Protective Relay

Part Four Protection
Fundamentals and Basic Design

Principle
Wei-Jen Lee, Ph.D., PE
Professor of Electrical Engineering Dept.
The Univ. of Texas at Arlington
Introduction
The best protection technique now and for more

than 50 years is that known as differential
protection.
Differential protection is universally applicable to
all parts of the power system.
Other protections, such as overcurrent, over/under
frequency, and over/under voltage protections, are
also use among utility industry.
The Differential Principle
For normal operation and

all external faults, the Iop of
the relay is very small.
During external faults, the
transient of the CTs can
produce rather large
currents. Therefore, it is
difficult and impractical to
apply an instantaneous
relay. Time delay relay can
be used with care.
For internal faults, the differential relay operating

current is the sum of the input currents feeding the
faults.
To provide high sensitivity to light internal faults

with high security for external faults, most the
relays are of the percentage differential type. The
secondary of the CT is connected to restraint coil.
For the circuit with 50% characteristics, an

external or through current of 10A would require a
difference or operating current of 5 A or more for
the relay to operate.
The through current characteristics apply only for

external fault.
Differential relays are very sensitive to the internal
faults.
Typical pick-up currents for differential relays are
on the order of 0.14 3.0 A
Overcurrent and Distance

Protection
Where differential is not utilized, overcurrent and

distance relays are the major protection schemes.
The minimum operating criteria for overcurrent
relays is shown below:
Overcurrent and Distance

Protection
Relay coordination
Basic Design Principles
Electromechanical
Solid State
Hybrid
Numerical (Microprocessor)
Time-Overcurrent Relays
Time-Overcurrent Relays
Definite minimum time (CO-6)

Inverse (CO7 or CO-8)
Very inverse (CO-9)
Extremely inverse (CO-11)
Tap setting and time dial

setting
Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

system protection
System diagram

system protection
Arrangement of breaker, CT, and relay

system protection
Arrangement of breaker, CT, and relay
BREAKER
BREAKER OPERATING
TIME
B1
5 Cycles
CT
RATIO
400:5
RELAY
TYPE
CO-8
B2
5 Cycles
200:5
CO-8
B3
5 Cycles
200:5
CO-8

system protection
System loading and fault current
Bus
Load (MVA) PF (Lagging)
1
11.0
0.95
4.0
0.95
6.0
0.95

system protection
I-T curve of Co-8 relay

system protection
System loading and fault current
Bus
Max. fault current
Min. fault current
1
3000
2200
2000
1500
1000
700
Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial system

protection
Calculation and coordination
Select Tap setting that the relay will not operate for maximum
load current.
For CT at B3, the maximum CT current for maximum load L3
is:
I load =
I CT
6 *10 6
3
= 100.4 A
3 * 34.5 * 10
100.4
=
= 2.51A
(200 / 5)
For this example, 3-A TS was selected for B3 relay.

system protection
For CT at B2, the maximum CT secondary current for
maximum load is:
I load =
I CT
(6 + 4) * 10 6
3
= 167.35 A
3 * 34.5 * 10
167.35
=
= 4.18 A
(200 / 5)

system protection
For CT at B1, the maximum CT secondary current for
maximum load is:
I load =
I CT
(6 + 4 + 11) * 10 6
3
3 * 34.5 * 10
351.43
=
= 4.39 A
(400 / 5)
= 351.43 A

system protection
The largest fault current through B3 is 2000A. (Fault at right
of B3)
Ignore CT saturation, the fault-to-pickup current ratio at B3 is
2000/(40*3)=16.67
Since the speed of operation is the main concern, 0.5 TimeDial setting (TDS) is selected.
Under this fault current, the operating time of B3 is 0.05
second

system protection
Adding the breaker operating time (0.083 second), primary
protection needs 0.113 second (0.05 + 0.083) to clear this
fault.
For the same fault, the fault-to-pickup current ratio at B2 is
10.0. (2000/40*5)
Adding the B3 relay operating time, breaker operating time,
and 0.3 second coordination time interval, the B2 relays
operating time should be 0.43 seconds.
Select TDS=2 for the B2 relay.

