TVBK 5185JJweb

Design of a 170 m span
bridge over the fjord

Thorskafjordur in Iceland
Jhannes Helgi Jhannesson

Avdelningen fr Konstruktionsteknik
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola
Lunds Universitet, 2010
Rapport TVBK - 5185
Avdelningen fr Konstruktionsteknik
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola
Box 118
221 00 LUND
Department of Structural Engineering

Lund Institute of Technology
Box 118
S-221 00 LUND
Sweden
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in

Iceland
Dimensionering av 170 m lng bro ver fjorden orskafjrur p Island
2010
Abstract
Determining the structural type of a bridge is often a difficult task. The purpose of this thesis is to
preliminary design three bridge alternatives. The bridge shall cross the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland.
The goal is to determine the most favorable option. That decision will be based on economy,
construction and aesthetics. Following that a more detailed design of the superstructure is performed
for the chosen alternative. All calculations are performed according to Eurocode.
Keywords: concrete girder bridge; arch bridge; cable-stayed bridge; concrete; reinforcement;
prestress
i
Rapport TVBK-5185
ISSN 0349-4969
ISRN: LUTVDG/TVBK-10/5185+92p
Examensarbete
Supervisor: Dr. Fredrik Carlsson
Examinator: Prof. Sven Thelandersson
October 2010
ii
Foreword
This thesis was written under the administration of the Division of Structural Engineering at the
University of Lund. It was written during the period September 2009 - September 2010 under the
supervision of Dr. Fredrik Carlsson.
I especially want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Fredrik Carlsson, for all his help with making this thesis
become real. I also want to thank Einar Hafliason, the head of the bridge division of the Icelandic
Road Administration, for the help with finding a subject for this thesis and for giving me necessary
information regarding this subject. For the cost of various structural materials I would like to thank
Oskar Bruneby, a site manager at Peab, for his contribution. In addition I would like to thank a good
friend from Iceland, str Ingvason, for making 3D animations of the three bridge alternatives
presented in this thesis. Finally, I want to thank my friends at LTH: Bzav Abdulkarim, Daniel Honfi,
var Bjrnsson and Valdimar rn Helgason for all their help and last but not least other friends and
family for their moral support.
Lund, October 2010

iii
iv
Table of Contents
1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2
Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.3
Outline of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 1
Bridge types .................................................................................................................................... 2

2.1
Concrete bridge ....................................................................................................................... 2
2.2
Arch bridge ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.3
Cable-stayed bridge................................................................................................................. 4
The actual project geometry and boundary conditions ................................................................ 5
Preliminary design .......................................................................................................................... 7

4.1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 7
4.2
Loads ....................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2.1
Permanent loads .............................................................................................................. 7
4.2.2
Variable loads ................................................................................................................. 7
4.2.3
Load combinations .......................................................................................................... 8
4.3
Material cost............................................................................................................................ 9
4.4
The concrete beam bridge ..................................................................................................... 10
4.4.1
Geometry for type 1 ...................................................................................................... 10
4.4.2
Size estimation .............................................................................................................. 10
4.4.3
Supports ........................................................................................................................ 11
4.4.4
Construction .................................................................................................................. 13
4.4.5
Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 13
4.5
The arch bridge ..................................................................................................................... 16
4.5.1
4.5.2
Arch............................................................................................................................... 17
4.5.3
Bridge Deck .................................................................................................................. 22
4.5.4
Hangers ......................................................................................................................... 23
4.5.5
Transversal Bracing ...................................................................................................... 23
4.5.6
Foundations ................................................................................................................... 24
4.5.7
Construction .................................................................................................................. 24
4.5.8
4.6
The cable-stayed bridge ........................................................................................................ 26
4.6.1
Aesthetics of cable-stayed bridges ................................................................................ 26
4.6.2
4.6.3
Design ........................................................................................................................... 27
v
4.6.4
Deck .............................................................................................................................. 32
4.6.5
Pylons ............................................................................................................................ 33
4.6.6
Foundation .................................................................................................................... 34
4.6.7
Construction .................................................................................................................. 34
4.6.8
4.7
5
Final design ................................................................................................................................... 38

5.1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 38
5.2
Design ................................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.1
Building codes .............................................................................................................. 39
5.2.2
Loading ......................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.3
Materials ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.4
Exposure classes and service life .................................................................................. 40
5.2.5
Tendon alignment and prestress force........................................................................... 40
5.2.6
Prestress losses .............................................................................................................. 46
5.2.7
Secondary effects of prestress ....................................................................................... 51
5.3
6
Summary and choice of bridge type...................................................................................... 37
Ultimate moment capacity .................................................................................................... 55
References ..................................................................................................................................... 57
6.1
Literature ............................................................................................................................... 57
6.2
Computer programs............................................................................................................... 58
6.3
Other references .................................................................................................................... 58
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................................... 59
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................... 74
vi
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The motivation for writing this thesis is an interest in bridges that the author has acquired during his
studies in structural engineering. Many people consider bridges to be state of the art of all civil
structures. That can be for many reasons; f. ex. bridges sometimes cross a difficult passing or because
of their aesthetic aspects.
During the time the subject for this thesis was under consideration the author decided to contact the
bridge division of the Icelandic Road Administration (ICERA). Einar Hafliason, the head of the
bridge division of ICERA, was contacted and he was more than willing to help. He came up with a
few options to look into which were all considered. Following that, a decision was made and a bridge
that is to be constructed to cross the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland was chosen as a subject for this
thesis.
1.2 Objectives
The main purpose for a bridge over the fjord orskafjrur is to shorten the distance of the route on
the way to the northwestern part of Iceland. With this bridge the route will shorten of about 10 km.
Another purpose is to increase traffic security by eliminating all one-lane bridges on this 10 km sector.
The main objective of this thesis is divided into two parts. First, a preliminary design of three bridge
alternatives is made. A rough cost estimation and an estimation of quantity of materials is made based
on the preliminary design for these three alternatives. Secondly, a more detailed design is made of the
most appropriate bridge type. The choice of a bridge type is based on the conclusions from the first
part. These conclusions will primarily be based on economy, aesthetics and construction method.
1.3 Outline of the thesis

Chapter 2 consists of a general discussion about aesthetics, advantages and disadvantages and other
aspects for the three bridge types that are chosen to be analyzed.
Chapter 3 displays the bridge location and describes the boundary conditions and geometry at the
construction site. It also includes information about why this bridge is to be built.
Chapter 4 includes preliminary design and cost estimations of the three chosen bridge alternatives
with respect to the quantity of materials needed for each type. That chapter also includes conclusions
of the preliminary design, that is, which type of bridge is chosen for a more detailed design with
respect to the limits that are set.
Chapter 5 includes more detailed structural analysis for the superstructure of the chosen bridge
alternative.
Design of a 170 m long bridg

ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland
2 Brridge typ
pes
There arre many areaas of concernn that need to
t be focusedd on when designing a bridge.
b
Theree are four
main subbjects considdered in this thesis. They can be listedd in order off priority as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Safety
Serviceabilitty
Economy
Aesthetics
These issues and th

heir order of
o priority may
m though be criticizeed and are merely the authors
preferennce.
Safety aand serviceab
bility are acchieved throuugh systemaatic applicatiion of scienttific and enggineering
principlees and thus depend on the analyticcal skills off the engineer. Economyy and aesthhetics are
achievedd through noonscientific means
m
and deepend almostt entirely on the creativity
y of the engineer.
In this thhesis three bridge
b
types are investigaated as optioons for the prroject and a choice is esttablished
based onn the four aforemention
a
ned areas of concern. Thhese three brridge types are;
a a concreete beam
bridge (ppost tensioned), an arch bridge and a cable-stayeed bridge. The
T choice off these alternnatives is
based onn the authors interest.
2.1 Concrete
C
bridge
Concretee slab- or girrder bridges are by far the most comm
mon of all brridge types nowadays. Prestressed
concretee bridges are an attractivee alternative for long-spaan bridges annd are consid
dered by manny as one
of the siimplest form
ms for a bridgge with respeect to its strucctural mode of action. A typical cross-section
for this ttype of bridgge can be seeen in figure 2-1.
2
Figure 2-11: A typical crooss-section for a concrete girder bridge.
These tyypes of cross-sections with

