Gender Database For Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries

Gender Database for
Agriculture and
Resource Management
Policies in Pacific
Island Countries
RAP Publication: 1999/7
Editorial support:
Dr. Revathi Balakrishnan, Regional Rural
By Heather Booth
Sociologist and
Demography Programme
Women in Development Officer
Research School of Social Sciences
Ms. Marlynne E. Hopper, Consultant
Australian National University, Canberra
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific For copies write to:
39 Phra Atit Road Regional Rural Sociologist and Women in
Bangkok 10200, Thailand Development Officer
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific
ISBN: 974-86644-2-2
39 Phra Atit Road
Bangkok 10200, Thailand
The designations and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author alone and do not imply any opinion
whatsoever on the part of FAO.
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Summary
Tables
Abbreviations
1. Introduction
2. Policies Relating to Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Natural Resource Management

and Rural Enterprise Development
2.1 Fiji
2.1.1 Agriculture
2.1.2 Fisheries
2.1.3 Forestry
2.1.4 Natural Resource Management
2.1.5 Rural Development
2.2 Vanuatu
2.2.1 Agriculture
2.2.2 Fisheries
2.2.3 Forestry
2.3 Samoa
2.3.1 Agriculture
2.3.2 Fisheries
2.3.3 Forestry
3. The Impact of Policies on Household Livelihood and Food Security
3.1 Fiji
3.2 Vanuatu
3.3 Samoa
4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs to Address Policy
4.1 Data Availability and Unavailability
5. Capacity Building in Gender-Disaggregated Database Development
Bibliography
Annex 1: Statistical Sources and Planned Activities
Annex 2: Persons Consulted

Foreword
Women in development activities in the Pacific Region should be
built on solid foundations of good data and area specific
information on gender roles in local production. Policies and
programmes in such sectors as agriculture, ecological resource
management and rural production should reflect the realities of
country specific gender roles in these sectors. Though in recent
years the development agenda has addressed gender concerns,
we still have not achieved the goals set by various UN
conferences on women since 1985. In Pacific Island countries, a
major barrier to full integration is a lack of current information on
the status of women in agriculture, natural resource management
and rural enterprises. FAO, as the lead technical organization in
the UN system, has a special interest in developing appropriate
databases on women's participation in agriculture and associated
sectors that determine household food security. In reflection of
such commitment, the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific has produced this document on "Gender Database
Development for Agriculture and Resource Management Policies
in Pacific Island Countries."
The document presents an overview of the policies related to

agriculture, fisheries, forestry, natural resource management and
rural enterprise development, and examines the current status of
gender integration in these policies. The focus of the analysis is
on the current integration and potential for these policies with
gender considerations to achieve sustained household food
security in the selected Pacific Island countries. Drawing from
such a review, the document provides detailed guidelines on data
requirements relating to gender dimensions in agriculture, natural
resource management and rural development in Pacific Island
countries. We hope this document will be of value to the
Ministries and other interested groups who aim to improve the
integration of women in development and country specific gender-
disaggregated databases among Pacific Region countries.
Prem Nath
Assistant Director General
and Regional Representative
for Asia and the Pacific
Bangkok, Thailand
January 1999
Acknowledgements
This document is an outcome of various missions undertaken by
Heather Booth, a demographer and social statistician with
extensive experience in the Pacific Island region. The report was
prepared under a consultancy agreement with the Women in
Development Programme of the FAO Regional Office for Asia
and the Pacific. Visits were made in April-May 1997 to the three
Pacific Island countries covered in the report, namely Fiji,
Vanuatu and Samoa, in order to collect information and interview
key people. A list of the individuals consulted appears as part of
the report. Each one of them is gratefully acknowledged for their
assistance which enabled FAO/RAP to prepare this report. Dr.
Vili A. Fuavao, FAO Sub-Regional Representative for the Pacific
Islands, is sincerely thanked for his support to this mission.
The report provides an analysis of the current status of gender

and women's concerns in policies concerning natural resource
management, agriculture and rural enterprise development in
relation to food security. It also addresses data needs in order to
address the gender aspects of these policies. Although the
report is developed based on field visits to three island countries
in the Pacific Region, we hope that the database framework that
forms part of the document will provide guidelines for gender
sensitive database development for other island countries in the
region.
Women in Development Service

Sustainable Development Department Group (RAPS)
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
Bangkok, Thailand
January 1999
Summary
Women in Pacific Island countries play an important role in
agricultural and natural resource management and in
contributing to food and livelihood security. Yet, programmes and
policies related to agriculture, fisheries, forestry, natural resource
management and rural enterprises do not always take women's
roles sufficiently into account given the scarcity of relevant
gender-differentiated and sex-segregated information. In order to
better address food security issues, it is therefore necessary to
understand the status of women as compared to men and to
strengthen women's roles in agriculture and natural resource
management. This requires the availability of relevant
information.
This report examines existing policies in the areas of agriculture,

natural resource management, fisheries, forestry and rural
enterprises in three Pacific Island countries, namely Fiji, Vanuatu
and Samoa. The focus is on their relevance to women and their
impact on food and livelihood security as a means to analyse the
current status of gender integration in these policies. On the
basis of this review and analysis of existing policies, the report
identifies relevant sex-disaggregated data needs at both the
national and community level, as well as appropriate sources
and data availability. Strategies for capacity building in the
identification, collection and tabulation of sex-disaggregated data
are subsequently discussed as a means of enhancing database
development in agriculture, natural resource management and
rural enterprise development.
While acknowledging the importance and complementarity of

qualitative data, such as detailed studies of gender roles or
gender sensitive case studies of farming systems, the focus of
the report is on the quantitative data required to understand the
roles of women in agriculture, rural development and food
security. Sex-disaggregated data are a crucial prerequisite to the
formulation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
programmes aimed at enhancing the role of women in
agriculture, natural resource management and rural
development. However statistical data of this nature are not
readily available in Pacific Island countries. In this context, the
report identifies data needs as well as appropriate data sources
for the three countries in the study. Data needs are grouped into
seven broad areas: i) economic activities; ii) access to means of
production; iii) time use and productivity; iv) decision making; v)
income and expenditure; vi) food security; and vii) education and
training. Within each area, a range of data requirements at the
community and/or national level are defined, data availability or
unavailability is discussed, and sources or proposed sources are
identified.
The report is cognisant of the importance of database

development as a means to strengthen policy formulation and
planning in the areas of agriculture, natural resource
management, forestry, fisheries and rural enterprise
development. It discusses how database development involves
defining data needs, collecting and tabulating required data and
organizing data such that they are available to users. In addition,
it recognises the need to foster effective communication
channels between data users and data producers.
On the basis of the analysis of existing policies related to

agriculture and natural resource management in Fiji, Vanuatu
and Samoa, the report reiterates the absolute necessity of
according full attention to gender-disaggregated and sex-
segregated information in database development. In this context,
four strategies for capacity building in gender-disaggregated
database development are identified and discussed. Firstly, the
need to increase gender awareness among both users and
producers of databases in order to enhance recognition and
definition of data needs, and to improve communications
between them. The second strategy recommends capacity
building in gender-disaggregated database development for
users in order to increase their statistical awareness given the
tendency for users concerned with women in development
issues to be unfamiliar with data collection. The third strategy
focuses on the need to increase skills in farming systems
database development, not currently well developed in the
Pacific Region, given their appropriateness for gathering
community level information. For instance, in many cases much
of the data required at the community level could be best
obtained through research and extension activities carried out
within communities. Finally, the fourth strategy advocates the
need to enhance skills in computer-based data compilation,
through training in database management and software use,
given the great benefits and potential of electronic technologies
for database development.
The report illustrates the value and potential of gender-

disaggregated database development as a tool for the effective
formulation and monitoring of agriculture and natural resource
policies. Although the focus of this report is on three Pacific
Island countries, Fiji, Vanuatu and Samoa, it nevertheless
provides a guide to strengthen database development in other
countries in the region.
Tables
Table 1: Daily per Capita Food Availability in Kilocalories as a
Percentage of Requirements (1990-92)
Table 2: Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions in

Agriculture, Natural Resource Management and Rural
Development in the Pacific
Abbreviations
ADB
Asian Development Bank
AusAID
Australian Agency for International Development
DP3 Third National Development Plan (1992-1996),

Vanuatu
EEZ
Exclusive Economic Zone
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations
GATT
General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
ILO
International Labour Organization
ISCO-88 International Standard Classification of

Occupations 1988
ISIC
International Standard Industrial Classification
MAFFM Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery and

Meteorology, Samoa
MAFF
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests, Fiji
MWA
Ministry for Women's Affairs, Samoa
NA
Not available
NGO
Non-governmental Organization
RAP
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
SPC
South Pacific Commission
SPREP
South Pacific Regional Environment Programme
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNFPA
United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF
United Nations International Childrens Fund
UNIFEM
United Nations Development Fund for Women
VRDTCA Vanuatu Rural Development and Training

Centres' Association
1. Introduction
Pacific Island economies are based primarily on agriculture and
related activities. For many years, the traditional subsistence
economy has coexisted with cash cropping of coconut and
introduced crops. This ensured a continuation of self-sufficiency
in food and traditional materials whilst at the same time providing
cash for essential expenses. Until relatively recently, the
agricultural sector received considerable public support and
protectionist policies served to ensure food security.
The globalisation of world trade and, in particular, the General

Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) are however producing
significant changes in world commodity markets with
repercussions for agriculture in the Pacific. Under the Agreement
on Agriculture of the Uruguay Round, policies must have minimal
distortionary effects on trade or production. Pacific Island
economies have had to adapt to this new environment. The
response has generally been a greater emphasis on the
expansion of the private sector with exports as the key to
economic growth.
Under this new approach to economic development, food

production and food security are in danger of receiving less
attention than they deserve. Since women contribute
considerably to food production, especially in Melanesia,
women's roles are in similar danger. This only adds to the low
status that women in general and women's role in agriculture
already suffer. The issue of women's role in agriculture (and
concomitant role in natural resource management) is thus closely
linked to the issue of food security. Indeed, to some extent, it has
been possible to de-emphasise the importance of food
production and food security simply because these are women's
concerns.
In order to address food security issues therefore, it is necessary

to address and strengthen women's role in agriculture and
natural resource management. This requires the availability of
information. In this context, this report seeks to make relevant
data available for three Pacific Island countries, namely Fiji,
Vanuatu and Samoa1. An important part of the report focuses on
data requirements to inform and strengthen policy and
programme planning in agriculture and natural resource
management with respect to women's roles in food production
and food security. Additionally, the report includes a discussion
of data needs to address policy in rural enterprise development
given its close links to agriculture.
The improved availability of sex-disaggregated data on human

resources in agriculture, natural resource management and rural
enterprise development will also permit monitoring of the
changes in women's and men's roles which will undoubtedly
come about as a result of the policies being put in place.
A first requirement for determining data needs to address policy

is to examine that policy. The report therefore examines current
policies, including strategies and plans of action, in the areas of
agriculture (including fishing and forestry) and natural resource
management as well as rural enterprise development. The focus
is on those areas that are relevant to women and on the impact
of policies on food security and livelihood concerns. The report
then identifies relevant sex-disaggregated data needs at the
national and community level, as well as appropriate sources
and data availability. Strategies for capacity building in the
identification, collection and tabulation of sex-disaggregated data
are then discussed as a means to enhance database
development in human resources with regard to agriculture,
natural resource management and rural enterprise development.
This report forms part of activities carried out under the global
FAO Plan of Action for Women in Development 1996-2001. The
purposes of this plan are threefold. Firstly, to ensure an evolving
and dynamic understanding of the situation of rural women
including their contributions to, and constraints in, agriculture,
forestry, fisheries and rural development. Secondly, to establish
strategies and instruments with reachable targets to address
gender concerns in technical areas. Thirdly, to thereby enhance
the benefits that rural women derive from their contributions to
sustainable agriculture, forestry, fisheries and rural development,
as well as strengthen their capacities to contribute to national
development in each of these sectors.
1 Visits were made to these countries in April-May 1997.

2. Policies Relating to Agriculture,
Fisheries, Forestry, Natural Resource
Management and Rural Enterprise
Development
This section discusses current policies related to agriculture,
fisheries, forestry, natural resource management and rural
enterprise development. In order to place these policies in
context, some brief background information is also presented.
2.1 Fiji
Policies relating to economic and social development in Fiji were
formulated in the early 1990s (Government of the Republic of Fiji,
1993) and remain current after review in 1995 (Fiji Ministry of
Finance and Economic Planning, 1995). The overall aims are
accelerated economic growth through private sector initiatives
with an emphasis on exports. The private sector, operating in the
open market, is recognised as providing the essential driving
force of the economy, employment, rising real incomes and
revenue.
Women have been entering the labour force in increasing

numbers in line with the rapid expansion of the manufacturing
sector, in particular, the garment export industry. In addition, an
increasing number of women are self-employed in income-
generating activities such as farming, market-gardening, fishing
and reef-gleaning, craft production, retail outlets and food
vending. Many of these women are self-made, having received
no capital or training assistance. Policies are intended to involve
women as equal partners in development, to train women to
improve their employment opportunities, to strengthen
information on gender and co-ordination of activities, and to
examine legislation with respect to gender (Government of Fiji,
1993). Gender issues in agriculture have recently been
addressed by the UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP Mainstreaming
Project2. Gender sensitisation training has been carried out and
gender is now incorporated into mainstream policies and
activities.
2.1.1 Agriculture
In the early 1990s in Fiji, agriculture contributed about a fifth of

GDP and almost half of total employment (women's informal
sector employment is under reported). Sugar is the major
agricultural export crop, accounting for some 40 percent of total
exports in the early 1990s and employing almost exclusively
men. Copra is also important. More recently introduced crops
have included ginger, cocoa and rice. Dalo, duruka and yaqona
are also exported. Beef, dairy, poultry and pork production meet
most of the needs of the local market.
The 1993 Policy3 (Government of Fiji, 1993) aimed to guide the

agricultural sector towards a more competitive and market
oriented approach to production, and to use this approach in
adapting to market changes. Such market changes include:
deregulation; export promotion; improved productivity and cost
effectiveness; private sector investment; reorientation towards
financial performance and price effectiveness; and quality and
privatisation. The Government continues to provide essential
support services, such as extension, research, marketing,
planning, regulatory and infrastructure development, and to
enforce measures for sustainability.
Under the current refocusing, this policy continues to pursue a

corporate thrust, promoting increased co-operation with the
private sector and export growth. A Corporate Plan (1997-2000)
has been submitted to the Government for approval. Export-led
policy aims to provide income-generating opportunities and, at
the same time, improve food accessibility and affordability
through consistency and quality of supply. It promotes traditional
crops and seeks to identify niche markets (in USA, Canada, New
Zealand, Australia and Japan) for crops such as fresh mango,
pawpaw, taro and traditional vegetables. The European market is
an important market for processed fruit puree. The emphasis on
an expanded export market is expected to generate a surplus for
the domestic market. The surplus for the domestic market is
intended to absorb lower quality produce and provide economic
viability. Most of the produce exported is grown by smallholders
with 1-10 acres of land. There is a mix of smallholdings and
larger mechanised farms, always with mixed cropping.
Constraints to agricultural development include: inadequate

extension services; land tenure; water resources; insufficient
appropriate technologies; irregularity of supply; undeveloped
local and export markets; and a lack of many of the facilities
essential for efficient production including infrastructure, capital,
cold-storage and freezing capacity (for marine produce), fuel
supplies for fishing boats, marketing facilities, quality control, and
adequate air freight capacity (Fiji Ministry of Finance and
Economic Planning, 1995).
2.1.2 Fisheries
Although the fisheries sector contributes only 1.6 percent of

GDP, it has important potential. Subsistence fisheries are
important in themselves and as a source of income. Beche-de-
mer are processed and dried. Trochus shells are collected for the
pearl button industry. Women are involved in subsistence
fisheries related to gathering from the reef. Women are also
successfully involved in freshwater mussel fisheries. A fish
cannery employs rural women.
The 1993 Policy aims to: expand tuna and deep-sea fisheries;
improve efficiency and quality in small-scale commercial
fisheries; assist rural fishermen in the transition from subsistence
to small-scale commercial fishing; develop aquaculture (e.g. giant
clam, seaweed, prawn and crab); improve quality and added
value of exports; regulate for optimum utilisation and
sustainability; and improve business management and fish
handling and processing. At present, however, there is no
strategy for inshore fisheries and no assessment of stock levels.
2.1.3 Forestry
The forestry sector contributed 1.9 percent of GDP in 1994
(AusAID, 1995). Forestry provides rural income through
plantation ownership and timber processing. Forest exports are
an important component of total exports. Women are involved in
community forestry. In response to a request from women, the
Forestry Department began to promote the identification and
awareness of traditional medicinal plants. A non-governmental
organization (NGO), Wainimate, also promotes traditional
medicinal plants.
The 1993 Policy aims to: encourage private sector involvement;

ensure landowner participation; strengthen training; prepare a
forest inventory; promote the 1990 logging code; promote
conservation, protection, rehabilitation and reserves; and
encourage forest development so as to generate employment
and export income.
The 1993 Policy seeks to ensure sustainable development

through protection of the environment against activities that
threaten long-term productive potential. This includes sustainable
use of renewable resources, integrating environmental
management in planning and development, strengthening
institutional capacity for sound environmental management,
environmental impact studies for new projects, and prioritising
environmental expenditure according to its contribution to socio-
economic development. Conservation and protection measures
are to include community education. In addition, the active
participation of rural people is to be encouraged in precautionary
environment conservation and management measures.
Some two-thirds of Fiji's population is rural (Government of Fiji,

1986 Census). In line with national development policies, the
private sector is seen as the key to rural development through
employment creation and the retention of young people in rural
areas. The main areas identified for development are agriculture
(including timber) and tourism. Policies and strategies for rural
development are intended to: improve the effectiveness of local
administration; promote private investment; provide supporting
infrastructure for private commercial development; maintain
effective social services, particularly health, education and basic
need services; develop appropriate transport systems; and
encourage people's participation, particularly through NGOs
(Government of Fiji, 1993). The 1995 review of policy (Fiji
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995) further
emphasised small-scale agriculture and tourism as the key
strategic sectors for development.
While tourism is an important component of development, the

rural population has not benefited as much as possible as a
result of inadequately developed linkages to the rural economy.
Proposed initiatives thus aim to strengthen these linkages
through the development of handicrafts, ecotourism and small-
scale agriculture. Women's role in handicraft production has been
recognised in the proposed initiative to develop programmes for
women's clubs to produce craft work for sale in tourist outlets (Fiji
Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995). Other
constraints to the development of tourism include: a lack of
Government commitment, and a consequent lack of funding;
insufficient training facilities; inadequate hotel room and airline
capacity; high costs; and land tenure (Fiji Ministry of Finance and
Economic Planning, 1995).
Human resource constraints also exist in that the market

economy cuts across traditional indigenous modes of production.
Training in business is therefore seen as an essential part of the
development of the rural private sector. Since the majority of the
rural population is of Fijian ethnicity, this training has
concentrated on the enhancement of indigenous Fijians'
participation in business. The recent review of policy in this area
(Fiji Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995) identified
three levels for business development: i) corporate; ii) small-
medium enterprise; and iii) income generation. At the small-
medium enterprise level, the review noted that progress had
been extremely slow. However, most Fijians are involved at the
income generation level. The review also noted that the policy of
deregulation runs contrary to the enhancement of indigenous
Fijians' participation in business since their infant businesses
cannot compete with well established larger businesses. Support
through advisory and training services is therefore required, and
various protectionist measures and tax incentives have also been
proposed (Fiji Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 1995).
2.2 Vanuatu
In Vanuatu, agriculture, forestry and fisheries accounted for 23
percent of GDP in 1995, with 10 percent coming from
subsistence agriculture and 13 percent from commercial farms
and plantations (FAO, 1997). Agriculture, forestry and fisheries
accounted for 65 percent of exports in 1995 (ibid.). Livestock
production makes a significant contribution to GDP and beef
production is well established with exports to Japan and other
Pacific Island countries. Despite vast reserves, fisheries
production is small. Forestry accounted for some 4 percent of
GDP in 1995, this being reduced from early 1990 levels due to
concerns about conservation (ibid.).
The population of Vanuatu is overwhelmingly rural; 82 percent of

the population was classified as rural by the 1989 census
(SPC/UNDP, 1991). Rural households are characterised by a
semi-subsistence lifestyle. Traditionally women have been
responsible for food cropping and marketing while men are
involved mainly in cash crop production. Men also assist with the
heavier land-clearing work for food production. On average,
women spend 18 percent of their time on food production and
marketing and a further 5 percent of their time on cash cropping
(Agricultural Census, 1983-84 quoted in UNICEF/Government of
Vanuatu, 1991). Yet very little agricultural extension assistance is
available for women.
Until very recently, development policy in Vanuatu was

formulated in five-yearly development plans, the most recent of
which is the Third National Development Plan 1992-1996
(Vanuatu National Planning and Statistics Office, 1992). A
shorter planning timeframe of three years has now been adopted,
and policies for 1997-1999 are currently being incorporated into a
Comprehensive Reform Programme with the assistance of the
Asian Development Bank.
Traditionally women's involvement in planning and decision

making has been minimal. Even today, many national and
community issues are still addressed only by men. These include
issues such as land use and community water supplies which are
of vital concern to women given their role in agriculture and food
production.
The overall development goal for women is the realisation of their

full potential as equal partners and beneficiaries in development
processes and the promotion of their full and equal participation
in local, national and international affairs. Relevant areas of
emphasis include: incorporation of women's issues in
mainstream development; recognition of the importance of the
empowerment of women as a cornerstone to sustainable
development; and recognition of the strategic role of women as
agents and beneficiaries of development and in the alleviation of
poverty (Vanuatu Department of Women's Affairs, 1995).
2.2.1 Agriculture
Smallholder producers in Vanuatu accounted for approximately

