THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION FROM

SINGLE PHASING & OVER HEATING

A
Project Report Submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By

SHAIK JUNAID

1604-12-734-014

SHAIK MOHAMMED NASER

1604-12-734-037

ALLAM SRI SAI VAJRAANG

1604-12-734-052

Under the Guidance of

Mrs. NAUSHEEN BANO
Associate Professor

Electrical Engineering Department

Muffakham Jah College of Engineering & Technology

(Affiliated to Osmania University)
2015-2016

INDEX

TOPICS

1. Certificates
2. Acknowledgement
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction of the project

1.2

Project overview

1.3

Thesis

CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction to embedded systems

2.2 Need of embedded systems
2.3 Explanation of embedded systems
2.4 Applications of embedded systems

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction with block diagram

3.2 Microcontroller
3.3 Regulated power supply
3.4 LED indicator
3.5 Voltage sensor
3.6 Optocoupler
3.7 Relay
3.8 LCD

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 Express PCB

4.2 PIC C Compiler
4.3 Proteus software

4.4 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and dumping

CHAPTER 5: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1Introduction:
The aim of this project is to construct a three phase fault
monitor and prevention system using 8-bit microcontroller. The three
phasing fault analysis to prevent faults the system automatically
resets are required for critical loads and circuits. These are required
because the normal overload protection doesn't trip on time. For large
air-conditioning compressors, irrigation pumps these are sometimes,
included.
The purpose of this project is to develop an intelligent system that
continuously monitors all the three phase voltages (High voltage AC)
and if any of these three phases is disconnected then this system
takes

the

preventive

action.

The
4

preventive

action

could

be

disconnecting the power supply immediately to the load by operating

an electromagnetic relay. This system also alerts the user using visual
alerts on the LCD display module.
This system consists of three optically isolated high voltage sensors for
sensing the presence of high voltage in the respective circuits. One of
the voltage sensors is connected to phase line of the supply and the
other is connected to neutral line. A microcontroller based control
system continuously monitors the voltage in all the three phases of
the power supply circuit. In ideal conditions all the three phases gets
the same voltage. The visual indicators display the health status of all
three phases (Red, Yellow and Green). But, when any of the phases
gets disconnected then in such situations the microcontroller-based
system alerts the user using LCD module.

1.2 Project Overview:

An embedded system is a combination of software and
hardware to perform a dedicated task. Some of the main devices used
in embedded products are Microprocessors and Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general
purpose processors as they simply accept the inputs, process it and
give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts the
data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with
various devices, controls the data and thus finally gives the result.
5

The Microcontroller based automatic Single Phasing

Preventing System for 3-phase Industrial Motors using PIC16F72
Microcontroller is an exclusive project that can be used to design and
construct a single phasing monitor and prevention system using 8-bit
microcontroller.
The purpose of this project is to develop an intelligent system
that continuously monitors all the three phase voltages (High voltage
AC) and if any of these three phases is disconnected then this system
takes

the

preventive

action.

The

preventive

action

could

be

disconnecting the power supply immediately to the load by operating

an electromagnetic relay. This system also alerts the user using LCD
Display system.

1.3 Thesis Overview:

The thesis explains the implementation of
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION SYSTEM using
PIC16F72 microcontroller. The organization of the thesis is explained
here with:
6

Chapter 1

Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the

overview of the project. In the project overview a brief introduction of

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION SYSTEM and
its applications are discussed.
Chapter 2

Presents the topic embedded systems. It explains the

about what is embedded systems, need for embedded systems,

explanation of it along with its applications.
Chapter 3

Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block

diagram of the project and explains the purpose of each block. In the
same chapter the explanation of microcontrollers, power supplies,
relay, LCD, voltage sensor, optocoupler are considered.
Chapter 4

Presents the software description. It explains the

implementation of the project using PIC C Compiler software.

Chapter 5 Presents the project description along with relay, voltage
sensor, LCD modules interfacing to microcontroller.
Chapter 6

Presents the advantages, disadvantages and applications

of the project.
Chapter 7

Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the

project.

CHAPTER 2: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

7

2.1 Embedded Systems:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to
perform one or a few dedicated functions often with real-time
computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a
general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is
designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs.
Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.
Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main
processing cores that are typically either microcontrollers or digital
signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is being
dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very
powerful processors. For example, air traffic control systems may
usefully be viewed as embedded, even though they involve mainframe
computers and dedicated regional and national networks between
airports and radar sites. (Each radar probably includes one or more
embedded systems of its own.)
Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks,
design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the
product and increase the reliability and performance. Some embedded
systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.
Physically embedded systems range from portable devices
such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary
installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems
controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a
single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units,
peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
8

In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable

term, as most systems have some element of extensibility or
programmability. For example, handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and
microprocessors

which

power

them,

but

they

allow

different

applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover,

even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary
feature generally need to support software updates. On a continuum
from "general purpose" to "embedded", large application systems will
have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is
"designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions", and is thus
appropriate to call "embedded". A modern example of embedded
system is shown in fig: 2.1.

Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash
memory (7).Embedded systems programming is not like normal PC
programming. In many ways, programming for an embedded system is
9

like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is

usually chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an
extra dollar a unit in order to make things easier to program can cost
millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in
comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow
processors and low memory, while at the same time battling a need for
efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of issues
specific to the embedded field.
2.1.1 History:
In the earliest years of computers in the 193040s,
computers were sometimes dedicated to a single task, but were far too
large and expensive for most kinds of tasks performed by embedded
computers of today. Over time however, the concept of programmable
controllers evolved from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via
solid state devices, to the use of computer technology.
One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems
was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark
Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's
inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest
item in the Apollo project as it employed the then newly developed
monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size and weight. An early
mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance
computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built
from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the
Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced
with a new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated
circuits.
2.1.2 Tools:
10

Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total

programming. There's also a large number of embedded architectures,
unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules, and the UNIX world
where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are
more expensive. It also means that they're lowering featured, and less
developed. On a major embedded project, at some point you will
almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.

Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always

run general programs on your embedded processor, you can't always
run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your program difficult. Special
hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part.
However, if you stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling
real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent equipment damage
can occur. As a result, people doing embedded programming quickly
become masters at using serial IO channels and error message style
debugging.

2.1.3 Resources:
To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the
cheapest processors that can do the job. This means your programs
need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing with large
data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC
programming can hurt you. Luckily, this won't happen too often- use
reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and optimize only when
necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the
same reason debuggers don't work well.

11

Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings

reasons, embedded systems usually have the least memory they can
get away with. That means their algorithms must be memory efficient
(unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for
memory, rather than the reverse). It also means you can't afford to
leak memory. Embedded applications generally use deterministic
memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and "malloc"
functions, so that leaks can be found and eliminated more easily.
Other resources programmers expect may not even exist. For example,
most embedded processors do not have hardware FPUs (Floating-Point
Processing Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in
software, or avoided altogether.

2.1.4 Real Time Issues:

Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and
must be able to respond to them in real time. Failure to do so could
cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage hardware such as
motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources
available. Almost all embedded systems need to be able to prioritize
some tasks over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority
tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.
2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless,
because every day new products are introduced to the market that
utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent years, hardware
such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have
become much cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control,

12

it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own custom
software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular
task or set of tasks costs far more time and money. Many embedded
computers even come with extensive libraries, so that "writing your
own software"

becomes

a very

trivial task indeed.

From an

implementation viewpoint, there is a major difference between a

computer and an embedded system. Embedded systems are often
required to provide Real-Time response. The main elements that make
embedded systems unique are its reliability and ease in debugging.

2.2.1 Debugging:
Embedded debugging may be performed at different
levels, depending on the facilities available. From simplest to most
sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the following areas:

Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided

by the embedded operating system (e.g. Forth and Basic)

External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace

operation using either a monitor in flash or using a debug
server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for
heterogeneous multi core systems.

An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to

the microprocessor via a JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows
the operation of the microprocessor to be controlled externally,
but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in
the processor.

An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a

simulated equivalent, providing full control over all aspects of
the microprocessor.
13

A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the

hardware, allowing all of it to be controlled and modified and
allowing debugging on a normal PC.

Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can

typically load and run software through the tools, view the code
running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The
view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code.

Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide

variety of elements, the debugging strategy may vary. For instance,
debugging a software(and microprocessor) centric embedded system is
different from debugging an embedded system where most of the
processing is performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An
increasing number of embedded systems today use more than one
single

processor

core.

common

problem

with

multi-core

development is the proper synchronization of software execution. In

such a case, the embedded system design may wish to check the data
traffic on the busses between the processor cores, which requires very
low-level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for
instance.

2.2.2 Reliability:
Embedded systems often reside in machines that are
expected to run continuously for years without errors and in some
cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the software is
usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal
computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk
drives, switches or buttons are avoided.

14

Specific reliability issues may include:

The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too

inaccessible

to

repair.

Examples

include

space

systems,

undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole systems, and

automobiles.

The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp

modes" are less tolerable. Often backup

s is selected by an

operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor control

systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals,
engines on single-engine aircraft.

The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down:
Telephone switches, factory controls, bridge and elevator
controls, funds transfer and market making, automated sales
and service.
A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to

recover from errorsboth software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft
errors in the hardware:

Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software

periodically notifies the watchdog

Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to

software "limp modes" that provide partial function

Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6]

ensures a highly secure & reliable system environment

An

Embedded

encapsulation

Hypervisor
for

any

is

able

subsystem

to

provide

component,

so

secure
that

compromised software component cannot interfere with other

subsystems,
encapsulation

or

privileged-level

keeps

faults
15

from

system

software.

propagating

from

This
one

subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also allow

a subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on
fault detection.

Immunity Aware Programming

2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

2.3.1 Software Architecture:
There are several different types of software architecture in
common use.

Simple Control Loop:

In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls
subroutines, each of which manages a part of the hardware or
software.

Interrupt Controlled System:

Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt

controlled. This means that tasks performed by the system are
triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be generated
for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port
controller receiving a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event
handlers need low latency and the event handlers are short and
simple.
Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a
main loop also, but this task is not very sensitive to unexpected
delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a
queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these

16

tasks are executed by the main loop. This method brings the system
close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.

Cooperative Multitasking:

A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to

the simple control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an
API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its
own environment to run in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle
routine, usually called pause, wait, yield, nop (stands for no
operation), etc.The advantages and disadvantages are very similar to
the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply
writing a new task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.

Primitive Multitasking:

In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches

between tasks or threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt).
This is the level at which the system is generally considered to have an
"operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is
required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing
multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel.
As any code can potentially damage the data of another
task (except in larger systems using an MMU) programs must be
carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be
controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues,
semaphores or a non-blocking synchronization scheme.
Because of these complexities, it is common for
organizations to buy a real-time operating system, allowing the
application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather

17

than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller

systems often cannot afford the overhead associated with a generic
real time system, due to limitations regarding memory size,
performance, and/or battery life.

Microkernels And Exokernels:

A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS.

The usual arrangement is that the operating system kernel allocates

memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User
mode processes implement major functions such as file systems,
network interfaces, etc.
In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching
and inter task communication is fast, and fail when they are slow.
Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The
hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and
extensible by application programmers. Based on performance,
functionality, requirement the embedded systems are divided into
three categories:
2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:
These systems takes the input in the form of electrical
signals from transducers or commands from human beings such as
pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces desired output.
This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is
done in standalone mode. Such embedded systems comes under
stand alone embedded systems
Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..
2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:
18

Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific

task or operation in a specific time period those systems are called as
real-time embedded systems. There are two types of real-time
embedded systems.

Hard Real-time embedded systems:

These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line

time period i.e.., if the tasking is not done in a particular time period
then there is a cause of damage to the entire equipment.
Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within
30 milliseconds. If this valve is not opened in 30 ms this may cause
damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we use embedded
systems for doing automatic operations.

Soft Real Time embedded systems:

Eg: Consider a TV remote control system, if the remote control takes

a few milliseconds delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the
remote control. These systems which will not cause damage when they are
not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft
real-time embedded systems.

2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

A wide range network interfacing communication is
provided by using embedded systems.
Eg:

Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer

with internet can be used to spread communication like

19

sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another computer

with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.

Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the

image of a person and sends to the desktop of your computer which is

connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with image on to
the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock
just by clicking the mouse. Fig: 2.2 show the network communications
in embedded systems.

Fig 2.2: Network communication embedded systems

2.3.5 Different types of processing units:

The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the
following microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal processing.

20

Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of

the main advantage of microcontrollers is, the components such
as memory, serial communication interfaces, analog to digital
converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The
numbers of external components that are connected to it are
very less according to the application.

Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They

are used in major applications with a number of tasking
requirements. But the microprocessor requires many external
components like memory, serial communication, hard disk,
input output ports etc.., so the power consumption is also very
high when compared to microcontrollers.

Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that

particularly involved with processing of signals

2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.4.1 Consumer applications:
At home we use a number of embedded systems which
include microwave oven, remote control, vcd players, dvd players,
camera etc.

Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

21

2.4.2 Office automation:

We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc

Fig2.4: Fax machine

Fig2.5:Printing machine

2.4.3. Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for
process control. In industries we design the embedded systems to
perform a specific operation like monitoring temperature, pressure,
humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these monitored levels
we do control other devices, we can send information to a centralized
monitoring station.

Fig2.6: Robot
22

In critical industries where human presence is avoided

there we can use robots which are programmed to do a specific
operation.

2.4.5 Computer networking:

Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..

Fig2.7: Computer networking

2.4.6 Tele communications:
Cell phones, web cameras etc.

23

Fig2.8: Cell Phone

Fig2.9: Web camera

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION:

3.1 Introduction:
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and
design aspect of independent modules are considered. Block diagram
is shown in fig: 3.1:

24

FIG 3.1: Block diagram of THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

PROTECTION SYSTEM

The main blocks of this project are:

1. Micro controller (16F72)

2. Crystal oscillator
3. Reset
25

4. Regulated power supply (RPS)

5. Led indicator
6. Voltage sensor
7. Optocoupler
8. Relay
9. LCD
3.2 Micro controller:

Fig: 3.2 Microcontrollers

Introduction
The PIC16F72 CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller is
upward compatible with PIC16C72/72A and PIC16F872devices. It
features 200 ns instruction execution, self programming, an ICD, 2
Comparators, 5 channels of 8-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter, 2
capture/compare/PWM functions, a synchronous serial port that can
be configured as either 3-wire SPI or 2-wire I2C bus, a USART, and a
Parallel Slave Port.
High-Performance RISC CPU

26

 High performance RISC CPU

Only 35 single word instructions to learn
All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are
two-cycle
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction
cycle
2K x 14 words of Program Memory
128 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)
Pin out compatible to the PIC16C72/72A and PIC16F872
Interrupt capability
Eight level deep hardware stack
Direct, Indirect and Relative Addressing modes
Peripheral Features
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented
during SLEEP via external crystal/clock
Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and
postscaler
Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module
- Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5 ns
- Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns
27

- PWM max resolution is 10-bit

8-bit, 5-channel Analog-to-Digital converter
Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master mode) and I2C
(Slave)
Heat sink/Source Current:25 mA
Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)
CMOS Technology:
Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH technology
Fully static design
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
Industrial temperature range
Low power consumption:
- < 0.6 mA typical @ 3V, 4 MHz
- 20 A typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
- < 1 A typical standby current
Following are the major blocks of PIC Microcontroller.
Program memory (FLASH) is used for storing a written program.
Since memory made in FLASH technology can be programmed and
cleared more than once, it makes this microcontroller suitable for
device development.

28

EEPROM - data memory that needs to be saved when there is no

supply.
It is usually used for storing important data that must not be lost if
power supply suddenly stops. For instance, one such data is an
assigned temperature in temperature regulators. If during a loss of
power supply this data was lost, we would have to make the
adjustment once again upon return of supply. Thus our device looses
on self-reliance.
RAM - Data memory used by a program during its execution.
In RAM are stored all inter-results or temporary data during run-time.
PORTS are physical connections between the microcontroller and the
outside world. PIC16F72 has 22 I/O.

