STRAIN GAUGE

Strain Gauges
Strain gauge - The main tool in sensing force.
Strain gauges, measure strain

Strain can be related to stress, force, torque and

a host of other stimuli including displacement,
acceleration or position.
At the heart of all strain gauges is the change in
resistance of materials due to change in their
length due to strain.

Force sensors - Strain

Gauges
Definition of strain: consider a length of metallic
wire L, of conductivity and cross-sectional
area A.
The resistance of the wire is:
R= L
A

Taking the log on both sides:

1 + log L = log + log L

log R = log
a
A

Force sensors - Strain

Gauges
Taking the differential on both sides:
dR = d + d(L/A)

R
L/A

Change in resistance is due to two terms:

Due to change in conductivity
Due to the deformation of the conductor.

For small deformations (linear deformation), both terms on the

right hand side are linear functions of strain, . Bundling both
effects together (that is, the change in conductivity and
deformation) we can write:

Force sensors - Strain

Gauges
For small deformations (linear deformation), both terms

on the right hand side are linear functions of strain, .

Bundling both effects together (that is, the change in
conductivity and deformation) we can write:

dR = Ss
R
Ss is the sensitivity of the strain gauge
Also known as the gauge factor

Strain Gauge
For any given strain gauge the gauge factor is a
constant

Ranges between 2 to 6 for most metallic strain

gauges
From 40-200 for semiconductor strain gauges.

The strain gauge relation gives a simple linear

relation between the change in resistance of the
sensor and the strain applied to it.

Stress and Strain

Strain and Stress

Given the conductor discussed above and
applying a force along its axis, the stress is :

= F = EdL = E
A

= stress [N/m2]
E = Youngs modulus of the material (modulus of
elasticity) [N/m2 ]
= dL/L = strain

Strain and Stress

Strain is a normalized linear

deformation of the material

Stress is a measure of elasticity of the
material.

Strain gauges
Strain gauges come in many forms and types.
Any material, combination of materials or
physical configuration that changes its
resistance due to strain constitutes a strain
gauge.
Will restrict our discussion to two types that

account for most of the strain gauges in use

today:
wire (or metal) strain gauges - resistive
semiconductor strain gauges.

Metallic strain gauge

In its simplest form:
A length of wire, held between two posts

When a force is applied to them, will deform the

wire causing a change in the wires resistance.
This method was used in the past and is valid

It is not very practical (construction, attachment

to system, change in resistance is very small).
Sometimes, multiple lengths of wire were used.

Wire strain gauge

Metallic strain gauge common

form
A more practical strain gauge - resistive
Built out of a thin layer of conducting material
Deposited on an insulating substrate (plastic,
ceramic, etc.)
Etched to form a long, meandering wire (figure)
Constantan (60% copper, 40% nickel) is most common

material
negligible temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR).

Other materials are commonly used (table)

The resistive strain gauge

Materials for resistive

strain gauges
Table 6.1. Materials for resistive strain gauges and their properties.
Material

Constantan (Cu60Ni40)
Nichrome (Ni80Cr20)
Manganine
(Cu84Mn12 Ni4)
Nickel
Chromel (Ni65Fe25Cr10)
Platinum
Elinvar
(Fe55Ni36Cr8Mn0.5)
Platinum-Iridium
(Pt80Ir20)
Platinum Rhodium
(Pt90Rh10)
Bismuth

Gage Resistivity Thermal

factor [mm2/m] coeff. of
expansion
[10/K]
2.0
0.48
5
2.0
1.3
100
2.2
0.43
10

Expansion
coeff.
[10/K]

Maximum
temperatrure
[C]

12.5
18
17

400
1000

-12
2.5
5.1
3.8

0.11
0.9
0.1
0.84

6000
300
2450
300

12
15
8.9
9

800
1300

6.0

0.36

1700

8.9

1300

4.8

0.23

1500

8.9

22

1.19

300

13.4

Metallic strain gauge common

form
Strain gauges may also be used to measure

multiple axis strains by simply using more

than one gauge or by producing them in
standard configurations.

