Unit 3

Geometric design
The geometric design of a railway track includes all those parameters which determine or
affect the geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows.
1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling gradient.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves,
sharpness of the curve in terms of radius or degree of the curve, cantor superelevation on
curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment. It is very important
for tracks to have proper geometric design in order to ensure the safe and smooth running of
trains at maximum permissible speeds, carrying the heaviest axle loads. The speed and axle
load of the train are very important and sometimes are also included as parameters to be
considered while arriving at the geometric design of the track.
Necessity for Geometric Design
Most of the derailments are due to the following reasons
1. Track defects
2. Vehicular defects
3. Operational defect
The civil engineer is mainly concerned with track defects. He should be aware of the track
defects and how to rremove these defects so that no derailment takes place. Railway track
should be designed, suiting to load and speed of the train, and meeting the safety and
economy required
A train may derail on the straight track due to the following defects in the track
1. Defective cross levels
2. Defective alignment
3. Defective gauge
4. Low joints
In addition to this, on curved tracks, the derailment may occure due to additional causes as
follows
1. Improper superevelevation
2. Improper radius of the curve
3. Improper speed
4. Unequal distribution of loads on two rails
The derailment over the turn-outs and crossing may occur due to the following reasons
1. Gaping points
2. Lifting of toe of switch due to inadequate fittings
3. Improper assembly of crossing, loose crossing bolts or wing rails than the crossing
nose
4. Excessive wear in switches
5. Tight gauge and defective check clearance at the nose of crossing
Therefore, if all the above elements are properly designed, the possibility of derailments due
to defects in the track can be avoided.

The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the following
considerations
(a) To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
(b) To achieve maximum speeds
(c) To carry heavy axle loads
(d) To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way
(e) To ensure that the track requires least maintenance.
(f) For good aesthetics
Gradients and grade compensation
Gradients
Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway track.
A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of the movement of traffic
and a down or falling gradient is one in which the track loses elevation inthe direction of the
movement of traffic.
A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall ofone unit.
Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example,if there is a rise of 1
m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25%,

Gradientsare provided to meet the following objectives.

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations
(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork.
The following types ofgradients are used on the railways.
(a) Ruling gradient
(b) Pusher or helper gradient
(c) Momentum gradient
(d) Gradients in station yards
Ruling Gradient
The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the
maximum load that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section. While deciding the ruling
gradient ofa section, it is not only the severity of the gradient but also its length as well as its
position with respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into consideration.
The power of the locomotive to be put into service on the track also plays an important role in
taking this decision, as the locomotive should have adequate power to haul the entire load
over the ruling gradient at the maximum permissible speed.
The extra force P required by a locomotive to pull a train of weight W on agradient with an
angle of inclination is
P = W Sin

= Wtan
(approximately, as is very small)
= W gradient
Indian Railways does not specify any fixed ruling gradient owing to enormousvariations in
the topography of the country, the traffic plying on various routes, and the speed and type of
locomotive in use on various sections. Generally, the following ruling gradients are adopted
on Indian Railways when there is only one locomotive pulling the train.
In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250
In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
Once a ruling gradient has been specified for a section, all other gradientsprovided in that
section should be flatter than the ruling gradient after making duecompensation for curvature
Pusher or Helper Gradient
In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when trying to reduce the
length of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes gradients steeper than the ruling gradient
are provided to reduce the overall cost. In such situations, one locomotive is not adequate to
pull the entire load, and an extra locomotive is required. When the gradient of the ensuing
section is so steep as to necessitate the use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is
known as a pusher or helper gradient. Examples of pusher gradients are the BudniBarkhera
section of Central Railways and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway section.
Momentum Gradient
The momentum gradient is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train
because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section. In valleys, a falling
gradient is sometimes followed by a rising gradient. In such a situation, a train coming down
a falling gradient acquires good speed and momentum, which gives additional kinetic energy
to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients steeper than the ruling gradient. In sections
with momentum gradients there are no obstacles provided in the form of signals, etc., which
maybring the train to a critical juncture.
Gradients in Station Yards
The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to the following reasons.
(a) To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yarddue to the
combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
(b) To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent
possible.
It may be mentioned here that generally, yards are not levelled completely and certain flat
gradients are provided in order to ensure good drainage. The maximum gradient prescribed in
station yards on Indian Railways is 1 in 400, while the recommended gradient is 1 in 1000.
Grade Compensation on Curves
Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result, gradients are
compensated to the following extent on curves
(a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum
(b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
(c) On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum

whereR is the radius of the curve in metres. The gradient of a curved portion of the section
should be flatter than the ruling gradient because of the extra resistance offered by the curve.
Problem
Find the steepest gradient on a 2 curve for a BG line with a ruling gradient of 1 in 200.
Solution
Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.5%
Compensation for a 2 curve = 0.04 2 = 0.08%
Compensated gradient = 0.5 0.08 = 0.42% = 1 in 238
The steepest gradient on the curved track is 1 in 238.
Speed of train
The speed of the train depends upon the strength of the track and power of the locomotive.
The use of diesel traction and electric traction, which can run the trains at higher speeds, also
requires the strengthening of the existing tracks. Though the increased speed increases the
capacity of the track and provides prompt service to the customers of the railways but the
high speed trains have to face the following dynamic effects in their operation
1. Various parasitic motions such as pitching, rolling, bounding and lateral oscillations
of the vehicles
2. Resonance between the frequency of application of load and elastic oscillation of
track structure as a whole or its components
3. Inertia or spring action of the track in, from and behind the wheels.
4. Effect of unbalanced weights
5. Suspension characteristics of locomotive and carriages
Safe Speed on Curves
For all practical purposes safe speed means a speed which protects a carriage from the danger
of overturning and derailment and provides a certain margin of safety. This speed, to
negotiate curves safely, depends upon the following factors
1. The gauge of track
2. The radius of the curve
3. The distance at which the resultant of the weight of vehicle and its centrifugal force
acts from the centre of the track
4. Amount of superelevation provided
5. The presence or absence of transition curves at the ends of the circular curve
For BG and MG the safe speed V Kmph is given by
V=4.4(R-70)0.5
For NG
V=3.65(R-6)0.5
Circular Curves
This section describes the defining parameters, elements, and methods of settingout circular
curves.

Radius or degree of a curve

A curve is defined either by its radius or by its degree. The degree of a curve (D) isthe angle
subtended at its centre by a 30.5-m or 100-ft chord.
The value of the degree of the curve can be determined as indicated below.
= 1720/R (approx., R is in metres)
Relationship between radius and versine of a curve
The versine is the perpendicular distance of the midpoint of a chord from the arc ofa circle.
The relationship between the radius and versine of a curve can be established as shown in
Fig. Let R be the radius of the curve, C be the length of the chord,and V be the versine of a
chord of length C.

AC and DE being two chords meeting perpendicularly at a common point B,

simple geometry can prove that
AB BC = DB BE
V(2R V) = (C/2) (C/2)
2RV V2= C2/4
V being very small, V can be Neglected, therefore
2RV= C2/4
V= C2/8R
In Eqn (13.1), V, C, and R are in the same unit, say, metres or centimetres. Thisgeneral
equation can be used to determined versines if the chord and the radius ofa curve are known.
2

Actually specking a straight railway track is an ideal condition but the curves are to be
provided on railway track for several reasons such as to connect important points, avoiding
obstructions, to have longer and easier gradients, etc. following are the main effects or
objections f providing curves on railway track
1. The working of trains seriously affected such as restriction in speed, preventions of
use of heavy locomotives and limitation on the length of the train
2. There are possibilities of derailment or accident or collision on curvature
3. The running of trains on curvature is not smooth due to unequal distribution of loads
4. To provide the extra strength to curved track, many more fittings are used and even
then there is every likelihood of lateral bending of rails.

