Chapter7 Differential Equations

Chapter 7: Principles of Integral Evaluation
MAT187H1S Lec0102 Burbulla

Chapter 7 Lecture Notes
Winter 2014

7.1 An Overview of Integration Methods
7.2 Integration by Parts
7.3 Integrating Trigonometric Functions
7.4 Trigonometric Substitutions
7.5 Integrating Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
7.6 Using Computer Algebra Systems and Tables of Integrals
7.8 Improper Integrals
7.7 Numerical Integration; Simpsons Rule
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
An Overview of Integration Methods

Integration by Parts
Integrating Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Substitutions
Integrating Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
Using Computer Algebra Systems and Tables of Integrals
Improper Integrals
Numerical Integration; Simpsons Rule
Introduction
Compared to differentiation, integration is much more difficult.
Differentiation rules like the product rule, the quotient rule, the
chain rule, or the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus permit almost
any combination of functions to be easily differentiated in a
mechanical, algorithmic way. Integration is a whole different story.
In Chapter 7 we shall cover the basic techniques of integration, but
even after we have learnt them and practiced them there will
still be many functions that will be difficult or impossible! to
integrate. Putting it another way, MAT187H1S is much more
difficult than MAT186H1F.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Some Basic Integral Formulas

Every differentiation formula you know, produces an integration
formula. For example,
Z
de x
x
= e e x dx = e x + C .
dx
And
dx n+1
= (n + 1)x n
dx
x n+1
x dx =
+ C.
n+1
n
Even this is tricky! Obviously, n 6= 1. What is

Z
1
dx?
x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Integral of 1/x with respect to x

We do know a function that has derivative 1/x, namely ln x. But
ln x is only defined for x > 0. So
Z
1
dx = ln x + C ,
x
if x > 0. What about x < 0? Then x > 0, and
d ln(x)
1
1
=
(1) = .
dx
x
x
So in general,
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C ,
x
for x 6= 0. Memorize it!

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Six Trigonometric Integrals

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Z
d sin x
= cos x cos x dx = sin x + C
dx
Z
d cos x
= sin x sin x dx = cos x + C
dx
Z
d tan x
2
= sec x sec2 x dx = tan x + C
dx
Z
d sec x
= sec x tan x sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
dx
Z
d cot x
= csc2 x csc2 x dx = cot x + C
dx
Z
d csc x
= csc x cot x csc x cot x dx = csc x + C
dx
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Integral of tan x
What about the integral of tan x? We can integrate it by using a
simple substitution:
Z
Z
sin x
tan x dx =
dx
cos x
Z
1
(du) if u = cos x
=
u
Z
1
=
du
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln | cos x| + C
= ln | sec x| + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Integral of sec x
This is trickier:
Z
sec x dx

sec x + tan x
sec x
dx
=
sec x + tan x
Z
sec2 x + sec x tan x
dx
=
tan x + sec x
Z
1
=
du if u = sec x + tan x
u
= ln |u| + C
Z
ln | sec x + tan x| + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Two Other Trig integrals

Similarly, you can prove
Z
cot x dx = ln | csc x| + C
and
Z
csc x dx = ln | csc x + cot x| + C .
Both of these formulas have alternate forms:

Z
cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
and
Z
csc x dx = ln | csc x cot x| + C .
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Three Integral Formulas with Inverse Trig Functions

Z
d sin1 x
1
1
1.
=
dx = sin1 x + C
2
2
dx
1x
1x
Z
1
d tan x
1
1
2.
=
dx = tan1 x + C
2
2
dx
1+x
1+x
Z
d sec1 x
1
1
3.
=
dx = sec1 |x| + C
dx
|x| x 2 1
x x2 1
To have these formulas is the main reason we covered the
derivatives of the inverse trig functions in Chapter 3.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Sixteen Integral Formulas

Every one of the formulas developed above should be memorized.
The rest of Chapter 7 will be all about reducing more complicated
integrals to one of the above basic sixteen formulas. Since you will
often have to make a simple substitution before using one of the
basic sixteen formulas, they are often written in terms of u rather
than x. Here they are:
R
1. e u du = e u + C
Z
u n+1
n
2.
u du =
+ C , n 6= 1
n+1
Z
1
3.
du = ln |u| + C
u
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Z
4.
cos u du = sin u + C
Z
sin u du = cos u + C
5.
Z
6.
sec2 u du = tan u + C
Z
7.
sec u tan u du = sec u + C

Z
8.
csc2 u du = cot u + C
Z
9.
csc u cot u du = csc u + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Z
tan u du = ln | sec u| + C
10.
Z
sec u du = ln | sec u + tan u| + C
11.
Z
cot u du = ln | csc u| + C
12.
Z
csc u du = ln | csc u + cot u| + C
13.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
u
1
du = sin1 + C
a
a2 u 2
Z
1
1
1 u
15.
du
=
tan
+C
a2 + u 2
a
a
Z

1
1
1 u
16.
du = sec + C
a
a
u u 2 a2
14.
Memorize all of them!

Anton lists 28 integral formulas on pp 489-90 in Section 7.1. They
include the above 16. You can memorize all 28 if you want, but its
not necessary.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1
x
dx
x4 + 9
=
=
=
=
Z
2x
1
dx
2
(x 2 )2 + 9
Z
1
1
du, if u = x 2
2
2
2
u +3
1 1
u
tan1 + C , by Formula 15
2 3
3
1
x2
tan1
+C
6
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2
1
(2 + 3 ln x)7 dx
x
=
=
=
Z
1
u 7 du, if u = 2 + 3 ln x
3
1 1 8
u + C , by Formula 2
3 8
1
(2 + 3 ln x)8 + C
24
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 3
Z
1
dx
1 + ex

Z
1 + ex ex
ex
=
dx =
dx
1
1 + ex
1 + ex
Z
Z
ex
=
dx
dx
1 + ex
Z
1
= x
du, if u = 1 + e x
u
= x ln |u| + C , by Formula 3
Z
x ln |1 + e x | + C
x ln(1 + e x ) + C , since 1 + e x > 0, for all x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 3; Alternate Approach

Z
1
dx
1 + ex
(optional )
Z
e x
e x
=
dx
=
dx
(1 + e x )e x
e x + 1
Z
1
=
(du), if u = 1 + e x
u
= ln |u| + C , by Formula 3
Z
ln |1 + e x | + C
ln(1 + e x ) + C , since 1 + e x > 0, for all x

x

e +1
ln
+C
ex
ln(1 + e x ) + ln(e x ) + C = x ln(1 + e x ) + C
=
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Integration by Parts Formula