Two-axis strain gauge

120 degree rosette

45 degree rosette

45 degree stacked rosette

membrane rosette

Semiconductor strain gauges

Operate like resistive strain gauges
Construction and properties are different.
The gauge factor for semiconductors is much
higher than for metals.
The change in conductivity due to strain is much
larger than in metals.
Are typically smaller than metal types
Often more sensitive to temperature variations
(require temperature compensation).

Semiconductor strain gauges

All semiconductor materials exhibit changes in
resistance due to strain
The most common material is silicon because of
its inert properties and ease of production.
The base material is doped, by diffusion of
doping materials (usually boron or arsenide for p

or n type) to obtain a base resistance as needed.

The substrate provides the means of straining
the silicon chip and connections are provided by
deposition of metal at the ends of the device.

Semiconductor strain gauges

Construction of a semiconductor strain

gauge:

Semiconductor strain gauges

Other types of semiconductor strain gauges:

Semiconductor strain gauges

One of the important differences between

conductor and semiconductor strain gauges

is that semiconductor strain gauges are
essentially nonlinear devices with typically a
quadratic transfer function:
dR = S1 + S12
R
Also: PTC or NTC operation

PTC and NTC operation

Strain gauges - applications

Strain gauge must be made to react to a force.
The strain gauge is attached to the member in which strain is

sensed, usually by bonding. Cannot be re-used!

Special bonding agents exist for different applications and types
of materials
Usually supplied by the manufacturers of strain gauges or
specialized producers.

Strain gauges are often used for bending strain,

twisting (torsional and shear strain) and
longitudinal tensioning/deformation (axial strain)
of structures (engine shafts, bridge loading,

truck weighing and many many others)

Strain gauges - properties

The properties of strain gauges vary by application
Most metal gauges have a nominal resistance

between 100 and 1000, (lower and higher

resistances are available)
Gauge factor between 2-5
Dimensions from less than 3x3 mm to lengths in
excess of 150 mm (almost any size may be fabricated if
necessary).
Rosettes (multiple axis strain gauges) are available
with 45, 90 and 120 axes as well as diaphragm and
other specialized configurations.

Strain gauges - properties

Typical sensitivities are 5m
Deformation is of the order of 2-3m/m.
Much higher strains can be measured with specialized

gauges.
Semiconductor strain gauges
usually smaller than most resistive strain gauges
can be made with higher resistances.
their use is limited to low temperatures
can be much less expensive than metal strain gauges.
often part of another device

Strain gauges - errors

Strain gauges are subject to a variety of errors.
Due to temperatures - resistance, especially in
semiconductors, is affected by temperature in
the same way as by strain.
In metal gauges, this is usually small (materials
with low temperature coefficients of resistance).
In semiconductors, temperature compensation is
sometimes provided on board or a separate
sensor may be used for this purpose.

Strain gauges - errors

A third source of error is due to the strain

itself, which, over time, tends, to

permanently deform the gauge.
can be eliminated by periodic re-calibration
can be reduced by ensuring that the maximum

deformation allowed is small and below the

recommended for the device.

Strain gauges - errors

Additional errors
Due the bonding process
Thinning of materials due to cycling.
Most strain gauges are rated for:
given number of cycles (i.e. 106 or 107 cycles),
maximum strain (3% is typical for conducting strain

gauges, 1% for semiconductor strain gauges)

temperature characteristics specified for use with a
particular material (aluminum, stainless steel, carbon
steel) for optimal performance when bonded
Typical accuracies are of the order of 0.2-0.5%.

Typical resistive strain

gauges

Other Strain Gauges

Other strain gauges - for specialized
applications.
Optical fiber strain gauges.
The change in length of the fiber due to strain changes

the phase of the light through the fiber.

Measuring the light phase, either directly or in an
interferrometric method can produce readings of
minute strain that cannot be obtained in other strain
gauges.
The device and the electronics necessary is far more
complicated than standard gauges.

Other Strain Gauges

There are also liquid strain gauges which rely in the

resistance of an electrolytic liquid in a flexible container

which can be deformed.
Another type of strain gauge that is used on a limited
basis is the plastic strain gauge.
These are made as ribbons or threads based on graphite
or carbon in a resin as a substrate and used in a way
similar to other strain gauges.
Very high gauge factors (up to about 300), they are
otherwise difficult to use and inaccurate as well as
unstable mechanically, severely limiting their practical
use.