5. The maintenance cost of the track increases due to curvature of the track. This is
mainly due to increase in the tractive force

Curves and Superelevation

Curves are introduced on a railway track to bypass obstacles, to provide longerand easily
traversed gradients, and to pass a railway line through obligatory ordesirable locations.
Horizontal curves are provided when a change in the directionof the track is required and
vertical curves are provided at points where two gradientsmeet or where a gradient meets
level ground. To provide a comfortable ride on ahorizontal curve, the level of the outer rail is
raised above the level of the innerrail. This is known as superelevation.
The use of curves is warranted in the following conditions
1. To bypass the natural or artificial obstacles
2. To provide easier gradients by diversions from the straight route
3. To balance the earthwork in excavation and cutting thereby minimising the cost of
construction
Types of curves
Broadly speaking the curves are of two types
1. Horizontal curve. these are provided whenever there is change in the direction of the
alignment of the track. They are usually circular with parabolic transition curves at
either end
2. Vertical curves. These are provided whenever there is change in the gradient i.e.
either a rising gradient changes to a falling gradient or vice versa or a rising gradient
or falling gradient is increases or decreased
a. Simple curve. a simple curve is an arrc of circle. It is designated bu the degree
or by its radius. This curve lie within two transition curves or within two
tangent lengths
b. Compound curves. These are the curves which are composed of two or more
simple curves of different radii, arranged in such a way that they are tangential
to each otheri.e they have a common tangent at the point of common radius
c. Parabolic curves. These curves have got the quality of being easily laid by
offset method. These are exclusively used as vertical curves. In railways and
highways
d. Transition curves. Transition curve is defined as a curve of parabolic nature
which is introduced between a straight and a circular crve or between two
branches of a compound curve. its radius raises from infinity to a selected
minimum in order to attain the full superelevation
Necessity of providing transition curve
In a straight track two rails are kept on the same level but in a curved portion, the outer rail is
superelevated to inner one. The object is to lay the inner rail in level throughout the curve
while the outer rail should be gradually raised to full superelevation and again lowered to the
original level at the end of the curve.

1. Primary objective
a. To decrease the radius of curve gradually from infinity at the straight to that of
circular curve of selected radius. This is applicable to both inner and outer
rails
b. To attain gradual rise for the desired superelevation. This is applicable for
outer rails only
2. Secondary objective
a. The gradual increase or decrease of the centrifugal force on the vehicle by use
of this curve provides smooth running of vehicles and comfort to the
passengers
b. No sudden application or release of the force is encountered, so the chances of
derailment are greatly reduced
Requirements of the transition curve
An ideal transition curve should satisfy the following requirements
1. It should be perfectly tangential to the straight
2. The length of transition curve should be worked in such a way that full superelevation
should be obtained at the junction between the circular and transition curve
3. The rate of increase of curvature should be equal to the rate of increase of increase of
cant or super elevation.
4. This curve should join the circular arc tangentially.i.e., curvature of transition curve
should conform with that of circular curve
Objectives of providing super elevation
1. To introduce the superelevation for counter acting the effect of centrifugal force, this
will result in faster movemement of trains on curves. This will also prevent derailment
and reduce the side wear and creep of rails
2. To provide equal distribution of wheel loads on two rails so that there is no tendency
of track to move out of position due to more load on outer rails
3. To provide an even and smooth running track to ensure comfortable ride to
passengers and safe movement of goods
Superelevation
The following terms are frequently used in the design of horizontal curves.
Superelevation or cant : Whenever the train is moving on a curved trac, it has a constant
radial acceleration which produces centrifugal force. In order to counteract this force , the
outer rail is raised with respect to the inner rail. This is known as super elevation or cant. It is
provided by gradually liftingthe outer rail above the level of the inner rail. The inner rail is
taken as the referencerail and is normally maintained at its original level. The inner rail is
also known asthe gradient rail. The main functions of superelevation are the following.
(a) To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails
(b) To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
(c) To neutralize the effect of lateral forces
(d) To provide comfort to passengers
(e ) It reduces derailment and creep.