80 percent of agricultural production in 1994 (Government of
Vanuatu, 1994). The main subsistence crops grown are sweet
potato, yams, taro, bananas and manioc. The main cash crops
are copra and cocoa, together with coffee, kava, pumpkin,
pepper, vanilla, groundnut and potato.
Emphasis in the past on cash crops, coupled with a lack of

foresight, has resulted in a shortage of traditional materials. At
the same time, growth in the tourism industry has increased
demand for traditional materials including palms for thatched
roofing, pandanus for handicrafts, bananas and pawpaw. Yet
none of these are planted in sufficient quantities. Although
sandalwood was sold for a high price in previous decades, it has
not been replanted. Similarly, kava consumption has outstripped
supply. Given the potential for traditional crop development,
smallholders are now being advised to increase planting of all
such crops.
Vanuatu is unable to export surplus agricultural production due to

a lack of proper quarantine legislation (a Bill seeking to address
this issue is currently before Parliament). The country has the
potential, at both the national and household level, to produce
significantly more than current production levels. In general,
however, households have fixed cash needs which they meet but
do not go beyond. Potential therefore exists to expand household
agricultural production as a means to increase household food
security and generate increased incomes.
The two key objectives under the Third National Development

Plan 1992-1996 (DP3) are to: i) expand the agricultural and
natural resources sector in a sustainable manner as an economic
sector providing, at the national level, domestic employment,
income generating opportunities, domestic food security and
export revenue; and ii) concentrate and prioritise the provision of
sustainable and appropriate assistance to smallholder farmers
and fisherfolk.
The specific policy objectives of DP3 in relation to agricultural

production and national food security include the development of
subsistence farming and gardening, with a special emphasis on
enhancing women's agricultural activities and welfare,
diversification of cash crops particularly coconut, and improved
market development for export.
The overall thrust of the new Comprehensive Reform Programme

for agriculture is one of increased smallholder commercialisation.
Greater emphasis is to be given to agro-industries for the
promotion of small-scale export enterprises and selected import-
substitution industries, particularly food-processing. In the area of
agricultural exports, policy aims to provide high-quality, low-cost
efficient services to facilitate growth, including improved wharf
operations, upgraded quarantine procedures and the introduction
of user-pays systems for inspections. Competition in copra and
cocoa marketing is also being introduced.
In the livestock sector, beef plays an important role with more

and more land being converted from forest to grazing.
Government policy seeks to encourage low-cost, high-quality
beef production for both local and export markets, through
measures such as the encouragement of competition in
processing, the privatisation of public shares in abattoirs, and the
regularisation of industry fees.
Given the low status of women in Vanuatu's culture, women's

role in agriculture is not recognised in many policies, including
delivery of extension services. In this context, farming systems
have not been improved. Indeed, they are not seen to be in need
of improvement. For example, no assistance has been given to
women in terms of appropriate technology (such as hoes for
weeding). Additionally, women often walk for an hour, carrying
everything by hand, to reach their gardens despite the obvious
inefficiencies. Extension officers are mostly male4 and tend to
address the chief and/or mostly male farmers who do not
generally pass on knowledge to women. Until recently, extension
services addressed the needs of cash crop producers, and the
more recent emphasis on food production has met with
resistance to change. Moreover, efforts to provide extension
services to women through the employment of 6 female
extension officers has met with resistance from women farmers
who could not understand the issues being raised and were
unwilling to accept advice from young women. More recently,
however, women farmers have come to recognise their problems
and to seek help from extension services on issues such as
limited land availability, soil fertility, diversification of vegetables,
etc. Assistance is also provided to women in the areas of food
preparation, food preservation and nutrition.
Agriculture and fishing is one of the "critical areas of concern"

identified in the Women's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu
Department of Women's Affairs, 1995). The strategic objective in
this area is "to recognise, promote and support women's
participation in agriculture and fishing, both paid and unpaid
activities - recognising women's role in food security". The Action
Plan calls for: the collection of data on women's activities,
including intrahousehold studies on the working of the family unit;
appropriate agricultural support systems, extension and training
for women; and recognition in agricultural planning systems of
the wide range of agricultural activities necessary for family food
security (including nutrition), cash cropping and the production of
handicrafts.
2.2.2 Fisheries
Fisheries remain a relatively underdeveloped sector of the

Vanuatu economy even though marine resources are vast. A
report on the needs and role of women in fisheries in Vanuatu is
currently under preparation (FAO). Government policy aims to
encourage and guide the private sector to exploit marine
resources in a sustainable way. Strategies address management,
fish licensing, etc. and do not refer explicitly to reef or
subsistence fishing activities. Women are involved in the
harvesting of reef produce for subsistence and cash. Income is
also obtained from the sale of shells and shell jewellery.
2.2.3 Forestry
Government policy relating to forestry is concerned with

plantations for logging, including local supply plantations. It aims
to create a secure environment for forest utilisation, harvesting
and re-establishment with the intention of attracting landowner
and private investment. Forest harvest licensing is to be limited to
sustainable levels.
Reforestation remains an outstanding issue. Pressures for land

impede both natural regeneration and plantation redevelopment.
These pressures are the result of increased needs for grazing
and planting of cash crops and, in a few areas, the result of
population growth. Subsistence agriculture also results in the
destruction of primary and secondary forest. On one island at
least (Pentecost), substantial areas of forest have been cleared
for cash crops (such as kava which requires 5-7 years before
harvesting). One of the consequences of forest clearing is the
drying up of water supplies during drier weather. The task of
carrying water from alternative sources falls largely on women. A
second consequence is the lack of firewood, and women now
have to walk substantial distances to gather firewood.
Although Vanuatu's natural resource management policy is

contained in the National Conservation Strategy (Government of
Vanuatu, 1993), comprehensive environmental legislation has yet
to be put in place. The majority of land and sea resources are
under customary control. The rights and duties of custom owners
are enshrined in Vanuatu's constitution. The constitution states
that "every person has a fundamental duty to himself and his
descendants and to others to protect Vanuatu and to safeguard
the national wealth, resource and environment in the interests of
the present and of future generations". The role of Government is
thus to educate communities in sustainable land and marine use
practices. Several communities have taken steps to make their
land protected areas whilst others are developing ecotourism and
environmentally friendly income-generation programmes.
The environment is another of the "critical areas of concern"

identified in the Women's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu
Department of Women's Affairs, 1995). This Plan of Action calls
for: recognition of, and an increase in, women's participation in
environmental management and development; increased
awareness of, and action in, defence of the environment; and the
formulation of policies to address the question of the
environmental effects of military-related and mining activities.
The main themes of rural development policies concern

increased economic self-reliance, improvement in the quality of
rural and urban life, and more equitable development between
regions and provinces. Sustainability is emphasised, based on
community participation and a sense of ownership, together with
environmental and gender sensitisation and their integration in
mainstream development.
The principal aim of the private sector development strategy is to

improve investment, and thereby increase efficiency and
productivity. The development of the private sector is, however,
seen as retaining its customary communal character rather than
encouraging individualism. The customary system and its
subsistence mode of production is important in ensuring food and
livelihood security. One policy objective is to expand on-farm and
non-farm earning opportunities through the development of the
agricultural and agro-industrial sector.
Small-scale food processing is being encouraged by the

Department of Primary Industries through its research and
demonstration Food Processing Centre. At present only root
crops are being processed (into biscuits, chips and powder) but
plans are underway to extend coverage to fruits, etc. Other rural
industries under consideration include: i) processing of pumpkin
into powder for export as an alternative to exporting fresh
pumpkin5; ii) yam powder production for export; and iii) fish
canning as an alternative to fresh fish exports which involve
significant handling problems.
A recent initiative is to find employment for people within their

own communities. For example, unemployed urban women are
being encouraged to procure handicraft materials from their
home communities for weaving in their urban homes. Urban
dwellers are encouraged to grow food on whatever land they
have available. In rural areas, families are being encouraged to
employ local unemployed persons for a few hours.
The National Plan of Action for Women identifies poverty as a

"critical area of concern" for women. According to this document,
as the traditional and cultural means of generating income
disintegrate, women have come to bear the brunt of the burden in
terms of managing food security, child-rearing, family health and
household management. At the same time, customary
mechanisms of support are rapidly losing their effectiveness
given the changing social and economic conditions. The strategic
objective is thus to recognise the increasing incidence of poverty
in the country, particularly as it relates to female-headed
households, and to promote means to address the root causes of
this growing problem. In particular, the action plan calls for
programmes to: help reduce the burden of women's multiple
roles; promote equitable employment for both women and men;
provide opportunities for women and men to actively pursue
income-generating activities in their own communities; research
and assess the poverty level and develop appropriate indicators.
The Vanuatu Rural Development and Training Centres'