Bridge Circuits

Cantilever

Force and tactile sensors

Forces can be measured in many ways
The simplest - use a strain gauge
Calibrate the output in units of force.

Other methods include

measuring acceleration of a mass (F=ma),
measuring the displacement of a spring under action

of force (x=kF, k is the spring constant),

measuring the pressure produced by force and some
variations of these basic methods.
None of these is a direct measure of force
most are more complicated than use of a strain gauge.

Force and tactile sensors

One measures the tensile force by measuring the strain

in the strain gauge.

The sensor is usually provided with attachment holes
may also be used in compressive mode by pre-stressing the strain

gauge.

This type of sensor is often used to measure forces in

locations such as machine tools, engine mounts and the

like.
Often it is called a load cell, especially when large forces
are measured.

Force sensor

Force sensor

PIEZOELECTRIC

Acoustic waves
Sound waves are longitudinal elastic waves.
The pressure wave as it propagates, changes the
pressure along the direction of its propagation.
Example: acoustic waves, impinging on our
eardrums will push or pull on the eardrum to
affect hearing.
Any wave, including acoustic waves have three
fundamental properties:
Frequency, wavelength and speed of propagation

Acoustic waves
The frequency, f, of a wave is the number of
variations of the wave per second.
Normally defined for harmonic waves and is
understood to be the number of cycles of the
harmonic (sinusoidal for example) wave.
For example, if we were to count the number of

crests in an ocean wave passing through a fixed

point in one second, the result would be the
frequency of the wave.

Acoustic waves
Wavelength, l is the distance a wave
propagates in one cycle.
In the example of the ocean wave the
wavelength is the distance between two crests
(or two valleys)
Velocity, c, of the wave is the speed with which

the front of the wave propagates and, as

indicated above, is frequency dependent.
These three quantities are related as: l = c/f

Concept of wavelength

Acoustic waves
Waves can be transverse waves, longitudinal
waves or a combination of the two.
Transverse waves are those waves which cause a
change in amplitude in directions transverse to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: a tight string vibrates perpendicular to

the length of the string. The wave itself

propagates along the string.
The wave propagates away from the source, in
all directions.

Transverse waves on a tight

string

Acoustic waves
Generation of longitudinal
waves:
Example: piston in a tube
Example: diaphragm in air
Effect: changes in volume
cause changes in pressure.

These propagate - give

rise to the wave.

Acoustic waves - speed

The speed of an acoustic wave is directly related to the

change in volume and the resulting change in pressure

c=

pV
V0

m/s

0 is the density of the undisturbed fluid,

V is the change in volume,
p is the change in pressure
V is the volume

Acoustic waves - speed

In gasses, this simplifies to the following
c=

p0
0

m/s

0 is the density of the undisturbed fluid,

is the ratio of specific heats for the gas,
p0 is the undisturbed gas pressure
Thus, the speed of acoustic waves is material, pressure and
temperature dependent

Speed of sound

Table 6.1. Speed of sound in some mate rials at given temperatures.

Material
Speed [m/s]
Temperature [C]
Air
331
20
Fresh water
1,486
20
Sea water
1,520
20
Granite
6,000
Steel
5,200
20
Copper
3,600
20
Aluminum
6,320
Beryllium
12,900

Acoustic waves - theory

Assuming a harmonic longitudinal wave of frequency f,

it may be written in general terms as:

p = P0sin(kx t)
p is pressure in the medium,
P0 the pressure amplitude of the wave
k is a constant.
The wave propagates in the x direction
f is the angular frequency

Acoustic waves - theory

The amplitude of the wave is:

P0 = k0c2ym
ym is the maximum displacement of a particle during
compression or expansion in the wave.
The constant k is called the wave number or the phase
constant and is given as:

k = 2 =
c

Acoustic waves - theory

Waves carry energy.
A shockwave (earthquake) can cause damage
A loud sound can hurt our ears.

A wave is said to be a propagating wave if it

carries energy from one point to another.
The wave can propagate in an unbounded

medium with or without attenuation (losses).

Attenuation of a wave depends on the medium
Attenuation reduces the amplitude of the wave.

