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ME 1402 MECHATRONICS (UNIT II)

ACTUATORS
1. Compact size.
2. Less moving parts.
3. Less wear and tear & self lubricating.
ACTUATIONSYSTEM:
The actuation systems are the elements of the control system
and
they
are
responsible
for
transforming
the
output
of
4. Controlled motion.
5. Adaptability for automatic control.
microprocessor into a controlling action on a machine or device.
However, the initial cost of hydraulic transmission will be high.
Actuators produce physical changes such as linear and angular
Improperly filled hydraulic system will give maintenance problem and
displacement.
cost of spares will be high. Some of the applications of hydraulic
There are four types of actuators.
system are hydraulic presses, fork lifts, hydraulic jacks and hydraulic
shaper etc.
1. Mechanical actuators.
2. Electrical actuators.
In hydraulic actuation system, the hydraulic signals are used to
3. Hydraulic actuators.
control device but are more expensive than pneumatic system. Oil leak
4. Pneumatic actuators.
is another problem in hydraulic system.
Example:
Basic components of hydraulic system are
In a CNC milling machine, there may be an electrical signal
1. Reservoir to hold oil,
output from the CNC controller to move the milling table in the x
2. Hydraulic pump normally positive displacement type,
direction for a certain length. There you need an actuation system.
3. Electric motor to drive the pump,
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:
4. Actuator, which may be rotary or linear,
Power from one point to another point can also be transmitted

using air as medium called pneumatic transmission or liquid as
5. Control valves for controlling flow, direction and pressure, and
6. Pipe lines and fittings to transmit oil power.
medium called hydraulic transmission. In case of hydraulic system,
In pneumatic control system, the moister should be separated, to
liquid, which may be water or hydraulic oil is pressurized to 20 to 250
avoid presence of free moisture during expansion. Besides, this
atm pressures and transmitted through pipe line. The pressurized
moisture will pose problems in line especially in pilot operator solenoid
liquid is made to actuate rotary or linear actuator through control
valves. Pneumatic system is fast comparable to hydraulic system. But
valves
positioning and speed control is difficult because of compressibility of
to
get
required
function.
Hydraulic
system
of
power
transmission is preferred over mechanical or electrical system on the

following
air.
grounds.
1
In the pneumatic actuation system pneumatic signals are used to
large valves and other high power control device and so it can be used
control the system. The pneumatic signals can be used to actuate
to move heavy loads. Pneumatic system consists of a compressor,

control valves and actuators. Since air is used as medium, reservoir is
not required.
Power supplies:
Hydraulic power supply:
Hydraulic systems are design to move large loads by controlling a
high pressure fluid in distribution lines and piston with mechanical or
electromechanical valves.
The basic components of a hydraulic system are,
In a hydraulic system, pressurized oil is provided by a hydraulic
pump driven by an electric motor.
The hydraulic pump pumps the oil from a sump through a nonreturn valve and an accumulator to the system.
A pressure relief valve is circulated to release the pressure when
it rises above the safe level.
The non return valve is to prevent the oil returning back to the
pump.
The accumulator is a reservoir in which the oil is held under
pressure.
The accumulator is used to store the oil and provides a smooth
drive during any short term fluctuation in the output oil pressure.
Fig. Pneumatic power supply
Fig. Hydraulic Power Supply

Pneumatic System:
The basic components of a pneumatic system are,
In a pneumatic power supply an electric motor drives an air
compressor.
Before the air enters the compressor, it passes through a filter
and a silencer.
In the filter all the dust particles present in the inlet air is
removed.
In the silencer the noise level is reduced.
The device is connected to port 2, and device is pressurized.
A pressure relief valve is provided to protect the system in case
In fig. b when the spool is moved to the left, the air supply is cut
of pressure
off.
rises above the safe level.
Since the air compressor increases the temperature of the air, a
Port 2 and port 3 are connected.
cooler is provided to reduce the temperature of air.
So the air in the system connected to port 2 is allowed to go out
In the filter and water trap, the water from the air and other
to the atmosphere through port 3.
unwanted particles in air are removed.
In fig. a air is allowed to flow into the system.
An air receiver increases the volume of air in the system and
In fig. the air is allowed to flow out of the system.

Poppet Valve:
smoothens out any short term pressure fluctuation.

DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES:
This valve is normally in the closed
The direction control valves are used in the pneumatic and

hydraulic system to direct the flow of liquid through a system. They are
condition.
used for varying the rate of flow of liquid. They are either completely
The port 1 is connected to pressure
open or closed.
supply.
There are two types of direction control valves. They are.
The Port 2 is connected to the system.
1. Spool valve.
Initially there is no connection between
2. Poppet valve.
port 1 and port 2.
Spool Valve:
Here balls, discs, or cones are used as a
A spool moves horizontally within the valve body to control the
valve to be seated in the valve seat to
flow.
control the flow.
In fig a, the air supply is connected to port 1. The port 3 is closed.
Here a ball is used as shown in fig.

When the push button is depressed, the ball is pushed out of its
seat.
This allows the flow from port 1 connected to port 2.
When the button is released, the spring forces the ball back to its
seat and so closes off the flow.
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Valve Symbols
Example
The following are some of the illustrations of how these various
symbols can be combined to describe how a valve operates. The Fig.
is a 2/2 valve, because it has 2 ports and 2 positions. The first number
(numerator) indicates the number of ports. The second number
(denominator) indicates the number of .positions. The valve symbol in
Fig. is 2/2, solenoid operated, push button valve.
The symbol used for control valves consists of a square for each
Fig. 2/2 Valve
of its switching positions.

A two position valve will have two squares; a three position valve
will have three squares.
The valve symbol in Fig. , is 3/2 because it has 3 ports and 2

positions.
The arrow headed lines are used to indicate the direction of flow
in each of the position.
The blocked-off lines indicate the flow is closed.
In the fig the valve has four ports.
The ports are labeled by a number or a letter according to their
function.
Fig. 3/2 Valve

The valve symbol in Fig. is 4/2 valve because it has 4 port and 2
positions.
The ports are labeled 1 (or P) for pressure supply.