Recall the product rule:
(fg )0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x) + f 0 (x)g (x).
If you integrate both sides of this equation with respect to x you
obtain
Z
Z
Z
(fg )0 (x) dx = f (x)g 0 (x) dx + f 0 (x)g (x) dx.
Simplifying the left side, and letting u = f (x), v = g (x), you obtain
Z
Z
Z
Z
uv = u dv + v du u dv = uv v du,
which is the integration by parts formula.
Using
u dv = uv
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
v du
R
The
hope
is
that
if
you
cant
do
u dv , you will be able to do
R
v du. However, to apply integration by parts, you always have to
make a choice what is u? what is dv ? and you have to be able
to calculate both
Z
du
and v = dv .
dx
You will find that some choices are better than others. You will
also find that although integration by parts is a very useful
method, not all integrals can be solved by this method. Indeed,
there is no single method that can solve all integrals. That is why
you have to learn all the different methods in Chapter 7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1
Z
xe dx
u dv , for u = x, dv = e x dx
Z
= uv v du, by the parts formula
Z
Z
= xe x e x dx, since du = dx, v = e x dx = e x
=
= xe x e x + C
Note that the constant of integration, C , was not added in until
the last step. You could have used v = e x + K , but then
Z
uv v du = x(e x + K ) (e x + Kx) + C = xe x e x + C .
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2
For
x sin x dx, let u = x, dv = sin x dx. Then

Z
du = dx and v = sin x dx = cos x.
So
Z
Z
x sin x dx =
Z
u dv
= uv
v du
Z
= x( cos x) ( cos x) dx
Z
= x cos x + cos x dx
= x cos x + sin x + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 3
Sometimes
you have to use parts more than once. For example, for
R 2 x
x e dx, let u = x 2 , dv = e x dx. Then du = 2x dx, v = e x , and
Z
Z
Z
2 x
x e dx = u dv = uv v du
Z
= x 2 e x 2xe x dx
Z
2 x
= x e 2 xe x dx
= x 2 e x 2 [xe x e x ] + C , by Example 1
= x 2 e x 2xe x + 2e x + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 4
R
What about x 7 ln x dx? You might think you should let u = x 7
and use
R parts seven times. But then dv = ln x dx, and
v = ln x dx, which we dont know. Instead, let u = ln x, and
dv = x 7 dx. Then
Z
Z
Z
7
x ln x dx = u dv = uv v du
Z
1 8
1 8 1
=
x ln x
x dx
8
8
x
Z
1 8
1
=
x ln x
x 7 dx
8
8
1 8
1
=
x ln x x 8 + C
8
64
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 5
The method of the previous example can be used to find
Let
u = ln x, and dv = dx.
ln x dx.
Then
Z
Z
ln x dx =
Z
u dv
= uv
v du
Z
1
= x ln x x dx
x
Z
= x ln x dx
= x ln x x + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 6
R
Use the same approach for x tan1 x dx. That is, let
u = tan1 x, let dv = x dx. Then
Z
Z
Z
x tan1 x dx = u dv = uv v du
Z
1 2
1 2
1
1
=
x tan x
x
dx
2
2
1 + x2
Z
1 2
1
x2
1
=
x tan x
dx
2
2
1 + x2

Z
1 2
1
1
1
=
x tan x
1
dx
2
2
1 + x2

1 2
1
=
x tan1 x
x tan1 x + C
2
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Some Generalizations
You can generalize the previous six examples as follows. Let n be a
non-negative integer. To integrate integrals of the form
Z
Z
Z
x n e x dx, x n sin x dx, x n cos x dx,
let u = x n and use parts n times. To integrate integrals of the
form
Z
Z
Z
x n ln x dx, x n tan1 x dx, x n sin1 x dx,
let dv = x n dx, and use parts once.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Integrating Definite Integrals by Parts

Consider the definite integral, based on Example 4 above:
Z e
Z e
Z e
x 7 ln x dx =
u dv = [uv ]e1
v du
1
1
1

Z e
e
1 8
1 8 1
=
x ln x
x dx
8
8
x
1
1
Z
e8 1 e 7
=
x dx
8
8 1
e8
1 8 e
e8 e8 1
=
x 1 =
8
64
8
64
8
1 + 7e
=
64
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 7: A Tricky Example

Z
e sin x dx
=
=
=
=
=
u dv , with u = e x , dv = sin x dx
Z
e x ( cos x) e x ( cos x) dx
Z
x
e cos x + e x cos x dx
Z
e x cos x + s dt, with s = e x , dt = cos x dx

Z
e x cos x + e x sin x e x sin x dx
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 7, Continued
So we have:
Z
e x sin x dx
Z
2 e x sin x dx
Z
e x sin x dx
= e x cos x + e x sin x
e x sin x dx
= e x cos x + e x sin x + C
1
1
= e x cos x + e x sin x + C
2
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 8; Another Tricky Example:

Z
sec3 x dx
sec x sec x dx
=
=
=
=
=
u dv , with u = sec x, dv = sec2 x dx

Z
sec x tan x tan x sec x tan x dx
Z
sec x tan x sec x tan2 x dx
Z

sec x tan x sec x sec2 x 1 dx
Z
Z
3
sec x tan x sec x dx + sec x dx
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
So we have:
Z
sec3 x dx
Z
2 sec3 x dx
Z
2 sec3 x dx
Z
sec3 x dx
Z
= sec x tan x
sec3 x dx +
Z
sec x dx
Z
= sec x tan x +
sec x dx
= sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C

=
1
1
sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C
2
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Reduction Formulas
A reduction formula is an integral formula that gives an integral
with a higher power of some part of it in terms of a very
similar integral with a lower or reduced power of the same part.
For example,
Z
Z
1.
x n e x dx = x n e x n x n1 e x dx
Z
Z
1
n1
n1
n
2.
x+
cos x dx = sin x cos
cosn2 x dx
n
n
are both reduction formulas. Almost all reduction formulas are
proved by using integration by parts. Note: in reduction formulas,
n is almost always a non-negative integer.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 9; Reduction Formula for
x n e x dx
Let u = x n , dv = e x dx :
Z
Z
Z
x n e x dx = u dv = x n e x n x n1 e x dx
Z
So
3 x
x e dx
3 x
x 2 e x dx, since n = 3

Z
x 3 e x 3 x 2 e x 2 xe x dx , using n = 2

Z
x 3 e x 3x 2 e x + 6 xe x e x dx , using n = 1
x 3 e x 3x 2 e x + 6xe x 6e x + C
= x e 3
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10; Reduction Formula for

Z
cos x cos
n1
cosn x dx
Z
x dx
=
=
=
=
=
u dv , with u = cosn1 x, dv = cos x dx

Z
sin x cosn1 x (n 1) cosn2 x( sin x) sin x dx
Z
n1
sin x cos
x + (n 1) cosn2 x sin2 x dx
Z

sin x cosn1 x + (n 1) cosn2 x 1 cos2 x dx
Z

n1
sin x cos
x + (n 1)
cosn2 x cosn x dx
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals

So we have
Z
(n 1 + 1)
Z
n
cos x dx
Z
cosn x dx
cosn x dx
= sin x cosn1 x + (n 1)
= sin x cos
=
n1
cosn2 x dx
cosn2 x dx
x + (n 1)
1
n1
sin x cosn1 x +
n
n
cosn2 x dx
For Example, if n = 2 :
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
2
cos x dx = sin x cos x +
dx = sin x cos x + x + C
2
2
2
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 11
Z
=
=
=
=
cos6 x dx
1
sin x cos5 x
6
1
sin x cos5 x
6
1
sin x cos5 x
6
1
sin x cos5 x
6
+
+
+
+
Z
5
cos4 x dx, with n = 6
6

Z
5 1
3
sin x cos3 x +
cos2 x dx , with n = 4
6 4
4
Z
5
5
sin x cos3 x +
cos2 x dx
24
8
5
5
5
sin x cos3 x +
sin x cos x + x + C
24
16
16
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Tabular Integration by Parts
This method for organizing computations involved in repeated use

of integration by parts for certain types of integrals is described on
pp 495-96 in Section 7.2. You are not responsible for memorizing
it. Whether or not you use this approach is optional and totally up
to you.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Connections Between Sine and Cosine

Recall the following results about sin x and cos x :
1. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
2. sin0 (x) = cos x
3. cos0 (x) = sin x
These results can be used to integrate integrals of the form
Z
sinm x cosn x dx,
for m, n both non-negative integers.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
How to Integrate Integrals of the form
sinm x cosn x dx
1. If m is odd, let u = cos x.