Attenuation of waves is exponential

Acoustic waves - theory

Attenuation constant is defined for each material
The amplitude of the wave, as it propagates,

changes as follows

p = P0ex sin(kx t)
Attenuation causes loss of energy as the wave propagates
Dissipates energy of the wave

Acoustic waves - theory

When a propagating wave encounters a
discontinuity in the unbounded space (an object
such as a wall, a change in air pressure, etc) part
of the wave is reflected and part of it is
transmitted into the discontinuity.
Reflection and a transmission occur at any
discontinuity
These reflected and transmitted waves may
propagate in directions other than the original
wave.
Transmission causes refraction of the wave.

Reflection, transmission and

refraction

Acoustic waves - theory

The reflected wave is reflected at an angle equal to
the angle of incidence (r=i)
The transmitted wave propagates in the material at

an angle t which is equal to:

c
sint = c2 sini
1

c2 is the speed of propagation of the wave in the medium

into which the wave transmits
c1 the speed in the medium from which the wave
originates

Acoustic waves - theory

The reflected waves propagate in the same
medium as the propagating wave
Interfere with the propagating wave.
Their amplitude can add (constructive
interference) or subtract (destructive
interference).
The net effect is that the total wave can have

amplitudes smaller or larger than the original

wave.
This phenomenon leads to the idea of a standing
wave.

Acoustic waves - theory

Interference will cause some locations in space to have

lower amplitudes (or zero) while others will have

amplitudes larger than the incident wave.
This is called a standing wave because the locations of
zero amplitudes (called nodes) are fixed in space as are
the locations of maxima.
Figure 7.5 shows this and also the fact that the nodes of
the standing wave are at distances of l/2 while maxima
occur atel/4 on either side of a node.

Standing waves

Standing waves
Example of standing waves:
vibrating tight strings
reflections occur at the

locations the strings are

attached.

This vibration at various

wavelengths, and its
interaction with the air

around accounts for the

music we perceive when a
violin plays.

Acoustic waves - theory

Scattering is reflection of the waves in all
directions due to anything in the path of the
waves.
Dispersion is the propagation of various
frequency components are different frequency
causing distortion in the received sound wave.
Wave impedance or acoustic impedance is the
product of density and velocity:
Z = 0c

The piezoelectric effect

Piezoelectric effect is the generation of electric
charge in crystalline materials upon application
of mechanical stress.
The opposite effect is equally useful: application
of charge across the crystal causes mechanical
deformation in the material.
The piezoelectric effect occurs naturally in
materials such as quartz ( SiO2 - a silicon oxide)
Has been used for many decades in so called
crystal oscillators.

The piezoelectric effect

It is also a property of some ceramics and polymers
The piezoelectric effect has been known since 1880
First used in 1917 to detect and generate sound waves in

water for the purpose of detecting submarines (sonar).

The piezoelectric effect can be explained in a simple
model by deformation of crystals:

The piezoelectric effect

Deformation in one direction (B) displaces the
molecular structure so that a net charge occurs
as shown (in Quartz crystal - SiO2)
Deformation in a perpendicular axis (B) forms an
opposite polarity charge

The piezoelectric effect

The charges can be collected on electrodes
deposited on the crystal
Measurement of the charge is then a measure of

the displacement or deformation.

The model uses the quartz crystal (SiO2) but
other materials behave in a similar manner.
Also, the behavior of the crystal depends on how
the crystal is cut and different cuts are used for
different applications.

The piezoelectric effect theory

The polarization vector in a medium (polarization is
the electric dipole moment of atoms per unit
volume of the material) is related to stress through
the following simple relation

P = d
d is the piezoelectric constant,
the stress in the material.

C
m2

The piezoelectric effect theory

Polarization is direction dependent in the crystal and

may be written as:

P = Pxx + Pyy + Pzz

x, y, z are the standard axes in the crystal.
The relation above now becomes.
Pxx = d11 xx + d12 yy + d13 zz
Pyy = d21 xx + d22 yy + d23 zz

Pzz = d31 xx + d32 yy + d33 zz

dij are the piezoelectric coefficients along the orthogonal

axes of the crystal.