system protection
The largest fault current through B2 is 3000A. The fault-topickup ratio for B2 is 15.
The operating time of B2 relay under this fault current is 0.38
seconds.
For the same fault, the fault-to-pickup ratio of B1 relay is 7.5.
Adding the B2 relay operating time, breaker operating time,
and 0.3 second coordination time interval, the B1 relays
operating time should be 0.76 seconds (0.38+0.3+0.083).
Select TDS=3 for B1 relay. [Confirm this results with Min.
fault current]
Instantaneous current-voltage relays
Directional sensing power relay
Polar unit
Phase distance relay

Balance beam type

Distance relay characteristics on the R-X diagram
Impedance
mho
Offset mho

Distance relay characteristics on the R-X diagram
lens
Simple blinder
reactance

Figures (b) through (e) can operate on a fault current
less than the load current.
A load of 5 A (secondary CT) and 120 V line to line
appear to the relay as
Z load =
120
3 *5
= 13.86

The equation of the mho circle through the origin is
where
ZR
2
Z R Z R
Z=
2
2
(Typo in the book)
is the offset from the origin
Z R
is the radius from the offset point
2
(Typo in the book)
When the mho circle is tilted, is the angle of

the offset
of

Various operating point of the mho circle characteristic
are determined by the following equation:
Z X = Z R cos( R X )
where
ZX is the impedance from the origin to any point on the
circle at angle X.

For example, determine the reach of a mho relay unit
along a 75o angle line if the maximum load into the line
is 5 A secondary at 30o lagging. From previous
calculation, the load impedance is 13.86 secondary.
13.86 = ZR*cos(75o-30o)=19.6 .(secondary)
This can be translated into primary line ohms by
considering the CT and VT ratio.
Zone protection of phase distance relay
Single phase MHO unit

Three MHO units are required for a protective zone.
All three units operate for three-phase fault, but for
phase-to-phase and double-phase-to-ground faults, only
one unit operates. Thus,
The A unit, energized by Iab, and Vab, operates for ab and abgnd faults.
The B unit, energized by Ibc, and Vbc, operates for bc and bc-gnd
faults.
The C unit, energized by Ica, and Vca, operates for ca and ca-gnd
faults.
Single phase MHO unit

Single phase MHO unit (shown for the A unit)
An air-gap transformer provides a secondary voltage IabZc for
the A unit. Leading the primary current for lee than 90o.
The combined output voltage is equal to IabZc Vab. This
voltage with a polarizing voltage is compared to provide the
mho circle.
Poly-phase MHO unit

This type of MHO unit has two units for a zone
protection:
An mho circle through the origin for three-phase faults.
A phase-to-phase unit, with a large operating circle
Poly-phase MHO unit

protection:
Three-phase faults unit
V x = Van 1.5( I a 3I 0 ) Z c
V y = Vbn
V z = Vcn
The cylinder unit is like a two phase motor operating negative
sequence xzy is applied and retrains on positive sequence xyz.
When a solid comparator is used, Vxy = Vab (Ia Ib)Zc and Vzy =
-jkVab are compared.
Poly-phase MHO unit

protection:
Phase-to-phase fault unit
V x = Van ( I a I b ) Z c
V y = Vbn
V z = Vcn ( I c I b ) Z c
For a phase-to-phase faults at the balance or decision point,
VxVyVz provides a zero-area triangle (Vzy and Vxy in phase for solid
state comparator)
Any fault inside the triple-zone negative sequence xzy, or when
Vzy lags Vxy cause operation.
Poly-phase MHO unit

This type of MHO unit has two units for a zone protection:
Phase-to-phase fault unit
Vzy
Ground distance relays

Consider a phase-a-to-ground fault on a line with Z1L and Z0L
as the positive and zero sequence line impedance and n is
the location of the fault from the relay. The fault currents
through the relay are I0, I1, and I2. Then for a fault at nZ1L
with a single-phase unit:
Vag
Ia
nZ 1L ( I 1 + I 2 ) + nZ 0 L I 0
I1 + I 2 + I 0
(typo)
For voltage compensation, subtract out nZ1L(I1+I2) and use I0 (not Ia),
then:
Vag nZ 1L ( I 1 + I 2 ) nZ 0 L I 0
ZR =
=
= nZ 0 L
I0
I0