FREE-RUN TIMER is an 8-bit register inside a microcontroller that

works independently of the program. On every fourth clock of the
oscillator it increments its value until it reaches the maximum (255),
and then it starts counting over again from zero. As we know the exact
timing between each two increments of the timer contents, timer can
be used for measuring time which is very useful with some devices.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT has a role of connective element
between other blocks in the microcontroller. It coordinates the work of
other blocks and executes the user program.

29

CISC, RISC
It has already been said that PIC16F72 has RISC architecture. This
term is often found in computer literature, and it needs to be
explained here in more detail. Harvard architecture is a newer concept
than von-Neumann. It rose out of the need to speed up the work of a
microcontroller. In Harvard architecture, data bus and address bus
are separate. Thus a greater flow of data is possible through the
central processing unit, and of course, a greater speed of work.
Separating a program from data memory makes it further possible for
instructions not to have to be 8-bit words. PIC16F72 uses 14 bits for
instructions, which allows for all instructions to be one-word
instructions. It is also typical for Harvard architecture to have fewer
instructions than von-Neumann's, and to have instructions usually
executed in one cycle.

Microcontrollers with Harvard architecture are also called "RISC

microcontrollers". RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
Microcontrollers with von-Neumann's architecture are called 'CISC

30

microcontrollers'. Title CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set

Computer
Since PIC16F72 is a RISC microcontroller, that means that it has a
reduced set of instructions, more precisely 35 instructions. (Ex. Intel's
and Motorola's microcontrollers have over hundred instructions) All of
these instructions are executed in one cycle except for jump and
branch instructions. According to what its maker says, PIC16F72
usually reaches results of 2:1 in code compression and 4:1 in speed in
relation to other 8-bit microcontrollers in its class.
Crystal oscillator:
The crystal oscillator speed that can be connected to the PIC
microcontroller range from DC to 20Mhz. Using the CCS C compiler
normally 20Mhz oscillator will be used and the price is very cheap.
The 20 MHz crystal oscillator should be connected with about 22pF
capacitor. Please refer to my circuit schematic.
There are 5 input/output ports on PIC microcontroller namely
port A, port B, port C, port D and port E. Each port has different
function. Most of them can be used as I/O port.
Applications
PIC16F72 perfectly fits many uses, from automotive industries and
controlling home appliances to industrial instruments, remote
sensors, electrical door locks and safety devices. It is also ideal for
smart cards as well as for battery supplied devices because of its low
consumption.

31

EEPROM memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to devices

where permanent storage of various parameters is needed (codes for
transmitters, motor speed, receiver frequencies, etc.). Low cost, low
consumption, easy handling and flexibility make PIC16F72 applicable
even in areas where microcontrollers had not previously been
considered (example: timer functions, interface replacement in larger
systems, coprocessor applications, etc.).
In System Programmability of this chip (along with using only two pins
in data transfer) makes possible the flexibility of a product, after
assembling and testing have been completed. This capability can be
used to create assembly-line production, to store calibration data
available only after final testing, or it can be used to improve programs
on finished products.
Clock / instruction cycle
Clock is microcontroller's main starter, and is obtained from an
external component called an "oscillator". If we want to compare a
microcontroller with a time clock, our "clock" would then be a ticking
sound we hear from the time clock. In that case, oscillator could be
compared to a spring that is wound so time clock can run. Also, force
used to wind the time clock can be compared to an electrical supply.

Clock from the oscillator enters a microcontroller via OSC1 pin where
internal circuit of a microcontroller divides the clock into four even
clocks Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 which do not overlap. These four clocks
make up one instruction cycle (also called machine cycle) during
which one instruction is executed.

32

Execution of instruction starts by calling an instruction that is next in

string. Instruction is called from program memory on every Q1 and is
written in instruction register on Q4. Decoding and execution of
instruction are done between the next Q1 and Q4 cycles. On the
following diagram we can see the relationship between instruction
cycle and clock of the oscillator (OSC1) as well as that of internal
clocks Q1-Q4. Program counter (PC) holds information about the
address of the next instruction.

Pipelining
Instruction cycle consists of cycles Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4. Cycles of
calling and executing instructions are connected in such a way that in
order to make a call, one instruction cycle is needed, and one more is
needed for decoding and execution. However, due to pipelining, each
instruction is effectively executed in one cycle. If instruction causes a
change on program counter, and PC doesn't point to the following but
to some other address (which can be the case with jumps or with
calling subprograms), two cycles are needed for executing an
instruction. This is so because instruction must be processed again,
but this time from the right address. Cycle of calling begins with Q1

33

clock, by writing into instruction register (IR). Decoding and executing

begins with Q2, Q3 and Q4 clocks.

Pin description
PIC16F72 has a total of 28 pins. It is most frequently found in a DIP28
type of case but can also be found in SMD case which is smaller from
a DIP. DIP is an abbreviation for Dual In Package. SMD is an
abbreviation for Surface Mount Devices suggesting that holes for pins
to go through when mounting aren't necessary in soldering this type
of a component.

34

Pins on PIC16F72 microcontroller have the following meaning:

There are 28 pins on PIC16F72. Most of them can be used as an IO

pin. Others are already for specific functions. These are the pin
functions.
1. MCLR to reset the PIC
2. RA0 port A pin 0
3. RA1 port A pin 1
4. RA2 port A pin 2
5. RA3 port A pin 3
6. RA4 port A pin 4
7. RA5 port A pin 5
8. VSS ground
9. OSC1 connect to oscillator
10. OSC2 connect to oscillator
35

11. RC0 port C pin 0 VDD power supply

12. RC1 port C pin 1
13. RC2 port C pin 2
14. RC3 port C pin 3
15. RC4 - port C pin 4
16. RC5 - port C pin 5
17. RC6 - port C pin 6
18. RC7 - port C pin 7
19. VSS - ground
20. VDD power supply
21. RB0 - port B pin 0
22. RB1 - port B pin 1
23. RB2 - port B pin 2
24. RB3 - port B pin 3
25. RB4 - port B pin 4
26. RB5 - port B pin 5
27. RB6 - port B pin 6
28. RB7 - port B pin 7

By utilizing all of this pin so many application can be done such as:
1. LCD connect to Port B pin.
2. LED connect to any pin declared as output.
3. Relay and Motor - connect to any pin declared as output.
4. External EEPROM connect to I2C interface pin RC3 and RC4
(SCL and SDA)
5. LDR, Potentiometer and sensor connect to analogue input pin
such as RA0.
6. GSM modem dial up modem connect to RC6 and RC7 the serial
communication interface using RS232 protocol.
36

For more detail function for each specific pin please refer to the device
datasheet from Microchip.
Ports
Term "port" refers to a group of pins on a microcontroller which can be
accessed simultaneously, or on which we can set the desired
combination of zeros and ones, or read from them an existing status.
Physically, port is a register inside a microcontroller which is
connected by wires to the pins of a microcontroller. Ports represent
physical connection of Central Processing Unit with an outside world.
Microcontroller uses them in order to monitor or control other
components or devices. Due to functionality, some pins have twofold
roles like PA4/TOCKI for instance, which is in the same time the
fourth bit of port A and an external input for free-run counter.
Selection of one of these two pin functions is done in one of the
configuration registers. An illustration of this is the fifth bit T0CS in
OPTION register. By selecting one of the functions the other one is
disabled.
All port pins can be designated as input or output, according to the
needs of a device that's being developed. In order to define a pin as
input or output pin, the right combination of zeros and ones must be
written in TRIS register. If the appropriate bit of TRIS register contains
logical "1", then that pin is an input pin, and if the opposite is true,
it's an output pin. Every port has its proper TRIS register. Thus, port
A has TRISA, and port B has TRISB. Pin direction can be changed
during the course of work which is particularly fitting for one-line
communication where data flow constantly changes direction. PORTA
37

and PORTB state registers are located in bank 0, while TRISA and
TRISB pin direction registers are located in bank 1.

PORTB and TRISB

PORTB have adjoined 8 pins. The appropriate register for data

direction is TRISB. Setting a bit in TRISB register defines the
corresponding port pin as input, and resetting a bit in TRISB register
defines the corresponding port pin as output.

Each PORTB pin has a weak internal pull-up resistor (resistor which
defines a line to logic one) which can be activated by resetting the
seventh bit RBPU in OPTION register. These 'pull-up' resistors are
automatically being turned off when port pin is configured as an
output. When a microcontroller is started, pull-ups are disabled.

