polite to sign off with something such
as All the best, Take care, or Have a nice day, before typing your name.

13. Use a signature that includes contact information. To ensure that people know who you
are, include a signature that has your contact information, including your mailing address, Web
site, and phone numbers obviously, your company may have some guidelines on these. It makes
it easy for your correspondents to find your contact details: they dont need to root through for
the first message you sent them, but can just look in the footer of any of your emails.

PERSONAL MEMORY

Have you ever wondered how you manage to remember information for a test? The ability to
create new memories, store them for periods of time and recall them when they are needed
allows us to learn and interact with the world around us. The study of human memory has been a
subject of science and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics
of interest within cognitive psychology. But what exactly is memory? How are memories
formed? The following overview offers a brief look at what memory is, how it works and how it
is organized.
What is memory?
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage and
retrieval.
In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form, which occurs
through the process known as encoding. Once information has been successfully encoded, it
must be stored in memory for later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our
awareness most of the time, except when we actually need to use it. The retrieval process allows
us to bring stored memories into conscious awareness.

The Stage Model of Memory

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is
often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by
Atkinson and Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: sensory memory,
short-term memory and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information
from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer
than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We

attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information
to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently
aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as
the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in
short-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for
approximately 20 to 30 seconds. While many of our short-term memories are quickly
forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term
memory.

Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian
psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This
information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory
to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other
memories are much more difficult to access.

The Organization of Memory

The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use
these memories to make decisions, interact with others and solve problems. But how is
information organized in memory? The specific way information is organized in long-term
memory is not well understood, but researchers do know that these memories are arranged in
groups.
Clustering is used to organize related information into groups. Information that is categorized
becomes easier to remember and recall. For example, consider the following group of words:
Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum, table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow
Spend a few seconds reading them, then look away and try to recall and list these words. How
did you group the words when you listed them? Most people will list using three different
categories: color, furniture and fruit.
One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network model. This
model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. A memory of a specific place
might activate memories about related things that have occurred in that location. For example,
thinking about a particular campus building might trigger memories of attending classes,
studying and socializing with peers.

Memory Retrieval
Once information has been encoded and stored in memory, it must be retrieved in order to be
used. Memory retrieval is important in virtually every aspect of daily life, from remembering
where you parked your car to learning new skills. There are many factors that can influence how
memories are retrieved from long-term memory. In order to fully understand this process, it is
important to learn more about exactly what retrieval is as well as the many factors that can
impact how memories are retrieved.
Memory Retrieval Basics
So what exactly is retrieval? Simply put, it is a process of accessing stored memories. When you
are taking an exam, you need to be able to retrieve learned information from your memory in
order to answer the test questions. There are four basic ways in which information can be pulled
from long-term memory. The type of retrieval cues that are available can have an impact on how
information is retrieved. A retrieval cue is a clue or prompt that is used to trigger the retrieval of
long-term memory.

Recall: This type of memory retrieval involves being able to access the information
without being cued. Answering a question on a fill-in-the-blank test is a good example of
recall.
Recollection: This type of memory retrieval involves reconstructing memory, often
utilizing logical structures, partial memories, narratives or clues. For example, writing an
answer on an essay exam often involves remembering bits on information, and then
restructuring the remaining information based on these partial memories.
Recognition: This type of memory retrieval involves identifying information after
experiencing it again. For example, taking a multiple-choice quiz requires that you
recognize the correct answer out of a group of available answers.
Relearning: This type of memory retrieval involves relearning information that has been
previously learned. This often makes it easier to remember and retrieve information in the
future and can improve the strength of memories.

Problems with Retrieval

Of course, the retrieval process doesn't always work perfectly. Have you ever felt like you knew
the answer to a question, but couldn't quite remember the information? This phenomenon is
known as a 'tip of the tongue' experience. You might feel certain that this information is stored
somewhere in your memory, but you are unable to access and retrieve it.
While it may be irritating or even troubling, research has shown that these experiences are
extremely common, typically occurring at least once each week for most younger individuals and
two to four times per week for elderly adults (Schacter, 2001). In many cases, people can even
remember details such as the first letter that the word starts with. (Brown, 1991).

Even though memory retrieval is not flawless, there are things that you can do to improve your
ability to remember information.