For current compensation, let nZ0L=pnZ1L (p=Z0L/Z1L). Then
Z R' =
ZR =
Vag
Ia
nZ1L ( I 1 + I 2 ) + pnZ1L I 0 nZ1L ( I 1 + I 2 + pI 0 ) nZ1L ( I a + ( p 1) I 0 )

=
=
I1 + I 2 + I 0
I1 + I 2 + I 0
I1 + I 2 + I 0
Vag
I a + mI 0
where m =
= nZ1L
Z 0 L Z 1L
Z 1L

Considering fault resistance and mutual coupling from an
adjacent parallel line, the complete formula for current
compensated single-phase ground distance relay is:
ZR =
I relay
3I
= nZ 1L + R fault 0
I
I relay
relay
( Z Z 1L )
I a + I 0 0L
Z 1L
=
I Z
1 + 0E 0M
I 0 Z 1L
Vag
(typo)
where I0E is the zero sequence current in the parallel line and Z0M is the
mutual coupling impedance between two lines.
Microprocessor Based System

Protection
Introduction
In
the Utility Industry, Regardless Their Operation

Mechanisms, the Protective Relays are
Categorized and Evaluated by Their Functions.
Same Test Procedures are Applied to a Group of
Relays With the Same Protective Function.
The Performance of a Microcomputer Based
Relay Depends on the Hardware Design, the
Accuracy of the Input Signals, and the Algorithms
Embedded Inside the Unit
Introduction
Each
Vendor Has Its Own Hardware Selection and

Software Design Preference. Therefore, the
Physical Capability and Constraints of a
Microcomputer Based Relay Are Different from
Vendor to Vendor Even with Similar Protective
Functions
General Structure of a Microcomputer

Based Relay
SUBSTATION & SWITCH YARD
Current & Voltage Contacts I/P
Surge
Supressor
Surge
Supressor
Signal
Conditioning
Sample/Hold
A/D Conversion
& Multiplexer
Contacts O/P
Surge
Supressor
Output
Driver
Signal
Conditioning
Central
Processor
Unit
Communication
Module
Memory Sub-System
RAM, EPROM, EEPROM
Surge
Supressor
Hardware Design Consideration

Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Word Length
Clock Speed
Floating Point Calculation
Single or Multiple Processor
Technical Support

Memory Subsystem
Memory Types
Read Only Memory (ROM): It is designed to
permanently store a fixed program which is not
alterable. It can only be programmed once and requires
special equipment to program the chips (Most of them
are pre-programmed by manufacturers). The
information is preserved even without power.

Memory Subsystem
Memory Types
Random Access Memory (RAM): It is designed so that
information can be written into or read from any unique
location. There are two types of RAM: Static RAM and
Dynamic RAM. RAM does not retain its contents if
power is lost.

Memory Subsystem
Memory Types
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): The
characteristics of PROM is similar to ROM except that
it is user programmable.

Memory Subsystem
Memory Types
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
(EPROM): The EPROM is a specially designed PROM
that can be reprogrammed after being entirely erased
with the use of ultra-violet (UV) light source. The
EPROM can be considered as a semi-permanent data
storage device.

Memory Subsystem
Memory Types
Non-Volatile Random Access Memory (NOVRAM):
Combination of RAM and EEPROM on a single chip.
This chip can protect data against power failure.