Association (VRDTCA) is an NGO providing skills training to
trainees, and training of trainers courses. The aim is to enhance
the provision of appropriate vocational education and skills
training for young men and women and their communities without
(gender) discrimination. Areas covered include small business
management, environment and health, and a curriculum on
agriculture is currently being developed. The participation of
women is not high and efforts are being made to encourage more
women to take advantage of the training on offer and to become
involved in management committees. This includes formulation of
a gender policy which aims to provide equal access to all training
facilities, scholarships, materials, information and instructions
from male and female trainers, as well as gender-unbiased
management structures.
2.3 Samoa
The Samoan economy is predominantly agricultural with more
than 70 percent of the economically active population employed
in agriculture, fisheries and forestry (1991 Census). Recent years
have been characterised by low productivity, low growth, balance
of payments deficits, distortional policies and a dominant public
sector, together with a heavy reliance on remittances and foreign
aid. In 1995 agricultural exports accounted for 92 percent of all
export earnings, though the sector's contribution to GDP fell from
45 percent in 1990 to 37 percent in 1995. In 1996-97, only 6
percent of public investment went to the agriculture sector.
The main thrust of the current economic policy is a continuation

of the commitment during 1991-95 to promote the private sector
as the engine of economic growth (Government of Samoa,
1996). This includes creation of a less regulated economic
environment, continuing reform of the fiscal system (which will
increasingly incorporate incentives to investment without the
need for discretionary intervention); the sale of shares in state-
owned enterprises (primarily to citizens), and determined efforts
to make land more easily available for productive use. The
productivity of land, labour and capital is to be increased whilst
diversifying agriculture and rural economic activity. The public
sector is to withdraw from many of its current services. Efforts to
promote manufacturing are to concentrate on export-oriented
activities.
2.3.1 Agriculture
The main staple food crops in Samoa are giant taro (ta'amu),
yam, coconut, banana and breadfruit. Taro was a staple and
export crop until taro leaf blight devastated the crop in 1993/4.
Recent production has also been affected by drought and
cyclones. Beef, pork, chicken and eggs are also produced. Small-
scale production of fruit and vegetables includes lau pele (a leafy
vegetable), chinese and head cabbage, cucumber, tomatoes,
pumpkins, beans, eggplant, sweetcorn, green pepper, and
peanuts. Sweet potato is also grown but is not popular amongst
Samoans. Most village households also keep livestock, including
pigs, chickens, cattle, horses and goats.
Plantation cropping of coconut and cocoa exists side by side with

subsistence agriculture, and the two are often intercropped.
Commercial agricultural production (mainly coconut, cocoa and
taro) amounted to 14 percent of GDP in 1994, though the
contribution of taro had already declined. Land previously used
for commercial taro production is now increasingly used for cattle.
At present, there is no comprehensive agricultural policy in

Samoa. There are however various task forces including those
for extension, research, marketing and farming systems
(including women in agriculture). It is recognised that improved
productivity in the traditional sector depends on effective
extension and research services. Research and extension
services are therefore to focus on improved farming systems and
planting materials with an emphasis on mixed cropping, the
promotion of new tree crops, cyclone resistance, and potential for
processing and export. The distribution of seeds is a particular
area in need of improvement. Livestock improvement will be
restricted to cattle. Since the commercial farmer is seen as the
chief source of dynamism, farmers are to be trained in marketing
and business.
The public sector role is being restricted to credit and land. Costs
of agricultural materials and services will increasingly be
recovered from users and agricultural subsidies and other
support measures are to be phased out within a few years.
Similarly, Government will withdraw from marketing (Government
of Samoa, 1996).
Women's involvement in agriculture has been viewed largely

from the home economics perspective rather than the producer
perspective. When the Ministry of Women's Affairs (MWA) was
established in 1990, the home economics section of the Ministry
of Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery and Meteorology (MAFFM) was
transferred to the MWA. Women are generally involved in home
garden production, whilst men cultivate land further afield. The
MWA promotes the production of (mainly) introduced vegetables
and nutrition retaining cooking methods. A major constraint has
been the supply of seeds. Women grow traditional subsistence
crops and, as heads of households, benefit from extension
services. Women also grow pandanus and mulberry for
handicrafts, an important part of Samoan culture and income
generation, but extension services do not usually extend to this
area. Women's groups are now becoming interested in dairy
farming as a means to improve nutrition especially among
children. Women's Committees, one of three traditional groups in
the community (the others being the matai or chiefs and the
aumaga or untitled men), are also involved in agricultural
development.
The draft Policy for Women in Agriculture, developed as part of

the farming systems policy, aims to establish policy guidelines to
promote women's involvement in agriculture at all levels.
Objectives for women in agriculture address extension services,
training and public awareness. In extension, the aim is to improve
women's involvement in agriculture through more frequent
contact and a greater focus on women's agricultural activities and
their importance in agricultural development. In particular,
strategies cover the need for: an increased number of women in
MAFFM especially among extension workers; gender training of
extension workers; village nomination of women to liaise with
extension workers; women's committees to assist extension
workers; increased visits by extension workers to women; and
gender sensitive extension material. In the area of training,
improved management ability is to be achieved through
increased awareness of the factors contributing to successful
farming. Strategies include training for motivators of women's
groups, establishment of resource centres for women in
agriculture, planning village workshops on agriculture for women,
preparation of training materials featuring successful women
producers, and monitoring and evaluation of women in agriculture
projects. In terms of raising public awareness, the objectives aim
to improve public acceptance of women in agriculture as
successful farmers, and to improve recognition of women and
their significant contribution to national development. This is to be
achieved through a community awareness programme focusing
on women in agriculture.
2.3.2 Fisheries
Fisheries contribute only 2 percent to GDP with three-quarters of

the total catch for subsistence consumption (Government of
Samoa, 1996). Although the subsistence fish catch has been in
decline for many years, it is still four times as large as the
commercial catch. Fish provides an important source of high-
quality protein for local consumption. Women are involved in the
collection of seafood from the reef and in selling fisheries
produce in the market. Inshore fisheries resources are declining
due to over-exploitation, the use of destructive fishing methods
such as dynamite, environmental disturbances and silting of the
lagoon.
A 1996 Mission Statement aims to ensure sustainable and

optimum use of fisheries resources and to develop alternatives to
inshore resources that have been seriously depleted. A new
approach based on working with villages has been adopted
whereby if an initial meeting with village matai (chief) is positive,
MAFFM staff undertake a fact-finding exercise in the village and
assist villagers to put together a management plan based on their
own ideas and solutions to problems. Out of 45 villages, 21 have
so far developed their own management plan and 14 have
established marine reserves in their area to allow the reef to
recover. Women are involved in this exercise as one of the three
traditional groups with whom fisheries extension workers consult.
Out of a total of 16 fisheries extension workers in 1997, only 4 or
5 were women6.
Commercial fishing is mainly for tuna and deepwater bottomfish.

Fresh tuna is exported, providing some employment in rural
areas for both women and men. Offshore tuna is the only
fisheries resource available for expansion. However, Samoa's
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is not large enough to generate
fish licensing fees from distant-water fishing nations. Commercial
farming of mussels, oysters, giant clams and prawns is also to be
expanded (Government of Samoa, 1996).
2.3.3 Forestry
Forest reserves have been depleted to meet both subsistence

and market agricultural production, since land use has not been
intensified through increased capital or labour inputs. Forest
resources were also degraded by cyclones in the early 1990s
when 92 percent of plantation forestry was damaged. Although
replanting had recovered more than 50 percent of the area under
plantation by 1997, it does not yet provide wood for the domestic
market, thus threatening indigenous forest resources. Only a
portion of the indigenous forest area is merchantable and, at
current deforestation rates of 3.5 percent per annum,
merchantable forest is expected to disappear by 2005.
Forestry policy is guided by five fundamental principles (Samoa

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1994). These
are: i) optimal and sustainable use through maintenance of
ecological and economic forest value and sustainability; ii) forest
protection through the safeguarding of plant and animal diversity,
protection from fire, erosion and damage to water catchment
areas, and maintenance of sacred/historical sites; iii) provision of
basic human needs including traditional forest products such as
food, water, fuel, medicines, building and cultural materials; iv)
recognition of individual and collective responsibilities through
increased appreciation of forests and the recognition of various
interests in their control and management; and v) recognition of
the role of forests in economic development including
reforestation for domestic use, export and recreation.
Policy objectives (Samoa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and

Fisheries, 1994) aim to restore sustainable forest use. In the area
of conservation, plans are to document and protect biodiversity,
expand ecological reserves, ensure good forest management,
and develop conservation programmes to protect threatened
ecosystems and species. Water catchment areas are also to be
better protected, and the clearance of forests for agriculture is to
be discouraged. Indigenous forest utilisation is intended to be
sustainable, necessitating the preservation of 5,000 ha of
indigenous merchantable forest with 10,000 ha logged for
decorative and customary purposes at a sustainable rate. Efforts
to encourage community forestry conservation, reforestation and
watershed management include increased royalties, community
education, the promotion of multipurpose trees as cash crops,
and tree planting on marginal land. Plantations and the timber
industry are to be fully privatised with reduced capacity. Forest
education will also seek to promote appreciation of the value of
forests in biodiversity and human welfare and the
interrelationship between development and conservation. Areas
for recreation and tourism are to be identified and appropriate
levels of protection ensured. These objectives also devote
attention to improving documentation, research capacity and
organizational structure.
Landlessness does not exist in Samoa because of customary

rights. Land is held by the extended family and all members have
rights, though distribution is not necessarily equitable. More than
80 percent of land is held under customary tenure. While on
average households control 15.4 acres, a quarter of all
households control less than 5 acres which is considered the
minimum for livelihood security. Government land is now being
subdivided and leased and a new land use policy is under
formulation.
Sustainability is threatened by a number of factors including the

increasing use of herbicides and pesticides, and deforestation of
upland areas for agricultural purposes. The area of land under
cultivation has increased as a result of population pressure and
cash cropping, but intensification has not taken place.
Women play an important and recognised role in environmental

management. Traditionally environmental sanitation and
protection measures have been part of women's roles. However,
it is only recently that recognition has been given to the
environmental impact of development projects and the
Government now requires environmental (and social) impact
assessments for all projects.
The heart of the Samoan economy is in the villages. More than

70 percent of rural households are engaged to some extent in
agriculture, with two-thirds producing only or mainly for
subsistence consumption (FAO, 1997). Thus the overall
development strategy is to strengthen the involvement of the
private sector in rural development. The strategy's central feature
is the improvement of rural living standards, achieved through an
increase in the productivity of land and labour, and the
diversification of rural economic activities. Both employment
creation and the expansion of livelihood options in rural areas are
given importance. The equitable distribution of economic benefits
through the traditional communal system is emphasised rather
than the pursuit of individual profit (Government of Samoa,
1996).
Efforts to make land more easily available pertain only to