The ports are labeled 3 (or T) for hydraulic return port, 3 or 5 (or
R or S) for pneumatic exhaust port and 2 or 5 (or B or A) for
output
ports.
Fig. 4/2 Valve
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1
0
Direction Valves
The following is an example for the application of valves in a

pneumatic lift system.
Figure shows a simple direction control valve and its symbol.

Free flow can occur in one direction through the valve, that which
results in the ball being pressed against the spring. Flow in the other
direction is blocked by the spring forcing the ball against its seat.
The push button 2/2 valves are used. When the up valve is pressed
the load is lifted. When the bottom valve is pressed the load is
lowered. An open arrow is used to indicate a vent to the
atmosphere.
There are three types of pressure control valve.

1. Pressure regulating valves.
2. Pressure limiting valves.
Pilot Operated Valve:
3. Pressure sequence valves.
The force required to move the ball or shuttle in a valve can

often be too large for manual or solenoid operation. To overcome this
problem a pilot operated system is used. Where one valve is used to
control second valve. Figure illustrates this. The pilot valve is small
capacity and can be operated manually or by a solenoid. It is used to
allow the main valve to be operated by the system pressure. The pilot
pressure line is indicated by dashes. The pilot and main valve can be
operated by two separate valves but they are often combined in a
single
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE:
housing.
1. Pressure regulating valves:

This is used to control the operating pressure in a circuit and
maintain it at a constant value. The compressed air produced by the
compressor may fluctuate. Changes in the pressure may affect. The
switching characteristics of the cylinder the running times of the
cylinders. The timing characteristics of flow control valve. Thus the
constant pressure level is required for the trouble free operation of a
pneumatic control. A pressure regulator is fitted downstream of the
compressed air filter. It provides a constant set pressure at the outlet
of the regulator. The pressure regulator is also called as pressure
reducing valve or pressure regulating valve. There are two types of
pressure
1
1
regulators.
They
are
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1. Diaphragm type pressure regulator (with or without vent holes).

2. Piston spool type pressure regulator.
1. Diaphragm type pressure regulator:
Two types of pressure regulators with diaphragm are available.
(a)With vent holes and
(b) Without vent holes.
(a)Diaphragm type pressure regulator (with vent holes):
A diaphragm type pressure regulator is shown in figure (a) &
(b).In this type pressure is regulated by a diaphragm. The output
pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm. On the other side of the
diaphragm, a spring (set spring) force acts. The spring force can be
adjusted by an adjusting screw provided at the bottom of the
regulator.
When the pressure output increases:
The diaphragm moves against the spring force. Due to this, the
outlet area of cross-section at the valve seat reduces or closes
If the pressure on the outlet side increases considerably:
entirely. Thus the quantity of air flowing is regulated.
The diaphragm is pushed down against the spring force.
When the air drawn off on the outlet side:
The
center piece of the diaphragm opens. The compressed air flows to the
The operation pressure drops. The spring force opens the valve.
Thus, the continual opening and closing of the valve seat
regulates the preset output pressure. a damper spring is provided
above the valve disc to avoid fluttering. A pressure gauge is fitted to
the outlet of the regulator for monitoring and setting of the circuit
atmosphere through the vent holes in the housing.

(b) Diaphragm type pressure regulator (without vent holes):
A diaphragm pressure gauge without vent holes is shown in the fig.
With these valves, it is not possible to exhaust the compressed air.
The spring is pre-stressed by means of adjusting screw. Thus the
pressure.
diaphragm is also pre-stressed. The plunger is raised with the

diaphragm to a greater or lesser extent from the seat. Therefore, the
flow from the primary to the secondary side increases or decreases
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depending on the setting of the spring. If no air is drawn off on the
secondary side increases considerably, the outlet port is completely
outlet side, the diaphragm moves down against the compression
closed. The flow is completely closed.
spring. The damper spring moves the plunger downward to its seat.
Thus the flow of air is closed off at the sealing seat. The compressed
air can continue to flow only when the air is drawn off on the outlet
side.
Piston - spool type pressure regulator:
A piston type pressure regulator is shown in fig.
The valve is of piston type. It is kept on its seat by a spring force.

The spring force can be adjusted screw provided at the bottom. In the
normal piston, the valve is open and the compressed. Air freely flows
from inlet A and outlet B. The valve spool is kept in equilibrium by the
spring force on one side and air pressure on the other side through
secondary circuit. When the pressure in the secondary side rises, the
pressure on the spool face increases. The spool moves and partly
closes the outlet side. This reduces the volume of air going to the
secondary side and hence pressure is reduced. If the pressure in the
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2. Pressure limiting valves:
3. Pressure Sequence Valves:
These are used as safety devices to limit the pressure in a circuit
The sequence valve helps two or more cylinders to work in a
to below some safe value. The valve opens and vents to the
particular sequence. It makes sure that the operation of one cylinder is
atmosphere or back to the sump, if the pressure rises above the set
completed before the start of the operation of another cylinder. For
safe value. A simple pressure relief valve is shown in the fig. it consists
example, consider two hydraulic cylinders which operate in sequence.
of conical poppet valve, spring, adjusting screw. The force exerted by
The sequences of operations to be performed are
the spring on the poppet can be varied by the pressure adjusting
(i) Lifting the weight up to the floor level by the first cylinder
screw.
(ii) Pushing the weight into the floor by the Second Cylinder
The sequence valve is connected in the hydraulic circuit as shown
Under normal conditions:

The spring presses the conical poppet valve in its seat. The oil flow
in the fig.
path is closed.
When the system pressure exceeds the set value:
The increased pressure presses the poppet against the spring
force. Oil flow through the exhaust port T to the reservoir. Thus the
excessive pressure is released. When the pressure drops below the
set value, the poppet again closes.
DCV is shifted in one extreme position