2. If n is odd, let u = sin x.
3. If m and n are both even, use the double angle formulas
sin2 x =
1 + cos(2x)
1 cos(2x)
and cos2 x =
,
2
2
or some other method.

4. Note: if both m and n are odd, let u = sin x, or let u = cos x.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1
Z
sin4 x cos3 x dx
sin4 x cos2 x cos x dx
u 4 (1 u 2 ) du, with u = sin x
=
=
Z
=
=
=

u 4 u 6 du
1 5 1 7
u u +C
5
7
1 5
1
sin x sin7 x + C
5
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2
Z
sin3 x dx
Z
=
=
=

1 cos2 x sin x dx

1 u 2 (du), with u = cos x

u 2 1 du
=
=
sin2 x sin x dx =
1 3
u u+C
3
1
cos3 x cos x + C
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 3
Z
sin x cos x dx
sin2 x cos4 x cos x dx
sin2 x(cos2 x)2 cos x dx
u 2 (1 u 2 )2 du, with u = sin x
u 2 (1 2u 2 + u 4 ) du

u 2 2u 4 + u 6 du
=
=
=
=
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
So
Z
sin x cos x dx
Z
=
=
=

u 2 2u 4 + u 6 du
1 3 2 5 1 7
u u + u +C
3
5
7
1 3
2
1
sin x sin5 x + sin7 x + C
3
5
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 4
Z
1
(1 + cos(2x)) dx
2
1
1 1
=
x + sin(2x) + C
2
2 2
1
1
=
x + sin(2x) + C
2
4
If you substitute sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x, then this answer becomes
Z
1
1
1
1
cos2 x dx = x + (2 sin x cos x) + C = x + sin x cos x + C ,
2
4
2
2
which is the result we got using integration by parts. Either
answer is acceptable.
2
cos x dx
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 5
Z
sin2 x cos2 x dx
Z
=
=
=
=
=
1
1
(1 cos(2x)) (1 + cos(2x)) dx
2
2
Z
1
(1 cos2 (2x)) dx
4
Z
1
sin2 (2x) dx
4
Z
1
1
(1 cos(4x)) dx
4
2

1
1
x sin(4x) + C
8
4
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Connections Between Tangent and Secant

Recall the following results about tan x and sec x :
1. tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
2. tan0 (x) = sec2 x
3. sec0 (x) = sec x tan x
These results can be used to integrate integrals of the form
Z
tanm x secn x dx,
for m, n both non-negative integers.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
How to Integrate Integrals of the form
tanm x secn x dx
1. If n is even, let u = tan x.

2. If m is odd, let u = sec x.
3. If m is even and n is odd, use integration by parts, or some
other method.
4. Note: if m is odd and n is even, let u = tan x, or let u = sec x.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 6
Z
tan2 x sec4 x dx
tan2 x sec2 x sec2 x dx
u 2 (1 + u 2 ) du, with u = tan x
(u 2 + u 4 ) du
=
=
=
=
=
1 3 1 5
u + u +C
3
5
1
1
tan3 x + tan5 x + C
3
5
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 7
Z
tan3 x sec3 x dx
tan2 x sec2 x tan x sec x dx
(u 2 1)u 2 du, with u = sec x
(u 4 u 2 ) du
=
=
=
=
=
1 5 1 3
u u +C
5
3
1
1
sec5 x sec3 x + C
5
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 8
Z
tan x sec x dx
sec7 x tan x sec x dx
u 7 du, with u = sec x
=
=
1 8
u +C
8
1
=
sec8 x + C
8
You could use the substitution, u = tan x, but thatd be messier:
Z
Z
Z
3 2
2
8
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x sec x dx = u(1 + u 2 )3 du.
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 9
We have already seen how
Similarly,
Z
sec3 x dx can be done by parts.
tan2 x sec3 x dx
can also be done by parts, or by using a reduction formula. First:

Z
Z
2
3
(sec2 x 1) sec3 x dx
tan x sec x dx =
Z
Z
=
sec5 x dx sec3 x dx
Now look up the reduction formula for
Z
secn x dx.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10
Z
tan x dx
tan2 x tan2 x dx
Z
=
=
=
=
tan2 x(sec2 x 1) dx
Z
Z
tan2 x sec2 x dx tan2 x dx
Z
1
3
tan x (sec2 x 1) dx
3
1
tan3 x tan x + x + C
3
Integrals of the Form
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
cotm x cscn x dx
These
are handled similarly to integrals of the form
R
m
tan x secn x dx, using
1. 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x
2. cot0 (x) = csc2 x
3. csc0 (x) = cot x csc x
In particular,
If n is even, let u = cot x.
If m is odd, let u = csc x.
If n is odd, and m is even, use integration by parts,
or some other method.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 11
There are many other trig integrals that can be done, which dont
use the methods of this section, or use a combination of methods,
some from this section, and some form other sections. In general
trig integrals can be very tricky! Consider
Z
Z
1
1 + sin x
dx =
dx
2
1 sin x
1
sin
x
Z
1 + sin x
=
dx
cos2 x
Z
Z
=
sec2 x dx + tan x sec x dx
=
tan x + sec x + C
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 12: A Very Tricky Example

Z
sin x(cos x + sin x)
sin x
dx
dx =
cos x sin x
cos2 x sin2 x
Z
sin x cos x + sin2 x
dx
cos2 x sin2 x
Z
sin(2x) + 1 cos(2x)
1
dx
2
cos(2x)
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
tan(2x) dx +
sec(2x) dx
dx
2
2
2
1
1
1
ln | sec(2x)| + ln | sec(2x) + tan(2x)| x + C
4
4
2
=
=
=
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 12; An Alternate Approach

sin x + 12 cos x + 12 sin x 12 cos x
=
dx
cos x sin x
Z
Z
sin x + cos x
sin x cos x
1
1
dx +
dx
=
2
cos x sin x
2
cos x sin x
Z
Z
1
1
1
=
du
dx, with u = cos x sin x
2
u
2
1
1
= ln |u| x + C
2
2
1
1
= ln | cos x sin x| x + C
2
2
This gives a different answer; but both are correct.
Z
sin x
dx
cos x sin x
1
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Trigonometric Substitutions; aka Inverse Trig Substitutions