Government land which comprised some 11 percent of the total
in 1996. Since 1997, Government land can be subdivided on a
49-year lease. Leases are put to tender, with the highest bidder
securing the lease. Rents are reviewed after five years. This
system clearly discriminates against the poor, and consequently
against women. The land is nevertheless divided into both large
and small parcels, also catering for smaller farmers.
Diversification of the village economy is to include the

encouragement of handicrafts (through the Development Bank
and the Small Business Enterprise Centre) as well as small-scale
food-processing and tourism, especially in conjunction with
environmental protection. These areas are intended to benefit
women. The Ministry of Women's Affairs is promoting economic
capacity building through training in activities such as sewing,
flower arranging, vegetable gardening, cooking and small
business development. The National Food and Nutrition Policy
for Samoa includes the encouragement of small local
entrepreneurs in food processing industries. This policy also calls
for income-generation activities in rural areas. The present policy
applies the same business fee to informal traders and large
formal businesses alike, and there is no policy framework to
promote, support or regulate small traders. Similarly, there are no
policy measures in place to ensure that small-scale credit is
available to the informal sector, though a micro-credit scheme
has been initiated by the Ministry of Women's Affairs.
Traditionally, faaSamoa7 has ensured an equitable distribution of

wealth and acted as a safeguard for women's rights within
Samoan society. FaaSamoa meant that all members of the
extended family would have access to shelter and adequate
food. Yet indications today suggest that customary mechanisms
are now operating less effectively than in the past. Poverty,
particularly amongst women, has been identified as an emerging
concern (Samoa Ministry of Women's Affairs, 1995). Social
impact assessments, now a requirement for all projects, may help
to address this.
Rural development policies also seek to: improve education;

address health issues arising from diet and lifestyle (including
tobacco consumption); address the high natural increase of the
population (2.4 percent per annum); increase the supply of
electricity to meet demand; improve water supplies with the
introduction of meters and charging; and improve sea and road
transport (responsibility for plantation roads will pass to villages).
2 This project entitled "Incorporation of Women in Mainstream Development Planning"

was funded by UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP. It began in July 1990, initially for 2.5 years. The
project aimed to increase the participation of women in all aspects of development
through their incorporation in mainstream planning.
3 The 1993 policy mentioned in this section deals with all types of policy (agriculture,
forestry, fisheries, social, economic, etc.) and was produced by the Central Planning
Office of the Government of Fiji.
4 29 out of 35 extension workers were male in 1997 (personal communication with Mr.
James Wasi).
5 Fresh pumpkin is currently exported to Japan, though more than half of the pumpkin
crop produced fails to meet the strict size and shape requirements.
6 Personal communication with Mr. Ueta Faasili, 1997.
7 The term faaSamoa encompasses Samoan customs and traditions. FaaSamoa was
founded on subsistence agriculture based on descent group tenure and land ownership.
This system made basic resources available to all so that economic individualism was
impossible. Egalitarianism was balanced by hierarchy, based on age and rank (Meleisea,
1987).
3. The Impact of Policies on Household
Livelihood and Food Security
Food security has not traditionally been regarded as an area of
concern in Pacific Island populations. In normal times food is
plentiful and it is only in times of crisis, such as in the months
following a cyclone, that measures have to be taken to ensure
that food is available to those in need. Whilst this paper is not
concerned with such times of crisis, it is noted that a population
that is food secure in normal times will be better able to cope
with food insecurity during crisis periods.
National food balance data for Fiji and Papua New Guinea show
that the availability of food exceeds national requirements
(defined as desirable energy intake needed for work and leisure
and calculated on reference weights for the population) by a
considerable margin (see Table 1). Since food availability in
other Pacific Islands (with the possible exception of Solomon
Islands) is commensurate with Fiji and Papua New Guinea, it can
be surmised that food requirements are also more than
adequately met in other Pacific Island populations.
Table 1: Daily per Capita Food Availability in Kilocalories as

a Percentage of Requirements (1990-92)8
Country Food Food Percent

Availability Requirement Availability
Cook Islands - - -
Fiji 2769 2170 127.6
Papua New Guinea 2347 2066 113.6
Solomon Islands 1988 - -

Tonga 2642 - -
Vanuatu 2463 - -
Samoa 2548 - -
Whilst food security might be achieved at the national level,

accessibility to food differs between households (and indeed
between individuals within households), such that household
food security is not universal. Policies in agriculture, fisheries,
forestry, natural resource management and rural development
clearly have an impact on livelihood and food security. The
nature of this impact is considered below for the three countries
studied.
3.1 Fiji
In Fiji, food security has been a long-term concern. Despite this,
a recent study on poverty (Government of Fiji and UNDP, 1997)
found that 33 percent of the population were living in relative
poverty and 10 percent of households could not afford a basic
diet. One reason for this is the past concentration on cash crops
in the rural economy, with the result that there has been an
overall reduction in the quantity and quality of food crops
produced for household consumption. Available cash is spent on
imported cereals, canned foods and vegetables. Other
indications of an inequitable distribution of food are seen in the
deteriorating national health situation with respect to non-
communicable diseases.
At the World Food Summit in November 1996, the Fijian Minister

of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forests indicated that Fiji remains
committed to providing an environment conducive to attaining
food security for all its citizens. During the 1980s, the aim was to
achieve food security through protective policies, though this did
not prevent the decline in household food production. More
recently, the approach to food security has been changed to
encompass an export-led agricultural policy in line with the
overall emphasis on an export-led economy. The development of
agricultural exports is seen as providing income-generating
activities whilst at the same time improving food security. In
particular, food accessibility and affordability is to be improved
through consistency and quality of supply, which export-oriented
production is intended to foster. In addition, an expanded export
market is expected to generate a surplus for the domestic
market, which in turn is necessary to absorb lower-quality
produce and provide economic viability. Since most exported
produce is grown by smallholders with 1-10 acres of land, this
policy will benefit most producers. At the same time, the
presence of larger farms producing for the same market, but with
improved efficiency through mechanisation, ensures supply and
hence keeps prices down. Prices are also kept down by larger
plantings, now possible due to the existence of a larger local
market and an expanding export market.
Whilst this export-led approach to food security has many

positive aspects, reservations have been expressed. The
approach does not cater for very small farmers with less than
one acre, many of whom are the rural poor and women. Whilst
the rural poor may benefit from cheaper food prices, they will
also suffer in that their own produce will not generate much
income especially as gluts are likely to occur on the local market
due to the larger scale of production for export. In addition,
agricultural services will be less and less suitable for their needs.
Despite ministerial statements, food security does not enjoy

explicit policy status and resources are not allocated to food
security per se. Policies that have some relevance for food
security are those in agriculture and in health. However the
former do not address the links to food security, either explicitly
or implicitly, and the latter are concerned with curative measures
rather than prevention of nutrition related diseases such as
diabetes.
The National Food and Nutrition Committee advises the

Government on matters relating to food and nutrition. The draft
Fiji Plan of Action for Nutrition (Fiji National Food and Nutrition
Committee, 1996) promotes food security through, amongst
others, improved availability and accessibility, increased
production and consumption of local foods and increased
acreage of agricultural land devoted to food crops. It also
promotes family food production through backyard food gardens,
community-based food production and food-processing
enterprises, diversification of farming practices to strengthen
home food production, and household food processing and
preservation. The lack of resources allocated to food security is
evident in the fact that the backyard gardening activities are to
be implemented through women's organizations, whilst the
remaining activities are to be implemented by the Department of
Agriculture.
Improvements in food security are occurring as a result of

marketing developments. The emergence of urban squatter
settlements, housing poor rural to urban migrants, has resulted in
some squatters developing `middleperson' roles, in which they
buy basic foodstuffs from rural farmers to sell in stalls in squatter
areas. Since squatter settlements are found in various locations
in Suva, this has improved food distribution and alleviated
farmers of the need to go to, and spend time selling at, the
central Suva market. This development also provides livelihood
security for the squatters concerned and increases the
productivity of farmers. Further marketing developments include
packaging to reduce the time that women spend selling their
produce at the market and to reduce food spoilage. Packaging
also provides employment for women and increases farmer
productivity.
3.2 Vanuatu
Food security has featured relatively prominently in Vanuatu's
recent development policies. One of the two key objectives of the
Third National Development Plan 1992-1996 (DP3) is to expand
the agricultural and natural resources sector in a sustainable
manner so as to provide domestic employment, income
generation opportunities, domestic food security and export
revenue. In particular, DP3 focused on the development of
subsistence farming and gardening, with special emphasis on
enhancing women's agricultural activities and welfare,
diversifying cash crops particularly coconut, and improving
market development for exports. However, food security and
women's role in agriculture feature less prominently in the new
Comprehensive Reform Programme for Agriculture which
emphasises increased smallholder commercialisation, agro-
industries and small-scale export enterprises, and import-
substitution industries, particularly food-processing.
Given the pivotal role of women in agricultural production,

policies to address food security must address women's
agricultural role. This was recognised in DP3, but in practice was
found to be difficult to implement because of the low status of
women and the existence of cultural norms. Development in this
area is slow and will be a major constraint to the implementation
of policies aimed at improving agricultural production. Thus, the
Women's National Plan of Action (Vanuatu Department of
Women's Affairs, 1995) calls for the recognition, promotion and
support of women's participation in agriculture and fishing, both
paid and unpaid activities, in recognition of women's role in food
security.
The Women's National Plan of Action also identifies poverty

arising from a breakdown of effective traditional and customary
support systems as an area of concern. The increasing burden of
women's multiple roles are compounded in areas where water
and firewood now have to be carried longer distances due to
environmental degradation. A consequence is that women have
less time for agriculture resulting in decreased productivity,
increased poverty and diminished food security.
Vanuatu's National Food and Nutrition Policy was approved in

1986. Its overall objective is to ensure the nutritional well-being
of the total population and increased self-sufficiency in food. To
achieve this, three priority objectives were identified: i) to prevent
and reduce the prevalence of under-nutrition in vulnerable
groups; ii) to prevent an increase in the prevalence of nutrition
related non-communicable diseases; and iii) to improve food
security. The more recent Plan of Action for Food and Nutrition
for 1997-2001 (Government of Vanuatu, 1996), formulated
following the International Conference on Nutrition in 1992,
expands these objectives to include increased food self-
sufficiency and reduced dependence on imported foods and
beverages, particularly those that induce nutrition related
disorders.
The Plan of Action for Food and Nutrition includes a National