Top 10 Memory Improvement Tips

1. Focus your attention on the materials you are studying.
Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to move from
short-term memory into long-term memory, you need to actively attend to this information. Try
to study in a place free of distractions such as television, music and other diversions.
2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions.
According to Bjork (2001), studying materials over a number of session's gives you the time you
need to adequately process the information. Research has shown that students who study
regularly remember the material far better than those who do all of their studying in one
marathon session.
3. Structure and organize the information you are studying.
Researchers have found that information is organized in memory in related clusters. You can
take advantage of this by structuring and organizing the materials you are studying. Try grouping
similar concepts and terms together, or make an outline of your notes and textbook readings to
help group related concepts.
4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information.
Mnemonic devices are a technique often used by students to aid in recall. A mnemonic is simply
a way to remember information. For example, you might associate a term you need to remember
with a common item that you are very familiar with. The best mnemonics are those that utilize
positive imagery, humor or novelty. You might come up with a rhyme, song or joke to help
remember a specific segment of information.
5. Elaborate and rehearse the information you are studying.
In order to recall information, you need to encode what you are studying into long-term memory.
One of the most effective encoding techniques is known as elaborative rehearsal. An example of
this technique would be to read the definition of a key term, study the definition of that term and
then read a more detailed description of what that term means. After repeating this process a few
times, you'll probably notice that recalling the information is much easier.

6. Relate new information to things you already know.

When you are studying unfamiliar material, take the time to think about how this information
relates to things that you already know. By establishing relationships between new ideas and
previously existing memories, you can dramatically increase the likelihood of recalling the
recently learned information.
7. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall.
Many people benefit greatly from visualizing the information they study. Pay attention to the
photographs, charts and other graphics in your textbooks. If you do not have visual cues to help,
try creating your own. Draw charts or figures in the margins of your notes or use highlighters or
pens in different colors to group related ideas in your written study materials.
8. Teach new concepts to another person.
Research suggests that reading materials out loud significantly improves memory of the material.
Educators and psychologists have also discovered that having students actually teach new
concepts to others enhances understanding and recall. You can use this approach in your own
studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or study partner.
9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
Have you ever noticed how it's sometimes easier to remember information at the beginning or
end of a chapter? Researchers have found that the order of information can play a role in recall,
which is known as the serial position effect. While recalling middle information can be difficult,
you can overcome this problem by spending extra time rehearsing this information. Another
strategy is to try restructuring what you have learned so it will be easier to remember. When you
come across an especially difficult concept, devote some extra time to memorizing the
information.
10. Vary your study routine.
Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you are
accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot during your next
study session. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing
the information you studied the previous night. By adding an element of novelty to your study
sessions, you can increase the effectiveness of your efforts and significantly improve your longterm recall.

Tips to Improve Your Reading Comprehension

The ability to understand and remember reading material is important for success in school and
everyday life. This is especially true for students with learning disabilities in reading, and
language comprehension. Here are some tips to improve your ability and increase your success
in reading and learning.
1. Improve Reading Comprehension With Pre-Reading Tasks
Before reading the text, ask yourself what you already know about its topic. Try to recall as
much information as you can. Think of related ideas you've learned in the past. Make brief notes
about your thoughts or discuss what you remember with others.
2. Improve Your Reading Comprehension by Researching the Topic
Background information may appear on book covers and inner flaps of book jackets. Many
books include an introductory section and a mini-biography about the author. Book publishers
websites may also include background information. Think about the information you read. Ask:

What kind of text is this?

What new information did I learn, and what do I expect to learn?
Is this text informative or entertaining, fact or fiction?
What interests me about this book?

3. Learn New Vocabulary Words to Improve Reading Comprehension

As you read, make a list of unfamiliar vocabulary words. Look up the meanings of the words in
the dictionary, and jot definitions down by hand. Writing definitions by hand will help you
remember the definition much more than by typing or by reading alone.
4. Improve Your Understanding by Reflecting on the Material and Asking Questions
As you read, what questions come to mind? Read on to find the answers. You can think about the
questions and answers or jot them down on paper. Research indicates that writing notes by hand
can increase comprehension and recall among students who are not learning disabled in writing.
For those who have LDs in writing mechanics pair the writing with discussion to improve
understanding and recall.
5. Test Yourself to Determine How Well You've Learned the Material

After your reading session, quiz yourself on the main points. What was the main idea? Who are
the characters in the story? What information did you learn? Jot down your thoughts in your own
words to help you remember them and give you deeper insight into the topic. If expressive
writing is difficult for you, jot shorter notes and discuss the reading with a friend or parent.

Vary Your Reading Rate

Source: Academic Skills Center, Dartmouth College 2001

Good readers are flexible in their reading attack. Unlike the plodder, who reads consistently at
200 words per minute, or the superficial reader, who may read everything rapidly, well-trained
readers have the capacity to adjust their speed to the material.
Rate adjustment may be overall adjustment to the article as a whole, or it may be internal
adjustment within the article.
Overall adjustment is the basic rate at which the total article is read.
Internal adjustment is concerned with the necessary variations in rate that take place as each
part of the material is read.

To illustrate this, suppose you plan to take a 100-mile trip. Since this is a relatively hard drive,
with hills, curves, and a mountain pass, you decide to take three hours for the total trip,
averaging about 35 miles per hour. This is your overall speed adjustment. However, in actual
driving, you may slow down to no more than 15 miles per hour on some curves and hills, while
on relatively straight and level sections you may drive up to 50 miles per hour. This is your
internal speed adjustment. in short, there is no set rate which the good reader follows inflexibly
in reading a particular selection, even though an over all rate is set for the total job.
Base your rate adjustment on:
1. Your purpose. What do you want to get from the material?
2. The nature and difficulty of the material.
3. The amount of previous experience you have had with this subject.