w prestresss reinforcem
ment in the giirders are ussually used for
f spans
longer thhan ca. 25 m.
m They are ecconomically compatible and can easiily be designned in the maanner that
they inteegrate to thee surroundinngs on site. They
T
are also easy to coonstruct com
mpared to maany other
alternatiives. Neverthheless, the author
a
consid
ders them noot as the statte-of the-art bridges in the
t same
sense ass the two types that are coonsidered in the next chaapters. An exxample of a concrete
c
beam bridge
with twoo girders cann be seen in ffigure 2-2.
Figure 2-2: An exam

mple of a prestressed girder bridge.
b

2.2 Arch
A
bridg
ge
Arches have
h
been ussed throughoout the ages as
a structural elements. A perfect arch
h, theoreticallly, is one
in whichh only comp
pressive forces act at thee centroid off each elemeent of the arcch. The shappe of the
perfect aarch can be thought of as
a the inversee of a hanginng chain bettween abutm
ments. It is prractically
impossibble to have a perfect archh bridge exceept for one loading conddition while it
i is usually subjected
s
to multipple loadings..
For manny people, an
n arch is connsidered to be
b one of thee most competitive option
ns from the aesthetic
perspecttive and a plleasure for a motorist to drive over. With
W the apppropriate lighhting arches can also
be very attractive duuring night.
The archh type that is
i chosen in this paper is
i a zero hinnged steel arch, figure 2--3, which im
mplies no
rotation possible at supports. The
T deck willl be locatedd at an elevation between
n the supporrts of the
arch itseelf and the crown
c
of thee arch, so caalled half-thhrough arch. Good founddation condiitions are
requiredd since an arcch can be sennsitive to setttlements and a zero-hing
ged arch hass high reactioon forces
at founddation; horizo
ontal, verticaal and bendinng.
Figure 2-3: A model of a zeero hinge arch.
Arches can
c span up to about 5550 m and in the case of slender
s
strucctures of steeel, various innstability
risks succh as the riskk for torsionaal buckling of
o the arches, must be taken into consiideration.
Figure 2-4: A typical arch bridge with

w the deck haanging on ties connected to the
t arch.

2.3 Cable-stay
C
yed bridg
ge
The conncept of a caable-stayed bridge
b
is sim
mple althouggh the loadin
ng mechanissm is not soo easy to
predict. A bridge carries
c
mainnly vertical loads actinng on the girder.
g
The stay cables provide
intermeddiate supportts for the girrder so that it can span a long distancce. The basicc structural fform of a
cable-staayed bridge is a series off overlappingg triangles thhat connect the
t deck to the
t pylons. The
T deck,
the cables and the pylon
p
are undder predominnant axial foorces, with thhe cables un
nder tension and both
the pyloon and the deeck under compression. Axially
A
loadeed members are generally more efficcient than
flexural members. This
T contributtes to the ecoonomy of a cable-stayed
c
d bridge. Theey also have less steel
consumpption but on the other haand larger sttress variatioons can occuur and their structural
s
beehavior is
complexx.
Nowadaays, cable-staayed bridges are the mostt common brridge type foor long-span bridges and can span
up to arround 1000 m and com
me in variouus forms beccause of eco
onomy and aesthetics. They
T
are
beautifuul structures that
t appeal too most peoplle. The towerrs, or pylonss, are the most visible eleements of
a cable-stayed bridgge and thereffore contribuute the most from an aestthetic point of
o view. A clean
c
and
simple cconfigurationn is preferabble with freee standing toowers. Underr special circumstances they can
also servve as tourist attractions, for example when lightinng is a part of
o the designn which enhaances the
beauty aand visibility
y of the bridgge at night. An
A example of
o a cable-stayed bridge can be seen in figure
2-5.
Figure 2-55: A cable-stayed bridge with

h two pylons on
n each side.

3 Th
he actuall project geome
etry and boundarry condittions
The posiition of this bridge
b
is in the
t north-western part off Iceland passsing a fjord called
c
orskaafjrur.
Currentlly there is a road that gooes along thhe fjord and at the end of
o the fjord there
t
is a brridge that
crosses a river with only one lanne. The purppose of the neew bridge iss therefore too have two laanes, one
in each direction, too increase trraffic safety, efficiency and
a to shortten the routee of about 10 km by
crossingg the fjord.
In figuree 3-1 the possition of the ffjord can be seen. The figgure displayss the northwestern part of
o Iceland.
The lighht gray line where
w
the arroow points is the current road.
r
Figure 3-1: Poosition of the fjord

fj
on the north-western cooast of Iceland.
As was mentioned, the bridge will have tw

wo traffic laanes for norrmal vehicle traffic, onee in each
directionn. The requuired length of the briddge, 170 m, is mainly due to ecollogical reasoons. The
necessarry area of water
w
openingg needs to bee of minimuum 560 m2 so that full water
w
changes will be
acquiredd. For full waater changes the water floow is assumeed to be 2.5 m/sec.
m
The restt of the distannce required to cross the fjord will bee achieved byy a road, on a rock fillingg on both
sides of the bridge. Therefore
T
thee bridge willl be positioneed in the midddle of the fjord. The widdth of the
fjord whhere the bridgge is to be poositioned is around
a
1 km..
The larggest possible depth of seaa level is arouund 6.35 m and
a the smalllest possiblee depth of sea level is
around 1.65 m from
m the sea bed. The averaage sea leveel is 4 m froom the sea bed.
b
Hence, the total
maximuum difference between highest
h
and lowest sea level is 4.7 m. It can be
b assumed that the
minimum
m water opening would be reduced by
b a few meters because of piers andd abutments. Guiding
rock filllings will be
b at each end
e
abutmennts and erosion protectio
on will be at all suppoorts. The
alignmennt of the plannned road linne that will be
b consideredd is displayedd in figure 3--2.

Figure 3-22: The road lin

ne where the brridge will be co
onstructed.
b consists of sediment layers. The sediment lay

yers are coheesive materiaals so all
The soill at the sea bed
fundameents will be founded
f
on ccohesive pilees.
A sectioon of the fjordd is displayeed in figure 3-3. Note thatt the height is
i scaled 10 times
t
the widdth.
Figu
ure 3-3: A crosss section of th
he fjord, the heeight is scaled up
u of the factor 10.
The fjorrd is not loccated in an earthquake zone

z
and thee peak valuee for surface acceleratioon, ag, is
defined as <2% g inn this area, see figure 3-4.
3 Accordiing to Euroccode 8 for sttructures witth ag not
greater tthan 4% g thhe provisions of Eurocod
de 8 can be neglected. The
T differentt earthquake zones in
Iceland aare displayed
d in figure 3--4.
Figure 3-4: Maximu

um values of su
urface accelera
ation. (Earthqu
uake Engineerring Research Centre,
C
Univerrsity of
Iceland).
4 Preliminary design
4.1 Introduction
This chapter contains preliminary design of the three bridge types, a concrete girder bridge, an arch
bridge and a cable-stayed bridge. The aim of the preliminary design is to determine the most suitable
bridge type for the purpose of crossing the fjord orskafjrur. The chapter is divided in to two
different sections. The first sections (sections 4.2 and 4.3) treat factors that are common for all three
bridge types, i.e. loads, load combinations and materials. Sections 4.4 to 4.6 treat the three different
bridge types respectively. In these sections are sizes of important bridge elements for each bridge type
estimated. These sections also contain rough cost estimations and construction methods for each
bridge type. Finally, in the last section of this chapter, the most suitable bridge type is determined
based on the preliminary design.
4.2 Loads
For the preliminary design of this project only three loads are considered. Two permanent loads, selfweight and pavement, and one variable load, traffic load. The loads are determined according to
Eurocode 1 (EC1).
4.2.1 Permanent loads
Self-weight for reinforced concrete is set to 25 kN/m3. The self-weight of pavement and structural
steel are set to 2.1 kN/m2and 78.5 kN/m3 respectively.
4.2.2 Variable loads
The variable actions, which are taken into account in this thesis, are traffic loads in vertical direction.
After some discussion with the head of the bridge division of ICERA it seemed reasonable to do this
simplification in the preliminary analysis.
Traffic Loads
In EC1-2, chapter 4, there are defined four different load models for traffic loads. In this case Load
Model 1 (LM1) is used with two partial systems, one including axle loads (Tandem system TS) and
the other including uniformly distributed loads (UDL system), see figure 4-1. LM1 is considered to
cover most of the effects from traffic of lorries and cars and should be used for general and local
verifications while the other load models are considered for dynamic effects, special vehicles and
other situations. LM1 should be applied on each notional lane and on the remaining areas. On notional
lane number i, the load magnitudes are referred to as QiQik and qiqik, axle load and distributed load
respectively. On the remaining areas, the load magnitude is referred to as qrqrk. According to chapter
4.3.2(3) in EC1-2 the recommended minimum values for the adjustment factors are:
0,8
1,0
The national annex for Sweden recommends the following minimum values for the adjustment factors:
= 0,9
= 0,9
=0