Usage of Memory
Real-Time Data and Pre/Post-Fault Recorder:
RAM
Program Memory: ROM, PROM, EPROM, or
Combination of RAM and EPROM
Settings: Flash Memory or EEPROM

Signal Conditioning
The Outputs of the PT and CT Require Auxiliary
Transformers or Divider Circuits to Convert
Current and Voltage Signals Into Low Level
Voltage Signals Before They Can be Processed
Note: Some relay manufacturers are pushing the possibility of low
level input signals

Signal Conditioning (Conti.)
Since the Signals Are Highly Distorted During a
Disturbance and the Relay Operation is Mainly
Based on the Magnitude of Some Specific Signals,
an Analog Filter Circuit is Generally Used to
Perform First Stage Signal Screening. Later, it
Relies on the Digital Filter to Perform Further
Clean Up

Signal Conditioning (Conti..)
Anti-Alaising Filter Design
Band-Pass Filter
Low-Pass Filter

Frequency Response of a Band-Pass Filter
Gain dB
0
Q=1
Q=5
-50
Q=10
-100
Frequency (rad/sec)

Phase Shift of a Band-Pass Filter
Phase deg
90
Q=10
Q=1
0
Q=5
-90
Frequency (rad/sec)

Frequency Response of a Low-Pass Filter
Gain dB
0
1st Order
2nd Order
3rd Order
-50
-100
Frequency (rad/sec)

Phase Shift of a Low-Pass Filter
Phase deg
0
-90
1st Order
-180
2nd Order
270-
3rd Order
Frequency (rad/sec)

Data Sampling Circuit Designs
M
U
X
M
A/D
U
X
(a)
S/H
S/H
U
X
(c)
A/D
(b)
M
S/H
S/H
A/D
S/H
S/H
A/D
A/D
S/H
A/D
(d)
B
U
F
F
E
R

A/D
Conversion Techniques
Dual Slope Tracking A/D Converter

A/D
Dual Slope Successive-Approximation A/D

Converter

A/D
Flash or Parallel Conversion

Sampling
Algorithms of A/D Converter
Sampling speed and available calculation time

Constant time interval sampling or constant samples
per cycle
Frequency calculation technique

Errors
Associated with A/D Conversion
Word Length
Quantization Error of a N-bit A/D Converter is Equal to
2-N
Gain, and Offset Errors

Errors

Output
Desired Output
x
Actual
Output
Quantization
Error
x
Offset
Error
10%
50%
90%
Input

Errors
Sampling Speed and Alaising Errors

Errors
Reconstruction Errors (Original Signal)

Errors
Reconstruction Errors (Sampled Data)

Errors
Reconstruction Errors (Reconstructed Waveform)

Errors
Reduction Techniques for A/D Conversion
Word Length Selection of A/D Converter

Full Scale Value Selection
Coordination Between Anti-Alaising Filter and
Sampling Speed
Compensation of Gain and Offset Errors
Programmable Gain Control

Data Communication Subsystem
Isolation of Communication Network
Isolation of Power Supply

Isolation of Signal Inputs (RJ-11 and RS232)
Isolation of Grounding
Survivability of Protection Function After Communication
Failure

External or Internal Modem
Baud Rate
Future Upgrade
Compatibility
Power Supply
Automatic Answer

More Than One Units Share One Phone Line
Mini Switch Board
Local Area Network
Communication Software Compatibility of Different Relays
From Different Venders

Surge Withstand Capability and Walkie Talkie Test
All the Open Connectors Should Comply With Surge
Withstand Capability and Radiated Electromagnetic
Interference Specified in IEEE Std. C-37.90.1 and C37.90.2.
Software Implementation Considerations

Programming Languages
Execution Speed
Portability
Upgrade
Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Computation Algorithms
Digital
Filtering
Non-Recursive Filter
Ym = X m + X m2
Ym = X m X m2
Ym = X m + 3 X m1 + X m2
3, 9,
DC, 6, 12,
5, 7, ...

Digital
Filtering
Recursive Filter
Kalman Filter
Fast Fourier Transform
Curve Fitting
Walsh Filter

Convergence of a Recursive Filter

Convergence of a Recursive Filter

Magnitude Calculation
|V |2 = vm2 + vm2 3
|V |2 = ( vm2 + vm2 1 2vm vm1 cos T ) / sin 2 T

Phase Calculation
|V |*| I |*cos = v m * im + vm3 * im3

|V |*| I |*sin = vm * im3 v m3 * im

Moving Windows for Magnitude Estimation
W4
W3
Moving Data Window
W2
W1

Calculation
Algorithms
Fault Detection Algorithm

Fault Classification Algorithms
Calculate Between Samples or Calculate After Several
Samples