Your reading purpose: Circumstances will determine why you are reading and how much you
have to get out of your reading. For example, a chapter may have been assigned in class, or you
may be gathering material for a speech, or you may be trying to impress your friends by your
knowledge of Shakespeare. You need to be eminently clear not only on such general purposes
but also on specific purpose.

To "get the gist," read very rapidly.

To understand general ideas, read fairly rapidly.
To get and retain detailed facts, read at a moderate rate.
To locate specific information, skim or scan at a rapid rate.
To determine value of material, skim at a very rapid rate.
To preread or postread, scan at a fairly rapid rate.
To read for enjoyment, read rapidly or slowly, depending on what you want.
To build general background, read rapidly.

Nature and difficulty of material: First of all, this involves an overall adjustment in rate to
match you thinking ability. Obviously, overall level of difficulty depends on who's doing the
reading. While Einstein's theories may be extremely difficult to most laypeople, they may be
very simple and clear to a professor of physics. hence, the laypeople and the physics professor
must make different overall adjustments in rate of reading the same material. General reading
which is difficult for you will require a slower rate; simpler material will permit a faster rate.
A few broad suggestions may help you to select your rate(s) within the particular article:
Decrease speed when you find the following:
1. an unfamiliar word not made clear by the sentence. Try to understand it from the way it's used;
then read on and return to it later. You may wish to underline the word so you can find it again
quickly.
2. Long and uninvolved sentence and paragraph structure. Slow down enough to enable you to
untangle them and get an accurate idea of what the passage says.

3. Unfamiliar or abstract ideas. Look for applications or examples which will give them
meaning. Demand that an idea "make sense." Never give up until you understand, because it will
be that much easier the next time. Find someone to help you if necessary.
4. Detailed, technical material. This includes complicated directions, abstract principles,
materials on which you have scant background.
5. Material on which you want detailed retention. The key to memory is organization and
recitation. Speed should not be a consideration here.
Increase speed when you find the following:
1. Simple material with few ideas new to you. Move rapidly over the familiar; spend most of
your time on the few unfamiliar ideas.
2. Unnecessary examples and illustrations. These are included to clarify ideas. If not needed,
move over them rapidly.

3. Detailed explanation and elaboration which you do not need.

4. Broad, generalized ideas. These can be rapidly grasped, even with scan techniques.

Skip that material which is not suitable for your purpose. While the author may have thought
particular information was relevant, his/her reason for writing was not necessarily the same as
your reason for reading.

Remember to keep your reading attack flexible. Shift gears from selection to selection. Use low
gear when the going is steep; shift into high when you get to the smooth parts. Remember to
adjust your rate within a given article according to the type of road you are traveling and to your
purposes in traveling it. Most important, remember: Reading this paper hasn't done you and
good. Not yet. You must practice these techniques until a flexible reading rate becomes second
nature to you.

CREATIVITY

Without creativity, it would be difficult to distinguish humans from other animals. Creativity
leads to a fuller, more satisfying life. Without creativity, mankind would not progress. Creativity
is a governing force in humanity an innate function of the mind. It is, at its essence, your
outward expression of an inward thought or emotion.

This means that there are two hindrances that can limit your creativity: an internal barrier
that limits your imagination and inspiration, and an external barrier that limits your expression
or presentation of your creativity.
In either or these instances, there are simple but very effective techniques you can use to get your
creativity flowing.
1. Finding your source of inspiration (or "muse") is the doorway to your creativity. An
interesting fact is that only a few people can specifically tell what inspires them.
Your muse can be found in nature, in people, in music, in a memory, or in a particular
situation. When you find it, you dont have to wait for those moments of inspiration to come
around, you can activate your creativity on demand.Search out and take note of anything that
makes you say, "I want to do that!" "What if?" or "I have an idea!".
2. Surround Yourself with Excellence
Good artists observe great artists, and great artists observe extraordinary artists.
You should always study and surround yourself with great art, great music, great literature, and
especially great people. This builds in you a template of quality and standard of excellence that
can propel your creativity forward.
There is absolutely nothing wrong with studying and even copying aspects of the greats of your
industry. As Pablo Picasso once said, "Good artists copy, great artists steal." While I agree with
Picasso, it goes without saying that you should steal their methods and not their products.
3. Just Create
What was the factor that changed Edgar Allen Poe from a depressing houseguest to an
inspirational figure? He wrote. If you do not use your creativity you will not improve your
creativity. Try something original, and try something new, put yourself in positions that
require creativity, and practice your art continuously. This is where creativity flourishes or dies.
When you first start off, your end result is rarely your desired result. This is okay and
absolutely normal. For every great painting you see in an art gallery, there are a dozen sketches,
rough drafts, and discarded concepts that you dont see.