Household Food Security Development Plan, developed jointly
by the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture and the
National Food and Nutrition Committee. Project activities under
this plan await resources for implementation. Priority is to be
given in the first instance to urban areas, where home food
production is to be promoted and extension services (including
technical assistance and inputs) provided. This plan also calls for
the institution of agricultural policies that promote food
production, and the review of tariffs imposed on imported foods,
which play a crucial role in ensuring household food security
among urban dwellers. The need for income-generating activities
and a minimum wage policy is also recognised. Strategies for
rural areas include production of less land demanding cash
crops, intercropping, and maximisation of available land that has
already been cleared. Some training in horticulture is already
being provided in urban areas by an NGO.
3.3 Samoa
At the national level, food security is not an issue of concern in
Samoa. However, relative poverty and food insecurity exist at the
household and intrahousehold levels. Youth and some
economically disadvantaged households in urban and peri-urban
areas are at particular risk. Malnutrition is a significant health
problem. In adults this takes the form of over-nutrition with
obesity, hypertension and diabetes, whereas in children it takes
the form of micro-nutrient deficiencies and protein-energy under-
nutrition, especially in infants. Iron deficiency anaemia also
occurs in children and in pregnant and lactating women. The
promotion of home gardens and nutrition education should help
to overcome malnutrition problems, especially since part of the
problem appears to stem from a lack of nutritional knowledge.
In Samoa there is increasing dependence on imported food, the

value of which now exceeds the value of all exports. This trend is
likely to continue under the current economic strategy. Indeed
one of the most likely outcomes of this strategy, according to
expert consensus, is an "increased monetisation of the
agriculture sector and increased dependency on cheap imported
foods" (Government of Samoa, 1996:14). The fact that most
people cannot afford the `cheap' foods currently imported
indicates that food security will further deteriorate. Furthermore,
cheap imported foods include foods such as mutton flaps and
turkey tails which are nutritionally inferior to local sources of
protein.
The National Food and Nutrition Policy (Samoa National Food

and Nutrition Council, 1995) includes, as one of four overall
objectives, the achievement of environmentally sound and
socially sustainable development to contribute to improved
nutrition and health. Amongst the specific objectives is a
reduction in the reliance on imported food through increased
production of local foods, especially foods of high nutritional
value, and the improvement of national and household food
security. Home gardening is also promoted. MAFFM also
promotes the production and consumption of local foods in co-
operation with the National Food and Nutrition Council.
By the year 2010, the Government aims to: eliminate moderate

and severe protein-energy malnutrition; stabilise and/or reduce to
below 1991 levels the incidence of diabetes, hypertension,
obesity and heart disease; reduce by 20 percent present infant,
child and maternal mortality rates; reduce the incidence of
nutritional anaemia among 1-5 year olds and pregnant and
lactating women; and increase breast-feeding of infants.
8 Source: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Selected Indicators of Food and
Agriculture Development in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1983-1993. Bangkok, 1994.
4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs to
Address Policy
The availability of reliable sex-disaggregated data is an important
prerequisite for the formulation, monitoring and evaluation of
policies and programmes aimed at enhancing the role of women in
agriculture, natural resource management and rural development.
In that women play a pivotal role in livelihood and food security,
sex-disaggregated data are needed to evaluate these securities.
The FAO Plan of Action for Women in Development 1996-2001
(FAO, 1995) points to the need for statistical data on the role of
women in agriculture and rural development. The establishment of
a global database on women in agriculture and rural development
was proposed in 1988 (FAO, 1988).
In the Pacific, like the developing world in general, sex-

disaggregated data on human resources in agriculture and rural
development are not readily available (FAO, 1993). There is thus a
need to specify data needs and appropriate sources. Table 2
identifies data needs and sources for the Pacific Island countries
included in this study. These data needs are those required to
monitor and evaluate the policies, strategies and plans detailed
above, particularly in relation to gender roles in agriculture and
rural development and to food security. These data are grouped
into seven broad areas, namely economic activity, access to the
means of production, time use and productivity, decision making,
income and expenditure, food security, and education and training.
Within each broad area, a range of data requirements are defined
(column 2) and these are grouped into subject areas (column 1).
The level (column 3) at which the data are required may be
national or community (or both). The source, or the proposed
source in the case of data items that are not generally available, is
also provided (column 4) as is an indication of the status of the
item in terms of general data availability (column 5). The table is
not exhaustive in the range of data items required, but serves to
provide a list of appropriate and feasible data for the specified
purpose.
For example, policies to improve the delivery of extension
services, especially to women, are informed by data providing the
frequency of contact with extension workers and the type of
service received by women and men involved in agriculture,
whether large or small-scale. Such data could be7 obtained from
records of extension activities made at the time of service delivery
and incorporated into a farming systems database. However this is
not currently done in most countries.
In addition to the statistical data included in Table 2, other types of

data are required to understand the changing roles of women in
agriculture, rural development and food security. For example,
detailed gender sensitive case studies of the farming systems
currently practised are required to provide an adequate
understanding of those systems for policy formulation and
evaluation. A detailed study of gender roles would complement the
data obtained from time-use studies. A detailed examination of
such qualitative data needs is beyond the scope of this report.
Table 2 Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions in

Agriculture, Natural Resource Management and Rural
Development in the Pacific
Source/Proposed
Subject Data Item Level Status
Source
Economic Activity in Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry and Rural

Enterprises
· persons economically
Overall active in agriculture PC or LFS or
NC A
employment (industry) by sex by HIES
employment status
active in agriculture PC or LFS or
NC A
(occupation) by sex by HIES
employment status
active in agriculture
NC PC or LFS A
(occupation) by sex by
educational level
Market- active in market- PC or LFS: codes
oriented oriented agriculture NC 611-613 of ISCO- A/t
employment (occupation) by sex by 88 at 4-digit level
employment status
active in market- PC/LFS: codes
oriented fisheries NC 6151 and 6152 of A/t
(occupation) by sex by ISCO-88
employment status
active in market- PC/LFS: codes
oriented forestry NC 6141 and 6142 of A/t
(occupation) by sex by ISCO-88
employment status
active in subsistence
Subsistence PC/LFS: code 62
agriculture and fishing N C A/t
activity of ISCO-88
(occupation) by sex by
employment status
· holders by sex by
Farm holders household members
N AC A/t
and labour working on holding by
sex by age
household members
N AC A/t
working on holding by
sex by hours worked
household members
working on holding by N AC A/t
sex by method of
payment (cash/kind)
household members
working on holding by N AC A/t
sex by whether main
or secondary activity
hired labour on holding
by sex by N AC A/t
permanent/occasional
status
· rural entrepreneurs
Rural
by sex by type of N ES or HIES A/t
entrepreneurs
enterprise
· rural households with

own activity in
agriculture, fishing,
Rural
forestry or handicrafts N HIES A
households
by main source of
income (e.g. crop or
activity)
Access to Means of Production
Land marital status by size N AC A/t
of holding by tenure
legal status by size of N AC A/t
holding by tenure
· horticulturalists by
sex by size of land NC FSDB NA
controlled
· holders/
horticulturalists by sex
Credit NC FSDB NA
by amount of credit
during specified period
· rural loans by
purpose by sex of NC AR A/t
borrower
use of high yield
Agricultural AC: appropriate
seeds, fertilisers, NC A/t
inputs list of inputs
pesticides and
herbicides
sex by use of high
yield seeds, fertilisers, N C FSDB NA
pesticides and
herbicides
· holders by sex by AC: appropriate

Agricultural
use of introduced NC list of tools and A/t
technology
technology machinery
sex by use of NC FSDB NA
introduced technology
·
holders/horticulturalists
Extension
by sex by frequency of N C FSDB NA
services
contact with extension
workers
· extension workers by
NC FSDB A
sex by type of service
·
receiving extension NC FSDB NA
services by sex by
type of service
·
Transport NC FSDB NA
by sex by adequacy of
transport for marketing
Time-use and Productivity
· rural adult population

Gender- by sex by time spent
division of on specified domestic N C TUS NA
labour and productive
activities
· rural child/youth
population by sex by
time spent on NC TUS NA
specified domestic and
productive activities
· productivity of labour
Productivity by sex by type of NC FSDB NA
activity
Decision making
· persons with cash

income by sex by
Individual N HIES or SS NA
degree of control over
income
sex by degree of
control over decisions N C FSDB NA
relating to cultivation
of plot
· households with cash

income by members'
Household degree of control over N C HIES or SS NA
household income by
sex of head/members
· households by
members' degree of
HIES or FSDB or
control over household N C NA
SS
decisions by sex of
head/members
· membership and
office-bearers of
Community NC AR or FSDB A
agricultural/rural
organizations by sex
· involvement in
community projects by N C AR or FSDB A/t
sex
· Members of
National N AR A
Parliament by sex
· employees in
relevant government N AR A/t
positions by sex
Food Security
· anthropometric and
Nutritional
other relevant N NNS A
status
measurements by sex
· prevalence of
diabetes by sex by N A
age
· prevalence of
hypertension by sex N AR or HS A
by age
· prevalence of
anaemia by sex by N AR or HS A/t
age
· prevalence of
anaemia in pregnant N AR or NNS or HS A
and lactating women
· prevalence of protein-
N AR or NNS or HS A
energy malnutrition
· average food
Food consumption per N HIES A
capita by type of food
· calorie and protein

consumption intake per capita by N DS NA
sex by age
· prevalence of breast-
N NNS or HS A
feeding in infants
· monthly prices of
Economic NC CPI A
major food items
· monthly supply of
factors NC HIES/FSDB A
major food items
Income and Expenditure

· rural household
Household heads by sex by
N HIES A/t
income household income by
household size
· distribution of rural
household income by
contribution of N HIES A/t
household members
by sex by adult/child
household income by N HIES A
source of income
household expenditure
Household
by sex of head of N HIES A/t
expenditure
household by major
expenditure items
· average wage rates

Wage rates of agricultural labour NC FSDB NA
by sex
Education and Training
· rural population by
Literacy NC PC A
sex by age by literacy
Primary · rural primary