= 1,0
= 1,0
f this situaation. The Swedish
S
national annex is applied since an
Hence, these valuess are used for
C
ic axle loads, Qik, and
Icelandic national annnex for this part of Euroocode 2 is noot ready yet. Characteristi
4
characteeristic verticaal distributedd loads, qik, arre summarizzed in table 4-1.
Tablee 4-1: Axle load

ds and uniform
mly distributed
d loads.
These looad arrangem

ments are dispplayed on fig
gure 4-1 andd should be arranged
a
for each case too give the
most unffavorable ressult.
Figure 4-1:
4 Load arra
angements for load
l
model 1 in
n EC1-2.
4.2.3 Load comb

binations
Several load combin
nations need to
t be taken into account, in the ultimate and serviiceability lim
mit states,
when a bridge is anaalyzed and designed.
d
Buut for simpliffication onlyy an analysis in the ultim
mate limit
state is m
made for the preliminary design of alll bridge typees. The desiggn value of actions
a
in thee ultimate
limit staate is accordin
ng to EC0, section 6.4.3.2:
,
"+"
"+"
"+"

where
G,j
Partial factor for permannent action j
Gk,J
Characteristic value of permanent

p
action j
Partial factor for prestresssing actionss
Relevant reppresentative value

v
of a prrestressing acction
Q,1
Partial factor for variablee action 1
Qk,1
Characteristic value of thhe leading vaariable actionn 1
Q,i
Partial factor for variablee action i
0,i
Factor for coombination value

v
of variaable action i
Qk,i
Characteristic value of thhe accompannying variablle action i
Here aree G,j=1.35, P=1.0 and Q,1=1.5 the partial

p
safetyy factors forr permanent action, presttress and
variable action resppectively. Thhe last term in this equaation is not required sinnce there is oonly one
principaal action.
4.3 Material
M
cost
Table 4--2 summarizzes unit pricees for the maaterials used.. Even thoug
gh values of various expeenses are
not com
mpletely correect they will give a goodd perspective on prices foor comparisoon of the briddge types
that have been invesstigated. The basis of the cost estimattion and pricces is from courses the auuthor has
attendedd and other resources like discussioons with conntractors andd engineers both in Iceland and
Sweden. Workforce is included in these vallues and highher values are chosen where
w
a price range is
given.
Table 4-2: Unit pricces for various structural matterials.
To estim
mate the pricee of the steell hangers in the
t arch briddge, see sectiion 4.5.4, uniit price for soolid steel
is used (SEK/kg). To
T come upp with a priice for the stay cables of the cablee-stayed briddge it is
necessarry to find thee unit weightt (kg/m) of th
he cables. Unnit weight foor cables wass found in a literature
from Zhhuan (1998) about
a
stay caables where the unit weight of cabless that has a similar
s
breakking load
as the oones that were
w
chosen here to usee and that vvalue is 24.1 kg/m. Noo lifetime cost,
c
like
maintenance or other factors, will be estimatted and cost of
o foundations is a factorr of uncertainnty since
the desiggn of that is not done in the preliminary phase. Here
H estimatio
on is used to
o calculate thhe cost of

b Menn (19986) as a 23..5% of the tootal cost of structural
s
the subsstructures with a method developed by
elementss. Included in
n the substruucture are thee piers and fuundaments.
4.4 The
T concrrete beam
m bridge
Bridge ttype no. 1 iss a concrete post-tensionned girder bridge
b
with four
f
spans annd concrete columns
supportiing the beam
ms. There willl be two maain girders with
w post-tenssioning cablees. The total width of
the bridgge deck will be 10 m, seee figure 4-3. Supports willl be founded
d on concretee piles.
4.4.1 Geometry for type 1
This briidge type will have a concrete slabb supported on two conttinuous gird
ders. The briidge is a
continuoous girder brridge with 4 spans, see fiigure 4-2. Thhe girders arre supported on concrete columns
down to the sea bed.
4.4.2 Size estimation
As was mentioned
m
before, the tottal span of thhe bridge is 170
1 m. The bridge
b
is diviided into fouur smaller
spans, tw
wo internal spans with the
t length 48 m and tw
wo external sppans with a length of 37 m, see
figure 4--2. This choiice of span leengths is made to get an even momen
nt distribution. That is acchieved if
the lengtth of the exteernal spans is about 80 % of the lengtth of the inteernal ones.
Figure 4-2: Sp
pan lengths forr bridge type 1.
The firsst step is to decide the prestressing

p
system to estimate
e
the size of the girders. Thee chosen
prestresss system is VSL 6-19. The dimenssions for anchorage blocks for thatt specific syystem are
290x2900 mm. 3 cabbles are chossen in each row
r
which results
r
in a minimum
m
wiidth, b, of 10080 mm.
Also an additional thhickness of 300
3 mm is deetermined ovver the suppo
orts.
The heigght of the girder is deteermined by the
t slenderneess, a ratio between
b
the span lengthh and the
height, L
L/h, of the girder.
g
A reccommended slenderness ratio for a conventional
c
l cast-in-placce girder
bridge shhould be choosen in the raange of 12-335 and some lower rangee should be considered beecause of
economiic reasons (ssection 7.2.11 in Menn (1
1986)) and a low valuee should also
o be chosen so there
wont coome up probllems later inn the design. So the estim
mated height becomes:
b
= 20 =
48
= 2,4
20
The cennter distancee between the

t
two maain girders, a, is choseen with thee following method,
Thelanddersson (2009
9):
= 1,8
10
= 5,6
1,,8
where B is the free width

w
of the bridge.
b
The thicckness of the slab is choseen to be 250 mm to be abble to resist shear
s
forces and
a momentts.
The estim
mated cross--section of thhe bridge, baased on the methods
m
abovve, can be seeen in figure 4-3.
4
10

Figu
ure 4-3: The crross-section at preliminary sttage.
4.4.3 Supports
Maximuum load on a column woould be when
n the given traffic
t
load is located as shown in figgure 4-4.
To estim
mate the mosst unfavorabble load actin
ng on a singgle beam the girder distriibution factoor (GDF)
has to bbe determineed. GDF tellss how the trraffic load iss distributed between thee girders. Thhe traffic
loads haave to be loccated in the most
m unfavorable positioon on the briidge deck in the lateral direction.
d
To find GDF, the moment
m
is caalculated aro
ound B with the lever arrm for each load as dispplayed in
figure 4--4.
Figuree 4-4: Location

n of traffic load
ds to determinee GDF.
The GDFs for the tw

wo traffic loads, axle and distributed loads, are dettermined to be:
b
= 1,37
7 For the taandem system
m
= 1,16
1
For UDL system
And the following trraffic loads thhat act on onne beam are:
11

= 1012
2
= 37
b
is
where thhe axle loadds are channged into onne concentraated force (aassumption). Then the bridge
analyzedd in the leng
gth directionn for one girrder. Calculaations are made
m
for halff of the briddge cross
section. Figure 4-5 shows
s
the acctions and th
he position of actions to decide the laargest shear force for
the colum
mns and the bridge sectioon in the ultiimate limit sttate.
Figure 4-5: Position

P
of trafffic loads when
n the largest noormal force at the middle sup
pport occurs.
The maxximum norm

mal force in the
t middle suupport is callculated to bee 11.180 kN
N in the ultim
mate limit
state. Att this stage thhe concrete quality
q
is assu
umed to be C
C45/55.
The widdth of a sinngle girder over
o
supporrts is 1.380 mm. The thhickness of the supportt wall is
calculateed from a forrmula for preeliminary design given inn the ISE maanual (1985)::
=
0.44
100
0.6
67
0.44
with the yield strenggth of the reinnforcement as

a fy=500 MP
Pa, characteristic cylinderr strength off concrete
as fck=455 MPa, the percentage
p
o reinforcem
of
ment p=2% and
a Ac as thee gross cross-sectional arrea. Thus
the miniimum thickness of the suupport shouldd be:
11
1180
10 = 1380
0.44
45 +
2
(0.67
7
100
500 0.44
45) 311
So for a single suppoort the total size

s is determ
mined to be b x t = 7500 x 450 mm.
For the ppiles, given that
t each pilee resists 400 kN, gives:
11180
400
28
Precasteed 270x270 piles

p
with 1200 mm spaciing and a fouundation of the
t size 5x100 m.
12

4.4.4 Construction
The construction method of a concrete girder bridge is relatively easy to perform. Concrete girder
bridges are one of the most common bridges in Iceland. This bridge alternative is often chosen for
similar conditions as are in this case because of economic and constructional reasons, that is, when a
shallow fjord is to be crossed.
Supports and columns below the superstructure will be constructed first. They will be founded on
piles. Since the level of sea depth at is shallow at the construction site the superstructure of the bridge
will be casted in forms that are supported on a temporary filling under the bridge. The filling will
finally be removed when the concrete has hardened and can then be used as road material.
4.4.5 Cost estimation/conclusions
To estimate the cost of this bridge type a method from Menn (1986) is used. The following is an
explanation of this method.
The superstructures costs can be reliably estimated with the help of the geometrical average span
length, lm, defined as:
=
where li is the length of span i.