The piezoelectric effect theory

The coefficient depends on how the crystal is cut.
To simplify discussion we will assume that d is
single valued
The inverse effect is written as:

e = gP
e is strain (dimensionless), g is called the constant
coefficient ( is permittivity)

g=d

dij

or: gij =
ij

The piezoelectric effect theory

The piezoelectric coefficients are related to the electrical

anisotropy of materials (permittivity).

A third coefficient is called the electromechanical coupling
coefficient and is a measure of the efficiency of the
electromechanical conversion:

k 2 = dgE

or: kij2 = dij gij Eij

E is the Young modulus.

The electromechanical coupling coefficient is simply the

ratio between the electric and mechanical energies per unit
volume in the material.

Crystals - piezoelectric
properties
Table 7.2. Piezoelectric coefficients and other propertiesin monocrystals
Crystal
Piezoelectric
Permittivity, ij
Coupling coefficient

coefficient dij, x10

kmax
[C/N]
Quartz (SiO2)
d11=2.31, d14=0.7
11=4.5, 33=4.63
0.1
ZnS
d14=3.18
11=8.37
0.1
CdS
d15=-14, d33=10.3,
11=9.35, 33=10.3 0.2
d31=-5.2
ZnO
d15=-12, d33=12,
11=8.2
0.3
d31=-4.7
KDP (KH2PO4)
d14=1.3, d36=21
11=42, 33=21
0.07
ADP (NH4H2PO4)
d14=-1.5, d36=48
11=56, 33=15.4
0.1
BaTiO3
d15=400, d33=100,
11=3000, 33=180
0.6
d31=-35
LiNbO3
d31=-1.3, d33=18,
11=84, 33=29
0.68
d22=20, d15=70
LiTaO3
d31=-3, d33=7,
11=53, 33=44
0.47
d22=7.5, d15=26

Ceramics - piezoelectric
properties

Table 7.3. Piezoelectric coefficients and other properties in ceramics

Ceramic
Piezoelectric coefficient Permittivity, Coupling

dij, x10 [C/N]

coefficient
kmax

BaTiO3 (at 120C)

d15=260, d31=-45,
0.2
d33=-100

BaTiO3+5%CaTiO3 (at 105C)

d31=43, d33=77
0.25
Pb(Zr0.53Ti0.47)O3+(0.5-3)%La2O2
or Bi2O2 or Ta2O5 (at 290C)
(Pb0.6Ba0.4)Nb2O6 (at 300C)
(K0.5Na0.5)NbO3 (at 240C)

d15=380, d31=119,
d33=282
d31=67, d33=167
d31=49, d33=160

0.47

0.28
0.45

Polymers - piezoelectric
properties

Table 7.4. Piezoelectric coefficients and other properties in polymers

Polymer
Piezoelectric coefficient
Permittivity,

dij, x10 [C/N]

PVDF
Copolymer

d31=23, d33=-33
d31=11, d33=-38

Coupling
coefficient
kmax
0.14
0.28

Piezoelectric devices
A piezoelectric device is built as a

simple capacitor, (capacitance C)

Assuming force is applied on the x-axis
in this figure, the charge generated by
force is:

Qx = d11Fx
Voltage developed across it is:

Qx d11Fx d11Fx d
V=
=
=
C
C
A

d = thickness
A = area

Piezoelectric devices
The thicker the device the larger the voltage.
A smaller area has the same effect.
Output is directly proportional to force (or pressure

which is force/area).
Most common piezoelectric materials for sensors
PZT (lead-zirconite-titanium-oxide)
Polymer films such as PVDF (PolyVinyliDeneFluoride).
Barium Titanate (BiTiO3) in crystal or ceramic form
Crystalline quartz are used for some applications.
Thin films of ZnO on semiconductors

Piezoelectric resonator
Equivalent circuit of a
piezoelectric material.
This circuit has two
resonances a parallel
resonance and a series
resonance (called

antiresonance)

Piezoelectric resonator
The resonant frequencies are given as:
fs =

1
2 LC

fp =

1
2 LC C0/ C + C0

A single resonance is desirable

Materials or shapes for which the two resonant
frequencies are widely separated are used.
Therefore a capacitance ratio is defined as:
m= C
C0

