History 121D4

France established a law against sacrilege in 1835

There was, in general, a trend towards the restoration of the power of

religion
The Society of the Exterminating Angel was popular in restoration

Spain
The restoration was there to purge the sins of the revolution
The Protestant revival was mostly outside of the established Protestant

religions
The Protestant revival could be traced back to German piousness of the

18th century (Methodism)

Reformers set up church in Geneva in 1817
The Protestant revival was strongest in the German lands and takes the

name of the awakening

Sets out to halt the ideals of the Revolution which is seen as demonic
It contained militaristic and millenarian elements
Most of these revivalists praised the German state and termed this the

prelude to the upcoming battle against the anti-Christ

Most new preachers were charismatic and not associated with German

ruling classes
They were capable of evoking mass enthusiasm
Most of these preachers were from poor rural backgrounds
As many as 60% of new clergy in France were from peasant origin
By the 1840s, religion did not have as prominent a role in public life as

it had before
They were reasons for the poor to avoid religion, especially organized

religion
The stated purpose of religion was to maintain the social status quo
Preachers said that inequality was a divine law, that work was
punishment, and that the poor should not strive for material reward in
this life, as they would get their reward later on

In the 1830s and 40s, there was a trend towards nationalism in

Europe
The Brothers Grimm emerged at this time and most of these stories

were sanitized for the peasants

The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution truly shape the

European continent
The Industrial Revolution was gaining speed in the 1830s
The doctrines of the post-Napoleonic era are based on questions that

the Revolution and the Enlightenment posed

Some reject the Revolution and the Enlightenment
But in the realm of creating a modern political ideology in the modern,

rapidly changing world, everyone must have started at the Revolution

The two broad cultural and ideological styles that would dominate
Europe either supported the Revolutions or were hostile to this

modernism
Congress of Vienna, 1815; Quadruple Alliance; Holy Alliance;

Conservatism; Edmund Burke (1729-1797); History of patriarchy

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 attempts to reestablish the old

regimes of Europe
This does not mean that the ideals of the Revolution were defeated in

1815, Napoleon was defeated in 1815

Liberalism and radicalism were the dominant political ideologies that

emerged at this time

All of the terms of modern political ideologies are created in Europe in
the 1820s and 1830s: liberalism, socialism, conservatism,

communism
Liberalism was the most important political idea and movement of this
period

Liberalism had wildly different meanings depending on where one was

located
Liberalism today bears almost no resemblance to the 1820s and 30s
Liberals were concerned with social change and stability
Liberals didnt believe the new materials for the new political

frameworks had to be created; they believed they already existed

Many liberalist thinkers, like Mills, believe themselves to be the direct

descendants of the philosophes of the enlightenment

Liberalists back then could be termed constitutional monarchists
Benjamin Constant was the first writer and thinker to shape the

emerging liberalism
Liberalism was very cautious to the ideas of the French Revolution,

usually referencing the tempering aspect of Great Britain

The early liberalists are constitutionalists
A constitution was the means to ensuring equal protection under the

law and protection of freedoms

A constitutional monarchy would ideally have an independent

legislative and executive branches

These checks and balances were the ideas of Montesquieu
Radical republicanism would be likely to violate freedoms
Most liberalists were not republicans; they believed that power was

best left vested in royal families

These aspirations were reflected in the newly emerging middle classes

and in their most wealthy representatives

The wealth of the middle class is growing, so it is clear to them that

their influence should be growing as well

Increased size of the social group did not always translate to increased

power
Most of the emerging professions required an education
Many of this new middle class sought noble titles or to marry into
aristocratic families