38

Four pins PORTB, RB7:RB4 can cause an interrupt which occurs

when their status changes from logical one into logical zero and
opposite. Only pins configured as input can cause this interrupt to
occur (if any RB7:RB4 pin is configured as an output, an interrupt
won't be generated at the change of status.) This interrupt option
along with internal pull-up resistors makes it easier to solve common
problems we find in practice like for instance that of matrix keyboard.
If rows on the keyboard are connected to these pins, each push on a
key will then cause an interrupt. A microcontroller will determine
which key is at hand while processing an interrupt It is not
recommended to refer to port B at the same time that interrupt is
being processed.
PORTA and TRISA
PORTA have 5 adjoining pins. The corresponding register for data
direction is TRISA at address 85h. Like with port B, setting a bit in
TRISA register defines also the corresponding port pin as input, and
clearing a bit in TRISA register defines the corresponding port pin as
output.
It is important to note that PORTA pin RA4 can be input only. On that
pin is also situated an external input for timer TMR0. Whether RA4
will be a standard input or an input for a counter depends on T0CS bit
(TMR0 Clock Source Select bit). This pin enables the timer TMR0 to
increment either from internal oscillator or via external impulses on
RA4/T0CKI pin.
Example shows how pins 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are designated input, and
pins 5, 6, and 7 outputs. After this, it is possible to read the pins RA2,
RA3, RA4, and to set logical zero or one to pins RA0 and RA1.
39

Memory organization
PIC16F72 has two separate memory blocks, one for data and the other
for program. EEPROM memory with GPR and SFR registers in RAM
memory make up the data block, while FLASH memory makes up the
program block.
Program memory

Program memory has been carried out in FLASH technology which

makes it possible to program a microcontroller many times before it's
installed into a device, and even after its installment if eventual
changes in program or process parameters should occur. The size of
program memory is 1024 locations with 14 bits width where locations
zero and four are reserved for reset and interrupt vector.

Data memory
40

Data memory consists of EEPROM and RAM memories. EEPROM

memory consists of 256 eight bit locations whose contents are not lost
during loosing of power supply. EEPROM is not directly addressable,
but is accessed indirectly through EEADR and EEDATA registers. As
EEPROM memory usually serves for storing important parameters (for
example, of a given temperature in temperature regulators) , there is a
strict procedure for writing in EEPROM which must be followed in
order to avoid accidental writing. RAM memory for data occupies
space on a memory map from location 0x0C to 0x4F which comes to
68 locations. Locations of RAM memory are also called GPR registers
which is an abbreviation for General Purpose Registers. GPR registers
can be accessed regardless of which bank is selected at the moment.
3.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:
3.3.1 Introduction:
Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or
system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output
load

or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term

is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to

mechanical ones, and rarely to others.
A power supply may include a power distribution system
as well as primary or secondary sources of energy such as

Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired

form and voltage, typically involving converting AC line voltage to a
well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic devices. Low voltage,
low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with
41

the devices they supply, such as computers and household

electronics.

Batteries.

Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.

Solar power.

Generators or alternators.

3.3.2 Block Diagram:

Fig 3.3.2 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC
O/P) with led connected as load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.

42

Fig 3.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply

with Led connection
The components mainly used in above figure are

230V AC MAINS

TRANSFORMER

BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)

CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)

RESISTOR

LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

The detailed explanation of each and every component

mentioned above is as follows:

Step 1: Transformation: The process of transforming energy from
one device to another is called transformation. For transforming
energy we use transformers.

43

Transformers:
A transformer is
energy from

device

one circuit to

coupled conductors

without

varying current in

the

first

varying magnetic

flux in

the

that

transfers electrical

another
changing
or

through inductively
its

frequency.

primary winding

transformer's

core,

creates
and

thus

A
a
a

varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying

magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage"
in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current
will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be
transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the
load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape
as a bar magnet.
If the current is increased, the lines of force move
outwards from the coil. If the current is reduced, the lines of force
move inwards.
If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as
the field moves out or in, the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns
of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is induced in the second
coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a
second. This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the
transformer.

44

The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the

output coil is the SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down
transformer.

Fig 3.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the
TURNS RATIO.

For example, if the secondary has half the primary

turns; the secondary will have half the primary voltage.
Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the
secondary has 500 turns, then the turns ratio is 10:1.
If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary
voltage will be x 10 smaller = 24 volts. Assuming a perfect
transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the power
taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected
across a 24 volt secondary, then the primary must supply 24 watts.
To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary,
the coils are wound on a metal CORE. Since the primary would

45

induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this core, the core is
LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets
insulated from each other. Transformers to work at higher frequencies
have an iron dust core or no core at all.
Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a
constantly changing current and moving field. DC has a steady
current and therefore a steady field and there would be no induction.
Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between
primary and secondary. This is to prevent some types of interference
being fed from the equipment down into the mains supply, or in the
other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE
MATCHING.
We can use the transformers as step up or step down.
Step Up transformer:
In case of step up transformer, primary windings are
every less compared to secondary winding. Because of having more
turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it releases more
voltage at the output side.
Step down transformer:
Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces
more flux than the secondary winding, and secondary winding is
having less number of turns because of that it accepts less number of
flux, and releases less amount of voltage.
Battery power supply:
46

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers

benefits that traditional line-operated power supplies lack: mobility,
portability

and

reliability.

battery

consists

of

multiple

electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig:

3.3.5 shows Hi-Watt 9V battery

Fig 3.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbonzinc dry cell battery. Dry-cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon
plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate alternately until the
desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries
have one of the following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90.
During the discharge of a carbon-zinc battery, the zinc metal is
converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide is
reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of
approximately 1.5 V.
The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is
rechargeable; it consists of lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are
immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this type of battery has
a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series).
During discharge, the lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric
acid is converted to water. When the battery is charging, the lead
sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickel47

cadmium battery has become more popular in recent years. This

battery cell is completely sealed and rechargeable. The electrolyte is
not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage constant
over the span of the batteries long service life. During the charging
process, nickel oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation state and
cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-cadmium batteries have many
benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged. They have a
long service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and the
ability to be recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.

Fig 3.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

Step 2: Rectification
The process of converting an alternating current to a
pulsating direct current is called as rectification. For rectification
purpose we use rectifiers.
Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process known as rectification.
Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies
and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state

48

diodes,

vacuum

tube

diodes,

mercury

arc

valves,

and

other

components.
A device that it can perform the opposite function
(converting DC to AC) is known as an inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the
negative or positive portion of the waveform), the difference between
the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the
term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC.
Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific
arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible
with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor
rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium
rectifier stacks were used.
Bridge full wave rectifier:
The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig:3.8, which
converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input
ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The
circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input
voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The
load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage,
diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the
OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

49

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes

D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting
diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance R L and
hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a
unidirectional wave.
Input

Output

Fig 3.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:
Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a
number of DB107. In our project we are using an IC in place of bridge
rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig: 3.9.
Features:

Good for automation insertion

Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

50

Ideal for printed circuit board

Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded

Glass passivated device

Polarity symbols molded on body

Mounting position: Any

Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig 3.3.8: DB107

Step 3: Filtration
The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a
pure direct current using filters is called as filtration.
Filters:
Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform
signal-processing

functions,

specifically

to

remove

unwanted

frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:

51

The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is

a passive device, and one which stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field which produces a potential (static voltage) across its
plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive
plates that are not connected but are electrically separated either by
air or by an insulating material called the Dielectric. When a voltage is
applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with
electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an
equal and opposite negative charge this flow of electrons to the plates
is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the
voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the
applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully
charged and this is illustrated below. The construction of capacitor
and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures 3.3.9 and 3.3.10
respectively.

52

Fig 3.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor

3.3.10:Electrolytic Capaticor
Units of Capacitance:
Microfarad (F) 1F = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

53

Fig

Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 1012

Operation of Capacitor:
Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a
capacitor as being a storage tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is
possible to show approximately how an electronic capacitor works.
First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor"
where the capacitor is used to connect a signal from one part of a
circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to flow.