NC AR A
education enrolments by sex
· rural secondary
Secondary NC AR A
enrolments by sex
· secondary
enrolments in
education NC AR A/t
agriculture option by
sex
· tertiary enrolments in
Tertiary subjects relevant to
N AR A/t
education rural development by
sex by subject
· overseas
scholarships in
subjects relevant to N AR A/t
development by sex
by subject
· attendance in
regional/overseas
training workshops N AR A/t
relevant to rural
development by sex
· participants in
Community relevant government
N AR A/t
training training activities by
sex by subject
· trainers by sex by
N AR A/t
subject
· trainers in relevant
subjects by sex by
whether attended N AR A/t
gender sensitisation
workshop
Notes to Table 2
Level
N
National
C Community
Source
AC Agricultural Census
Administrative Records (of
AR
relevant institution)
CPI Consumer Price Indices
DS Dietary Survey
ES Employment Survey
FSDB Farming Systems Database
Household Income and
HIES
Expenditure Survey
HS Health Survey
LFS Labour Force Survey
NNS National Nutrition Survey
PC Population Census
SS Special Study
TUS Time-Use Survey
Status
Data are collected as part of current data

A
collection activities
Data are collected but this level of detail is
A/t
not usually tabulated
NA Data not usually available
Definitions
Holding: an economic unit of agricultural production (usually an

area of land) under single management by the holder.
Holder: a person (or persons) exercising management control of

the cultivation of a holding.
Legal status of holder: private (individual, household, two or more
individuals from different households, two or more households,
corporation, co-operative, other) or government.
Horticulturalist: a person engaged in the cultivation of a plot of land

too small to be covered by an agricultural census.
4.1 Data Availability and Unavailability

The sources of the data items specified in Table 2 can be divided
into three types: established censuses or surveys; administrative
records; and farming systems databases. For the first and second
of these, the producer and user are not usually the same. The
producer is often the national statistics office or a statistical section
of a government department, and the users are numerous. These
sources follow internationally recognised definitions to allow for
international comparison and as such are relatively inflexible. This
includes the agricultural census. For the third type of data source,
that is farming systems databases, the user and producer are
often the same (namely the farming systems or extension section
of the agriculture department) and data collection tends to be small-
scale and flexible.
The specification of data needs is the responsibility of the user but

in practice is often done by the producer. This is partly due to the
need to follow international procedures which in itself may lead to
good data availability. It is noted in Table 2, for example, that data
from population censuses which follows international procedures
with a long history of sex-disaggregation are widely available.
However, sex-disaggregation is less well developed in other
sources where international procedures are also followed, for
example the agricultural census.
A second reason for users failing to adequately specify data needs

is a lack of user expertise in this area. However, because of
producer specification this leads less to outright unavailability than
to a lack of relevant disaggregation. It is seen in Table 2 that
relatively few of the specified data items are unavailable (NA), in
other words they are not collected. It may also be the case that
existing data collection instruments are unsuitable for obtaining the
required data, even when specified by users. In such cases, for
example for data on decision making, special surveys or studies
are required.
A lack of relevant disaggregation is the main reason for the current

unavailability of data specified in Table 2. Such data can only be
made available if additional tabulations are produced. In fact, this
option is often unavailable for existing data and hence only applies
to future surveys. Lack of relevant disaggregation often refers to
disaggregation by sex, but disaggregation by rural/urban area (or
other geographical areas) may also lead to data unavailability. For
example, when rural entrepreneurs are not distinguished from
urban. One reason for a lack of disaggregation by sex or
geographical area is that in some countries precedence is given to
disaggregation by ethnicity or the indigenous/non-indigenous
dichotomy.
Further unavailability occurs when standard ILO codes for

occupation (ISCO-88) and industry (ISIC) are not used in sufficient
detail. For example, 4 digit codes are required if employment in
market-oriented agriculture is to be distinguished from employment
in subsistence agriculture. If such detail cannot be warranted in
large data collection exercises such as the population census
because of field conditions, smaller scale studies are required to
provide the detail required.
Indeed, in many cases data are more appropriately obtained

through farming systems databases. Much of the data required at
the local community level are best collected as part of extension
and research activities at the community level. Such data are an
important component of a farming systems database, as are other
localised data sources such as special surveys designed to obtain
additional data on topics of interest. Yet despite their advantages
over other sources of being regularly updated and able to
incorporate relevant detail, farming systems databases are not well
developed in the Pacific. Thus much of the data specified in Table
2 as being best obtained from farming systems databases are not
currently available.
5. Capacity Building in Gender-
Disaggregated Database Development
Database development involves defining data needs, collecting
and tabulating the required data or liasing with those responsible
for data collection and tabulation, and the organization of data
into a database such that they are accessible to users.
Whilst the definition of data needs has been addressed above, it

should be noted that the list of items specified in Table 2 is not
exhaustive, and that in-country expertise in data needs
specification is an essential part of capacity building. User ability
to specify sex-disaggregated data needs depends on two
factors: i) gender awareness; and ii) knowledge of statistical
practices. Gender awareness may be defined as an in-depth
appreciation both of the gender dimensions in agriculture, natural
resource management and rural enterprise development and of
the importance of gender-disaggregated data in addressing
those dimensions. It should also be noted that, in that producers
are involved in data needs specification, they too require a
general appreciation of gender dimensions and the need to
incorporate gender-disaggregation in tabulation plans. One
strategy for capacity building in gender-disaggregated
database development is thus to increase gender awareness
amongst both users and producers. This strategy would lead
to better recognition and definition of data needs and to more
effective communication between users and producers.
In order to increase gender awareness, it is recommended that

advantage be taken of regional activities in gender awareness
training such as those of the UNIFEM/AusAID/UNDP Pacific
Mainstreaming Project. Several FAO member countries in the
region, including the Cook Islands, Fiji and Papua New Guinea,
have already taken part in this project, and government
personnel involved in agriculture, natural resource management
and rural enterprise development have received gender
awareness training. It is recommended that FAO support future
gender awareness activities in as much as they relate to
agriculture, natural resource management and rural enterprise
development in FAO member countries. It is further
recommended that FAO assist countries to incorporate gender
sensitivity and sex-disaggregation into the data collection
practices of forthcoming agricultural censuses, in accordance
with new FAO procedures.
The second factor in user ability to specify sex-disaggregated

data is knowledge of the statistical practices involved in data
collection. In general, such knowledge may be lacking especially
where `non-agricultural' sources, such as population census or
household income and expenditure surveys, are concerned.
Users concerned with women in development issues are, in
general, often unfamiliar with data collection. There is thus a
need to improve user awareness of statistical processes. A
second strategy for capacity building in gender-
disaggregated database development is thus to increase
statistical awareness amongst users. Again, this would lead to
more effective communication between the users and producers
of data. It is recommended that advantage be taken of existing
regional assistance in this area (such as statistical training
programmes of the South Pacific Commission) and that FAO
support these activities in as much as they relate to agriculture,
natural resource management and rural development.
The collection of gender-disaggregated data obviously requires

expertise in data collection methodologies. Where data are
produced by national statistics offices or statistical sections of
government departments, such expertise is generally well
developed since these offices are staffed by statisticians. Where
farming systems databases are concerned, however, expertise in
statistical data collection is less well developed. A major reason
for this is that farming systems staff and extension workers are
trained in agriculture rather than data collection. In addition,
whilst gender awareness training may sensitise farming systems
and extension staff to the need for sex-disaggregation, a
prerequisite is that data on human resources in agriculture be
collected wherever appropriate rather than concentrating purely
on crops and agricultural materials as has tended to be the case.
There is thus a need to enhance skills in these areas. A third
strategy for capacity building in gender-disaggregated
database development is thus to enhance skills in farming
systems database development.
It is recommended that FAO provide assistance to member

countries in the development of a farming systems approach to
data collection and in farming systems database development.
This could include the design, content and medium of the
database, and data collection methodologies such as record
keeping, small-scale surveys and rapid rural appraisal
techniques. The form of this assistance would depend on current
country capacity to take advantage of training in farming systems
database development. If several countries are currently
interested, assistance might take the form of a regional training
workshop. However where interests are less coincidental, in-
country assistance would be more appropriate.
Finally, the organization of data into a database such that they

are accessible to users should preferably involve electronic
storage. A fourth strategy is thus to enhance skills in
computer based data compilation. It is recommended that
FAO support training in database management and the use of
appropriate software as required.
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Annex 1: Statistical Sources and Planned
Activities
Fiji
The Agricultural Census is carried out by the Department of
Agriculture with no input from the Bureau of Statistics. The last
census was conducted in 1991. A review after 5 years has been
postponed to 1998. The next census is scheduled for 2001.
A National Nutrition Survey is carried out every ten years by

the Fiji National Food and Nutrition Committee. . The first
National Food and Nutrition Survey was carried out in 1980 and
the most recent in 1992. A national breast-feeding survey was
conducted in the 1980s but the data were lost. The National
Food and Nutrition Committee is keen to develop a simple
nutrition surveillance program to supplement the decennial
survey, and a feasibility study is required as a first step. Studies
on the intrahousehold distribution of food are also required.
The last Population Census was in 1986, however the military

coups of 1987 and 1988 invalidated these data. Efforts were
made to improve the question on economic activity in
subsistence, and women's participation rates have increased as
a result. Gender-disaggregation is good, but urban-rural less so;
ethnicity is the first variable for disaggregation.
A Household Economic Activity Survey was conducted in

1989-90. This was the first survey of its kind in Fiji. It covered
urban areas, rural villages and rural settlements. Its main
objectives were to: determine the types of economic activity of
households; obtain data on the value of gross output and capital
formation of the household sector; and improve data on the
household sector contribution to national income. A secondary
objective was to update demographic, education, social and
economic details of individuals; this was done at the listing stage.
This is the closest that Fiji has come to obtaining time use data.
There are at present no plans to carry out a time use survey.
The 1990-91 Household Income and Expenditure Survey