The empirical equations given below give the quantities of concrete, reinforcing steel, and
prestressing steel as functions of lm and have been derived from samples of recently constructed
bridges.
By this method the volume of concrete in the whole superstructure is obtained by multiplying the total
deck surface by the effective girder depth, hm, defined by the following expression:
= 0.35 + 0.0045
where hm and lm are in meters. This equation is valid provided the actual girder depth, h, satisfies the
following inequality:
1
1
16
20
which fulfills the criteria used earlier, l/h=20. The quantity of reinforcing steel is obtained by
multiplying the total volume of concrete by the mass of steel per unit volume of concrete, ms. The
parameter ms is estimated using the equation:
= 90 + 0.35
where lm is in meters and ms is in kilograms per cubic meter of concrete (kg/m3). This expression is
valid provided the deck slab is not transversely prestressed. Between 65 and 70 kg/m3 of
reinforcement is required for stability during construction and crack control; this quantity is
independent of span length, see Menn (1986). The transverse reinforcement required to resist loads is
primarily a function of cross-section dimensions. An additional 20 to 25 kg/m3 is required for
commonly used cross-sections, regardless of span length. Most of the steel required above the
13

3
m 65 to 70 kg/m
k
is locaated in the deck
d
slab. Thhe deck slab should thereefore be the focus of
minimum
attentionn in the desiggn and arranggement of thhe superstructture reinforcement.
The mass of prestreessing steel per unit volume of conncrete, mp, is a functionn of span lenngth and
construcction methodd. For girderss that are cassted on convventional falssework, mp is estimated using
u
the
equationn:
= 0.4
where lm is in meters and mp is in
i kilogramss per cubic meter
m
of conccrete. This exxpression is valid for
girders that are noot transverseely prestressed. The quuantity of prrestressing steel
s
is obtaained by
multiplyying mp by thhe total volum
me of concreete.
The estiimated cost of concretee, reinforcin
ng steel andd prestressinng steel in the
t superstruucture is
obtainedd by multipllying the esstimated quaantities with unit materiial costs. Thhe cost of falsework
f
(scaffoldding system
ms that are used
u
to tem
mporarily suupport permaanent structuures) and fo
formwork
(temporaary structuree used to rettain unhardenned concretee until hardeened) shouldd be estimateed taking
into accoount the prop
posed constrruction sequeence; if it is greater
g
than 65
6 percent of the supersttructures
materiall costs, anotther construuction methood should be
b considereed. Adding the bridge material,
falseworrk and formw
work costs yiields the totaal superstructture cost. Sinnce abutmentts and piers are
a under
sea level the cost peercentage of the total cosst of those sttructural partts as well as falsework/fo
formwork
increaseed. These vaalues are choosen to be 25% and 23%
% respectiveely. The rem
maining costts can be
estimateed using tablee 4-3, from Menn
M
(1986)).
Table 4-3:
4 Table from
m Menn (1986)) to estimate coosts for variou
us structural ellements.
Here is oonly listed th

he quantity of
o super- and
d substructuree materials thhat will be determined
d
annd below
is a tabble that summarizes those results. These
T
quantiities are acq
quired basedd on the preeliminary
calculatiions as well as the empiriical equationns above. Thee calculated quantities arre given in taable 4-4.
14

T
Table
4-4: Amoounts of structu
ural materials for the concreete beam bridgge.
For the ffigures givenn in table 4-44, abutments and columns are includeed. Below is a table with prices of
sub- andd superstructture and the total
t
cost bassed on the prrice values from
f
section 4.3 and to get
g a total
cost for this bridge tyype the total values for th
he structural elements aree doubled.
Table 4-5: Total

T
cost of brridge type 1.
This resuult is consisttent with a draft

d
for this project
p
madee by ICERA where the estimated
e
cosst for this
type of bbridge was 638.500.000
6
ISK which is
i around 38.700.000 SE
EK with the exchange
e
rate of 16.5
ISK/SEK
K. Note that this draft asssumes the tottal length off 182 m instead of 170 m..
F
Figure
4-6: An
n overview of th
he beam bridge.
15

4.5 The
T arch bridge
b
Bridge ttype no. 2 is a conventional steel arch bridge witth two separaate arches abbove the briddge deck.
Each arcch will be off a steel box cross-sectio
on with steel stiffeners innside, see fig
gure 4-11. Thhe arches
will be oof zero hingeed type with X-bracing between
b
the arches
a
to increase lateral stiffness. Thhe bridge
deck willl be of com
mposite steel/cconcrete. In the longituddinal directioon of the briddge there will be two
main girrders with sh
hear studs. To
T connect thhe two mainn girders therre will be traansversal steel beams
which arre connected
d to the archhes with hanggers. A reinfforced concrrete slab will be casted on
o top of
the mainn girders, seee figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7: A crross-section of the bridge decck.

The chooice of the rise
r
of the arch is basedd on the ratiio between span
s
and rise which is ggenerally
chosen between
b
4 an
nd 8 see, Looretsen and Sundquist
S
(19995). This raatio is in thiss case chosenn to be 4
which would
w
result in less horizzontal reactiion forces. This
T
ratio is suitable beccause of geottechnical
conditioons on site (n
no rock onlyy sediment soil
s layers). That
T results in
=4
70
17
= 42,5
4
To connnect the deckk to the arch vertical steel wire hangeers with c/c 25
2 m are choosen. On figuure 4-8 is
a drawinng of the struuctural model of the bridgge.
Figure 4-8: A structtural model of the tied arch bridge.

b
To deterrmine the section forces in the archees the GDF needs

n
to be determined again.
a
The GDFs
G
are
determinned accordinng to figure 4-9.
4
16

Figure 4-9:
4 Position off traffic loads when
w
calculatiing GDF.
The folloowing GDFss are acquired:

= 1,13
3 For the taandem system
m
= 1,00
1
For UDL system
And the following trraffic loads thhat act on onne girder are::
= 694
4
= 27
4.5.2 Arch
To desiggn the arch the
t influencee lines for thhe arch needd to be determ
mined. 3 secctions in the arch are
investigaated: abutmeent, of thee arch and the middle. Influence
I
linnes for each section are made by
moving a point load
d of 100 kN
N in 10 m intervals
i
oveer the deck in the longiitudinal direction for
momentt, shear forcee and normal force. Thesse influence diagrams
d
can
n be seen in figure
f
4-10.
17
Influence Lines for Moment in the Arch

1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
-0.50
-1.00
x/L
Abutment
1/4 of span
Middle of the span
Influence Lines for Shear Force in the Arch

1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
-0.50
-1.00
x/L
Abutment
1/4 of span
Middle of the span
Influence Lines for Normal Force in the Arch

1.00
0.50
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
-0.50
-1.00
x/L
Abutment
1/4 of span
Middle of the span
Figure 4-10: Influence lines for various section forces at most critical placements.
To calculate the important section forces for design of the cross section of the arch the traffic loads
are placed on the most unfavorable position corresponding to these influence diagrams in a program
called PCFrame. PCFrame is a commercial program for structural analysis of frames.
Cross Section
To design the arch in the ultimate limit state the section forces are required. The highest moment in
the arch is reached when the traffic load is located in the middle of the span. The position of the point
load at the first quarter of the span gave the highest normal force. So these corresponding section
forces are used to design the cross section and are shown in table 4-6.
18