Piezoelectric resonator
The relation between the two frequencies is:

fp = fs 1 + m
The larger the ratio m, the larger the separation
between frequencies.
The resistance R in the equivalent circuit acts as a
damping (loss) factor. This is associated with the
Quality factor of the piezoelectric material:
Q=1
R

L
C

Piezoelectric actuators
One of the first actuator has been in use in
analog clocks for decades.
Essentially a cantilever beam made of a
piezoelectric crystal (quartz is common) that
engages a geared wheel.
When a pulse is connected across the beam it

bends (downwards) and moves the wheel one

tooth at a time.
This actuation only requires minute motion.
Its main importance - accuracy

Piezoelectric actuators
Other actuators have been designed which can move

much larger distances and apply significant forces as

well.
It is 70x90mm in size and when a 600V is applied across
the piezoelectric element (grey patch) one end moves
relative to the other (which must be fixed) about 8mm.
The rated force for this device is about 17kg force at rated
voltage.
Some piezoelectric sensors and actuators can operate at
lower voltages, large voltages are typical of piezoelectric
actuators and is one serious limitation.

Linear piezoelectric
actuator

Stacked piezoelectric
actuators
Individual elements, each with its own electrodes can be

stacked to produce stacks of varying lengths.

In such devices, the displacement is anywhere between
0.1 to 0.25% of the stack length, but this is still a small
displacement.
One of the advantages of these stacks is that the forces
are even larger.

Stacked piezoelectric
actuator

Saw devices
Surface waves or Rayleigh waves.
Surface waves propagate on the surface of an
elastic medium with little effect on the bulk of
the medium
Have properties which are significantly different
than longitudinal waves
The most striking difference is their much slower
speed of propagation.
Propagation of surface waves is nondispersive

Saw devices
The exact definition of Rayleigh wave is a wave that

propagates at the interface between an elastic medium

and vacuum or rarefied gas (air for example) with little
penetration into the bulk of the medium.
A good analogy for surface waves are ocean waves.
Under most conditions this would seem to be a
disadvantage but, looking at the wavelength alone as the
ratio of velocity and frequency: l=c/f,
The lower the velocity of the wave, the shorter the
wavelength in that medium.
The smaller the physical size of a device!

SAW devices
Generation of surface waves:
In a thick sample, one can set up a surface wave
by a process of wave conversion.
A longitudinal wave device is used and energy
coupled through a wedge at an angle to the
surface.
At the surface of the medium there will be both a
shear wave and a surface wave
This is an obvious solution but not necessarily
the optimal.

Surface waves in a solid

Saw devices
A more efficient method: apply metallic strips on the

surface of a piezoelectric material in an interdigital fasion

(comblike structure)
This establishes a periodic structure of metallic strips.
When an oscillatory source is connected across the two
sets of electrodes, a periodic electric field is established
in the piezoelectric material,
Because of this electric field, an equivalent, periodic
stress pattern is established in the piezoelectric medium.
This generates a stress wave (sound wave) that now
propagates away from the electrodes in both directions.
The generation is most efficient when the period of the
surface wave equals the inter-digital period.

SAW generator

SAW devices
For example, a SAW device has a frequency of 400 Mhz.
The speed of propagation in a piezoelectric is of the

order of 3000 m/s.

This gives a wavelength of 7.5 m.
Making each strip in the structurel/4 gives 1.875m
width for each strip and 1.875m distance between
neighboring strips.
This calculation shows that the dimensions required are
very small (the same device, based on electromagnetic
waves has a wavelength of 750mm).

SAW devices
The comblike structure generates sound

waves in the piezoelectric medium

A sound wave in the piezoelectric medium
produces a signal in a comb-like structure.
The structure can be used both for generation
and reception of surface waves which in turn
means that the device can be used for
sensing or actuation

SAW Resonator
By far the most common use of surface acoustic
waves (SAW) is in SAW resonators, filters and
delay lines.

The portion marked as In and Out are used as the

input and output ports of the resonator (i.e. the
outside connections of the resonator).
The parallel lines on each side are grooves
etched in the quartz piezoelectric.

SAW Resonator
The input port establishes a surface wave
The wave is reflected by the grooves on each
side.
These reflection interfere with each other
establishing a resonance which depends on the
grating of groves separation.
Only those signals that interfere constructively
will establish a signal in the output port, the
others cancel.