The fluid from the pump enters into the inlet of the sequence valve
and comes out and enters into the first cylinder through a check valve
and causes the piston to rise up.
Now the load is lifted up to the floor level. During this operation fluid
on its top is going back to the reservoir. After lifting the load, the piston
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comes to rest. Thus the first operation is over. As soon as the piston
Thus the pressure in the sequence valve increases. The increase in
has come to rest, the oil does not find any passage for its flow.
pressure lifts the valve piston and the oil is now entering to the second
cylinder. The piston of the second cylinder pushes the load into the
floor.
During this operation the fluid on the left side is discharged to the
reservoir. Thus the secondary operation is completed.
DCV is shifted in another extreme position
Now the outlet port in sequence valve is closed as the piston of the
sequence valve move down. The fluid now entering into the second
cylinder causes the piston to move from the left to right while the fluid
on the other side is connected to the reservoir through the check valve
After the second cylinder piston has come to rest, the pump supply
enters into the top of the first cylinder. The piston in the first cylinder
lower down while fluid at its bottom is flowing to the reservoir through
the check valve and sequence valve. The pressure setting of the
sequence valve is adjusted by adjustment screw.
CYLINDERS
The hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder is an example of a linear
actuator. The principles for both hydraulic and pneumatic versions are
the same. Only difference is big size cylinder are used in hydraulic due
to high pressure.
Construction
A cylinder consists of a cylindrical type along which a piston/ ram can
slide. There are two types of cylinder. They are.
1. Single acting cylinder.
2. Double acting cylinder.
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1. Single acting cylinder:
2. Double acting cylinder:
The simple level of control for the single acting cylinder involves
They are used when the control pressures are applied to each side
direct control signals. Direct control is used when. The flow rate
of the piston.
required to operate the cylinder is relatively small. The size of the

control valve is small with low actuating forces. The circuit for the direct
control of single acting cylinder is shown in the fig.
A difference in pressure between the two sides, result in motion

of the piston. The circuit includes a double acting cylinder with 5/2
D.C.V.
When the spool of the DCV is at extreme left:
A 3/2 directional control valve is used. The cylinder is of small
capacity and the air consumption is low. Hence the operation can be
directly controlled by a push button 3/2 direction control valve with
spring return. When the push button is pressed, the air passes through
the valve from pressure port (P) the cylinder port (A). The piston rod
extends against the force of the cylinder return spring. Thus the work
piece is clamped. When the push button is released, the valve spring
returns the 3/2 D.C.V. to its initial position. The cylinder retracts by the
return spring force. The air form the cylinder returns through the
exhaust port (R).Cylinder is the only working element or actuator.
Air flows from pressure port (P) to the working port (B).Then air is
allowed to enter the right end of the cylinder. The piston moves from
right to left. At the same time air in the left end of the cylinder flows into
the valve through port 'A' and exhausted through exhaust port 'R'. The
other exhaust port 'S' is blocked.
When the spool of DCV is at extreme right:
Air flows from inlet pressure port (P) to the working port (A). Air is
allowed to enter the left end of the cylinder. The piston moves from left
to right .At the same time the air in the right end of the cylinder flows
into the valve through the exhaust port 'S'. The other exhaust port 'R' is
blocked. This is the principle of working of the double acting cylinder.
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CYLINDER SEQUENCING:
Sequence of operation:
Many control system employ pneumatic (or) hydraulic cylinders as
Initially both the cylinder has retracted pistons. Start push button on
actually elements and require a sequence of extensions and retraction
valve 1 is pressed. This applies pressure to valve 2 as the limit switch
of the cylinder to occur.
b is activated. So the supply is given to valve 3, and from valve 3 the

air enters the left side of the piston in cylinder A. As the pressure built
For example,
up on the left side, the piston starts extending towards right side till the
There are two cylinders A & B. When the start button is pressed,
limit switch a+ operates. Once limit switch a+ is operated, it gives a
the piston of cylinder A extends. When it is fully extended, the piston of
supply to valve 5 and then causes pressure to valve 6. Then air enters
cylinder B extends. The sequence of operation of these two cylinders
in the left side the piston in the cylinder B through valve 6.So the piston
is explained.
moves towards right side, and then the piston actuates the limit switch
b+. Once limit switch b+ is actuated, it gives a supply to valve 4 and
then causes pressure to valve 3. So the air enters the cylinder A,
through the left end of the piston. It moves in the piston from left to
right through retraction and finally the switch a - is actuated. Once limit
switch a - is actuated, it gives a supply to valve 7, then gives a
pressure to valve 6. Now air enters the cylinder B, through the left end
of the piston and the piston moves from left to right end then it will
retract. This cycle can be started again by pushing the start button. If
we want to run the system continuously, then the last movement in the
sequence should be used to trigger the first movement.
PROCESS CONTROL VALVES:
Process control valves are used to control the rate of fluid flow. For
Each cylinder is given a reference letter A & B. To indicate the

extension of the piston in cylinder. A, a+ sign is used. To indicate the
example it can be used to control the rate of flow of a liquid into a tank.
Principle:
retraction of the piston in cylinder A a - sign is used. Similarly for
The basis of such valve is an actuator used to move a plug into the
cylinder B, b+ (for extension) and b - (for retraction) are used.
flow pipe and alter the cross section of the pipe. Therefore the liquid
flow through. The cross section can be increased or decreased. A
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common type of pneumatic actuator used with the process control

valves is the diaphragm actuator. The diaphragm is made of rubber
Thus the displacement of the shaft is proportional to the gauge

pressure.
which is sand winched in its centre between two circular steel disc, as
shown in the fig.
The effect of changes in the input pressure results in the movement

of the central part of the diaphragm. This movement is communicated
to the final control element by a shaft which is attached to the
diaphragm.
The force F acting on the shaft is the force that is acting on the
diaphragm and it is equal to the gauge pressure P multiplied by the
diagram area.
F= PA
Restoring force is provided by the spring. Assume shaft moves