If the current flow is alternating

between zero and a maximum, our
"storage tank" capacitor will allow the
current waves to pass through.
However, if there is a steady current,
only the initial short burst will flow until
the "floating ball valve" closes and stops
further flow.

So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to

pass through because the ball valve doesn't get a chance to close as
the waves go up and down. However, a steady current quickly fills the
tank so that all flow stops.
A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from
an initial surge) it will not pass d.c.
54

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a

circuit, the effect is to "smooth out
ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of
current are passed to ground while d.c.
Flows smoothly.

Step 4: Regulation
The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant
regulated voltage is called as regulation. For the process of regulation
we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:
A voltage regulator (also called a regulator) with only
three terminals appears to be a simple device, but it is in fact a very
complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage into a
constant regulated output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in
a variety of outputs like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series
of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. For applications
requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a pair of
voltage-divider resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator
circuit.
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated
rating. You cannot use a 12V regulator to make a 5V power supply.
Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand over-current
55

draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the
regulator will cut off before any damage occurs. The only way to
destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input. Reverse
polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows
voltage regulator.

Fig 3.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces
a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric
current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic

circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical
resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the
tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other
characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance.
56

Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power

dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above
which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by
the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to
work as Voltage dividers, to dissipate power and it can shape electrical
waves when used in combination of other components. Basic unit is
ohms.
Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the
relationship specified in Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is
proportional to the current (I) through it where the constant of
proportionality is the resistance (R).
Power dissipation:
The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent
resistance of a resistor network) is calculated using the following:

57

Fig 3.3.12: Resistor

Fig 3.3.13:

Color Bands In Resistor

3.4. LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light
source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are
increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but

58

modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and

infrared wavelengths,

with very high brightness.

The internal

structure and parts of a led are shown below.

Fig 3.4.1: Inside a LED

3.4.2: Parts of a LED

Working:
59

Fig

The structure of the LED light is completely different than

that of the light bulb. Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong
structure.

The

light-emitting

semiconductor

material

is

what

determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor

diode.
When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons
are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the
color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually
small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components
are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. LEDs
present many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness,
smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability.
However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current
LED products for general lighting are more expensive to buy than
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in
applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The
compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and
sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in
advanced communications technology. The electrical symbol and
polarities of led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.

60

Fig 3.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

High-levels of brightness and intensity

High-efficiency

Low-voltage and current requirements

Low radiated heat

High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)

No UV Rays

Long source life

Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

Visual signal application where the light goes more or less

directly from the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or
meaning.

61

Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give

visual response of these objects.

Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes

that do not involve the human visual system.

3.5 VOLTAGE SENSOR:

In practice a voltage transformer can be used as a voltage sensor. The
voltage transformer must be connected across the transmission lines.
The

primary

of

the

transformer

must

be

connected

to

the

transmission lines and the secondary must be given to the

microcontroller. A step down voltage transformer is used.
Illustration of a voltage sensor

Fig: Diagram of voltage sensor

In the project we have made use of a potentiometer in place of a
voltage sensor. A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a
three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable
voltage divider. It is a measuring device which measures the voltage or
current at the output by comparing it with the known input voltage.
Varying the input voltage is a difficult process and requires advanced
equipments. In the potentiometer the input is fixed at some maximum
and minimum value. By turning the notch of the potentiometer the
62

output voltage is varied, whenever the output voltage exceeds the

bounds it indicates the occurrence of fault. After the fault is indicated
the microcontroller gives trip signals to the relay which in turn
operates the circuit breaker.
However in real time applications a potentiometer cannot be used, a
voltage transformer should be used.
3.6 OPTOCOUPLER
An optocoupler-isolated power supply is often the
safest and most practical way to go when it comes to performance and
protection. Heres the basic on todays LED/photo detector isolators
and what you need to know to apply them to your system. The junior
system designer often places the systems power requirements at the
end of the list, and thus overlooks the importance of an isolated,
versus non-isolated AC/AC, AC/DC, DC/AC, or DC/DC converter.
True isolation (transformer at the input, optoisolator in the supplys
feedback control loops) virtually removes any direct conductive path
between the power supplys input stage and its output terminals/load.
Thats especially important in the high-power density applications that
are becoming more the rule than the exception, and for more
demanding system requirements
That often place power supplies in explosive or otherwise hazardous
environments.
The use of an optocoupler also acts to break ground
loops, and this functionality is valuable in eliminating common-mode
noise, especially for systems working at the higher operating voltages.
When different power supplies in a system are tied together, ground

63

loop currents tend to be induced due to slight differences in ground

potential.
In addition, power supplies tend to see transient noise
in equipment that switches between various power states (todays
optocouplers are able to withstand up to 40 kV/microsecond transient
common-mode voltage). Typical optocouplers for performing this socalled galvanic isolation functionin essence to connect intrinsically
safe circuitry to circuits that pose a safety riskcomprise an LED, a
photo detector, and appropriate connecting circuitry in the supplys
output-to-input feedback Loop. In general circuit operation, the
optocoupler, driven by the supplys PWM, serves as the link to
maintain the supplys desired output voltage When the output voltage
deviates either due to line and/or load changes, the supplys error
amplifier attempts to compensate. It compares its input with a
reference voltage, and the error signal thus controls the output of the
PWM. In turn, the PWM directs the primary- side
Power MOSFET's via the optocoupler.

64

The standards
Regulatory agencies such as UL in the United States,
CENELEC in Europe, CSA in Canada, and TIIS in Japan, set the
power level needed to make circuitry intrinsically safe. In essence, the
standards set the requirements for the galvanic isolation barrier
between the safe circuitry and the outside world. For best results,
choose optocouplers with additional reinforced insulation as suggested
by IEC EN-60747- 5-2. Reinforced insulation ensures protection from
electric shock as well as provides a failsafe mode. Fail-safe techniques
terminate

system

operation

and

leaves

system

processes

and

components in a secure state when a failure occurs.

The input-voltage level usually defines the insulation
voltage rating, which typically ranges from 500 volts for some telecom
applications to 3500 volts for universal line-voltage capability. The
regulations you need to know about, and the specs you should study,
include IEC60950, EN55022, and IEC 61000. IEC 61000 in particular
covers electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), and part 4 of that
document (IEC61000- 4-4) covers fast transient/burst Electrical Fast
Transient (EFT) testing discussed in part 4.4 addresses interference
simulated in inductively loaded switches. In this standard, the
modules will be subjected to the following test levels, depending on the
designed environment: Level 1 (Well protected); Level 2 (Protected);
Level 3 (Typical Industrial Environment); and Level 4 (Severe
Industrial Environment), where test voltage peaks at the power supply
ports are 0.5 kV (5kHz repetition rate), 1 kV (5kHz), 2 kV (5kHz), and 4
kV (2.5kHz), respectively.

65

Simple Remote Reset Power On/Off

This is a simple schematic for a remote reset/power on/off
device
to

use

for

controlling

up

to

lines

via

the

parallel

port.

Depending on the number of lines you require, the opto coupler

will be PC817, PC827 or PC847.

Or you could use the following schematic to drive up to 8 lines,

with the drawback that a reboot of the controlling machine will
probably reboot all your attached devices...

Applications
1. Computer terminals
2. System appliances, measuring instruments
3. Registers, copiers, automatic vending machines
4. Electric home appliances, such as fan heaters, etc.
5. Signal transmission between circuits of different potentials and
impedances
66

3.7 Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an
electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism, but other operating
principles are also used. Relays find applications where it is necessary
to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one
circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in
telephone

exchanges

and

early

computers

to

perform

logical

operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to
directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays
control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a
semiconductor device triggered by light to perform switching. Relays
with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or
faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protection relays".
3.8.1 Basic design and operation:

67

1. Simple electromechanical relay

Small relay as used in electronics

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in
the first picture, is an adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a
coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which provides
a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is
hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is deenergized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit
track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is
soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting
magnetic field attracts the armature and the consequent movement of
the movable contact or contacts either makes or breaks a connection
68

with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay
was De-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed
position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also
used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is
to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to
reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across
the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at
deactivation,

which

would

otherwise

generate

voltage

spike

dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays already

include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection
network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may absorb
the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading
ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a
solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching
device. To achieve electrical isolation an opt coupler can be used
which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor.