SAW Resonator
This device is popular as the element that
defines the oscillator frequency in
communication
A very small device can easily operate at low
frequencies and can operate at frequencies
above the limit of conventional oscillators.
The device may also be viewed as a very narrow
band filter and
This is in fact another of its uses.
The basis of most sensors is a delay line

SAW resonators for

communication

SAW delay line

SAW Resonator
The device on the left generates a surface wave
This is detected after a delay in the device on the
right.
The delay depends on the distance between the
devices and, because the wavelength is usually
small, the delay can be long.
Adding an amplifier in the feedback makes this
an oscillator with frequency dependent on the
delay.

SAW Resonator
It is based on a delay line in which the delay is influenced

by the stimulus.
An essentially identical sensor is shown in Figure 7.46
which has two identical delay lines and the output is
differential.
One line is used as the proper sensor, the second as a
reference to cancel common-mode effects such as
temperature.
In most cases, the delay time is not measured but rather,
a feedback amplifier is connected (positive feedback)
which causes the device to resonate at a frequency
established by the time delay

SAW sensor

SAW sensor

SAW Resonator
The stimuli that can be measured are many.
First, the speed of sound is temperature dependent.
Temperature changes both the physical length of

the delay line and the sound speed as follows:

L = L0 1 + T T0 ,

c = c0 1 + T T0

is the coefficient of linear expansion

the temperature coefficient of sound velocity.

SAW Resonator
These two terms are contradicting in that both
increase and hence the delay and oscillator
frequency are a function of the difference between
them.
The change in frequency with temperature is:
f = T
f

This is linear and a SAW sensor has a sensitivity of about

10C.

SAW Resonator
In sensing pressure, the delay in propagation is
due to stress in the piezoelectric as indicated
above.
Measurement of displacement, force and
acceleration are done by measuring the strain
(pressure) produced in the sensor.
Many other stimuli can be measured including
radiation (through the temperature rise), voltage
(through the stress it produces through the
electric field) and so on.

QCM Sensor
Sauerbrey
-C 0
C1
C 0'

f 2

m
q q A
f q2

R1

Kanazawa - Gordon
L1

fl f q 3/ 2

ll
q q

Frequency Response
Impedance

1000000

100000

Impedance

10000

1000

100

10

1
9950000

9960000

9970000

9980000

9990000

10000000

10010000

Freqeuncy
Impedance

Impedance

10020000

10030000

10040000

10050000

Frequency Change Response

f in Hz

-50

-100

50

100

Time in s

150

200

TSM-Sensor
Quartz Loading
Cq
Rq
C0

ImZ L
f f 0
Z q

R 2f 0 L1

Lq

fl f 3 / 2

Liquid

Zl

ReZ L
Z q

Gl Zl 1 j

ll
2

ll
q q

0
Rl

8K 2C0

ll
f 0 q q

500

-1k

400

-2k

300

-3k

200

-4k

100

-5k

R/

f / Hz

f & R

10

20

Zeit / s

30

Ultrasonic sensors and

actuators
In principle, identical to acoustic sensors and
actuators
Somewhat different in construction
Very different in terms of materials used and
range of frequencies.
The ultrasonic range starts where the audible

range ends,
Therefore ultrasonic sensor (i.e. microphone) or
actuator for the near ultrasound range should be
quite similar to an acoustic sensor or actuator.

24 kHz, UT transmitter and

receiver

Ultrasonic sensors and

actuators
Figure 7.31 shows an ultrasonic transmitter (left) and an

ultrasonic receiver (right) operating in air at 24 kHz.

Same size and essentially the same construction.
This is typical of piezoelectric devices in which the same
exact device can be used for both purposes
Both use an identical piezoelectric disk
The only difference is in the slight difference in the
construction of the cone.
Figure 7.31 shows a closer view of another device, this
time operating at 40 kHz, also designed to operate in air
in which the piezoelectric device is square, seen at the
center below the brass supporting member

40 kHz ultrasonic sensor

40 kHz ultrasonic
transmitter/receiver for
ranging

Ultrasonic sensors
Scope of ultrasonic sensing is very wide.
Ultrasound is much better suited for use in solids
and liquids (higher velocities, lower attenuation)
Support waves other than longitudinal which
allow additional flexibility ultrasonics
shear waves,
surface waves

Ultrasonic sensors exist at almost any frequency

and exceeding 1 GHz (especially SAW devices).
Most sensors operate below 50 MHz.