Every single one of historys most creative heroes, from Da Vinci to Edison, started off with a
failed attempt. What sets them apart is that they worked until their finished product finally
matched their mental image.

4. Cross Creative Borders

As a designer, writer, and musician I can say with absolute certainty that the arts parallel each
other. I feel that as I improve as musician, I improve as a designer, and as I improve as a
designer, I improve as a communicator.
Have you ever noticed that successful people get nearly all of their inspiration from a few select
victories in life? The athlete uses sports metaphors and principals to build a great company. The
soldier uses military principals to raise a family. The biologist uses the principles of nature to
improve their photography.
Use your confidence in one area and apply it to a something new you will find that both
skill and creativity are transferable to any new challenge.
5. Limit Amusement
Your creative source is known as your "muse". This is an ancient Greek word meaning to be
absorbed in thought or inspired. Amusement is the absence of thought or inspiration.
While being amused can be healthy in small doses, over saturating yourself with it can be
detrimental to your creativity. Use things like television or movies as ways to expand your
imagination not replace it.
Television for example, requires little creativity or thought. If you dont believe me, find
someone watching TV and observe their facial expressions. Most of the time you will find that
their eyes are open and their mind is off. This is because most shows do the imagining for you.
Again, this can be a good thing, so long as you use it as a creative trigger rather than an
imagination killer.
A fantastic way to exercise your creativity is to use literature, audiobooks, or good storytelling
songs as a form of entertainment. Since there is generally no imagery to go along with the story,
it forces you to use your imagination something desperately needed in a graphic-filled world.

6. Take Care of Yourself

If you work in a creative industry you know that you can do more work in a few hours of focus
and inspiration than you can do in a full day with your mind wandering. Physical and
environmental distractions can destroy the creative process.

Keeping your body healthy and your workplace tidy will have a profound effect on your
ability to imagine and create. Creativity requires quality of work more than quantity, so make
sure that your home, workplace, and body arent limiting your work.
7. Ignore the Scoffers
Creativity must be expressed. However, this leaves the artist in a vulnerable state, open to
scrutiny and judgment. In business, athletics, the arts, and in life in general you will come
across those discouraging critics who feel that they can build themselves up by pushing you
down (you yourself may even be your own worst critic).
Keep yourself open to suggestion and improvement from those who have your best interest at
heart, but refuse to give any space in your mind to a spiteful comment.
Ignore the scoffers, or better yet, use their negativity as motivation. Every great creative figure
has had critics say they were inadequate, but history doesnt remember the reviews, it
remembers innovation, inspiration, imagination, and creativity.

Contrary to popular belief, if we regard creativity as the 'skill' of using information in a

patterning system like the brain, then everyone can develop the skill of creativity. Although it's
true some people will achieve a higher degree of skill than others as with any skill - this is not
the same as being naturally creative. People who are not naturally creative might develop a
higher degree of skill than those who are naturally creative.

Enhancing Personal Creativity

Each person has, potentially, all the psychic energy needed to lead a creative life. But there are
many obstacles that prevent many from expressing this potential.

Some of us are exhausted by too many demands, and so have trouble activating our psychic
energy in the first place. Or we get easily distracted and find it difficult to protect and channel
whatever energy we have. Other challenges are laziness, inability to control the flow of energy
and not knowing what to do with the energy one has.

In terms of using mental energy creatively, perhaps the most fundamental difference between
people lies in how much uncommitted attention they have left over to deal with novelty. When
survival needs require all of ones attention, none is left over for being creative.

But often the obstacles are internal. Most of us invest bulk of our attention in monitoring the self,
or threats to the ego or in pursuing selfish goals. To free up creative energy we need to let go and
divert some attention from the pursuit of the predictable goals that we are naturally inclined to
pursue and use it instead to explore the world around us on its own terms.

So the first step toward a more creative life is the cultivation of curiosity and interest, that is, the
allocation of attention to things for their own sake. How can interest and curiosity be cultivated?

Try to be surprised by something every day.

Try to surprise at least one person every day.
Write down each day what surprised you and how you surprised others.
When something strikes a spark of interest, follow it

To sustain curiosity, we must learn to enjoy being curious. When there is nothing specific to do,
our thoughts soon return to the most predictable state, which is randomness or confusion. We
pay attention and concentrate when we must when dressing, driving the car, or at work. But
when there is no external force demanding that we concentrate, we lose focus. Our mind falls to
the lowest energetic state, where the least amount of effort is required. When this happens, a sort
of mental chaos takes over. Unpleasant thoughts flash into awareness, forgotten regrets
resurface, and we become depressed. Taking refuge in passive entertainment keeps chaos
temporarily at bay, but the attention it absorbs gets wasted. On the other hand, when we learn to
enjoy using our latent creative energy, we not only avoid depression but also increase the
complexity of our capacities to relate to the world. The author suggests some practical steps here:

Wake up in the morning with a specific goal to look forward to.