69

3.8.2 Types of Relays:

2. Latching relay

Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet

mechanism. The ratchet operates a cam, which raises and lowers the
moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving and fixed
contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi stable). These are also
called "impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched
off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid
operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the
armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with a
remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the
coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two
coil example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the
opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the advantage
that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched,
and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remnant core
latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it
change state.

70

3. Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled
glass tube, which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion.
The contacts are closed by a magnetic field generated when current
passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable
of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low
switch current and voltage ratings.

4. Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the
contacts are wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch lowvoltage signals (one volt or less) because of their low contact
resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where
the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are
position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to work properly.
Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays are
rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.
5. Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a
permanent magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used
in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and
71

correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a

technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then
apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the
relay.
6. Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of
machine tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They
are

characterized

by

large

number

of

contacts

(sometimes

extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open

to normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor
that allows compactly installing many relays in a control panel.
Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control
applications.
7. Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric
motors and lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common
contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. Highcurrent

contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The

unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however, silver

oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for motor
starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection
devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat
operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder
pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These
72

auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses
excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays
can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where
noise is a chief concern.
8. Solid-state relay

Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that
provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not
have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability. With
early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a
small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of
current a given SSR could handle. As transistors improved, higher
current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become

73

commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may

be falsely triggered by transients.
9. Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay,
including the necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters,
small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles
are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no
contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control
signals or DC control signals from Programmable logic controller
(PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other
microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
10. Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in
large oil-filled transformers; this will Display on slow accumulation of
gas or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the
transformer oil.
11. Forced-guided contacts relay
A

forced-guided

contacts

relay

has relay

contacts

that

are

mechanically linked together, so that when the relay coil is energized

or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together. If one set of
contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the
same relay will be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts
is to enable the safety circuit to check the status of the relay. Forcedguided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive
contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".
74

12. Overload protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from
over-loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in
connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One type of
electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating
element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the
motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a
spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the
same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation
for motor ambient temperature is provided.
13. Pole and throw:

Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT

and DPDT types.

The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

75

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also

applied to relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose
contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay

is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is
inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.

Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the

relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is
inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two

circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed
contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of
contact utilizes make before break" functionality, then it is
called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals

which can be connected or disconnected. Including two for the
coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The
terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve
the ambiguity.

SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects

to either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay
has five terminals in total.

76

DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of

terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated
by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of
each).

DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of

change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or
relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight
terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple

switches connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a
four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).
3.8.3 Applications of Relays:

Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in

some types of modems or audio amplifiers,

Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in

the starter solenoid of an automobile,

Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines

by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

77

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when

the two are at different potentials, for example when controlling
a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is
often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires
are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as
needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy
detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is

realized by connecting normally open relay contacts in series,
the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in
parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR
(exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are
accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder
programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.
o

Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors,

relays were used as logical elements in digital computers.
See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and
Zuse Z3.

Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more

resistant than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they
are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control
panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or

delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a
second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature
78

and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk

maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release
time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is
used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to
escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.
Relay application considerations:

A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old
telephone switching system

Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century

1XB switch and 5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on
one
Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires
evaluation of many different factors:

79

Number and type of contacts normally open, normally closed,

(double-throw)

Contact sequence "Make before Break" or "Break before Make".

For example, the old style telephone exchanges required Makebefore-break so that the connection didn't get dropped while
dialing the number.

Rating of contacts small relays switch a few amperes, large

contactors are rated for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or
direct current

Voltage rating of contacts typical control relays rated 300 VAC

or 600 VAC, automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage
relays to about 15 000 V

Coil voltage machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250

VAC, relays for switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils,
"sensitive" relays operate on a few mill amperes

Coil current

Package/enclosure

open,

touch-safe,

double-voltage

for

isolation between circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and

splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board assembly

Assembly Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the

enclosure sealed to allow PCB post soldering cleaning, which is
removed once assembly is complete.

Mounting sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount,

through-panel mount, enclosure for mounting on walls or
equipment

Switching time where high speed is required

80

"Dry" contacts when switching very low level signals, special

contact materials may be needed such as gold-plated contacts

Contact protection suppress arcing in very inductive circuits

Coil protection suppress the surge voltage produced when

switching the coil current

Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

Aerospace

or

radiation-resistant

testing,

special

quality

assurance

Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration some relays

used in aerospace applications are designed to function in
shock loads of 50 g or more

Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test

buttons

Regulatory approvals

Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a

printed circuit board.

Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.

Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

81

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors

can switch many times per second.

Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their
coil.

Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a

low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the
relay's coil.

3.8: LCD

3.6: LCD DISPLAY

LCD Background:
One of the most common devices attached to a micro controller is an
LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the many
microcontrollers are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16
characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines,
respectively.
Basic 16x 2 Characters LCD
Figure 1: LCD Pin diagram

82

Pin description:

Pin No.

Name

Description

Pin no. 1

VSS

Power supply (GND)

Pin no. 2

VCC

Power supply (+5V)

Pin no. 3

VEE

Contrast adjust

Pin no. 4

RS

Instruction

input

1 = Data input
0 = Write to LCD module

Pin no. 5

R/W

Read

from

LCD

module
Pin no. 6

EN

Enable signal

Pin no. 7

D0

Data bus line 0 (LSB)

Pin no. 8

D1

Data bus line 1

Pin no. 9

D2

Data bus line 2

83

Pin no. 10

D3

Data bus line 3

Pin no. 11

D4

Data bus line 4

Pin no. 12

D5

Data bus line 5

Pin no. 13

D6

Data bus line 6

Pin no. 14

D7

Data bus line 7 (MSB)

Table 1: Character LCD pins with Microcontroller

The LCD requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O
lines for the data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to
operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus
is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus
the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will
require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the
data bus).
The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.
The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD
that we are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, our program
should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two
control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines
are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum
amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD
to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

84

The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0),

the data is to be treated as a command or special instruction (such as
clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being
sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For
example, to display the letter "T" on the screen we would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low
(0), the information on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When
RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading) the
LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All
others are write commands--so RW will almost always be low.
Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on
the mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit
data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4,
DB5, DB6, and DB7.
Schematic:

Circuit Description:

85

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable

and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port
is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports
have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by
incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is
more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have
no internal pull up resistors.
We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse
direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into
write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a
result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells
us if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last
instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into
our program.
The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD
panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power
supply out. We can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use an
onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors,
especially if we have trouble with the circuit working properly.
SETB RW
Handling the EN control line:
As we mentioned above, the EN line is used to tell the LCD
that we are ready for it to execute an instruction that we've prepared
on the data bus and on the other control lines. Note that the EN line
must be raised/ lowered before/after each instruction sent to the LCD
regardless of whether that instruction is read or write text or
86

instruction.

In

short,

we

must

always

manipulate

EN

when

communicating with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of knowing that we

are talking to it. If we don't raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't know
we're talking to it on the other lines.
Thus, before we interact in any way with the LCD we will always
bring the EN line low with the following instruction:
CLR EN
And once we've finished setting up our instruction with the other
control lines and data bus lines, we'll always bring this line high:
SETB EN
The line must be left high for the amount of time required by
the LCD as specified in its datasheet. This is normally on the order of
about 250 nanoseconds, but checks the datasheet. In the case of a
typical microcontroller running at 12 MHz, an instruction requires
1.08 microseconds to execute so the EN line can be brought low the
very next instruction. However, faster microcontrollers (such as the
DS89C420 which executes an instruction in 90 nanoseconds given an
11.0592 MHz crystal) will require a number of NOPs to create a delay
while EN is held high. The number of NOPs that must be inserted
depends on the microcontroller we are using and the crystal we have
selected.
The instruction is executed by the LCD at the moment the EN
line is brought low with a final CLR EN instruction.
Checking the busy status of the LCD:

87

As previously mentioned, it takes a certain amount of time for

each instruction to be executed by the LCD. The delay varies
depending on the frequency of the crystal attached to the oscillator
input of the LCD as well as the instruction which is being executed.
While it is possible to write code that waits for a specific amount
of time to allow the LCD to execute instructions, this method of
"waiting" is not very flexible. If the crystal frequency is changed, the
software will need to be modified. A more robust method of
programming is to use the "Get LCD Status" command to determine
whether the LCD is still busy executing the last instruction received.
The "Get LCD Status" command will return to us two tidbits of
information; the information that is useful to us right now is found in
DB7. In summary, when we issue the "Get LCD Status" command the
LCD will immediately raise DB7 if it's still busy executing a command
or lower DB7 to indicate that the LCD is no longer occupied. Thus our
program can query the LCD until DB7 goes low, indicating the LCD is
no longer busy. At that point we are free to continue and send the next
command.