through a distance x and the compression of the spring is proportional
to the force F,
(ie) F = kx.
Where k is a constant.
Therefore comparing equation (1) and (2)
kx = PA
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through the valve and so just one plug is needed to control the
flow. In double seated valve, the fluid after entering the valve splits into
two streams and this needs two plugs.
Valve plugs:
The shape of the valve plug determines the relationship between
the stem movement and the effect on the flow rate. There are three
commonly used types:
a) Quick opening type - A large change in flow rate occurs for a small
movement of the valve stem. Such a plug is used where on/off control
of flow rate is required.
The above fig. shows the cross-section of a valve for the control of
rate of flow of a fluid. The pressure change in the actuator causes the
Linear - Contoured type - The change in flow rate is proportional to

the change in displacement of the valve stem
diaphragm to move and results in the movement of the stem. When

the stem moves, it results in the movement of the inner valve plug
within the valve body. The plug restricts the fluid flow and the position
of the plug determines the flow rate.
Valve bodies
There are many types of valve bodies. They are
i) Single seated valve.
ii) Double seated value.
Equal Percentage type - Equal percentage changes in flow rate

occur for equal changes in the valve stem position.
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ROTARY ACTUATORS:
between the two ports causes the vane to rotate. When the vane
There are many methods to achieve the rotary motion. Three
rotates, the shaft attached to the vane also rotates. Therefore the shaft
types of Rotary activators are discussed below.
rotation is a measure of the pressure difference between the two ports.
A linear cylinder to produce rotation.
Depending on the pressures, the vane can be rotated clockwise (or)

anticlockwise.
Vane motor:
The vane motor is a pneumatic motor through which a rotation
angle greater than 360 can be achieved. It has an eccentric rotor with
slots in which vanes are forced outwards against the wall of the
cylinder by the rotation. The vane divides the chamber
As shown in the fig. 3.25 a linear cylinder with the help of suitable
mechanical linkages can be used to produce rotary movement through
angles less than 360.
Semi - Rotary Actuator
In to separate compartments which increase in size from the inlet

port round to the outlet port. The air entering each compartment exerts
a force and the vane and causes the rotor rotates. The motor can be
made to rotate in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions.
It has two ports clockwise port and anticlockwise Port, and also
has a vane attached with rotor of the actuator. The pressure difference
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ELECTRICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
current flows through the coil of wire a magnetic field is produced. This
Any discussion of electrical systems used as actuators for
pulls a movable arm, the armature that forces the contacts to open or
control. The discussion has to include:

1. Switching devices such as mechanical switches. e.g. relays, or
solid-state switches, e.g. diodes, thyristors, and transistors, where the
control signal switches on or off some electrical device, perhaps a
heater or a motor.
2. Solenoid type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to
actuate a soft iron core. as, for example, the solenoid operated
hydraulic/pneumatic valve where a control current through a solenoid
is used to actuate a hydraulic/pneumatic flow.
3. Drive systems, such as d.c. and a.c. motors, where a current
through a motor is used to produce rotation. This chapter is an
overview of such devices and their characteristics.
Mechanical switches
Mechanical switches are elements which are often used as sensors
to give inputs to systems. e.g. keyboards. In this chapter we are
concerned with their use as actuators to perhaps switch on electric
motors or kiting elements, or switch on the current to actuate solenoid
valves controlling hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. The electrical relay
is an example of a mechanical switch used in control systems as an
actuator.
Relays
The electrical relay offers a simple on/off switching action in
response to a control signal. Figure illustrates the principle. When a
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dose; usually there are two sets of contacts with one being opened
The sequence thus given by this system is A+ and B+ concurrently,
and the other closed by the action. This action might then be used to
then C+, followed by A- and
supply a current to a motor or perhaps an electric heater in a
relays are control relays that have a delayed switching action. The time
temperature control system.
delay is usually adjustable and can be initiated when a current flows
As an illustration of the ways relays can be used in control systems,

Fig. shows how two relays might be used to control the operation of
pneumatic valves which in turn control the movement of pistons in
three cylinders A, B and C. The sequence of operation is:
concurrently and finally C-.Time-delay
through the relay coil or when it ceases to flow through the coil.
SOLID STATE SWITCHES:
Here are number of solid-state devices which can be used to
electronically switch circuits. These include:
1. When the start switch is closed, current is applied to the A and B

solenoids and results in both A and B extending, i.e. A+ and B+.
1. Diode.
2 .Thyistors and triacs.
2.The limit switches a+ and b+ are then closed, the a+ closure results
in a current flowing through relay coil 1 which then closes its contacts
and so supplies current to the C solenoid and results in it extending,
i.e. C+.
3 .Bipolar transistors.
4. Power MOSFETs
DIODES
The diode has the characteristic shown in Fig. and so allows a
3. Its extension causes limit switch c+ to close and so current to switch

the A and B control valves and hence retraction of cylinders A and B,
i.e. A- and B-.
significant current in one direction only. A diode can thus be regarded

as a 'directional element', only passing a current with forward biased.
i.e. with the anode being positive with respect to the cathode. If the
4. Closing limit switch a- passes a current through relay coil 2; its
diode is sufficiently reversed biased, i.e. a very high voltage, it will
contacts close and allows a current to valve C and cylinder C to
break down. If an alternating voltage- is applied across diode, it can be
retract, i.e. C-. ,
regarded as only switching on when the direction of the voltage is such

as to forward biased it and being off in the reverse biased direction.
The result is that the current through the diode is half rectified to
become just the current due to the positive halves of the input voltage
(Fig.).
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only limited by the external resistance in a circuit. Thus, for example, if

the forward breakdown is at 300 V then. When this voltage is reached
the thyristor switches on and the voltage across it drops to I or 2 V. If
the thyristor is in series with a resistance of. say. 20 ohm (Fig.)
then before breakdown we have a very high resistance in series