If you do anything well, it becomes enjoyable.
To keep enjoying something, you need to increase its complexity.
After creative energy is awakened, it is necessary to protect it. We must avoid distractions and
escape outside temptations and interruptions. If we do not, the concentration will break down.
Then we return to our vague, unfocused, distracted state.

One must remain open and focused at the same time. Before we have discovered an overriding
interest in a particular domain, it makes sense to be open to as much of the world as possible.
After we have developed interest, however, it may make more sense to divert all the energy into
that one domain. In either case, the important thing is not to relinquish control over creative
energy so that it dissipates without direction.

What can we do to build up habits that will make it possible to control attention so that it can be
open and receptive, or focused and directed depending on what the overall goals require?

Make time for reflection and relaxation. Keeping constantly busy is certainly much better than
indulging in self pity or being lazy. But constant busyness is not a good prescription for
creativity.

Find out what you like and what you hate about life. It is astonishing how little most of us know
about our feelings. There are people who cant even tell if they are ever happy, and if they are,
when or where. In contrast, creative individuals are in very close touch with their emotions. They
always know the reason for what they are doing, and they are very sensitive to pain, to boredom,
to joy, to interest, and to other emotions. They are very quick to pack up and leave if they are
bored and to get involved if they are interested. And because they have practiced this skill for a
long time, they need to invest no psychic energy in self-monitoring; they are aware of their inner
states without having to become self-conscious.

Start doing more of what you love, less of what you hate. After a few weeks of self-monitoring,
sit down with your diary or your notes and begin to analyze them.

The only way to stay creative is to organize time, space, and activity to our advantage. It means
developing schedules to protect our time and avoid distraction, arranging our immediate
surroundings to increase concentration, cutting out meaningless chores that soak up psychic
energy, and devoting the energy thus saved to what we really care about. It is much easier to be
personally creative when we maximize optimal experiences in everyday life.

Personality is nothing but a habitual way of thinking, feeling, and acting, as the more or less
unique pattern by which we use psychic energy or attention. Some traits are more likely than

others to result in personal creativity. To change personality means to learn new patterns of
attention, to look at different things, and to look at them differently; to learn to think new
thoughts, have new feelings about what we experience.

Develop what you lack. All of us specialise, which usually means that we neglect traits that are
complementary to the ones we have developed. Developing multiple perspectives can enrich our
life considerably.

Shift often from openness to closure: Perhaps the most important duality that creative persons are
able to integrate is being open and receptive on the one hand, and focused and hard-driving on
the other.

Aim for complexity. A complex system is differentiated, has many distinctive parts but it is also a
very integrated system. The several parts work together smoothly. Evolution appears to favour
organisms that are complex; i.e., differentiated and integrated at the same time.

Find a way to express what moves you. Creative problems generally emerge from areas of life
that are personally important.

Look at problems from as many viewpoints as possible. When we know that we have a problem,
consider it from many different perspectives.

Creative individuals do not rush to define the nature of problems. They look at the situation from
various angles first and leave the formulation undetermined for a long time. They consider
different causes and reasons. Because they pause to consider a greater range of possible
explanations for what happens to them, creative people have a wider and less predictable range
of options to choose from.

Figure out the implications of the problems. Creative individuals experiment with a number of
alternative solutions until they are certain that they have found the one that will work best. As
soon as we think of a good solution, we should develop the habit of thinking of an opposite one.

While being quick and consistent is often desirable, if we wish to be creative, we should be
willing to run the risk of sometimes seeming indecisive.

Implement the solution. Creative problem solving involves continuous experimentation and
revision. The longer options are kept open, the more likely it is that the solution will be original
and appropriate.

Personal creativity consists in changing the domain of personal life, of the rules that constrain
psychic energy, the habits and practices that define what we do day in, day out. If we can dress,
work and conduct our relationships more ef

There are certain thought processes and abilities that contribute to creative thinking. You
can cultivate and enhance your creative ability if you:

Think Lots: Encourage your mind to think up ideas-not one or two, but loads. Be fluent in
your ideas, even if sometimes they go off the target. One idea can lead to another that may
help you get to the perfect answer.

Think Different: Don't always think the obvious. Tell your mind to move in different
directions. Allow flexibility and flow.

Think in Detail: Once an idea strikes, think out the idea in detail. For example, if you think
of creating three-dimensional pictures using vegetables, then find out what vegetable
should go where. Don't leave an idea unformed.