T
Table
4-6: Dessign section forrces in the arch
h.
The matterial qualitiees of the steeel are given inn table 4-7.
Table 4-7: Material qualiities of steel.
The folloowing cross--section was determined after few triaals with resppect to stabiliity in the lonngitudinal
directionn and resistannce, see figuure 4-11:
F
Figure
4-11: Ch
hosen cross-secction of the arcch.
The crooss-section is a welded box sectionn with trapeezoidal stiffe

feners. Furth
her details about
a
the
dimensioons of the crross section (moment
(
of inertia, sectiion modulus etc.) can be seen in the appendix
a
A.
Stabilityy
To checck for stabiliity in longituudinal directtion two inveestigations are
a made; caalculation byy hand as
well as w
with the help
p of PCFram
me. To fulfilll the requirem
ments for staability the ratio between buckling
load andd the maximu
um normal force
f
needs too be in the raange from 4 to 5, see Lo
oretsen and S
Sundquist
19

b Austin (1971) were used.
u
The
(1995). To calculatee the bucklinng load by haand formulass presented by
d is given as:
critical bbuckling load
=
where S is the one-h

half length off the arch andd k is the effeective lengthh factor, see Austin
A
(19711). In this
case S iss 98525 mm and k is 0.700 for a fixedd arch with a rise-span rattio as 0.25. For
F these vallues Pe is
determinned to be 458845 kN and the
t ratio betw
ween the bucckling load annd the maxim
mum normall force is
= 4.8
From annalysis in PC
CFrame for thhis case this factor is deteermined to be
b 5.0. That matches
m
conssiderably
well wiith the calcculations byy hand. Theese calculatiions were the
t
most crritical ones for the
determinnation of the cross sectionn. The bucklling mode shhape for this arch is show
wn in figure 4-12.
4
Fiigure 4-12: Bu
uckling mode sh
hape of the arcch.
EC3 givves another method

m
to deetermine the buckling ressistance criteeria for comp
pressed mem
mbers and
is given in section 5..5.1 in EC3. EC3 definess the followinng criteria:
with Nd as the designn normal forcce and the caapacity of thee cross-sectioon, Nb.Rd , as
.
Here iss the reductioon factor forr the relevantt buckling mode and is deefined as
1
=
+
with
e
equal
to
0,2
0 +
= 0,5 1 +
and , aan imperfectiion factor, obtained

o
from
m an appropriate bucklin
ng curve. Foor buckling about
a
the
strongerr axis and a welded
w
box section
s
with b/t
b f<30, becomes
= 0.49
, the noon-dimensionnal slenderneess, is defineed as
20

=
ng on the crooss-section as below:

where A is dependin
= 1 for Cllass 1, 2 or 3 cross sectio
ons
=
for Class 4 cross sectioons
In this case A is equual to 1. For resistance

r
off member to buckling thee safety facto
or is
= 1,1
Table 4--8 summarizees the resultss of this analysis.
Tablee 4-8: Criteria for buckling resistance

r
from
m EC3.
It can bee seen in tablle 4-8 that thhe buckling reesistance is well
w above thhe calculated
d normal forcces in the
arch.
Compre
ession and bending capacities
To deteermine the compression
c
and bendin
ng capacitiees the class of the crosss-section haas to be
determinned. To decidde the cross section classs plastic stresss distributioon is assumed
d.
In this ccase the cross section claass is determiined to be 1.
The crosss-section caapacities are defined
d
in EC
C3 in sectionns 5.4.4 and 5.4.5 respecttively as
=
Here, Nppl.Rd is the pllastic designn resistance for

f compresssion, Mpl.Rd thhe plastic reesistance for bending
and Wpl the plastic section
s
moduulus. For ressistance of C
Class 1, 2 or 3 cross-secttion the partiial safety
factor is defined as
= 1,1 inn section 5.1.1 in EC3. Thhe calculatioons for Npl.Rd, Mpl.Rd and Wpl can be
seen in aappendix A. Next a checck for bendinng moment, compression
and combin
c
ned bending and
a axial
force aree made accorrding to sectiion 5.4 in EC
C3. The folloowing designn criteria are checked:
Bennding
Com
mpression
The resuults of this an

nalysis are suummarized inn table 4-9.
21
Com
mbined bending and axial force

Tablle 4-9: Design values

v
and resiistance for the arch.
ulfilled. Alsoo, the cross-ssection is asssumed to resist the shear forces sincee they are
All the ccriteria are fu
so smalll and are therrefore negleccted. The arcch is mostly in
i compression.
4.5.3 Bridge Dec
ck
The briddge deck wiill consist off main steel girders, trannsversal beam
ms and conccrete slab. They
T
will
work as composite deck
d
with stteel shear stu
uds. The com
mposite effect is not calculated heree but that
will onlyy make the sttructure morre rigid. Estim
mated thicknness of the cooncrete slab is
i 200 mm.
Transve
ersal beams
s
The trannsversal beam
ms will be made
m
of steel and will be placed with
w 5 m spaacing. Worstt case of
loading for these beeams will bee when the axle
a
load froom the trafficc is placed exactly
e
abovve one of
them. Thhese positionns are show iin figure 4-113. This locattion of the axxle load willl generate the highest
momentt and shear force in the transversal beams. Theese section forces
f
are ussed to determ
mine the
cross-section in the ultimate
u
limiit state.
Figure 44-13: Positionss of traffic load

ds and shear- and
a moment diiagrams when the cross-sectiions of cross beeams are
determined.
The highhest momentt and shear force

fo are deteermined to be 3025 kNm
m and 1359 kN
N respectiveely. From
these secction forces the cross-secction can be determined. The design criteria for shears
and moment
m
is
given inn sections 5.4
4.5 and 5.4.6 in EC3 as
o 2 cross secctions
For class 1 or
22

( )/
where thhe parameterrs are explainned in the lasst section. Thhe determineed cross-secttion of the traansversal
beams iss shown in fiigure 4-14. For
F detailed calculations,
c
see appendix
x A.
Fiigure 4-14: Esttimated size off the cross beam

ms.
Main girders
The maiin girders will
w be conneected to the transversal
t
b
beams
whichh are hangin
ng from the arches
a
in
hangers.. The largestt shear forcee and momennt in the maiin girders arre determinedd to be 20877 kN and
7241 kN
Nm respectivvely. Here thee same criterria are checkked, shear- annd moment resistance,
r
ass was for
the trannsversal beams. The deetermined crross-section can be seeen in figuree 4-15 and detailed
calculatiions can be seen
s
in appenndix A.
Figgure 4-15: Deteermined size off the main gird

ders.
4.5.4 Hangers
The hanngers are the elements thhat connect th
he bridge deeck to the arcch. They aree vertical cabbles. The
are
designe
hangers
ed to resist the largest teension force,, which is determined
d
to
o be 3393 kkN in the
ultimatee limit state. This force is acquired when the axxle force froom the trafffic load is poositioned
exactly at hanger nuumber 1 cloosest to the support. Thee chosen maaterial of theese hangers is M100
carbon ssteel with thee design yieldd strength ass 3605 kN.
4.5.5 Transversa
al Bracing
The chooice of X-type bracing ratther than Vieerendeel braccing is that th
he system wiill be more rigid with
the X-tyype, see Bunnner and Wrright (2006), which resuults in less lateral
l
deflecctions and would
w
be
analyzedd as a truss syystem. Laterral braces will not be calcculated at thiis time.
23

4.5.6 Foundations
The soill under the foundationss is sedimen
nt layers. Thhe foundation will be foounded on precasted
p
concretee piles that will
w be driveen down to the ground. Each pile resists
r
about 400 kN, Haafliason
(2010). The piles wiill have an innclination doown in the diirection to thhe archs direection. The estimated
e
length of
o the piles will
w be 14 m.. The largestt reaction forrce in the arcchs direction
n is 12601 kN
k so the
estimateed amount off piles is
12601
400
32
for eachh arch. The sp

pacing betweeen the piles will be 1.2 m. The total number of piles
p
is deterrmined to
be 35 piiles under eacch abutment. The piles will
w also be able
a to resist the risk of tuurning alongg with the
fundameent itself. Thhe filling behhind the briddge will alsoo be able to resist some external acttions and
support the fundam
ments. A conntinuous founndation is chhosen underr the whole bridge in thhe lateral
directionn and the app
proximate sizze of it will be
b 7.2 x 4 x 16.8
1
m, see figure
f
4-16.
Figgure 4-16: Placcing of piles at the arch suppoorts.
4.5.7 Constructiion
My propposal of a coonstruction method
m
for thhis bridge typpe is similarr to the methhod for bridgge type 1.
First, fouundations for the arches will be consttructed and then
t
a tempoorary workingg plane of grravel will
be placeed under thee bridge. Theen the archees will be raaised. Each arch
a
will be divided intoo several
segmentts, sizes that are possiblee to transporrt. These seggments will be
b welded toogether in steeps, each
segmentt at a time, su
upported by falsework sttanding on thhe working plane.
p
When the arches have
h
been
placed inn right positiions the tempporary workiing plane is removed
r
and
d can be used
d as a road fillling.
Next thee deck is coonstructed. The
T main girrders come in segmentss and are coonnected to the
t cross
beams thhat are hangging in the haangers. The hangers connnect the arch
hes to the deeck. Each seegment is
welded together andd finally, whhen all the work
w
with thee structural steel
s
is done, the concrette slab is
casted.
4.5.8 Cost estim
mation/conc
clusions
In table 4-10 the total quantity of materialss for the arches and brid
dge deck aree summarizeed. These
quantitiees are based on the preliminary calcu
ulations. Thee cost estimaation for the foundations is based
on the m
method in secction 4.4.2 foor bridge typee one. Thesee cost figuress are given inn table 4-11.
24