(HIES) is still being processed. Preliminary results show that it
seriously underestimates income (since expenditure exceeds
income) and does not capture women's subsistence activities
since most women are classed as housewives. The next HIES is
planned for 1999. It will collect information on income per person
as well as household level income per commodity. The previous
HIES was in 1977. A 1983 survey was not published due to data
unreliability.
The 1992-93 Employment and Unemployment Survey is also

still being processed. This survey covers both urban and rural
areas and distinguishes between subsistence activities for cash
and own consumption, as well as covering two reference periods
of 7 days and one year. It also underestimates income. The
previous 1982 Employment/Unemployment Survey includes
some data by gender, including data on migrant heads of
households and time to find employment.
Regular sources include quarterly employment statistics on the

number and type of people employed in establishments by sector
and an annual Employment Survey of establishments. Public
sector employment data by gender are also available.
Data gaps identified by the Department for Women and Culture

include women in small business, the informal sector, and
women's contribution in farming communities.
Vanuatu
The Agricultural Census is conducted every ten years. The last
one was in 1993. It lists farm labour, however data on
subsistence production is at the household level. The first
Agricultural Census was held in 1983/4. It obtained little on the
human aspects of agriculture; where economic activity data are
available, women's activities are significantly under-represented
because domestic work is classed as their main activity. Some
time-use data are available, but these also under-report the work
activities of women. The 2003 Census will include fisheries
information if funding provided funding is available.
An annual Smallholder Agricultural Survey has been held

since 1989, the latest being in 1997. This survey uses the 1989
population census as a frame and is hence household-based. It
is rural and covers all Vanuatu's islands. Since 1991 or 1992, it
has included the gender of labourers. This survey has a core of
questions to which modules can be added. There have been no
time use surveys. A Market Survey concentrated on transport
and prices. A Smallholder Cattle Survey was conducted in
1985.
A National Nutrition Survey was conducted in 1996. The

previous survey, undertaken in 1983, provided good quality data
with detailed tabulations, including disaggregation by urban/rural
however not by gender. A 1985 Dietary Survey also exists
together with a 1985 Non-Communicable Diseases Survey.
A 1997 Household Income and Expenditure Survey is in the

planning stages, although funding has yet to be secured. This
survey is intended to cover urban and semi-urban areas and
some rural villages near semi-urban centres. Data on individual
wage-earners will be collected, and subsistence production for
cash or subsistence will be at the household level. A Family
Income and Expenditure Survey was carried out in urban
areas only in 1985. Disaggregation was by ni-Vanuatu/expatriate
head of household; there was no gender disaggregation.
A Women in Business Survey was conducted in 1994, and an

Informal Sector Survey was also conducted in 1994. An urban
Employment Survey was held in 1983 covering the private
sector. This has ni-Vanuatu/European disaggregation and data
on wages, salaries, hours, etc. by educational qualifications, age,
ethnicity, type of establishment, etc..
The latest Population Census was in 1989. Special efforts were

made to improve data on economic activity in this census;
gender biases are low. The previous census was in 1979 when
high female participation rates were also recorded. The next
census is planned for 2000.
In general, disaggregation by gender is often missing in Vanuatu

since disaggregation by ni-Vanuatu/expatriate is given priority.
Samoa
The last Agricultural Census was in 1989, but the results were
invalidated by two cyclones in 1990 and 1991. It contains little on
human resources. The next Agricultural Census is planned for
1999. Both the Statistics Office and Department of Agriculture
are involved in this activity. Surveys on agricultural production
cover both commercial and subsistence production, but are not
people-related. Surveys on extension are carried out by the
Department of Agriculture.
A Market Study was recently carried out for a sample population

of 51 traders at a market in Apia. It has not been analysed by
sex. This survey asked questions about transport and
commodities. Problems identified by the producers included:
shortage of family labour; plant disease; transportation (between
plot and house, and house and market, with most people relying
on public transport); and social commitments and regulations
made by village councils (such as bans on the use of chemicals).
The availability of land was not identified as a problem, despite
the fact that more marginal lands are now being used.
The last Population Census was in 1991 and the next is due to
be held in 2001. Gender biases exist in data on economic
activity. The 1991 census obtained information on women's
informal sector employment.
A Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) was

expected to take place in June 1997, with a sample of 2000
households. One of its purposes is to evaluate women's work.
The survey was designed to obtain socio-demographic
information about household members, as well as details of the
income and source of income of each member. Expenditure
information is at the household level. The last HIES was carried
out in 1977.
Annex 2: Persons Consulted
Fiji
Principal Economist, Agriculture

Mr Paula Taukei Department, Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Forests (MAFF)
Principal Nutritionist, National

Ms Seini Seniloli
Committee on Food and Nutrition
Statistician, Department for Women and

Ms Tupou Vere
Culture
Senior Assistant Secretary, Department

Ms Kiti Makasiali
for Women and Culture
Acting Senior Forest Officer,

Mr Inoke Wainiqolo Environmental Division, Forestry
Department, MAFF
Information Officer, Forestry

Mr Malakai Sevudredre
Department, MAFF
Statistician, Household Surveys, Bureau

Mr Toga Raikoti
of Statistics
Graduate Trainee, Household Surveys,

Mr Raj Naidu
Bureau of Statistics
Acting Principal Resource Assessment

Mr Mala Puiloa
Officer, Fisheries Department, MAFF
Vanuatu
Director, Department of Agriculture and
Mr Steven Kalsakau
Horticulture
Principal Agriculture Extension Officer,

Mr James Wasi Department of Agriculture and
Horticulture
Training Officer, Department of

Mrs Annick Steven
Agriculture and Horticulture
Second Secretary, Ministry of

Mr George Pakoa Agriculture, Livestock, Forestry,
Fisheries and Environment
Planning Office, National Planning and

Dr George Plant
Statistics Office
Statistics Office, National Planning and

Mr Jacob Isaiah
Statistics Office
Executive Officer, Culture and Religion,

Mr Asal Lazare
Department of Women's Affairs
Third Secretary, Ministry of Justice,

Mr Josiah Tom
Culture and Women's Affairs
Training Development for Women,

Mrs Hellen Michel Vanuatu Rural Development Training
Centre Association
Mrs Maturine Carlot Nutrition Section, Department of Health
Samoa
iomaga Society (NGO concerned with

Mr Ken Lameta
environmental issues)
Deputy Director, Ministry of Agriculture,
Mr Seve Imo Forestry, Fishery and Meteorology
(MAFFM)
Mr Maletino Teofio Agricultural Economist, MAFFM
Mr Siliva Moala Agricultural Economist, MAFFM
Ms Luagalau Foisaga Eteuati

Secretary, Ministry of Women's Affairs
Shon
Ms Christine Quested Nutritionist, Ministry of Health
Ms Kerry Calvert Faamoe Senior Nutritionist, Ministry of Health
Watershed Management Officer,

Mr Maturo Paniani
MAFFM
Mr Ueta Faasili Chief Fisheries Officer, MAFFM
Mr Magele Crawley Head, Statistics Department
President, Women's Committee

Ms Faatonu Faletoese
Organization
International organizations
Sub-Regional Representative, FAO

Dr Vili A Fuavao
South Pacific Office
Integrated Resources Management

Mr Owen Hughes Officer (Land and Water), FAO South
Pacific Office
Programme Officer, FAO South Pacific

Mr Tevita Keresoma
Office
Project Officer, Health and Nutrition,
Ms Jane Patterson
UNICEF
Dr Peggy Fairbairn-Duncan Consultant, UNICEF
Ms Urmila Singh Programme Officer, UNFPA
Ms Jiko Luveni Programme Officer, UNFPA
Director, UNFPA Country Support Team

Dr Stephen Chee
for the South Pacific
Programme Manager, Agriculture

Dr Malcolm Hazelman Programme, South Pacific Commission,
Fiji Office
World Health Organization, Samoa

Ms Pam Messervy
Office
South Pacific Regional Environment

Ms Neva Wendt
Programme (SPREP)
Resident Representative, UNDP,

Mr Anthony Patten
Samoa Office
Food and Agriculture Organization of

ISBN: 974-86644-2-2
the United Nations
Regional Office for Asia and the

RAP Publication: 1999/7
Pacific (RAP)
Bangkok, Thailand January 1999

Gender Database For Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries

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Gender Database For Agriculture Policies in Pacific Island Countries

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Gender Database for

RAP Publication: 1999/7

2. Policies Relating to Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Natural Resource Management

2.1.4 Natural Resource Management

2.1.5 Rural Development

2.2.4 Natural Resource Management

2.2.5 Rural Development

2.3.4 Natural Resource Management

2.3.5 Rural Development

3. The Impact of Policies on Household Livelihood and Food Security

4. Gender-Disaggregated Data Needs to Address Policy

4.1 Data Availability and Unavailability

5. Capacity Building in Gender-Disaggregated Database Development

Annex 1: Statistical Sources and Planned Activities

Annex 2: Persons Consulted

The document presents an overview of the policies related to

The report provides an analysis of the current status of gender

Women in Development Service

This report examines existing policies in the areas of agriculture,

While acknowledging the importance and complementarity of

The report is cognisant of the importance of database

On the basis of the analysis of existing policies related to

The report illustrates the value and potential of gender-

Table 2: Data Requirements Relating to Gender Dimensions in

DP3 Third National Development Plan (1992-1996),

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

ISCO-88 International Standard Classification of

MAFFM Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery and

VRDTCA Vanuatu Rural Development and Training

The globalisation of world trade and, in particular, the General

Under this new approach to economic development, food

In order to address food security issues therefore, it is necessary

The improved availability of sex-disaggregated data on human

A first requirement for determining data needs to address policy

1 Visits were made to these countries in April-May 1997.

Women have been entering the labour force in increasing

In the early 1990s in Fiji, agriculture contributed about a fifth of

The 1993 Policy3 (Government of Fiji, 1993) aimed to guide the

Under the current refocusing, this policy continues to pursue a

Constraints to agricultural development include: inadequate

Although the fisheries sector contributes only 1.6 percent of

The 1993 Policy aims to: encourage private sector involvement;

2.1.4 Natural Resource Management

The 1993 Policy seeks to ensure sustainable development

2.1.5 Rural Development

Some two-thirds of Fiji's population is rural (Government of Fiji,

While tourism is an important component of development, the

Human resource constraints also exist in that the market

The population of Vanuatu is overwhelmingly rural; 82 percent of

Until very recently, development policy in Vanuatu was

Traditionally women's involvement in planning and decision

The overall development goal for women is the realisation of their

Smallholder producers in Vanuatu accounted for approximately

Emphasis in the past on cash crops, coupled with a lack of

Vanuatu is unable to export surplus agricultural production due to

The two key objectives under the Third National Development

The specific policy objectives of DP3 in relation to agricultural

The overall thrust of the new Comprehensive Reform Programme

In the livestock sector, beef plays an important role with more

Given the low status of women in Vanuatu's culture, women's

Agriculture and fishing is one of the "critical areas of concern"

Fisheries remain a relatively underdeveloped sector of the

Government policy relating to forestry is concerned with