Important definitions
Equilibrium speed When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved track issuch that the
resultant force of the weight of the vehicle and of radial accelerationis perpendicular to the
plane of the rails, the vehicle is not subjected to anyunbalanced radial acceleration and is said
to be in equilibrium. This particularspeed is called the equilibrium speed. The equilibrium
speed, as such, is the speed atwhich the effect of the centrifugal force is completely balanced
by the cant provided.
Maximum permissible speed This is the highest speed permitted to a train on acurve taking
into consideration the radius of curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency,cant excess, and the
length of transition. On cruves where the maximum permissiblespeed is less than the
maximum sectional speed of the section of the line, permanentspeed restriction becomes
necessary.
Cant deficiency Cant deficiency (Cd) occurs when a train travels around a curveat a speed
higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the theoretical cant required
for such high speeds and the actual cant provided.
Cant excess Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train travels around a curve at aspeed lower than
the equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the actual cantprovided and the theoretical
cant required for such a low speed.
Cant gradient and cant deficiency gradient These indicate the increase ordecrease in the
cant or the deficiency of cant in a given length of transition. Agradient of 1 in 1000 means
that a cant or a deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attainedor lost in every 1000 mm of transition
length.
Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency This is the rate at which cant deficiencyincreases
while passing over the transition curve, e.g., a rate of 35 mm per secondmeans that a vehicle
will experience a change in cant or a cant deficiency of 35mm in each second of travel over
the transition when travelling at the maximumpermissible speed.
Centrifugal Force on a Curved Track
A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a straight direction, which is tangential to thecurve, even
when it moves on a circular curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjectedto a constant radial
acceleration:
Radial acceleration = g = V2/R
Where V is the velocity (metres per second) and R is the radius of curve (metres).
This radial acceleration produces a centrifugal force which acts in a radial directionaway
from the centre. The value of the centrifugal force is given by the formula
Force = mass acceleration
F = m (V2/R)
= (W/g) (V2/R)
Where F is the centrifugal force (tonnes), W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes), Vis the
speed (metre/sec), g is the acceleration due to gravity (metre/sec), and R isthe radius of the
curve (metres).

To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve iselevated with
respect to the inner rail by an amount equal to the superelevation. Astate of equilibrium is
reached when both the wheels exert equal pressure on therails and the superelevation is
enough to bring the resultant of the centrifugal forceand the force exerted by the weight of the
vehicle at right angles to the plane of thetop surface of the rails. In this state of equilibrium,
the difference in the heights ofthe outer and inner rails of the curve known as equilibrium
superelevation.
Relationship of superelevation, with gauge, speed and radius of the curve

In Fig, if is the angle that the inclined plane makes with the horizontal line, then
tan = superelevation= e
gauge
G
Also,
tan = centrifugal force= F
Weight
W
Equating both the equations
e= F
G W
Or
e=G X F
W
e=F X G
W
W.K.T
Force = mass acceleration
F = m (V2/R)
= (W/g) (V2/R)
Substituting in the equation
e=F X G
W
e=W X V2 X G
g R W

e=GV2
gR
where v is m/sec
wheree is the superelevation in millimetres, V is the speed in km/h, R is the radiusof the curve
in metres, and G is the dynamic gauge in millimetres, which is equalto the sum of the gauge
and the width of the rail head in millimetres. This is equalto 1676 mm for BG tracks and
1000 mm for MG tracks.
Negative Superelevation
When the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading toa branch
line, the superelevation necessary for the average speed of trains runningover the main line
curve cannot be provided. In Fig. 13.9, AB, which is the outerrail of the main line curve,
must be higher than CD. For the branch line, however,CF should be higher than AE or point
C should be higher than point A. These twocontradictory conditions cannot be met within one
layout. In such cases, the branchline curve has a negative superelevation and, therefore,
speeds on both tracks mustbe restricted, particularly on the branch line.

Widening of Gauges on Curves

Due to rigidity of the wheel base, it is sometimes found on the curve that the rails are tilted
outwards so that actual gauge is more than the theoretical value. The wheelbase is defined as
the distance between front and the rare axles. To prevent this tendency, the gauge of the track
is sometimes widened on sharp curves. The amount of widening depends on the radius of the
curve, gauge and the rigid wheel base of the vehicles likely to use the track.