PROBLEM SOLVING
From organizing your DVD collection to deciding to buy a house, problem-solving makes up a
large part of daily life. Problems can range from small (solving a single math equation on your
homework assignment) to very large (planning your future career).
What Is Problem-Solving?
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems.
The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best
resolves the issue.
The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases,
people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual
knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best
options.
There are a number of different mental process at work during problem-solving. These include:

Perceptually recognizing a problem

Representing the problem in memory
Considering relevant information that applies to the current problem
Identify different aspects of the problem
Labeling and describing the problem

The Steps in Problem-Solving

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many researchers
refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing
knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps
to find a solution. Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until
the desired solution is reached.
1. Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the
problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly
identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient
or even useless.
2. Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully
define the problem so that it can be solved.
3. Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The
approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique
preferences.
4. Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize
the available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know?

The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an
accurate solution.
5. Allocating Resources: Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time and other
resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine
how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more
resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not
want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution.
6. Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they
work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal,
they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
7. Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the
results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation
might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer
is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after
several months of treatment.

Problem-Solving Strategies
Algorithms: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct
solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm.
While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to
problem solving. This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so
time-consuming. For example, if you were trying to figure out all of the possible number
combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time!
2. Heuristics: A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in
certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a correct
solution. However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to simplify
complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more
manageable set.
3. Trial-and-Error: A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a
number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This approach can be
a good option if you have a very limited number of options available. If there are many
different choices, you are better off narrowing down the possible options using another
problem-solving technique before attempting trial-and-error.
4. Insight: In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight.
According to researchers, insight can occur because you realize that the problem is
actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past, but in most cases the
underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.
1.

Problems and Obstacles in Problem-Solving

Of course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles
that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have
described a number of these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant
information and assumptions.

Functional Fixedness: This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their
customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the
different options that might be available to find a solution.
Irrelevant or Misleading Information: When you are trying to solve a problem, it is
important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant
data that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it
becomes to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the
constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions.
Mental Set: Another common problem-solving obstacle is known as a mental set, which
is the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than
looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a
useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it
more difficult to find effective solutions.

DECISION MAKING
People often find it hard to make decisions. Some people put off making decisions by
endlessly searching for more information or getting other people to offer their recommendations.
Others resort to decision making by taking a vote, sticking a pin in a list or tossing a coin.
Regardless of the effort that is put into making a decision, it has to be accepted that some
decisions will not be the best possible choice. This article looks at one technique that can be
used in decision making that should help you to make effective decisions in the future.
Although the following technique is designed for an organisational or group structure, it can be
adapted to an individual level.

What is Decision Making?

In its simplest sense, decision making is the act of choosing between two or more courses of
action. However, it must always be remembered that there may not always be a 'correct' decision
among the available choices. There may have been a better choice that had not been considered,
or the right information may not have been available at the time. Because of this, it is important
to keep a record of all decisions and the reasons why decisions were made, so that improvements
can be made in the future. This also provides justification for any decision taken when
something goes wrong. Hindsight might not be able to correct past mistakes, but it will aid
improved decision making in the future.
Effective Decision Making

Although decisions can be made using either intuition or reasoning, a combination of both
approaches is often used. Whatever approach is used, it is usually helpful to structure decision
making in order to:

Reduce more complicated decisions down to simpler steps.

See how any decisions are arrived at.
Plan decision making to meet deadlines.

Responsibility for the Decision: Before making a decision, it needs to be clear who is going to
take responsibility for the decision. Remember that it is not always those making the decision
who have to assume responsibility for it. Is it an individual, a group or an organisation? This is
a key question because the degree to which responsibility for a decision is shared can greatly
influence how much risk people are willing to take.
If the decision making is for work then it is helpful to consider the structure of the organisation
that you are in. Is the individual responsible for the decisions he or she makes or does the
organisation hold ultimate responsibility? Who has to carry out the course of action decided?
Who will it affect if something goes wrong? Are you willing to take responsibility for a
mistake?
Finally, who can take the decision? When helping a friend, colleague or client to reach a
decision, in most circumstances the final decision and responsibility will be taken by them.
Whenever possible, and if it is not obvious, it is better to make a formal decision as to who is
responsible for a decision. This idea of responsibility also highlights the need to keep a record of
how any decision was made, what information it was based on and who was involved. Enough
information needs to be kept to justify that decision in the future so that, if something does go
wrong, it is possible to show that your decision was reasonable in the circumstance and given the
knowledge you held at the time.

Stages of Decision Making

Many different techniques of decision making have been developed, ranging from simple rules
of thumb, to extremely complex procedures. The method used depends on the nature of the
decision to be made and how complex it is. The method described in this article follows a
number of stages. These are:
Stage One: Listing all possible solutions/options. Generally, the possible solutions will have
been thought up during the earlier problem solving process, either through brainstorming or
some other 'idea generating' process. In addition, a decision will have to be made from a
selection of fixed choices. Always remember to consider the possibility of not making a decision
or doing nothing and be aware that both options are actually decisions in themselves.