Many also represent the elite of the new industrial class that emerged
This bourgeois culture would become the dominant culture in the

coming century
The primary goal of the bourgeoisie is getting or taking political power

from the aristocracy

They wanted elimination on the restrictions in their pursuit of profit
Most liberals were by no means democrats
They believed that only male property owners should have the right to

vote
Different kinds of organizations and pamphlets were the ways that the

new liberalists expressed their ideals

The People is defined throughout history however one wants to

define it
The early liberals made it very clear who were the people and who

were the dangerous classes

The people were the male property owners
Female suffrage was not an issue in this early period
Womens roles were seen to belong in the family
There was occasional criticism to the property qualifications for the

right to vote
The answer to the concern over these qualifications was, get rich.
The middling orders were the natural representatives of the human

race
The bourgeois voter sought, not only his advance, but the advance of

all society
One liberal German reader, written in 1865, wrote that the lower

classes owe everything they had to the middle class

Liberalism had confidence in individuals to control their own lives
Liberalisms core focus is on individual freedom and liberty
It wants a rational state based on liberal principles
Freedom of Conscience
John Locke: the individual was entitled to freedom without exception
Locke was seen as the father of liberalism

The greatest contribution of liberalism to modern political ideology is

that separation of the public and the private

Private and civic action were seen in two different realms
Sovereignty only exists to a limited and relative extent
The sovereignty of the German state stops where the independence of

the individual begins

Individual rights were the inheritance of every man, not something

anyone acquired
Tyranny could be exercised by the crowd or by the crown
There was a middle ground between autocracy and anarchy
The intention of claiming a private sphere was the protection of

freedoms that were to serve as a counterweight to government

The same logic that lead liberals to private rights led the liberals to a

realm of public rights that encompassed very narrow class interests

Liberals saw commoners as lacking the temperament to protect

property
Liberalism was the philosophy of the middle class hostile to democracy
Liberals were not out to destroy the elite structure of politics, they

simply wanted to make it accessible to themselves

Private property was seen as important to the well-being of the

individual
Liberals were hostile to legislation that was more liberal than theirs

which would assist the lower classes

They accepted Thomas Malthus view that poverty was an iron law of

nature
They felt any kind of government legislation or assistance to the poor

was misguided
Anything that threatened liberty and hindered social well-being, even

things designed to help the poor, was disdained

Workers capital was seen as fixed

If one segment of workers went on strike and had their wages raised,

others would have to have their wages cut

The Poor Laws in Britain: workhouses were designed to prohibit
idleness, the inmates were fed starvation diets, wives and husbands

were kept in separate workhouses

For early liberals, egalitarian ideals were futile
There was a large swath of the lower rungs of the bourgeoisie that felt

that most of society should not be condemned to poverty

Class concerns should be subjugated to the concerns of society as a

whole
These people were known as radicals
They all had a mystical faith in the virtue and wisdom of the common

person
Radicalism of the 19th century was dominated by a portion of the

French Revolution
The basis of radicalism rested on the notion of popular sovereignty
Unlike liberals, radicals were democrats
The people were much broader than the liberals; it composed of all

adult males
The radicals were also republicans, as they opposed monarchy
Radicalism is most prominent in the Italian states in the early 19th

century
Italian radicals described themselves as the party of action
They were willing to take the initiative in politics
They took part in many of the revolutions of the 19th century
They believed that the emerging corporate wealth was danger to

democratic institutions
Giuseppe Mazzini: one of the most influential figures in the emergence

of nationalism and a prominent radical

Mazzini had been involved in conspiratorial politics since the 1820s
In 1831, Mazzini founded the organization Young Italy
It was the duty of the individual to serve a new idea, the national idea

Mazzini is far more radical than any of the other liberals

Mazzini reformed many important liberal ideals
The Duties of Man: exploitation was not the price of material progress,

it was the abuse of the material progress

He argued that political freedom of many was meaningless with

respect to the social freedom of man

He saw poverty and lack of education as the true evils of society
He was convinced that revolutions had to have the support of all

people in order to succeed

Mazzini transposed the potential liberation of many from the individual

to the nation-state
Mazzini was more closely aligned with nationalism than any other

radical
His nationalism would dominate until the rise of German and Italian

nationalism which leads to the unification of those two countries

The nation had a duty to maintain literacy and a national language
There was a duty to maintain anything that could support national

identity
Sovereignty could not reside in humanity, it could only reside in the

individual
Society was created for moral reasons according to Mazzini
It was necessary for the individual conscious and societal conscious to

align
Communitarianism and individuality needed to be melded
Mazzini is unconsciously intending to unite the contradictory ideals of

liberalism and conservatism

Freedom from injustice and community are his goals
These goals were practically unrealizable, but they became a powerful
driving force