Applications:

Medical equipment

Electronic test equipment

Industrial machinery Interface

Serial terminal

Advertising system

EPOS
88

Restaurant ordering systems

Gaming box

Security systems

R&D Test units

Climatizing units

PLC Interface

Simulators

Environmental monitoring

Lab development

Student projects

Home automation

PC external display

HMI operator interface.

89

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

This project is implemented using following softwares:

Express PCB for designing circuit

PIC C compiler - for compilation part

Proteus 7 (Embedded C) for simulation part

4.1 Express PCB:

Breadboards are great for prototyping equipment as it
allows great flexibility to modify a design when needed; however the
final product of a project, ideally should have a neat PCB, few cables,
and survive a shake test. Not only is a proper PCB neater but it is also
more durable as there are no cables which can yank loose.
Express PCB is a software tool to design PCBs
specifically for manufacture by the company Express PCB (no other
PCB maker accepts Express PCB files). It is very easy to use, but it
does have several limitations.
It can be likened to more of a toy then a professional CAD
program.
It has a poor part library (which we can work around)

90

It cannot import or export files in different formats

It cannot be used to make prepare boards for DIY production
Express PCB has been used to design many PCBs (some
layered and with surface-mount parts. Print out PCB patterns and use
the toner transfer method with an Etch Resistant Pen to make boards.
However, Express PCB does not have a nice print layout. Here is the
procedure to design in Express PCB and clean up the patterns so they
print nicely.
4.1.1 Preparing Express PCB for First Use:
Express PCB comes with a less then exciting list of parts.
So before any project is started head over to Audio logic and grab the
additional parts by morsel, ppl, and tangent, and extract them into
your Express PCB directory. At this point start the program and get
ready to setup the workspace to suit your style.
Click View -> Options. In this menu, setup the units for
mm or in depending on how you think, and click see through the
top copper layer at the bottom. The standard color scheme of red and
green is generally used but it is not as pleasing as red and blue.
4.1.2 The Interface:
When a project is first started you will be greeted with a
yellow outline. This yellow outline is the dimension of the PCB.
Typically after positioning of parts and traces, move them to their final
position and then crop the PCB to the correct size. However, in
designing a board with a certain size constraint, crop the PCB to the
correct size before starting.
91

Fig: 4.1 show the toolbar in which the each button has the
following functions:

Fig 4.1: Tool bar necessary for the interface

The select tool: It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you
to move

and manipulate parts. When this tool is selected the

top toolbar will show buttons to move traces to the top / bottom
copper layer, and rotate buttons.

The zoom to selection tool: does just that.

The place pad: button allows you to place small soldier pads
which are useful for board connections or if a part is not in the
part library but the part dimensions are available. When this
tool is selected the top toolbar will give you a large selection of
round holes, square holes and surface mount pads.

The place component: tool allows you to select a component

from the top toolbar and then by clicking in the workspace
places that component in the orientation chosen using the
buttons next to the component list. The components can always
be rotated afterwards with the select tool if the orientation is
wrong.

The place trace: tool allows you to place a solid trace on the
board of varying thicknesses. The top toolbar allows you to
select the top or bottom layer to place the trace on.

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The Insert Corner in trace: button does exactly what it says.

When this tool is selected, clicking on a trace will insert a corner
which can be moved to route around components and other
traces.

The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete
key will achieve the same result.

4.1.3 Design Considerations:

Before starting a project there are several ways to design a
PCB and one must be chosen to suit the projects needs.
Single sided, or double sided:
When making a PCB you have the option of making a
single sided board, or a double sided board. Single sided boards are
cheaper to produce and easier to etch, but much harder to design for
large projects. If a lot of parts are being used in a small space it may
be difficult to make a single sided board without jumpering over
traces with a cable. While theres technically nothing wrong with
this, it should be avoided if the signal traveling over the traces is
sensitive (e.g. audio signals).
A double sided board is more expensive to produce
professionally, more difficult to etch on a DIY board, but makes the
layout of components a lot smaller and easier. It should be noted
that if a trace is running on the top layer, check with the
components to make sure you can get to its pins with a soldering
iron.

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Large capacitors, relays, and similar parts which dont have axial
leads can NOT have traces on top unless boards are plated
professionally.
Ground-plane or other special purposes for one side:
When using a double sided board you must consider
which traces should be on what side of the board. Generally, put
power traces on the top of the board, jumping only to the bottom if a
part cannot be soldiered onto the top plane (like a relay), and viceversa.
Some projects like power supplies or amps can benefit
from having a solid plane to use for ground. In power supplies this
can reduce noise, and in amps it minimizes the distance between
parts and their ground connections, and keeps the ground signal as
simple as possible. However, care must be taken with stubborn chips
such as the TPA6120 amplifier from TI. The TPA6120 datasheet
specifies not to run a ground plane under the pins or signal traces of
this chip as the capacitance generated could effect performance
negatively.
4.2 PIC Compiler:
PIC compiler is software used where the machine
language code is written and compiled. After compilation, the machine
source code is converted into hex code which is to be dumped into the
microcontroller for further processing. PIC compiler also supports C
language code.
Its important that you know C language for
microcontroller which is commonly known as Embedded C. As we are
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going to use PIC Compiler, hence we also call it PIC C. The PCB, PCM,
and PCH are separate compilers. PCB is for 12-bit opcodes, PCM is for
14-bitopcodes, and PCH is for 16-bit opcode PIC microcontrollers. Due
to many similarities, all three compilers are covered in this reference
manual. Features and limitations that apply to only specific
microcontrollers are indicated within. These compilers are specifically
designed to meet the unique needs of the PIC microcontroller. This
allows developers to quickly design applications software in a more
readable, high-level language. When compared to a more traditional C
compiler, PCB, PCM, and PCH have some limitations. As an example
of the limitations, function recursion is not allowed.
This is due to the fact that the PIC has no stack to
push variables onto, and also because of the way the compilers
optimize the code. The compilers can efficiently implement normal C
constructs, input/output operations, and bit twiddling operations. All
normal C data types are supported along with pointers to constant
arrays, fixed point decimal, and arrays of bits.
PIC C is not much different from a normal C program.
If you know assembly, writing a C program is not a crisis. In PIC, we
will have a main function, in which all your application specific work
will be defined. In case of embedded C, you do not have any operating
system running in there. So you have to make sure that your program
or main file should never exit. This can be done with the help of
simple while (1) or for (;;) loop as they are going to run infinitely.
We have to add header file for controller you are
using, otherwise you will not be able to access registers related to
peripherals.

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#include <16F72.h> // header file for PIC

16F72//
4.3 Proteus:
Proteus is software which accepts only hex files. Once the
machine code is converted into hex code, that hex code has to be
dumped into the microcontroller and this is done by the Proteus.
Proteus is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it
other than the one which is to be programmed. This microcontroller
has a program in it written in such a way that it accepts the hex file
from the pic compiler and dumps this hex file into the microcontroller
which is to be programmed. As the Proteus programmer requires
power supply to be operated, this power supply is given from the
power supply circuit designed and connected to the microcontroller in
proteus. The program which is to be dumped in to the microcontroller
is edited in proteus and is compiled and executed to check any errors
and hence after the successful compilation of the program the
program is dumped in to the microcontroller using a dumper.
4.4 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and dumping:
4.4.1 Compilation and simulation steps:
For PIC microcontroller, PIC C compiler is used for
compilation. The compilation steps are as follows:

Open PIC C compiler.