Integrand Contains
a2
a2
x2
x2
x2
a2
Trig Substitution
try x = a sin
or = sin
x
a
try x = a tan
or = tan
try x = a sec
Inverse Trig Substitution
or = sec
x
a
x
a
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1; x = tan ; dx = sec2 d

Z
1
dx
(1 + x 2 )3/2
1
2
sec
d
(1 + tan2 )3/2
Z
1
2
sec
d
(sec2 )3/2
Z
sec2
d
sec3
Z
1
d
sec
Z
cos d
sin + C
=
=
=
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
So far we have
Z
1
dx = sin + C .
(1 + x 2 )3/2
At this point two comments are in order:

1. In simplifying (sec2 )3/2 = sec3 , we assumed sec > 0.
Unless we have information otherwise, this will be our usual
approach in simplifying trig integrals after making a trig
substitution.
2. To finish the problem, we must put our answer back in terms
of x. To do this, we need to find sin in terms of x, given
that x = tan . This is most commonly done with the help of
a triangle.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1, Concluded
I
In the triangle to the left,

x = tan .
The
length of the hypotenuse
is 1 + x 2 .
So
l
l
l
l
2
l 1+x
l
l
l
l
l
l
sin =
I
x
.
1 + x2
Thus
Z
1
x
dx
=
+C
(1 + x 2 )3/2
1 + x2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2: x = 2 sin ; dx = 2 cos d

x3
dx
4 x2
8 sin3
Z
=
=
=
=
=
2 cos d
4 4 sin2
Z
sin3
8
cos d
cos
Z
Z
8 sin3 d = 8 sin2 sin d
Z
8 (1 u 2 ) (du), if u = cos
p
8
8u + u 3 + C
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Z
x3
8
8
dx = 8u + u 3 + C = 8 cos + cos3 + C .
3
3
4 x2
I
l
l
l
l 2
l
l
l
l
l
l
4 x2
x = 2 sin sin =
I
So
cos =
4 x2
.
2
x
.
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Thus
Z
x3
dx
4 x2
(optionally)
8
cos3 + C
3
!
!3
2
2
4x
8
4x
+
+C
2
3
2
= 8 cos +
=
=
=
1
4 x 2 + (4 x 2 )3/2 + C
3

p
1
4 x 2 4 + (4 x 2 ) + C
3

1p
4 x2 x2 + 8 + C
3
p
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 3: x = 5 sec ; dx = 5 sec tan d

Z
x 2 25
dx =
x
25 sec2 25
5 sec tan d
5 sec
Z p
l
= 5
sec2 1 tan d
l
l
Z
l
= 5 tan2 d
l x
2 25
x
l
Z
l
l
= 5 (sec2 1) d
= 5 tan 5 + C

p
1 x
2
=
x 25 5 sec
+C
5
l
l
l
l
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 4; Example 1 Revisited, x = tan

In a definite integral, you should change the limits as you make the
substitution. This will make it unnecessary to change back to x :
Z
0
1
dx
(1 + x 2 )3/2
/4
=
0
Z
=
1
sec2 d
3/2
2
(1 + tan )
/4
cos d
0
/4
[sin ]0
1
It will not always be as easy to change the limits as in this example.

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 5: An Integral That Can De Done Four Ways

Consider the integral
x3
dx.
1 x2
In keeping with the methods of this section, we could let x = sin :
Z
Z
x3
sin3
p
dx =
cos d
1 x2
1 sin2
Z
=
sin3 d
Z
1
= cos + cos3 + C
3
p
3/2
1
= 1 x2 +
1 x2
+C
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 5, Using Integration by Parts

Z
x3
dx
1 x2
Z
=
x2
x
dx
1 x2
=
=
=
=
x
u dv , with u = x 2 , dv =
dx
2
1
x
p
Z p

2
x 1 x2
1 x 2 2x dx
Z p
p
x 2 1 x 2 +
1 x 2 2x dx
x
1 x2
3/2
2
1 x2
+C
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 5, Using a Simple Substitution

Z
x3
dx
1 x2
Z
1
2x
=
x2
dx
2
2
1
x
Z
1
1u
du, with u = 1 x 2
=
2
u
Z

1
1/2
1/2
=
u
u
du
2
1
= u + u 3/2 + C
3
p
3/2
1
= 1 x2 +
1 x2
+C
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 5, Using Another Substitution

Z
x3
dx
1 x2
x2
1 u2
u du, with u 2 = 1 x 2
u
=
=
=
=
=
x
dx
1 x2
(u 2 1) du
1 3
u u+C
3
p
1
(1 x 2 )3/2 1 x 2 + C
3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 6: x = tan ; dx = sec2 d

l
l
=
=
=
=
1
l
dx
l
x
1 + x2
2
2
(x + 1)
l
Z
l
1
2
l
sec d
l
(1 + tan2 )2
Z
Z
ll
1
1
cos2 d =
(1 + cos(2)) d
2
1
2
1
1
+ sin(2) + C = + sin cos + C
2
4
2
4
1
1
x
1
tan1 x +
+C
2
2 x2 + 1
x2 + 1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 7
In integrals involving quadratic expressions, you may have to
complete the square before you make a trig substitution.
Z
Z
1
1
=
dx, let x + 3 = 5 sec
dx
(x + 3)2 25
x 2 + 6x 16
Z
1
=
5 sec tan d
25 sec2 25
Z
1
sec tan
=
d
5
tan2
Z
1
=
csc d
5
1
= ln | csc + cot | + C
5
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
I

x + 3 = 5 sec .
The
length of the third side is
y = x 2 + 6x 16.
So
l
l
l
l
l x +3
l
l
l
l
csc =
I
x +3
.
x 2 + 6x 16
And
l
l
cot =
5
.
x 2 + 6x 16
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Z
1
dx
x 2 + 6x 16
(optionally)
1
= ln | csc + cot | + C , so far
5

1
x +3
5
+C
= ln
+

2
2
5
x
+
6x
16
x
+
6x
16

2
1 x + 6x 16
=
ln
+C

5
x +8
r

1 x 2
1 x 2
=
ln
ln
+C
+C =
5 x + 8
10 x + 8
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 8
1
dx
x 2 + 2x + 2
1
dx, let x + 1 = tan
(x + 1)2 + 1
Z
1
sec2 d
2
tan +1
Z
d, since tan2 + 1 = sec2
+C
tan1 (x + 1) + C
=
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 9
Z
dx
9 + 16x 4x 2
Z
=
1
q
x2
4x
Z
=
4x + 4
1
4(x
1
So let 2x 4 = 5 sin x =
x2
2)2
+ 25
52 (2x 4)2
5
2
dx
1
q
9
4
25
4
dx
dx
dx
sin + 2.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
We have
2x 4 = 5 sin x =
Then
Z
1
p
52 (2x 4)2
dx
=
=
=
=
5
sin + 2.
2
1
5
cos d
25 25 sin2 2
Z
1
d
2
1
+C
2