Thyristors and triacs
with the 20 and so virtually all the 300 V is across the thyristor and
The thyristor, or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), can be regarded

as a diode which has a gate controlling the conditions under which the
diode can be switched on. Fig shows the thyristor characteristic. With
the gate current zero. The thyristor passes negligible current when
reverse biased (unless sufficiently reverse biased, hundreds of volts,
when it breaks down).
there is negligible current. When forward breakdown occurs, the

voltage across the thyristor drops to, say, 2 V and so there is now 300
2 = 298 V across the 20 resistor, hence the current rises to 298/20
= 14.9 A. When once switched on the thyristor remains on until the
forward current is reduced to below a level of a few milliamps. The
voltage at which forward breakdown occurs is determined by the
current entering the gate, the higher the current the lower the
breakdown voltage. The power-handling capability of a thyristor is high
and thus it is widely used for switching high power applications.
When forward biased the current is also negligible until the forward
breakdown voltage is exceeded. When this occurs the voltage across
the diode falls, to a low level, about 1 to 2 V, and the current is then
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Triac
The triac is similar to the thyristor and is equivalent to a pair of
thyristors connected in reverse parallel on the same chip. The triac can
be turned on in either the forward or reverse direction. Figure shows
the characteristic.
When the base current Is is zero the transistor is cut off. In this state
both the base emitter and the base collector junctions are reverse
biased. When the base current is increased, the collector current
increases and VCE decreases as a result of more of the voltage being
dropped across Rc. When VCE reaches a value VC the base-collector
Bipolar transistors
junction becomes forward biased and the collector current can
Bipolar transistors come in two forms, the npn and the pnp. Figure
increase no further, even if the base current is further increased. This
shows the symbol for each. For the npn transistor, the main current
is termed saturation. By switching the base current between 0 and a
flows in at the collector and out at the emitter, a controlling signal being
value that drives the transistor into saturation, bipolar transistors can
applied to the base. The pnp transistor has the main current flowing in
be used as switches. When there is no input voltage V, then virtually
at the emitter and out at the collector, a controlling signal being applied
the entire VEC voltage appears at the output. When the input voltage is
to the base.
made sufficiently high the transistor switches so that very little of the
VCC
npnTransistor
voltage
appears
at
the
output
(Fig.
(c)).
pnpTransistor
For an npn transistor connected as shown in Fig.(a) These so

termed common-emitter circuit, the relationship between the collector
current IC and the potential difference between the collector and emitter
VCE is described by the series of graphs shown in Fig.(b)
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It is used to provide electrically operated actuator. Example:-
MOSFETs
MOSFETs (metal-oxide field-effect transistors) come in two
solenoid valves are used in hydraulic and pneumatic valves. A current
types the n-channel and the p-channel. Figure shows the symbols. The
passes through a coil. Due to this current, a soft iron core is pulled into
main difference between the use of a MOSFET for switching and a

bipolar transistor is that no current flows into the gate to exercise the
control. The gate voltage is the controlling signal. Thus drive circuitry
can be simplified in that there is no need to be concerned about the
size of the current.
n- Channel
p- channel
SOLENOID
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the coil. In doing so it can open or close the ports to allow the flow of a
2. They are laminated so as to avoid eddy current loss.
fluid.
D.C Motor
Electric motors are frequently used as the final control element in
positional or speed-control systems. Motors can be classified into two
main categories: d.c. motors and a.c. motors. Most motors used in
modern control systems being d.c. motors
Constructionofd.cmotor
* YOKE:
1. It is the outermost covering of the machine. 2. It provides
mechanical support for the poles. 3. It is a stationary part. 4. It carries
magnetic flux produced by the poles. 5. It is made of cast iron.
* FIELD SYSTEM:
(a) Pole core
(b) Pole shoe
(c) Field coil.
(a) Pole core:

1. They are fabricated by laminations of steel.
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(b) Pole shoe:
* Brushes:
1. They act as a mechanical support to the field coil.
1. These are made of carbon. It is rectangular in shape.
2. They reduce the reluctance of the magnetic flux.
2. The brush holders are kept passed against the Commutator.
3. They spread out the flux in the air gap uniformly.
3. It collects current from the line to the Commutator.
(c) Field coil:

1. These coils are wound on the pole core. 2. When current is passed
Principle of Working:
The armature is made up of magnetic material with coils of core
through this coil, they electromagnetic.

* Inter poles:
wound on it. The armature is mounted on bearings and is free to
1. They are fixed between the main poles.
rotate. They are field coils wound and permanent magnet W
2. They are in-line with the neutral axis.
electromagnets fixed to the carrying [w] starter. The ends of the
3. They are smaller in size than main poles.
armature coil are connected to Commutator. When the current is
4. They are used for spark less commutation.
applied to the field coil it cuts the magnetic flux near to armature, and
* Armature:
armature start rotating. The direction of rotation of the D.C motor can
1. It is the rotating part of the machine.
be changed by reversing either the armature current (or) the field
2. It is cylindrical in shape.
current.
3. It is fabricated by means of steel laminations.
TypesofD.C.motor
4. It is laminated to avoid the eddy current loss.
1. Series wound motor (fig. a)
5. The periphery of the armature is cut into slots and teeth's.
With the series wound motor the armature and fields coils are in
6. The conductors are placed in the slots.
series. Such a motor exerts the highest starting toque and has the
7. Due to loss, heat is developed in the armature.

8. Therefore to dissipate heat a fan is provided at one end of the
greatest no-load speed. With light loads there is a danger that a series
wound motor might run at too high a speed. Reversing the polarity of
armature.
the supply to the coils has no effect on the direction of rotation of the
* Commutator:
1. It is made up of copper segments insulated from each other by mica
motor. It will continue rotating in the same direction since both the field
and
sheets.
armature
currents
have
been
reversed.
2. The armature conductors are soldered to Commutator.