You will be prompted to choose a name for the new project, so

create a separate folder where all the files of your project will be
stored, choose a name and click save.
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Fig 4.1: Picture of opening a new file using PIC C compiler

Click Project, New, and something the box named 'Text1' is

where your code should be written later.

Now you have to click 'File, Save as' and choose a file name for
your source code ending with the letter '.c'. You can name as
'project.c' for example and click save. Then you have to add this
file to your project work.

97

Fig 4.2: Picture of compiling a new file using PIC C compiler

Fig 4.3: Picture of compiling a project.c file using PIC C compiler

98

You can then start to write the source code in the window titled
'project.c' then before testing your source code; you have to
compile your source code, and correct eventual syntax errors.

Fig 4.4: Picture of checking errors and warnings using PIC C

compiler

By

clicking

on

compile

option

automatically.

99

.hex

file

is

generated

This is how we compile a program for checking errors and

hence the compiled program is saved in the file where we
initiated the program.

Fig 4.5: Picture of .hex file existing using PIC C compiler

After compilation, next step is simulation. Here first

circuit is designed in Express PCB using Proteus 7 software and then
simulation takes place followed by dumping. The simulation steps are
as follows:

Open Proteus 7 and click on IS1S6.

Now

it

displays

PCB

where

circuit

is

designed

using

microcontroller. To design circuit components are required. So

click on component option.

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10. Now click on letter p, then under that select PIC16F72 ,other
components related to the project and click OK. The PIC 16F72 will be
called your 'Target device, which is the final destination of your
source code.

4.4.2 Dumping steps:

The steps involved in dumping the program edited in
proteus 7 to microcontroller are shown below:
1. Initially before connecting the program dumper to the
microcontroller kit the window is appeared as shown below.

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Fig 4.6: Picture of program dumper window

2. Select Tools option and click on Check Communication for

establishing a connection as shown in below window

102

Fig 4.7: Picture of checking communications before dumping

program into microcontroller
103

3. After connecting the dumper properly to the microcontroller kit the

window is appeared as shown below.

104

Fig 4.8: Picture after connecting the dumper to microcontroller

105

4. Again by selecting the Tools option and clicking on Check

Communication the microcontroller gets recognized by the dumper
and hence the window is as shown below.

106

Fig 4.9: Picture of dumper recognition to microcontroller

107

5. Import the program which is .hex file from the saved location by
selecting File option and clicking on Import Hex as shown in below
window.

108

109

Fig 4.10: Picture of program importing into the microcontroller

6. After clicking on Import Hex option we need to browse the location

of our program and click the prog.hex and click on open for dumping
the program into the microcontroller.

Fig 4.11: Picture of program browsing which is to be dumped

7. After the successful dumping of program the window is as shown

below.

110

Fig 4.12: Picture after program dumped into the microcontroller

111

CHAPTER 5: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

In this chapter, schematic diagram and interfacing of
PIC16F877 microcontroller with each module is considered.

Fig 5.1: schematic diagram of THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION

SYSTEM

The above schematic diagram of THREE PHASE

INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION SYSTEM explains the

interfacing section of each component with micro controller and
current sensor module. The crystal oscillator connected to 9th and 10th
pins of micro controller and regulated power supply is also connected

112

to micro controller and LEDs also connected to micro controller

through resistors and motor driver connected to micro controller
The detailed explanation of each module interfacing with
microcontroller is as follows:

5.2 Interfacing crystal oscillator with micro controller:

Fig 5.2: explains crystal oscillator and reset button which
are connected to micro controller. The two pins of oscillator are
connected to the 9th and 10th pins of micro controller; the purpose of
external crystal oscillator is to speed up the execution part of
instructions per cycle and here the crystal oscillator having 20 MHz
frequency. The 1st pin of the microcontroller is referred as MCLR ie..,
master clear pin or reset input pin is connected to reset button or
power-on-reset.

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Fig 5.2: crystal oscillator interfacing with micro controller

5.4 LED interfacing with PIC16F72:
LED stands for Light Emitting Diode and these are connected to micro
controller through resistors.

Fig 5.4: LED interfacing with PIC microcontroller

5.5 Relay interfacing with PIC16F72:

Fig 5.5: Relay interfacing with PIC microcontroller

114

CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:
1. Faster protection of critical electrical equipment.
2. Heavy-duty irrigation water pumps.
3. Industrial drive motors.
4. Any three phase driven industrial loads.
5. Conservation of energy.
6. Efficient and low cost design.
7. Low power consumption.
8. Easy to install.
9. Fast response.

Disadvantages:
Interfacing High voltage sensor to the Micro Controller is
sensitive.

Applications:
1. Rural installations.
2. Heavy industrial loads.
3. Public lighting
4. Irrigation water pumps

115

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS
7.1 Result:

The project Microcontroller based automatic THREE

PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION SYSTEM was

designed such that to construct a single phasing monitor and
prevention system using 8-bit microcontroller. Anti-single phasing
relays or single phasing preventer are required for critical loads and
circuits.
7.2 Conclusion:
A single phase earth fault protection is relatively easy to
establish on most power systems compared to other protection
schemes. Flexibility of fault analysis depends upon the complexity of
power system. Hence we can conclude that the occurrence of earth
fault at any point in a single phase system can be easily detected
using earth fault protection scheme. By installing the earth fault
protection scheme, a consumer can be aware whether he is exactly
charged, or not, for his energy consumption.
Integrating features of all the hardware components used have
been developed in it. Presence of every module has been reasoned out
and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best working of the unit.
Secondly, using highly advanced ICs with the help of growing

116

technology, the project has been successfully implemented. Thus the

project has been successfully designed and tested.
Microcontroller based automatic Single Phasing Preventing System for
3-phase Industrial Motors

7.3 Future Scope:

We can extend the project by adding GSM modem through which we
can send the alerts when the fault occurred. We can add even high
voltage devices with protection circuits. The system can also added
using wireless modules Like PLCC, zigbee, and RF communication
which can alert from distances.

117

REFERENCES

The sites which were used while doing this project:

1. www.wikipedia.com
2. www.allaboutcircuits.com
3. www.microchip.com
4. www.howstuffworks.com

Books referred:

1. Raj

kamal

Microcontrollers

Architecture,

Interfacing and System Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi Embedded Systems.
3. PCB Design Tutorial David.L.Jones.
4. PIC Microcontroller Manual Microchip.
5. Pyroelectric Sensor Module- Murata.

118

Programming,

6. Embedded C Michael.J.Pont.

APPENDIX
Program Code:
The program code which is dumped in the microcontroller of our
project is shown below.
#include <16F72.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <sensor.h>
#include <ADC.h>
#fuses

HS,NOWDT,PROTECT,brownout,put

#use

delay

(clock=20000000)

void main()
{
int i = 0;
void main()
{
lcd_init();
lcd_putc('\f');
// Clear LCD
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
// row-1, column-1
printf(lcd_putc," AC induction ");
lcd_gotoxy(1,2);
// row-1, column-2
printf(lcd_putc," protection ");
delay_ms(2000);
//Microcontroller Health Check Start
output_high(PIN_C3);

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delay_ms(1000);
output_low(PIN_C3);
delay_ms(1000);
output_high(PIN_C3);
delay_ms(1000);
output_low(PIN_C3);
output_high(PIN_C4);
delay_ms(1000);
output_low(PIN_C4);
delay_ms(1000);
while(1)
{
if(!(input(PIN_A0) && input(PIN_A2) && input(PIN_A5)))
{
output_low(PIN_C7);
}
if(!input(PIN_A0))
{
lcd_putc('\f');
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
printf(lcd_putc,"R-Phase Fault");
output_high(PIN_C3);
output_high(PIN_C7);
delay_ms(100);
}
if(!input(PIN_A2))
{
lcd_putc('\f');
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
printf(lcd_putc,"Y-Phase Fault");
output_high(PIN_C3);
output_high(PIN_C7);
output_low(PIN_C2);
output_high(PIN_C1);
output_high(PIN_C3);
delay_ms(100);
}
if(!input(PIN_A5))
{
lcd_putc('\f');
lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
printf(lcd_putc,"B-Phase Fault");
output_high(PIN_C3);
output_high(PIN_C7);
output_low(PIN_C3);
output_high(PIN_C2);
output_high(PIN_C1);
delay_ms(100);

120

}
}
}

121