Stage Two: Setting a time scale and deciding who is responsible for the decision. n deciding
how much time to make available for the decision making process, it helps to consider the
following:

How much time is available to spend on this decision?

Is there a deadline for making a decision and what are the consequences of missing this
deadline?
Is there an advantage in making a quick decision?
How important is it to make a decision? How important is it that the decision is right?
Will spending more time improve the quality of the decision?

Stage Three: Information gathering.

Before starting on the process of making a decision, all relevant information needs to be
gathered. If there is inadequate information then a wrong decision might be made. If there is too
much irrelevant information the decision will be difficult to make. There is a need for up-todate, accurate information on which to make decisions. Information needs to be gathered so that
an informed decision can be made. The amount of time spent on information gathering has to be
weighed against how much you are willing to risk making the wrong decision. In a group
situation, such as in a business or voluntary organisation, it may be appropriate for different
individuals to research different aspects of the information required, for example different people
might be allocated to concentrate their research on costs, facilities, availability, and so on.
Stage Four: Weighing up the risks involved.
One key question is how much risk should be taken in making the decision? Generally, the
amount of risk an individual is willing to take depends on:

The seriousness of the consequences of taking the wrong decision.

The benefits of making the right decision.
Not only how bad the worst outcome might be, but also how likely that outcome is to
happen.

It is also useful to consider what the risk of the worst possible outcome occurring might be, and
to decide if the risk is acceptable. The choice can be between going 'all out for success' or taking
a safe decision.

Stage Five: Deciding on values, or in other words what is important.

Each individual has his or her own unique set of values - what they believe to be
important. Many people decide to buy a car for themselves but different people buy
different cars based on their own personal values. One person might feel that price is the
most important feature, whereas another person might be more concerned with its speed
and performance. Others might value safety, luggage space or the cars impact on the
environment.
Depending on which values are considered important, different opinions may seem more
or less attractive. If the responsibility for a decision is shared it is possible that one
person might not have the same values as the others. In such cases, it is important to
obtain a consensus as to which values are to be given the most weight. It is important
that the values on which a decision is made are understood because they will have a
strong influence on the final choice.
People do not make decisions based on just one of their values. They will consider all
their values which are relevant to the decision and prioritise them in order of importance.

Stage Six: Weighing up the pros and cons of each course of action.
It is possible to evaluate the pros and cons of each possible solution/option by considering the
possible advantages and disadvantages. One aid to evaluating any solution/option is to use a
'balance sheet', weighing up the pros and cons (benefits and costs) associated with that solution.
For example, a small business that regularly hires vehicles from an external company might
consider buying a vehicle for their exclusive use. The business could list the pros and cons of the
purchase in the following way:
Pros
Saving on hire charges
Would make it easier to organise staff
travel
Will always be available

Cons
Cost of purchase
Potential driver(s) could require
training
Insurance and maintenance costs

Having listed the pros and cons, it may be possible to immediately decide whether this option is
a viable. However, it is also possible to rate each of the pros and cons on a simple 1 to 10 scale
(with 10 high and 1 low):
Pros
Saving on hire charges
9
Would make it easier to organize 7
staff travel
Will always be available
6

Cons
Cost of purchase
6
Potential drivers could require 4
training
Insurance and maintenance costs 8

Total

22

Total

18

In this case the cons (disadvantages) have the lower score while the pros (benefits) are higher
and purchase of a car is therefore a strong possible choice.
In scoring each of the pros and cons it helps to take into account how important each item on the
list is in meeting values. Thus, for example, if the most important value was the potential saving,
then the fact that a particular car has high insurance and maintenance costs will increase its score
on the con side. This balance sheet approach allows both the information to be taken into
account as well as values, and presents them in a clear and straight forward manner.

Stage Seven: Making the decision.

There are many techniques that can be used to help in reaching a decision. The pros and cons
method is just one way of evaluating each of the possible solutions/options available.
There are other techniques which allow for more direct comparisons between possible solutions.
These are more complicated and generally involve a certain amount of calculation. These can be
particularly helpful when it is necessary to weigh up a number of conflicting values and options.
For example, how would you decide between a cheap to buy but expensive to run car and
another more expensive car, that is more economical to keep on the road?
Intuitive Judgements: In addition to making reasoned decisions using the techniques shown
above, in many cases people use an intuitive approach to decision making. When making a
decision many influences, which have not been considered, may play a part. For example,
prejudice or wishful thinking might affect judgement. Reliance is often placed on past
experience without consideration of past mistakes. Making a decision using intuition alone
should be an option and not done merely because it is the easy way out, or other methods are
more difficult.