3. It is used to convert bidirectional current to unidirectional current.
65
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66
Control of D.C. Motor:

1. The speed of the permanent magnet motor depends upon the
current through the armature coil.
2. In a field coil D.C motor, the speed can be changed by varying the
armature current or the field current.
3. Generally it is the armature current that is varied.
4. To obtain a variable voltage at the armature an electric circuit is
used.
5. Usually the D.C motors are controlled by the signals coming from
microprocessors.
2. Shunt wound motor (fig.b)

With the shunt wound motor the armature and field coils are in
6. In such cases the technique knows as pulse width modulation
parallel. It provides the lowest starling toque, a much lower no-load
(PWM) is used, to obtain a variable voltage.
speed and has good speed regulation. Because of this almost constant
7. This PWM can be obtained by means of a basic transistor circuit.
speed regardless of load, shunt wound motors are very widely .used.
8. This technique can be used to drive the motor in one direction only.
To reversed the direction of rotation. either the armature or field
9. By involving four transistors which is know as H - circuit, the
supplied must be reversed. For this reason, the separately excited
direction change in rotation of motor can be obtained

In a closed loop control system, the feed back signals are
windings are preferable for such a situation.
used to modify the motor speed. There are three methods for doing it.
3. Compound motor (fig. c)

The compound motor has two field windings. One in series with the
Method-I
armature and one in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to get the
best features of the series and shunt wound motors, namely a high
starting torque and good sped regulation.
4. Separately excited motor (fig. d)
The separately excited motor has separate control of the armature
and field currents and can be considered to be a special case of the
shunt
bound
motor.
67
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.
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68
1. Here the feed back signal is provided by a tachometer.
1. The system is completely digital.
2. The analogue signal from the tachometer is converted into digital
2. PWM is used to control the average voltage applied to the armature.
signal by using ADC.
A.C MOTOR
3. This digital signal is given as input to the microprocessor is
Types of A.C motor:
converted into analogue by using DAC.
1. Squirrel cage induction rotor.
4. This signal is used to vary the voltage applied to the armature of the
2. Slip ring (or) wound rotor.
D.C. motor.
Construction of A.C Motor
MethodII
STATOR:
1. It is the stationary part of the machine.
2.
It is made of high grade silicon steel laminations.
3. it is laminated so as to avoid eddy current loss.
1. The feed back signal is coded using a encoder.

2. In the code converter, the digital output is obtained.
3. This digital signal is given as an input to the microprocessor.
MethodIII
4. The stator windings are placed in the slots on the inner surface of
stator core.
5. The windings are wound for a particular number of poles.
6. The three phase stator windings are fed from three phase supply.
7. The stator windings are sometimes known as primary windings.
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ROTOR:
Squirrel cage rotor:
1. The construction is very simple.2. It is the rotating part of the
machine.
3. It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its outer surface.
4. The rotor conductors are heavy bars of copper or aluminum.
5. All the ends of the bars are short circuited by means offend rings on
both sides.
4. The three slip rings are mounted on the shaft.
6. The slots are slightly angled to prevent hum noise and locking of
5. The slip rings are insulated from each other.
stator and rotor.
6. The slip rings are made of phosphor bronze.

Principle of Operation:
1. A three phase supply is given to the stator winding.
2. A rotating magnetic field is produced in the stator which rotates in
synchronous speed.
3. Synchronous speed depends upon supply frequency and number of
poles.
4. In rotor short circuited copper bars are provided.
5. The rotating magnetic field cuts the short circuited copper
conductors, thereby inducing an emf in the rotor conductors.
Slip ring or wound rotor:
6. Hence a magnetic field is setup in the rotor.
1. The rotor is wound for the same numbers of poles as that of the
7. Due to the interaction between the stator and rotor magnetic flux,
stator.
the rotor rotates.
2. The rotor is made up of silicon steel laminations.
8. The direction of rotation of rotor is same as that of rotating magnetic
3. The open ends of the rotor windings are brought out and they are
field but with the speed lesser than the synchronous speed.
connected to three slip rings.
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Control of A.C Motor:
STEPPER MOTORS:
1. The speed control of A.C motor is more complex than the D.C
1. It is a device that produces rotation through equal angle called steps
motors.
for each digital input.
2. The speed of the A.C motor is determined by the frequency of
2. for example :-Suppose say one phase input produces 6O of rotation,
supply.
then60 phase of input produces 360 of rotation.

N= 120 F/P
Where, N = speed in rpm.
Construction and working principle:
F = frequency
P = no. of poles.
3. Therefore the control of A.C motor is based on the variable
frequency supply.
4. The change in the frequency can be achieved by two methods.
A. using a converter and an inverter.
B. using cyclo converter.
1. Stepper motor is a special type synchronous motor.

2. It converts electrical pulses applied to it into discrete rotor
Using a converter and an inverter:
movements called steps.

3. A 30 per step motor will require 12 pulses to move through one
revolution.
4. From diagram, A, B and C are the three stator coils placed at 120
apart around the circumference of the stator.
5. A four pole rotor made of soft iron is placed in between stator coils
1. The three phase A.C is rectified to D.C by a converter.