Table 4-10: Quantities of structural matterials for the arch bridge.
To get a total cost thhe total materrial cost is dooubled, whicch is a rough estimation.
Table 4-11: Total cost of bridge

b
type 2.
This briddge type is little

l
less thaan twice as ex
xpensive as the first brid
dge type. Thiis mainly deppends on
steel cosst and complexity of the structure.
s
An
n overview of
o the arch brridge can be seen in figurre 4-17.
F
Figure
4-17: An
n overview of tthe arch bridgge.
25

4.6 The
T cable--stayed bridge
b
Bridge ttype no. 3 iss a back and front cable--stayed bridgge, see figuree 4-21. This bridge typee has two
pylons on each sidde, similar to the ressund bridgee. The bridgge will consist of a coomposite
steel/conncrete deck. The cross section
s
of thhe deck is siimilar to briddge type 2. A further diiscussion
about thhe choice of the
t superstruucture is in thhe next chappter where aeesthetics and
d structural system
s
of
cable-staayed bridgess are discusseed.
4.6.1 Aesthetics
s of cable-s
stayed brid
dges
Bridge ttype no. 3 iss a cable stayyed bridge. There
T
are seeveral types that can com
me into mindd when a
cable sttayed bridge is to be deesigned. Thee cables cann be arrangeed in a harpp-, fan- or combined
c
configurrations, see figure
f
4-18. T
The number of spans cann either be tw
wo or three, see figures 4-19 and
4-20. Thhe pylons caan either be rigid, workk as a cantileever, or the deck is stifff and the pyylons are
stabilizeed by the cabbles that are aanchored into
o the groundd.
Figure 4-18: Configuratio

ons of the cablees for cable-staayed bridges.
Nowadaays the pylon

ns are most often madee of concretee. The deckk can be mad
de of concreete, steel
orthotroppic or as a co
omposite steel/concrete deck.
d
Many cooncrete cablee-stayed briddges have beeen built. In general, theere are two construction
c
methods
for conccrete cable-sttayed bridgees: cast-in-pllace construcction or preccast construcction. A castt-in-place
construcction is a further
f
deveelopment of the free caantilever coonstruction method.
m
Forr precast
construcction it is poossible to usee a more com
mplicated crooss-section because
b
preccasting is donne in the
yard. Thhe segments,, however, shhould all be similar to avvoid adjustm
ment in the precasting
p
forrms. The
weight of
o the segmeent is limitedd by the trannsportation capability.
c
Box
B is the prreferred cross section
because it is stiffer and
a easier to erect.
A propeerly designed
d and fabriccated orthotrropic deck iss a good sollution for a cable-stayedd bridge.
Howeveer, with incrreasing laborr costs, the orthotropic deck becom
mes less com
mmercially attractive
a
except ffor very longg spans. The use of steell in the deckk is, today, tw
wo to four tiimes as expeensive as
concretee. Thus the reeduced self-w
weight of thee deck slab must
m result inn appreciablee savings.
Althouggh the steel orrthotropic deeck is too exppensive for construction
c
in most counntries at this time, the
composiite deck witth a concretee slab on a steel frame can be very
y competitiv
ve. Making the deck
composiite with the steel girder by shear stu
uds reduces the steel quaantity of thee girder signnificantly.
Most poortions of thhe girder arre under higgh compresssion, which is good forr concrete members.
m
Howeveer, tensile strresses may occur
o
in the middle
m
portioon of the cennter span an
nd at both ennds of the
end spanns. Post-tensiioning is usuually used in these areas to
t keep the concrete
c
undeer compressiion.
In this a self-anchooring system
m is preferaable, see figgure 4-19. That
T
depends on the fooundation
conditioons on site, th
he foundationns will be beelow sea leveel and sedim
ment layers arre the main soil.
s
Also
there is a so called earth anchorred system where
w
the hoorizontal com
mponents off the cable foorces are
transferrred to the su
upports at the ends of thhe bridge whhich requires favorable foundation
fo
coonditions
and a coombination of self-anchoring and eaarth anchorinng system. The
T principlle of a self-aanchored
cable syystem can be seen on figuure 4-19.
26

Figure 4-119: Self anchorred system.
b seen in fig
gure 4-19. Thhat could
Let us coonsider an assymmetrical system withh only one pyylon as can be
be a goood choice witth respect to foundation construction
c
n. An examplle of that stru
uctural system
m can be
seen on figure 4-20.
Figure 4-220: Asymmetriical system.
But, an asymmetricaal system has earth-anchored cables and requiress better found
dation condition than
a self-annchoring systtem.
Based oon the discusssion above self-anchoriing cable syystem is prefferable in th
his specific situation.
s
Here, a harp
h
shape configuration
c
n of the cablees is chosen. Harp shape configuratioon offers a veery clean
and delicate appearaance becausee an array of parallel cablles will alwaays appear paarallel irresppective of
the view
wing angle. Itt also allows an earlier sttart of the deeck constructtion because the cable annchorages
in the pyylon begin at
a a lower eleevation so thhat fastening of cables caan start beforre the pylon is ready.
The outeer spans lenggths should be
b around 30
0-40% of thee main span length so thee stresses in the back
stays woont exceed its limits. Fiigure 4-21 displays the ggeometry of the chosen model.
m
The bridge is
modelled in SAP20000 for 3D anaalysis. SAP2
2000 is a com
mmercial finiite element program
p
for structural
s
analysis of structuress. The deck, see figure 4--26, is 10 m wide with foour pylons, tw
wo on each side.
s
The
two pylons are connnected togetther with onne cross-beam
m for stability. Ten cabbles will connnect the
bridge deck
d
to eachh pylon. Eacch cable willl be conneccted to transsversal beam
ms with 30 angle to
horizonttal.
Figure 4-211: Model for brridge type 3.
4.6.3 Design
In this seection the eleements in thee following table
t
will be checked in the
t ultimate limit state.
27

Tab
ble 4-12: Elemeents that will be
b checked in ULS.
U
s
forcees and reacttions are deetermined fo
or the corressponding
To begiin with the necessary section
elementss of the bridge that are under
u
investigation. SAP22000 is used
d to create innfluence lines and the
traffic looads are placced by using these influen
nce lines. Too create influuence lines a point load of 100 kN
is moved in 5 m inccrements alonng the bridgge deck. On figures
f
4-22 to 4-24 are these influence lines
displayeed for those parts of thee bridge thatt will be annalyzed at th
his stage. Thhe dark vertiical lines
indicate the position of the pylonns.
28
Influence Lines for Moment in the main

girders
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30
-0.40
-0.50
-0.60
-0.70
-0.80
-0.90
-1.00
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
x/L
@Pylon
Center
Influence Lines for Moment in Pylon

Supports
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30
-0.40
-0.50
-0.60
-0.70
-0.80
-0.90
-1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
x/L
Left Pylon
Right Pylon
Figure 4-22: Influence lines for moments in the deck and at pylon supports.
29
Influence Lines for Normal Force in Pylon

Supports
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30
-0.40
-0.50
-0.60
-0.70
-0.80
-0.90
-1.00
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
x/L
Left Pylon
Right Pylon
Moment in 55% of the Height of the

Pylons
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30
-0.40
-0.50
-0.60
-0.70
-0.80
-0.90
-1.00
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
x/L
Left Pylon
Right Pylon
Figure 4-23: Influence lines for normal forces in pylon support and moment at 55% of the height of the pylons.
30
Axial Force in cables - Back Stays

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
x/L
Cable 1
Cable 2
Cable 4
Cable 5
Cable 3
Axial Force in cables - Front Stays