1 1 2x 4
sin
+C
2
5
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10
x 3
3/2
(x 2
x 3
Z
dx
+ 4x + 13)
2)2
32 )3/2
dx
((x +
+
3 tan 2 3
=
3 sec2 d
3/2
2
(9 tan + 9)
Z
1
3 tan 5
=
d
9
sec
Z
Z
1
5
=
sin d
cos d
3
9
1
5
= cos sin + C
3
9
Z
( let x + 2 = 3 tan )
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals

I
l
l
l
x +2
cos =
l
x 2 + 4x + 13
l
l
l
l
l
l
ll
3
x 2 + 4x + 13
sin =
x +2
x 2 + 4x + 13
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
x 3
Z
So
3/2
(x 2
dx
+ 4x + 13)
1
5
= cos sin + C
3
9
1
3
5
x +2
=

+C
3
x 2 + 4x + 13 9
x 2 + 4x + 13
1
5x + 19
=
+C
9
x 2 + 4x + 13
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10: Alternate Approach

If u = x 2 + 4x + 13, then du = (2x + 4) dx. It follows that:
x 3
Z
(x 2
Z
3/2
dx
+ 4x + 13)
1
2 (2x + 4) 5
(x 2 + 4x + 13)3/2
1
2
3/2
u
1
5
u
dx
Z
du 5
Z
dx
(x 2 + 4x + 13)3/2
dx
(x 2 + 4x + 13)3/2
Z
1
dx
5
x 2 + 4x + 13
(x 2 + 4x + 13)3/2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10; Alternate Approach, Continued

Now use the trig substitution x + 2 = 3 tan on
integral:
Z
x 3
1
dx
=
x 2 + 4x + 13
(x 2 + 4x + 13)3/2
1
=
x 2 + 4x + 13
1
=
x 2 + 4x + 13
1
=
x 2 + 4x + 13
the remaining
Z
5
dx
((x + 2)2 + 9)3/2

Z
3 sec2 d
5
(9 tan2 + 9)3/2
Z
5
cos d
9
5
sin + C
9
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10: Alternate Approach, Concluded

l
l
l
x +2
From the triangle,
l
x 2 + 4x + 13
l
l
l
l
l
l
ll
sin =
x +2
.
x 2 + 4x + 13
So, as before,
x 3
(x 2 + 4x + 13)3/2
dx =
1
5
x +2

+C
x 2 + 4x + 13 9 x 2 + 4x + 13
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Rational Functions
This section is about how to integrate a rational function.
I If p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, then
p(x)
q(x)
I
is called a rational function.

If the degree of p(x) is greater than or equal to the degree of
q(x), then long division will result in a polynomial plus a
rational expression in which the highest degree is in the
denominator.
The method of partial fractions applies to rational functions in
which the highest degree is in the denominator.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1
x 2 + 6x 5
dx
x +7
Z
=
=
2
x 1+
x +7

dx, by long division
1 2
x x + 2 ln |x + 7| + C
2
For all remaining examples in this section, the rational function to

be integrated will have the highest power in the denominator, so
that no long division will be necessary. But the rational functions
to be integrated will be much more complicated than this example,
so that some new techniques will have to be developed.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2; The Idea Behind Method of Partial Fractions

Since
2
3
x 1
3x 3 + x 2
+
=
,
x + 1 (x + 1)2 x 2 + 1
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
as you can check,
Z
Z
Z
Z
3x 3 + x 2
2
3
x 1
dx
=
dx
dx.
dx+
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
x +1
(x + 1)2
x2 + 1
To integrate the left side, we will integrate the right side term by
term.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2: Commentary
2
3
x 1
+
x + 1 (x + 1)2 x 2 + 1
are called the partial fractions of
3x 3 + x 2
.
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
To integrate
3x 3 + x 2
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
we integrate the partial fractions, each of which is easier than the
original expression.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2; Concluded
3x 3 + x 2
dx
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
Z
Z
Z
3
2
x 1
=
dx
dx
+
dx
x +1
(x + 1)2
x2 + 1
Z
Z
Z
Z
2
3
x
1
=
dx
dx
+
dx
dx
x +1
(x + 1)2
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
3
1
= 2 ln |x + 1| +
+ ln(x 2 + 1) tan1 x + C
x +1 2
This example also exhibits all possible terms in the answer for the
integral of a rational function: rational expressions, logarithms, and
inverse tangents.
Z
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
How to Find Partial Fractions of p(x)/q(x)

First you must factor the denominator, q(x).
1. For every linear factor ax + b which is repeated m times, the
partial fraction decomposition includes
A1
A2
Am
+
+
+
,
ax + b (ax + b)2
(ax + b)m
for constants A1 , A2 , . . . , Am , which need to be determined.
2. For every irreducible quadratic factor ax 2 + bx + c which is
repeated m times, the partial fraction decomposition includes
A1 x + B1
A2 x + B2
Am x + Bm
+
+
+
,
ax 2 + bx + c
(ax 2 + bx + c)2
(ax 2 + bx + c)m
for constants A1 , B1 , A2 , B2 , . . . , Am , Bm , to be determined.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2 Revisited: Finding The Partial Fractions

The factors of the denominator were given: x + 1 is a linear factor,
repeated twice; x 2 + 1 is an irreducible factor. Thus we need to
find constants A, B, C and D such that
=
=
=
3x 3 + x 2
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
B
A
Cx + D
+
+
x + 1 (x + 1)2
x2 + 1
A(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) + B(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x + 1)2
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
(A+C )x 3 +(A+B+2C +D)x 2 +(A+C +2D)x+A+B+D
(x+1)2 (x 2 +1)
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
An Application of Linear Algebra

Since the denominators of two equal fractions are the same, the
numerators must be equal. Comparing coefficients, we obtain the
system of 4 equations in 4 unknowns:
A
+ C
=
3
A + B + 2C + D =
0
A
+ C + 2D =
1
A + B
+ D = 2
Solve this system any way you like! By subtracting the third from
the first equation, you obtain 2D = 2 D = 1. By subtracting
the fourth from the second equation, you obtain 2C = 2 C = 1.
Then A = 2, and B = 3 quickly follow.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2; the Last Word

We have A = 2, B = 3, C = 1, D = 1, so that
3x 3 + x 2
(x + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)
=
=
A
B
Cx + D
+
+
x + 1 (x + 1)2
x2 + 1
2
3
x 1
,
+
x + 1 (x + 1)2 x 2 + 1
which are precisely the partial fractions we started with, in

Example 2. Other examples follow. Note: needless to say, the
method of partial fractions involves lots and lots of algebra. That
may be why it is not very popular!
Z
Example 3:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
2x + 1
dx
x 2 + 3x + 2
x 2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 2)(x + 1). So let

2x + 1
x 2 + 3x + 2
A(x + 1) + B(x + 2)
A
B
=
+
(x + 2)(x + 1)
x +2 x +1
2x + 1 = (A + B)x + A + 2B

A + B = 2
A = 3 and B = 1, and so
A + 2B = 1
Z
Z
Z
3
1
2x + 1
=
dx
dx = 3 ln |x+2|ln |x+1|+C
dx
x +2
x +1
x 2 + 3x + 2
Z
Example 4:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
6x 2 + 5x 3
dx
3
x x
x 3 x = x(x 2 1) = x(x 1)(x + 1). So let