2. Then it is inverted back to A.C. again but at a frequency that can be
so as to rotate.
6. When coil A is excited, the rotor teeth 1 & 3 are aligned along 'A'
selected.
axis as shown in figure (i).
Cyclo converter:
1. It is used to operate slow speed motors.
7. When excitation of coil A is removed and if coil B is excited, the
2. This converts A.C at one frequency directly to A.C at another
rotor teeth 2 is attracted by coil B and thus rotor teeth2 and 4 are
frequency without the intermediate D.C conversion.
aligned
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'B'
axis
as
shown
in
figure
(ii).
74
74
8. Now when the coil C is excited after removing the excitation of coil
B, the rotor teeth 3 gets aligned along 'C' axis as shown in figure
(iii).
9. Hence a clockwise motion of the motor is produced when pulses
are given in the order of A, B, c, A, B, C.... etc.
10. For each pulse, the rotor moves 30 per step.
11. If no coil is excited, then the rotor stands at any position.
12. When pulses are given for the coils in the order A, C, B, A, C, B....
etc., the rotor rotates in anticlockwise direction.
Application:
2. Permanent magnet stepper motor:
1. Used in X - Y plotters.
2. Used in machine tools.
3. Used in robots.
4. Used in computer peripherals like floppy disc drives line printers etc.
5. Used in watches.
Types of stepper motor:

1. The rotor is a permanent magnet.
1. Variable reluctance of stepper motor.
The rotor is made of soft steel and is cylindrical in the four poles.
2. The motor has a stator with four poles.
The rotor will rotate until rotor and stator poles line up. This is termed
3. Each pole is wound with a field winding.
as position of minimum reluctance. This form of stepper gives step
4. The coils in position pair of poles are connected in series.
angle
of
7.50(or)
150
5. When the current is supplied to the stator windings, the rotor which
is a permanent magnet will move to line up with the stator poles.
6. From the figure shown, the rotor will move to the 450osition.
7. When the polarity is reversed for the current supply to stator coil,
thus the rotor will move on the reversed side to450positions.

8. Thus by switching through the coils the rotor rotates in 450teps.
75
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76
76
0
9. The usual step angles are 1.8 7.5 15 30, or 90.
3. Hybrid stepper
1. It combines feature of both the variable reluctance and permanent

magnet motor.
2. It has a permanent magnet encased in iron caps.
3. The iron caps are cut to have teeth.
4. The typical steps angles are 0.90to1.80
5. Used in high accuracy positioning application.
77
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78
CONTROLLERS
Open-loop control is essentially just a switch on-switch off form
of control, e.g. an electric fire is either switched on or off in order to
heat a room. With closed-loop control systems, a controller is used
to compare the output of a system with the required condition and
convert the error into a control action designed to reduce the error.
In this chapter we are concerned with the ways in which controllers
can react to error signals, i.e. the control modes as they are termed,
which occur with continuous processes.
Control modes:
TWO STEP MODE
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44
An example of the two-step mode of control is the bimetallic

thermostat
that might be used with a simple
temperature control system. This is just a switch which is
switched on or off according to the temperature. If the room
temperature is above the required temperature then the bimetallic
strip is in an off position and the heater is off. If the room
temperature falls below the required temperature then the
bimetallic strip moves into an on position and the heater is
switched fully on. The controller in this case can be in only two
positions, onor of( as indicated by Fig.
With the two-step mode the control action is discontinuous. A
consequence of this is that oscillations of the controlled variable
occur about the required condition. This is because of lags in the
time ~ control system and the process take to respond. For ...
example, in the case of t)le temperature control for a domestic
central heating system, when the room temperature drops below
the required level the time that elapses before the control system
responds and switches the heater on might be very small in
comparison with the time that elapses before the heater begins to
have an effect on the room temperature. In the meantime the
temperature has fallen even more. The reverse situation occurs
when the temperature has risen to the required temperature. Since
time elapses before the control system reacts and switches the
heater off, and yet more time while the heater cools and stops
Oscillations with two step mode
Controler swlch positions
Two step control with two

controller switch points
Heater supply
On
Dead bend
I-
Time
!o"I H.:
Off._
Switch
off
Switc h
on
,n:
~_._
_,
Off
/
Controller
Temperature
switch points
45
heating the room, the room temperature goes beyond the required
value. The result is that the room temperature oscillates above
and below the required temperature
With the simple two-step system described above there is the .
problem that when the room temperature is hovering about the set
value the thermostat might be almost continually switching on or
off, reacting to very slight changes in temperature. This can be
avoided if, instead of just a single temperature value at which the
controller switches the heater on or off, two values are used and
the heater is switched on at a lower temperature than the one at
which it is switched off (Fig.
. The term dead band is used
for the values between the on and off values. A large dead band
results in large fluctuations of the temperature about the set
temperature; a small dead band will result in an increased
frequency of switc~ng.- The bimetallic element shown in Fig.
has a permanent magnet for a switch contact; this has the
effect of producing a dead band.
Two-step control action tends to be used where changes are
taking place very slowly, i.e. with a process with a large capacit
ance. Thus, in the case of heating a room, the effect of switching
the heater on or off on the room temperature is only a . slow
change. The result of this is an oscillation with a long periodic
time. Two-step control is thus not very precise. but it docs involve
simple devices and is thus fairly cheap. On-off control is not
restricted to mechanical switches such as bimetallic strips or
relays; rapid switching can be achieved with the use of thyristor
circuits
such a circuit might be used for
controlling the speed of a n,ntnr_ and oeerational amplifiers.
PROPORTIONAL MODE (P)
100%
i
i
0
I
I
I
I
Set
point
"
L-1
-1
I
I
---1---- I
I
0
rol'
46
With the two-step method of control, the controller output is
either an on or an off signal, regardless of the magnitude of the

error. With the proportional mode, the size of the controller
output is proportional to the size of the error. This means the
correction element of the control system, e.g. a valve, will receive
a signal which is proportional to the size of the correction
required.
Figure
shows how the output of such a controller varies
with the size and sign of the error. The linear relationship
between controller output and error tends to exist only over a
certain range of errors, this range being called the proportional
band. Within the proportional band the equation of the straight
line can be represented by
Change in controller output from set point = K,e
DERIVATIVE CONTROL (D)
where e is the error and KP a constant. K, is thus the gradient of

the straight line in Fig.
The controller output is generally expressed as a percentage of
the full range of possible outputs within the proportional band.
This output can then correspond to, say, a correction valve
changing from fully closed 'to fully open. 'Similarly, the error is
expressed as a percentage of the full-range value, i.e. the error
range correspondingto the Oto 100% controller output. Thus
% change in controller output from set point
= K x % change in error
Hence, since 1 OOo/o controller .output corresponds to an error