Decision
Making Process
Trip After One Violation

Trip After Several Consecutive Violations
Trip After Majority Violation of N Consecutive
Samples
Similar Conditions Also Apply to Reset Procedure

Auto
Execution, Watch Dog Timer, and Self

Diagnostic
Auto Execution After Power Failure
Watch Dog Timer to Protect Against Software Failure

Auto
Execution, Watch Dog Timer, and Self

Diagnostic
Self Diagnostic to Protect Against Hardware Failure.
Frequency of Self Diagnostic Function
Completeness of the Diagnostic Function
Failure Isolation and Indication

Data Communication Algorithm
Communication
Protocol
Compatibility and Security

EPRIs UCA

Error
Checking
General properties of error detection and correction

If the distance between any two code words of a code C is
>dmin, the code is said to have minimum distance of dmin
In general, a code provides t error correction plus detection of
s additional errors if and only if the following inequality is
satisfied:
2t + s + 1 < dmin

Error
Checking
Definition of the distance

The distance between I and J, d(I, J), is equal to the number of
bit position in which I and J differ.
For example: I = 01101100 and J = 11000100
I=01101100
J=11000100
d(I, J) = 3

Error
Checking
Distance and error detection/correction
valid code word

dmin=2
dmin=4

Error
Detection Algorithms
Parity Check
Even parity
Odd parity
Check Sum
CRC
LRC
CX-ORC

Error
Correction Algorithm
Hamming code
i3 i2 i1 i0 c2c1c0
1000111
G= 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0010101
0001011
1110100
H= 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
101100 1

Error
Hamming code
c2: even parity check of i3, i2, i1
Transmit code word, c = iG
HcT = 0
If the receiving code, d, with error
d=c+e
Syndrome, s = HdT = HeT

Error
Syndrome table
Syndrome
000
001
010
100
011
101
110
111
Meaning
No error
Error in c0
Error in c1
Error in c2
Error in i0
Error in 11
Error in i2
Error in i3

Error
H matrix for (15, 11) hamming code

111101110001000
H= 111011001100100
110110100110010
101110011010001
Code length: n = 2m - l -1
Number of information bits: k = 2 m - m - l -1
Number of check bits m = n - k

Example:
Design a Hamming code for encoding

five (k =5) information bits
Four check bit, m = 4, is required
Delete six (6) columns from previous H matrix
111101000
H= 111010100
110110010
101110001
100001111
010001110
G= 001001101
000101011
000010111

Unauthorized Access Prevention and Security
Operation
Levels of Password
Master Password
Operation Reconfirmation
Background Operation
Settings Update Algorithm
Future Development of Microcomputer

Based Relay Systems
Artificial
Intelligence
Multiple Function Relays
Common Hardware Configuration
Software (Firmware) Driven Protective
Function(s)
Stronger Communication Capability
Serve as Pre-/Post-Fault Recorder

Protective Relay

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Part Four Protection

Fundamentals and Basic Design

The best protection technique now and for more

The Differential Principle

For normal operation and

The Differential Principle

For internal faults, the differential relay operating

The Differential Principle

To provide high sensitivity to light internal faults

The Differential Principle

For the circuit with 50% characteristics, an

The Differential Principle

The through current characteristics apply only for

Overcurrent and Distance

Where differential is not utilized, overcurrent and

Overcurrent and Distance

Basic Design Principles

Basic Design Principles

Basic Design Principles

Definite minimum time (CO-6)

Tap setting and time dial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial system

For this example, 3-A TS was selected for B3 relay.

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

For this example, 5-A TS was selected for B2 relay.

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

For this example, 5-A TS was selected for B1 relay.

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Example: Time-overcurrent relays for radial

Basic Design Principles

Instantaneous current-voltage relays

Basic Design Principles

Directional sensing power relay

Basic Design Principles

Basic Design Principles

Phase distance relay

Basic Design Principles

Phase distance relay

Basic Design Principles

Phase distance relay

Basic Design Principles

Phase distance relay

Basic Design Principles

Phase distance relay

(Typo in the book)