6x 2 + 5x 3
x3 x
=
=
6x 2 + 5x 3
A
B
C
+
+
x
x 1 x +1
A(x 2 1) + Bx(x + 1) + Cx(x 1)
x(x 1)(x + 1)
= (A + B + C )x 2 + (B C )x A
A + B + C
B C
=
6
=
5
= 3
(A, B, C ) = (3, 4, 1)
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Thus
6x 2 + 5x 3
3
4
1
=
+
;
x3 x
x
x 1 x +1
and so
Z
6x 2 + 5x 3
dx
x3 x
Z
Z
3
4
1
=
dx +
dx
dx
x
x 1
x +1
= 3 ln |x| + 4 ln |x 1| ln |x + 1| + C
As this example shows, the integration is usually the easiest part!
Z
Example 5:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
2x 2 4x + 3
dx
3
2
x x
x 3 x 2 = x 2 (x 1). So let
2x 2 4x + 3
x3 x2
A
B
C
+ 2+
x
x
x 1
Ax(x 1) + B(x 1) + Cx 2
x 2 (x 1)
=
=
2x 2 4x + 3
A
+ C
A + B
(A + C )x 2 + (A + B)x B
=
2
= 4
=
3
(A, B, C ) = (1, 3, 1).
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Thus
1
3
1
2x 2 4x + 3
;
=
+
x
x2 x 1
x3 x2
and so
Z
2x 2 4x + 3
dx
x3 x2
Z
Z
1
3
1
dx
dx
=
dx
+
x
x2
x 1
3
= ln |x| + + ln |x 1| + C
x
Z
Example 6:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
6x 2 + 29x + 36
dx
3
2
x + 6x + 9x
x 3 + 6x 2 + 9x = x(x 2 + 6x + 9) = x(x + 3)2 . So let

6x 2 + 29x + 36
x 3 + 6x 2 + 9x
=
=
6x 2 + 29x + 36
A
B
C
+
+
x
x + 3 (x + 3)2
A(x + 3)2 + Bx(x + 3) + Cx
x(x + 3)2
(A + B)x 2 + (6A + 3B + C )x + 9A
By inspection, you can see that

A = 4, B = 2, and C = 1.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Thus
6x 2 + 29x + 36
4
2
1
=
+
;
x 3 + 6x 2 + 9x
x
x + 3 (x + 3)2
and so
Z
6x 2 + 29x + 36
dx
x 3 + 6x 2 + 9x
Z
=
=
4
dx +
x
2
dx
x +3
4 ln |x| + 2 ln |x + 3| +
1
dx
(x + 3)2
1
+C
x +3
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
Z
Example 7:

Improper Integrals
6x 2 x + 5
dx
3
x +x
x 3 + x = x(x 2 + 1). x 2 + 1 is an irreducible quadratic; so let

6x 2 x + 5
x3 + x
=
=
6x 2 x + 5
A Bx + C
+ 2
x
x +1
2
A(x + 1) + (Bx + C )x
x(x 2 + 1)
(A + B)x 2 + Cx + A
By inspection, you can see that

A = 5, B = 1, and C = 1.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Thus
6x 2 x + 5
5
x 1
=
+
;
x3 + x
x
x2 + 1
and so
Z
6x 2 x + 5
dx
x3 + x
Z
5
x 1
=
dx +
dx
x
x2 + 1
Z
Z
Z
5
x
1
=
dx +
dx
dx
2
2
x
x +1
x +1
1
= 5 ln |x| + ln(x 2 + 1) tan1 x + C
2
Z
Z
Example 8:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
x 3 + 6x 2 + x
dx
4
x 1
x 4 1 = (x 2 1)(x 2 + 1) = (x 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1).

Then
A
B
Cx + D
x 3 + 6x 2 + x
=
+
+
x 1 x +1
x2 + 1
x4 1
A(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) + B(x 1)(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x 2 1)
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
x 3 + 6x 2 + x
=
(A + B + C )x 3 + (A B + D)x 2 + (A + B C )x + A B D
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
We must
A +
A
A +
solve the system of 4 equations in 4 unknowns:

B + C
B
B C
B
=
+ D =
=
D =
1
6
1
0
(A, B, C , D) = (2, 1, 0, 3),
as you may check. Thus

x 3 + 6x 2 + x
2
1
3
=
+
.
x4 1
x 1 x + 1 x2 + 1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 8, Conclusion
Finallly,
Z 3
x + 6x 2 + x
dx
x4 1
Z
Z
2
1
3
=
dx
dx +
dx
x 1
x +1
x2 + 1
= 2 ln |x 1| ln |x + 1| + 3 tan1 x + C
Z
Example 9:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
2x 3 + 7x 2 x + 13
dx
4
2
x + 5x + 4
x 4 + 5x 2 + 4 = (x 2 + 4)(x 2 + 1), which are both irreducible

quadratic factors. So let
2x 3 + 7x 2 x + 13
x 4 + 5x 2 + 4
=
=
Ax + B
Cx + D
+
x2 + 4
x2 + 1
(Ax + B)(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x 2 + 4)
(x 2 + 4)(x 2 + 1)
2x 3 +7x 2 x +13 = (A+C )x 3 +(B +D)x 2 +(A+4C )x +B +4D
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
We must solve the system of 4
A
+ C
B
+ D
A
+ 4C
B
+ 4D
equations in 4 unknowns:
=
2
=
7
= 1
= 13
(A, B, C , D) = (3, 5, 1, 2),
as you may check. Thus

2x 3 + 7x 2 x + 13
3x + 5
2x
=
+
.
x 4 + 5x 2 + 4
x2 + 4 x2 + 1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Finally,
Z
2x 3 + 7x 2 x + 13
dx
x 4 + 5x 2 + 4
Z
Z
3x + 5
2x
=
dx
+
dx
x2 + 4
x2 + 1
Z
Z
Z
Z
3x
5
2
x
=
dx
+
dx
+
dx
dx
x2 + 4
x2 + 4
x2 + 1
x2 + 1

3
5
1
2
1 x
=
ln(x + 4) + tan
+ 2 tan1 x ln(x 2 + 1) + C
2
2
2
2
Z
Example 10:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
3x 4 + x 3 + 4x 2 + 1
dx
2
2
x(x + 1)
Since the denominator has already been factored, let

3x 4 + x 3 + 4x 2 + 1
x(x 2 + 1)2
=
=
A Bx + C
Dx + E
+ 2
+ 2
x
x +1
(x + 1)2
A(x 2 + 1)2 + (Bx + C )(x 3 + x) + Dx 2 + Ex
x(x 2 + 1)2
3x 4 +x 3 +4x 2 +1 = (A+B)x 4 +Cx 3 +(2A+B+D)x 2 +(C +E )x+A,

from which we see A = 1, C = 1, B = 2, D = 0, and E = 1.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 10, Continued (using Example 6, from Sec 7.4)