Ultrasonic sensors
Most ultrasonic sensors and actuators are based on

piezoelectric materials
Some are based on magnetostrictive materials
A particularly important property of piezoelectric
materials that makes them indispensable in ultrasound is
their ability to oscillate at a fixed, sharply defined
frequency called the resonant frequency.
The resonant frequency of a piezoelectric crystal (or
ceramic element) depends on the material itself, its
effective mass, strain and physical dimensions and is also
influenced by temperature, pressure and the like.

Ultrasonic resonator
Resonance is important is two ways.
At resonance the amplitude of mechanical
distortion is highest
In receive mode, the signal generated is largest
Means the sensor is most efficient at resonance.

The second reason is that the sensors operate at

clear and sharp frequencies

Parameters of propagation including reflections
and transmissions are clearly defined as are
other properties such as wavelength.

Ultrasonic sensor
The piezoelectric element is rigidly attached to the front of the

sensor so that vibrations can be transmitted to and from the sensor.

The lens shown in this case will focus the ultrasound beam to a focal
point
Often just a thin flat sheet or the front, metal surface of the sensor
or it may be prismatic, conical or spherical as shown here.
The damping chamber prevents ringing of the device
The impedance matching circuit (not always present, sometimes it is
part of the driving supply) matches the source with the piezoelectric
element.
Every sensor is specified for a resonant frequency and for
environmental operation (solids, fluids, air, harsh environments,
etc.)

Ultrasonic sensor construction

Ultrasonic sensors - sample

Specification sheet

Pulse-echo operation
All ultrasonic sensors are dual they can
transmit or receive.
In many applications, like the example of range

finding above, two sensors are used.

In others they are switched between transmit
and receive modes.
This is the most common mode for operation in
medical applications and in testing of materials.
Based on the fact that any discontinuity causes a
reflection or causes scattering of the sound
waves.

Pulse-echo operation
This reflection is an indication of the existence of the discontinuity
Amplitude of the reflection is a function of the size of the

discontinuity.
The exact location of the discontinuity can be found from the time it
takes the waves to propagate to and from the discontinuity.
Figure 7.32 shows an example of finding the location/size of a defect
in a piece of metal.
The front and back surfaces are seen, usually as large reflections
while the defect is usually smaller.
Its location can be easily detected.
The same idea can be used to create an image of a baby in the womb
and for position sensing in industry.

Fault location by ultrasound

Sensing fluid velocity

There are three effects that can be used.
1. Sound velocity is relative to the fluid in which it
travels. (Our voice carries downwind faster (by

the wind velocity) than in still air). This speed

difference can be measured from the time it
takes the sound to get from one point to
another.
2. The second effect is based on the phase
difference caused by this change in speed
3. Third is the doppler effect the frequency of the
wave propagating downwind is higher than the
frequency in still air.

Sensing fluid velocity

An example of a fluid speed sensing using method 1. In this

case, the distance and angle of the sensors is known and the
transmit time, say downstream is:

T=

D
c + vf cos

c speed of sound
vf fluid speed

Magnetostrictive sensors
In air or in fluids, piezoelectric sensors are best.
In solids there is an alternative magnetostriction.
These sensors are collectively called
magnetostrictive ultrasonic sensors
Used at lower frequencies (about 100 kHz) to
generate higher intensity waves.
All that is necessary is to attach a coil to the
material and drive it at the required frequency.
The field generated in the material generates
stress which generates an ultrasonic wave

EMATs
An even simpler method is to generate an ac

electromagnetic field inside the material in which sound

waves are to be generated.
Because the induced electric currents, there is a force
acting on these currents due to an external magnetic
field generated by permanent magnets.
The interaction generates stresses and a sound wave.
These sensors are called electromagnetic acoustic
sensors (EMAT electromagnetic acoustic transducer).
These sensors are quite common because of their
simplicity but they tend to operate at low frequencies
(<100kHz) and have low efficiencies.

Structure of EMATs