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
x/L
Cable 1
Cable 2
Cable 4
Cable 5
Cable 3
Figure 4-24: Influence lines for various parts of the structural system of the cable-stayed bridge.
After the influence lines have been created the bridge is modeled as a 3D model in SAP2000 with the
forces positioned at the corresponding positions. The slab is modeled as area section elements with a
meshing of 0.5 m so that the axle traffic loads can be positioned right. Main girders and cross beams
in the bridge deck are modeled as frame elements as well as the pylons. The cables are modeled as
cable elements with high tensional stiffness. The only supports of the model are the fixed supports
under the pylons because the pylons and cables should be able to carry its self-weight under
construction.
31

4.6.4
Deck
Concrete Slab
The conncrete slab will
w be 250 mm
m thick and
d the concrette quality is C35/45. Thee slab will consist
c
of
concretee casted on site and a meetal deck benneath of trapeezoidal profilles. To achieeve compositte effects
shear stuuds will be welded
w
on crooss beams annd main girdeers.
Cross B
Beams
The cross beams will
w be made of steel and
d are placedd in 5 m inttervals alongg the deck. They
T
are
designedd to resist th
he self-weighht of the concrete slab and the traff
ffic loads. Lo
ocation of thhe traffic
loads forr the largest moment cann be seen in figure
f
4-25.
Figu
ure 4-25: Position of the trafffic loads to estiimate the size of the cross beeams.
When thhe largest mo

oment and shhear force aree determinedd in ULS, itss possible to determine thhe size of
the crosss beams. Thee cross sectioon of the beaam is I shapeed with the tootal height off 860 mm. The
T width
of the flanges is 300
0 mm and thee thickness of
o the web annd flanges is 30 mm. Forr detailed callculation,
see appeendix A.
Main Girder
Largest moment in the
t main girrders is when
n the traffic loads are ap
pplied at the middle of thhe bridge
span andd is determinned to be 7311 kNm. Th
he largest sheear force is determined
d
t be 1247 kN
to
k and is
reached when the traaffic loads arre applied where
w
the pyloons are posittioned. An I--shaped crosss section
is chosenn. From thesse design vallues the size of the girderr is determinned. The totaal height is 1200 mm,
the widtth of the flan
nges is 400 mm
m and the thickness off the web annd flanges is 30 mm. Forr detailed
calculatiion, see appeendix A. Figuure 4-26 disp
plays the choosen bridge deck.
d
32

Figure 4-266: Configuratioon of the deck and girders with

w shear studss and trapezoidal profiles.
4.6.5 Pylons
The pyllons will be a concrete hollow sectiion. The conncrete qualitty in the pylons is chossen to be
C40/50. The towerss have two vertical
v
cablee planes andd are connected togetherr with two trransverse
beams. Each pylon is designed for combin
ned moment and normall force. The design mom
ment and
normal force were determined
d
t be 27292 kNm and 5121
to
5
kN resp
pectively. Th
he size of a pylon is
determinned 1.5 x 2.0
0 m with a wall
w thicknesss as 0.3 m. T
The size of the
t cross-beaams that connnects the
pylons iis determined to be 1.2 x 2.0 m witth a wall thiickness of 0.25
0
m. Figuure 4-27 dissplays an
interactiion diagram to
t estimate thhe capacity of
o the pylon. The star on the inside off the curve shows the
design ppoint for thee above menntioned secttion forces. Calculationss of the pyloons are dispplayed in
appendixx A.
N Diagram
N-M
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
N (kN)
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
-10,000
5,000 10,,000 15,000 20,000

2
25,000
0 30,000 35,0
000
-20,000
-30,000
M (kN
Nm)
Figure 4-27: N-M interaction

i
diaagram for the pylon.
p
The chosen cross-secction of the pylon

p
is show
wn in figure 4-28.
33

Figure 4-28:
4
Cross secction of the pyllon with reinfo
orcement.
4.6.5.1 Cables
Where tthe cables arre connectedd to the bridg
ge deck crosss beams aree placed to reduce
r
torsioon in the
main girrders. The cables
c
are modeled
m
as cable
c
elemennts with highh tensional stiffness.
s
Thhe largest
tension force
f
in the cables was determined
d
too be 15888 kN.
k A propoosal of a cablle system is V
VSL SSI
2000 with tendon unnits as 6-61 with
w a designn capacity of 17019 kN.
Finally a model of th
he bridge thaat was construucted in SAP
P2000 is dispplayed in figuure 4-29.
Figure 4-229: 3-D model of the cable-sttayed bridge in

n SAP2000.
4.6.6 Foundation
The founndation undeer each pylonn will consisst of concrette footings annd cohesive piles as for the other
bridge tyypes. The larrgest verticall reaction forrce and mom
ment under on
ne pylon is determined
d
too be 5121
kN and 27292 kNm
m respectivelly. That imp
plies that appproximately 13 piles aree needed unnder each
pylon. T
The fundamen
nt along withh the piles is assumed to resist the risk for overturrning.
4.6.7 Constructiion
The founndations are to be constrructed first. After
A
that, thhe work withh the pylons can start whhere each
pylon will
w be construucted up to a height where the lowestt cable is connnected. Theen the constru
ruction of
the deckk can start where
w
the decck is conneccted to the cables
c
in seg
gments mean
nwhile the pyylons are
construccted further up.
u During tthis the cross-beams are also set in place. Afterr the segmennts of the
main girrders and crooss-beams arre in place thhe trapezoidaal profiles arre fastened on
o the upper edges of
the beam
ms. Finally thhe slab is cassted. This process is donee for each caable row withh the segmennts of the
main girrders welded
d togeather until
u
the top row
r
is reacheed and the deeck structuree meets in thhe middle
of the sppan. This waay, the structture works as
a a self-anchhored system
m with the deeck hanging from the
34

f
4-30, is
i an example from one of the largeest cablecables oon each side of the pylonns. Below, figure
stayed bridge
b
in the world
w
that diisplays how this principle works.
Figure 4-30: The Ston

necutters Brid
dge (currently the
t largest cab
ble-stayed bridge in the world
d) under consttruction.
4.6.8 Cost estim

mation/conc
clusions
The totaal quantities of materials are summarrized in tablee 4-13 and coost estimatioon made baseed on the
price vaalues given in
i section 4.3. In table 4-14
4
the maiin materials and quantitiies of the suuper- and
substruccture are lissted for the cost estim
mation. These quantities are based on the preeliminary
calculatiions but the cost estimattion for the foundations is based onn the methodd in section 4.4.2 for
bridge tyype one.
T
Table
4-13: Am
mounts of strucctural materiaals for the cablee-stayed bridge.
Finally the
t total costt of this bridgge type is sum
mmarized inn the table 4-14.
Table 4-14: Total cost of bridge

b
type 3.
35

mes as expeensive as thhe first bridg
ge type. This mainly
This briidge type is little less thhan three tim
dependss on the samee factors as for
f bridge tyype 2, steel cost
c and com
mplexity of thhe structure. But also
there is quite
q
much quantity
q
of cooncrete and reinforcemen
r
nt that is useed in the pylo
ons and the cables
c
are
also a laarge factor. An
A overview of the arch bridge
b
can bee seen in figuure 4-31.
Figure 4-31: An overview of my proposaal of a cable-sttayed bridge.
36
4.7 Summary and choice of bridge type