Intuition is a perfectly acceptable means of making a decision, although it is generally

more appropriate when the decision is of a simple nature or needs to be made quickly.
More complicated decisions tend to require a more formal, structured approach. It is
important to be wary of impulsive reactions to a situation and remember to keep a record
of the decision for future reference, no matter whether the decision was made intuitively
or after taking a reasoned approach.
If possible, it is best to allow time to reflect on a decision once it has been reached. It is
preferable to sleep on it before announcing it to others. Once a decision is made public, it
is very difficult to change.

Summary
Decision making is the act of choosing between a number of alternatives. In the wider
process of problem solving, decision making involves choosing between possible
solutions to a problem. Decisions can be made through either an intuitive or reasoned
process, or a combination of the two. There are usually a number of stages to any
structured decision making.
We have outlined one simple method, which involves: listing all possible solutions;
setting a time scale; gathering relevant information; weighing up risks; looking at values
and then weighing up the pros and cons of each alternative before making the decision.
There are also more sophisticated decision making techniques available. However, it
should be remembered that no decision making technique should be used as an
alternative to good judgement and clear thinking. All decision making involves
individual judgement, and systematic techniques are merely there to assist those
judgements.

Time Management
As you enter a year when there will be many demands on your time, it may be helpful to think
about the obstacles you face in managing your time and to consider some strategies for more
effective time management.
What you accomplish during a 24-hour period depends on your own motivation, your energy,
your skills and abilities, and other resources. The idea of time management is not a way to make
you work harder and longer, but a means to help you work smarter to accomplish your work
more easily and rapidly.

Obstacles to Effective Time Management

Before you can begin to implement any strategies to manage your time, you should be aware of
the most common obstacles that stand in the way of using your time effectively. Look at the list
below and see how many of the obstacles apply to you.

Unclear objectives and priorities

Desk management and personal disorganization
Inability to say "No"
Interruptions - telephone
Interruptions - personal visitors
Periods of inactivity - delays and pauses
Too many things at once
Stress and fatigue
All work and no play

Developing a TM plan involves several steps:

Step 1- Identify your personal values-these are your highest priorities- the things that are most
important to you
Examples:

-family
-education
-making money
-having fun
-being compassionate
Why is this step important? Because knowing what matters most helps you make choices?
-getting together with friends or getting together with family
-studying or having fun
Step 2- Identify long-term and short-term goals/objectives
Long-term- to graduate with BA degree in X major
Focus now on short-term specific goals (they should be based on your values)
Identify one or more specific goals for:
A. your College Experience
B. your personal life
They should be SMART GoalsSpecific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Timely (you need adequate time to achieve)
Ex.- Increase GPA by .5 by May-related to the value of education
Spend I hour more per week with family- related to the value of family life

Step 3- What steps do you need to take to achieve your objective

Goal-To spend more time with family; a step to achieve would be to watch less TV each
day
What steps are needed to improve GPA by May-?
-cut back hours at paid job

-see tutor on weekly basis

Step 4- Identify the barriers in your life to good TM. (Be Honest with yourself)
A. Are you overcommitted- work. Relationships etc.
B. Are you easily distracted- TV. Internet, Friends
C. Are you a procrastinator?
Steps to overcome barriers1. Make lists
2. Break big jobs into little steps
3. Promise yourself a reward
4. Do important things right away
5. Learn to say NO
6. Be adaptable
Step 5- Daily implementation- Create a Time Management Plan for one week
Weekly PlanningStart with the Fixed Time activities- classes, work etc- BIG ROCKS
Next- fill in priorities for the week
-important/urgent---exams, papers to write
-important/not urgent---date with a friend
-not important---web surfing
In your mind, you have fixed time, flexible time, the unknown/unexpected

Tips to help you manage your time

When you have identified your obstacles you can begin to overcome them. Here are some
strategies for overcoming the obstacles listed on the previous page.

Set Goals

Make sure your goals are:

Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Time-based

Prioritize

Decide which of your tasks you should:

Do
Delegate to someone else
Delay until another time
Delete from your list

For those tasks you have chosen:

Address the tasks that have short-term consequences
Accomplish what you can early
Attach deadlines to tasks that have to be delayed
Organize

Use a planner, software program on your computer, or a PDA to

keep track of your tasks and appointments.

Learn when to say NO

Realize that you cant do everything.

Avoid agreeing to do things you do not have time to complete.

Make sure your commitments are consistent with your goals and
objectives.

Use your waiting time

Accomplish small tasks like reading correspondence or writing

letters while you wait.

Look at time you spend waiting as a gift of time rather than a

waste of time.

Concentrate on one thing

at a time

Put your energy into the task at hand.

Tune out interruptions. Set aside time when you will not answer
the phone or schedule visitors.

Dont waste time thinking about all of the other things that need to
be done.

Consider your personal

prime time

Know what time of day you are at your best morning?, evening?,
late night?

Concentrate on completing your most challenging tasks at your

own prime time.

Celebrate success

Celebrate the achievement of your objectives to maintain a healthy

balance in life between work and play.

Reward yourself when you complete a task or finish a project.