Thus
3x 4 + x 3 + 4x 2 + 1
dx
x(x 2 + 1)2
Z
Z
Z
1
2x + 1
1
=
dx +
dx
dx
x
x2 + 1
(x 2 + 1)2
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
2x
1
1
=
dx +
dx
+
dx
dx
x
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
(x 2 + 1)2
1
1 x
= ln |x| + ln(x 2 + 1) + tan1 x tan1 x
+C
2
2 x2 + 1
1
1 x
= ln |x| + ln(x 2 + 1) + tan1 x
+C
2
2 x2 + 1
Z
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Integral Tables
In the inside covers of the textbook there is a table of integrals
that lists 122 integral formulas. Using the methods of Chapter 7
we could prove all of these 122 formulas. In practice, if you are a
working scientist and you need an integral, you would probably
consult a table of integrals, or some mathematical software like
Maple or Mathematica. If you consult an integral table to solve an
integral, you will often first have to do some manipulation, or make
a substitution, before you can use the integral formula. An
example follows. By the way, there are tables of integrals that are
much longer than the 122 formulas listed in our book!
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1
Formula 81 inside the back cover of our textbook says
Z
u2
a2 1 u u p 2
du =
sin
a u2 + C .
2
2
2
a
2
a u
To apply this formula to
Z
x2
dx,
25 16x 2
you have to first make a substitution, namely u = 4x, so that
du = 4dx. Then
2
Z
Z
1
u
x2
1
4
dx =
du
4
25 16x 2
25 u 2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
So
Z
x2
dx
25 16x 2
=
=
=
=
2
Z
1
u
1
4
du
4
25 u 2
Z
u2
1
du
64
52 u 2

1 25 1 u u p
sin
25 u 2 + C
64 2
5 2
4x
25
x p
sin1
25 16x 2 + C
128
5
32
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 1 with Maple

Maple is a very powerful computer algebra system, which can
basically do all calculus:
> integrate(x 2 /sqrt(25 16 x 2 ), x);
1
25
x sqrt(25 16x 2 ) +
arcsin
32
128
4
x
5
Note: no constant of integration. Other commonly used computer

algebra systems are Matlab and Mathematica. These packages use
the same methods we have covered, plus many other substitutions
that we have not explicitly stated. See the next few slides.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 2
Z
x
dx
1+ 3x
=
=
=
=
=
u6
6u 5 du, if x = u 6
3
1 + u6
Z
Z
u3
u8
5
6u
du
=
6
du
1 + u2
1 + u2

Z
1
6
u6 u4 + u2 1 +
du
1 + u2
6u 7 6u 5
+ 2u 3 6u + 6 tan1 u + C
7
5
6x 7/6 6x 5/6
+ 2x 1/2 6x 1/6 + 6 tan1 x 1/6 + C

7
5
Z
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
The Substitution u = tan(x/2)

This is sometimes referred to as the worlds sneakiest substitution.
Check that:
l
x
x
2u
l
sin x = 2 sin
cos
=
l
2
2
1 + u2
l
l
2
u
l 1+u

1 u2
l
2 x
2 x
cos x = cos
sin
=
l
2
2
1 + u2
l
l
2du
1 + u2
1
It can be used to transform integrands which are rational functions
of sin x and cos x.
l
x/2
l
x = 2 tan1 u dx =
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 3
dx
1 sin x + cos x
2du
1+u 2
Z
=
1
2u
1+u 2
1u 2
1+u 2
, with u = tan(x/2)
du
= ln |1 u| + C
1u
= ln |1 tan(x/2)| + C
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Example 4: Example 12 from Section 7.3

Z
sin x
dx
cos x sin x
Z
=
1u 2
1+u 2
2u
1+u 2
2u
1+u 2
2du
1 + u2
4u
du
(u 2 + 2u 1)(1 + u 2 )
1
1
(partial fractions) =
ln(u 2 + 1) ln |u 2 + 2u 1| tan1 u + C
2
2

1

x
x 1 2 x
x

u = tan
= ln sec ln tan
+ 2 tan 1 x + C
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Definitions of Improper Integrals:
Rb
a
f (x) dx
An improper integral is a definite integral in which one of two

things occurs:
1. the integrand, f (x), has an infinite discontinuity at some
point in the interval [a, b].
2. one, or both, of the limits of integration, a or b, are infinite.
In either case, an improper integral is evaluated by calculating a
limit of a proper definite integral. If the limit exists, the improper
integral exists, or converges, or is finite. If the limit doesnt exist,
then the improper integral doesnt exist, or diverges, or is infinite.
Some examples follow.
Example 1:
R1
1
0
x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
dx; Vertical Asymptote at x = 0

Z
1
dx
x
0
Z 1
1
dx
= lim+
x
a0
a
1
= lim+ 2 x a
a0

= lim+ 2 2 a
a0
= 20
= 2
Example 2:
R1
1
0 x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
dx; Vertical Asymptote at x = 0

1
Z
0
1
dx
x
Z 1
lim+
a0
1
dx
x
lim+ [ln x]1a
a0
lim (ln 1 ln a)
a0+
= 0 ()
=
Example 3:
R
1
1
x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
dx; Infinite Limit of Integration

Z
=
=
=
1
dx
x
Z b
lim
b 1
lim [ln x]b1
lim (ln b ln 1)
= 0
=
1
dx
x
Example 4:
R
1
1
x2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals

Z
1
dx
x2
1
Z b
1
lim
dx
b 1 x 2

1 b
lim
b
x 1

1 1
lim +
b
b 1
0+1
=
=
=
=
= 1
Example 5:
R
0
1
1+x 2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals

Z
1
dx
1 + x2
0
Z b
1
= lim
dx
b 0 1 + x 2

b
= lim tan1 x 0
b
=
=
=
lim tan1 b tan1 0
0
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
Example 6:
R0
1
1+x 2

Improper Integrals
dx
This is the mirror image of the previous integral, that is, the
reflection of the previous one in the y -axis. It is calculated as
follows:
Z 0
Z 0
1
1
dx
=
lim
dx
2
a a 1 + x 2
1 + x

0
=
lim tan1 x a
a

=
lim tan1 0 tan1 a
a

= 0
2
=
2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
Improper Integrals of the Type

Improper Integrals
(x) dx
This type is evaluated by calculating two improper integrals:

Z
Z 0
Z
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
Z
=
lim
a a
Z
f (x) dx + lim
b 0
Both of the improper integrals

Z 0
Z
f (x) dx and
f (x) dx
f (x) dx
must exist independently of each other for

f (x) dx
to exist.
Example 7:
Z
1
1+x 2
1
dx
1 + x2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
dx
Z
=
=
1
dx +
1 + x2
Z
0
1
dx
1 + x2

+ , by previous examples
2
2
Note: sometimes a change of variable will transform an improper

integral to a proper integral:
Z
Z /2
Z /2
1
1
2
dx
=
sec
d
=
d
=
1 + x2
1 + tan2
2
0
0
0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Escape Velocity
Suppose an object of mass M2 is fired with speed v off a planet
with mass M1 and radius R. What is the objects escape velocity?
the speed needed to become free of the planets gravity?
Z
1
GM1 M2
2
M2 v
=
dr
2
r2
R

GM1 M2
GM1 M2
=
=
r
R
R
r
1
GM1
2GM1
v2 =
v =
2
R
R
For the earth, this works out to be 11.2 km/sec. (This is also the
speed with which an asteroid would hit the earth.)
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
The Gamma Function

The Gamma function is an example of whats called a special
function. For t > 0, define
Z
(t) =
x t1 e x dx.
0
For example,
Z
(1)
Z
dx = lim
b 0
e x dx

b
lim e x 0 = 0 (1) = 1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Significance of the Gamma Function: (n + 1) = n!