percentage equal to the proportional band
K _
P-
100
proportional band
We can rewrite the equation as

change in output= I~ - 10 = Kpe
47
48
PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL (PD)
Hence
lou K,.e + Ko di +lo
where Io is the output at tbe set point, Iou tbe output when the
error is e, K is tbe proportionality constant and Ko the derivative
constant. de/dJ is tbe rate of change of error. The system bas a
transfer function given by
(J-. - loXs) = K.,E(s) + KoSE(s)
Hence the transfer function is K, + Kor. This is often written as:

transferfunct.ioo Ko(s+ T~)
where To= Kr/KPand isthe derivative lime constant.
Figure
shows how the controller output can vary when
there is a constantly changing error. There is an initial quick
change in controller output because of the derivative action
followed by the gradual change due to proportional action. This
fonn of control can thus deal with fast process changes; however,
a change in set value will require an offset error (see earlier
discussion of proportional control).
INTEGRAL CONTROL (I)
The integral mode of control is one where the rate of change of
the control output I is proportional to the input error signal e.
K1 is the constant of proportionality and, when the controller
output is expressed as a percentage and the error as a percentage,

has units of s-. Integrating
the above equation gives
49
50
50
K, is the constant of proportionality and, when the controller
output is expressed as a percentage and the error as a percentage.

has unit& of s". Integrating the above equation gives
PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL (PD)
i
o i------.-----
Tlme
Jr,'. di= J' KaedJ

IN -1, = J:K,edt
0
1~ is the coauoller output at zero time. J.,. is the outpUt at ume r,

The transfer function is obtained by taking ~ Laplace
transf'onn. Thus
(/... -1,Xs) tKaE(s)

and
so
Transfer function=
tK1
Figure
1llustralcs the action of an integral controller when
there is a constant error input lo the controller.' We can consider
the graphs in two ways. When the controller output is constant
the error is zero; when the controller output varies at a constant
rate the error has a constant value. The alternative way of
considering the graphs is in_ terms of the area under the error
graph.
Arca under the error graph between t 0 and t
J~ e di
Thus up to the time when the error occurs the value of the
integral is zero. Hence /Otll. = /o. When the error occurs it
maintains a constant value. Thus the area under the graph is
increasing as the time increases. Since the area increases at a
constant rate the controller output increases at a constant rate.
lnlegrllof
v.
51
51
52
PID CONTROLLERS
DIGITAL CONTROLLERS
The digital controller requiring inputs which are digital, process
the information in digital form and give an output in digital form. The
controller performs the following functions:
1) Receives input from sensors.
2) Executes control programs
3) Provides the output to the correction elements.
As several control systems have analog measurements an analog
to digital converters (ADC) is used for the inputs. The fig shows the
digital closed loop control system which can be used with a
continuous process.
The clock supplies a pulse at regular time intervals, and dictates

when samples of controlled variables are taken by ADC.
These samples are then converted into digital signals which are
compared by the microprocessor with the set point value to give the
error signal. The error signal is processed by a control mode and
digital
53
output
is
produced.
54
54

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ME 1402 MECHATRONICS (UNIT II)

microprocessor into a controlling action on a machine or device.

However, the initial cost of hydraulic transmission will be high.

Actuators produce physical changes such as linear and angular

Improperly filled hydraulic system will give maintenance problem and

cost of spares will be high. Some of the applications of hydraulic

There are four types of actuators.

In hydraulic actuation system, the hydraulic signals are used to

is another problem in hydraulic system.

Basic components of hydraulic system are

In a CNC milling machine, there may be an electrical signal

1. Reservoir to hold oil,

2. Hydraulic pump normally positive displacement type,

direction for a certain length. There you need an actuation system.

3. Electric motor to drive the pump,

PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:

4. Actuator, which may be rotary or linear,

Power from one point to another point can also be transmitted

5. Control valves for controlling flow, direction and pressure, and

6. Pipe lines and fittings to transmit oil power.

medium called hydraulic transmission. In case of hydraulic system,

In pneumatic control system, the moister should be separated, to

liquid, which may be water or hydraulic oil is pressurized to 20 to 250

avoid presence of free moisture during expansion. Besides, this

atm pressures and transmitted through pipe line. The pressurized

moisture will pose problems in line especially in pilot operator solenoid

liquid is made to actuate rotary or linear actuator through control

valves. Pneumatic system is fast comparable to hydraulic system. But

positioning and speed control is difficult because of compressibility of

transmission is preferred over mechanical or electrical system on the

In the pneumatic actuation system pneumatic signals are used to

control the system. The pneumatic signals can be used to actuate

to move heavy loads. Pneumatic system consists of a compressor,

Fig. Pneumatic power supply

Fig. Hydraulic Power Supply

In the silencer the noise level is reduced.

The device is connected to port 2, and device is pressurized.

A pressure relief valve is provided to protect the system in case

rises above the safe level.

Since the air compressor increases the temperature of the air, a

Port 2 and port 3 are connected.

cooler is provided to reduce the temperature of air.

So the air in the system connected to port 2 is allowed to go out

to the atmosphere through port 3.

unwanted particles in air are removed.

In fig. a air is allowed to flow into the system.

An air receiver increases the volume of air in the system and

In fig. the air is allowed to flow out of the system.

smoothens out any short term pressure fluctuation.

This valve is normally in the closed

The direction control valves are used in the pneumatic and

The port 1 is connected to pressure

There are two types of direction control valves. They are.

The Port 2 is connected to the system.

Initially there is no connection between

port 1 and port 2.

Here balls, discs, or cones are used as a

A spool moves horizontally within the valve body to control the

valve to be seated in the valve seat to

control the flow.

In fig a, the air supply is connected to port 1. The port 3 is closed.

Here a ball is used as shown in fig.

of its switching positions.