To see this, we prove the recursion formula (n + 1) = n(n) :
Z
x n e x dx
(n + 1) =
0
Z
= [uv ]0
v du, with u = x n , dv = e x dx
n 0 Z
x
= x
+n
x n1 e x dx
e 0
0
n
x
= lim x + 0 + n (n)
x e
= 0 + n (n)
=
n (n)
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Thus
(1) = 1 = 0!
(2) = 1(1) = 1 = 1!
(3) = 2(2) = 2 1 = 2!
(4) = 3(3) = 3 2! = 3!
(5) = 4(4) = 4 3! = 4!
etc, etc.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Graph of the Gamma Function

The definition of (t) can be extended to t < 0. (See your
complex analysis course!) The resulting graph is:
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Approximating Definite Integrals

We know that if F 0 = f on [a, b], then
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a).

a
However, there are at least two reasons why this approach may be
impractical.
1. For one thing, it may be extremely difficult it may be
impossible to find the antiderivative of f (x). For example, it
2
is known that none of these functions e x , cos(cos x), or
(1 + x 2 )2/3 has an elementary antiderivative in terms of x.
2. Secondly, even if you know FZ, it may not be easy to evaluate
5
1
dx = ln 5; but what is ln 5?
F (a) or F (b). For example,
1 x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Z
The Trapezoid Rule: To Approximate
f (x) dx
a
Use a regular partition of [a, b] into n subintervals; x =

a
r
x0
x1
xi1
r``
`r
#
#
r#
Ai Ai+1
xi1
xi
xi+1
xi
xn1
ba
:
n
b
r
xn
Z b
1
Ai = (f (xi1 ) + f (xi )) x; so A =
f (x) dx
2
a
n
n
X
X
1
'
(f (xi1 ) + f (xi )) x
Ai =
2
i=1
i=1
x
=
(f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + + 2f (xn1 ) + f (xn )) = Tn
2
Z
Example 1: Approximate
1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
1
dx with n = 4; yi = f (xi ).
x
f (x) =
T4 =
=
=
Z
1

Improper Integrals
1
51
; n = 4; x =
=1
x
4
1
(y0 + 2y1 + 2y2 + 2y3 + y4 )
2

1 1 2 2 2 1
+ + + +
2 1 2 3 4 5
101
' 1.683333 . . .
60
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
1
dx with n = 8
x
1
51
; n = 8; x =
= 0.5
x
8

1 1
2
2
2
=
+
+ +
+
4 1 1.5 2 2.5

2
2
2
2
1
+
+ +
+
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
' 1.628968254 . . .
f (x) =
T8
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals

x 2
4
1+
f (x) =
1+
dx with n = 2
; n = 2; x =
x 2
4
40
=2
2
2
(f (0) + 2f (2) + f (4))
2
2
1
= 1+
+
1 + (0.5)2 1 + 12
= 3.1
T2 =
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
0
1+

x 2
4
1
f (x) =
1+
dx; n = 4; yi = f (xi )
; n = 4; x =
x 2
4
40
=1
4
1
(y0 + 2y1 + 2y2 + 2y3 + y4 )
2
1
2
2
=
1+
+
2
1 + (0.25)2 1 + (0.5)2

2
1
+
+
1 + (0.75)2 1 + 12
' 3.131176471 . . .
T4 =
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Simpsons Rule. Let yi = f (xi ). Let n be even.

Let (xi1 , yi1 ), (xi , yi ) and (xi+1 , yi+1 ) be three consecutive data
points;
and qi (x) theZ quadratic function that passes through them.
Z xi+1
xi+1
x
(yi1 + 4yi + yi+1 ).
Let
f (x)dx '
qi (x) dx = Ai =
3
xi1
xi1
Z
f (x) q (x)
r i
'
f (x) dx
a
=
r
xi
A2i1 = A1 + A3 + + An1
i=1
xi1
n/2
X
x
(y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 +
3
+ + 2yn2 + 4yn1 + yn )
= Sn
xi+1
Z
1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
1
dx with n = 4; yi = f (xi )
x
f (x) =
S4 =
=
=

Improper Integrals
1
51
; n = 4; x =
=1
x
4
1
(y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + y4 )
3

1 1 4 2 4 1
+ + + +
3 1 2 3 4 5
73
' 1.6222222 . . .
45
Z
1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
1
dx with n = 8
x
51
1
= 0.5
; n = 8; x =
8
x

1 1
4
2
4
=
+
+ +
+
6 1 1.5 2 2.5

2
4
2
4
1
+
+ +
+
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
' 1.610846561 . . .
f (x) =
S8
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
0
1+

x 2
4
1
f (x) =
1+
dx; n = 4; yi = f (xi )
; n = 4; x =
x 2
4
40
=1
4
1
(y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + y4 )
3
1
4
2
=
1+
+
3
1 + (0.25)2 1 + (0.5)2

4
1
+
+
1 + (0.75)2 1 + 12
' 3.141592502 . . .
S4 =
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
10
cos(cos x) dx; with n = 2

0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
10

0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
10

0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
Z

Improper Integrals
10

0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7

Improper Integrals
Error Estimates
The accuracy of Trapezoid or Simpsons Rule approximations can
be calculated with the help of the following error estimates:
1.

M2 (b a)3
f (x) dx Tn
12n2

M4 (b a)5
f (x) dx Sn
180n4
2.
where Mk is the maximum of the absolute value of the kth

derivative of f on the interval [a, b].
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.8
7.7
Z
Example 12: Approximating

Improper Integrals
f (x) dx; a = 1; b = 5
1
1
2
6
24
1 0
; f (x) = 2 ; f 00 (x) = 3 ; f (3) (x) = 4 ; f (4) = 5 .
x
x
x
x
Z 5 x

2(5 1)3
32
f (x) dx Tn
=
1. M2 = 2
12n2
3n2
1
Z 5

24(5 1)5
2048

2. M4 = 24
f (x) dx Sn
=
180n4
15n4
1
Z 5

32
If n = 8 then
= 0.16666666 . . ., and
f (x) dx Tn
2
3
8
1
Z 5

2048

f
(x)
dx
S
= 0.03333333 . . .
n

15 84
1
f (x) =

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Chapter 7: Principles of Integral Evaluation

MAT187H1S Lec0102 Burbulla

Chapter 7 Lecture Notes

MAT187H1S Lec0102 Burbulla

Chapter 7: Principles of Integral Evaluation

Chapter 7: Principles of Integral Evaluation

Chapter 7 Lecture Notes

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An Overview of Integration Methods

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An Overview of Integration Methods

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