From the total cost estimations for the bridge types it is clear that the cable-stayed bridge is the most
expensive one. Also the arch bridge is quite expensive compared to the prestressed concrete bridge
that is the least expensive one. From a construction point of view the prestressed bridge is also the
most favorable. From these perspectives a concrete girder bridge is the obvious choice.
But, there are also other aspects that need to be taken into consideration when choosing a bridge type;
aesthetics, method of construction and construction time are obvious factors that can affect which
choice is made. The author will leave those decisions for others to make at later stages but chooses to
design the concrete beam bridge in a more detailed manner. In the following chapter more detailed
calculations will be performed for the superstructure of bridge type 1. Calculations of the posttensioned cables are performed where the prestress force and eccentricity of the cable profile are
determined. Following that all cable losses are determined and then the secondary effects of prestress.
Finally the ultimate moment capacity is determined for relevant members of the superstructure.
37
5 Final design
5.1 Introduction
Prestressed concrete structures, using high-strength materials to improve serviceability and durability,
are an attractive alternative for long-span bridges, and have been used worldwide since the 1950s. The
presence of cracks that can develop in tensile members can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement due
to its exposure to water and chemical contaminants. Corrosion is generally only a problem for
structures in aggressive exterior environments (bridges, marine structures, etc.) and is not critical in
the majority of buildings. The effect of cracking of members can lead to substantial loss in stiffness
which occurs after cracking and the second moment of area of the cracked section is far less than the
second moment of area before cracking. Thus, allowing cracks to develop can cause a large increase
in the deformation of the member. For prestressed concrete, compressive stresses are introduced into a
member to reduce or nullify the tensile stresses which result from bending due to the applied loads.
The compressive stresses are generated in a member by tensioned steel anchored at the ends of the
members and/or bonded to the concrete.
There are two types of prestressing systems: pre-tensioning and post-tensioning systems. Pretensioning systems are methods in which the strands are tensioned before the concrete is placed. This
method is generally used for mass production of prefabricated members. Post-tensioning systems are
methods in which the tendons are tensioned after concrete has reached a specified strength. This
technique is often used in projects with very large elements. The main advantage of post-tensioning is
its ability to post-tension cast-in-place members. Mechanical prestressing jacking is the most common
method used in bridge structures.
The post-tensioning process involves three fundamental stages. In the first stage of the process, the
concrete is cast around a hollow duct. After the concrete has set or hardened, a tendon, consisting of a
number of strands, is pushed through the duct (alternatively, the tendon can be placed in the duct
before casting). Thus, the tendon can be fixed in any desired linear or curved profile along the
member. By varying the eccentricity of the tendon from the centroid, the maximum effectiveness of a
constant prestressing force can be utilized by applying the prestress only where it is required. Once
the concrete has achieved sufficient strength in compression, the tendon is jacked from one or both
ends using hydraulic jacks, thus putting the concrete into compression. When the required level of
prestress is achieved, the tendon is anchored at the ends of the member. After anchorage, the ducts are
usually filled with grout under pressure. The grout is provided mainly to prevent corrosion of the
tendon but it also forms a bond between the tendon and the concrete which reduces the dependence of
the beam on the integrity of the anchor and hence improves its robustness.
When prestressed concrete elements are designed the following factors need to be considered:
The prestressing reinforcement is determined by concrete stress limits under service load.
Bending and shear capacities are determined for the ultimate limit state
Deformations are determined in the serviceability limit state.
38

5.2 Design
D
Throughhout the desiign process, one girder is
i designed with
w propertiies of half thhe cross-secttion. The
loads are calculated with respectt to that. Aft
fter iteration of the calculations in this chapter thhe size of
the girdeers is changeed from whatt was chosen
n in chapter 4.4
4 with a heeight of 1800
0 mm insteadd of 2400
mm.
5.2.1 Building codes
The briddge shall be designed
d
acccording to thee following standards:
s
FS ENV 19991
FS ENV 19992
Eurocode 1 (Loading)
Eurocode 2 (Concrete Design)
D
5.2.2 Loading
Self-weiight and trafffic loads aree the same ass in the pre-ddesign phasee. But in thiss detailed design also
the load generated by
y prestressinng is taken innto account.
5.2.3 Materials
In this seection the most commonn physical prooperties of alll materials used
u
are sum
mmarized.
5.2.3.1 Concrete
e
High strrength concrrete is alwayys used in poost-tensionedd structural members.
m
In this case thhe chosen
concretee quality is C45/55. Forr this qualityy the modullus of elasticity is Ecm=36000
=
MPaa and the
concretee compressioon strength iss fck=45 MPa. The self-weeight of reinfforced concrrete is 25 kN//m3.
The effe
fects of creeep need to bbe taken intto account for
f calculatio
on of long-tterm deflecttion. The
definitioon of creep is that undeer compression the concrete member will contraact with tim
me due to
constantt stress. To taake account for creep in the
t design off concrete members
m
the modulus
m
of elasticity,
e
Ecm, is reeduced to ann effective elaastic moduluus, Ec,eff. Ec,efff is determineed with the following
f
forrmula:
,
1+
where is the creep coefficient. is taken frrom EC2 andd shown in taable 5-1.
Table 5--1: Creep coeffficient, , for normal

n
weight concrete.
In this ccase, there iss a humid attmospheric condition

c
at the
t bridge siite of 80% and
a the age w
when the
concretee is loaded is 28 days. Thhe circumfereence of the seection, u, is:
= 27700
39

The cross sectional area of the concrete is:
= 6460000
The notional size is calculated to be:
2
= 466
which gives after interpolation the creep coefficient as =1.56, see table 5-1, and the effective
modulus of elasticity is determined to Ec,eff=14066 MPa.
5.2.3.2 Reinforcement
The quality of the reinforcement is chosen to be B500B with characteristic yield strength fyk=500 MPa.
5.2.3.3 Prestress system
As mentioned in chapter 4 for bridge type 1, the prestressing system is VSL 6-31. All technical
information concerning VSL systems are acquired from technical brochures published by VSL
International Ltd. (2010). Each tendon consists of 28 strands each consisting of 7 wires with a
diameter of 15.7 mm with a total nominal cross-section Ap=4200 mm2, where each strand has a
nominal cross section of 150 mm2. The steel quality of the wires is fp0,1k/fpk=1640/1860 MPa. The
breaking load of each tendon is 7812 kN. The cables will be placed before casting in a group around a
centerline that counteracts the moment from the self-weight of the bridge. The cables will be anchored
individually with conical devices at each end of the bridge. When the concrete has achieved sufficient
strength large multi-cable hydraulic jacks are used at both ends of the bridge to prestress the structure.
When the required level of prestress is achieved the tendons are anchored at each end of the member.
After anchorage, the ducts around the tendons are filled with cement grout under pressure, called
bonded tendons. The cement grout is provided mainly to prevent corrosion of the tendons, but also it
forms bond in the integrity of the anchor and hence improves its robustness. The prestressing process
will be done in that manner that first the two internal spans will be constructed and prestressed and
then finally the two external spans will be constructed and prestressed. To simplify the calculations it
is assumed that the cables are calculated as one element, stressed from both ends of the bridge.
5.2.4 Exposure classes and service life
According to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1) a structure should be classified after environmental
conditions, chemical and physical. This structure will be classified in the following classes:
Corrosion induced by carbonation: XC4

Corrosion induced by chlorides: XD3
Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water: XS3
Freeze/Thaw Attack: XF4
These classifications give a structural class of S4 according to table 4.3N in EC2. For that class the
minimum concrete cover for reinforcement steel is cmin,dur=45 mm and for prestressing steel cmin,dur=55
mm. Also, for post-tensioned members, the concrete cover should not be less than the diameter of the
duct. In this case the external diameter of the duct is 117 mm. According to EC0, table 2.1, the service
life (indicative design working life) for bridges is 100 years.
5.2.5 Tendon alignment and prestress force
The position of the centroid of the tendons should be chosen to give the highest effective depth. The
alignment is based on concrete cover, the number and size of the tendons, the size of the cable ducts
40

m
distriibution is obbtained if thee positions of cables in thhe crossand stresses. Roughlly, a good moment
a 0.17h from
m the bottom
m extreme fibber at bay annd as 0.12h from
f
the topp extreme
section aare chosen as
fiber at ssupports. The total heighht of the crosss-section, h, is 2050 mm.. Hence,
0.17
7 = 348.5
0.1
12 = 246
These vvalues will be
b used in thhe beginning
g of the calculations. Miinimum spaccing of the cables,
c
is
given inn section 8.10
0.1.3 in EC2, and should not be less than
t
the diam
meter of the duct, in this case 117
mm. Maaximum mom
ments from self-weight in
i external bays
b
occur at 0.375L or 13.875 m annd in the
center oof the internaal bays. Thesse values wiill be checkeed later whenn the amounnt of cables has been
decided with respect to minimum
m concrete cover
c
and minimum
m
disttances betweeen ducts. Fiigure 5-1
displayss the momennt curve from
m self-weightt. In the prestressing staage only the self-weight from the
superstruucture will be
b taken into account.
Figure 5-11: Moment disttribution in thee girder from self-weight.

s
At each end of the bridge the tendons

t
are placed at thhe centroids of the T-secction (half thhe crosssection). Eurocode 2,
2 part 1.1, ssection 5.10.2
2, is used too determine the
t maximum
m allowed sttresses at
differentt times. The maximum alllowed pre-teensioning strress during teensioning is the smaller of:
o
0.8
0.9
= 0.8 1860
0 = 1488
= 0.9 164
40 = 1476
Immediaately after th
he cables are released froom the jacks the maximum
m stresses inn the cables are
a given
as the sm
maller of:
0.75
0.85
= 0.75 186
60 = 1395
= 0.85 16
640 = 1394
At the same
s
time, excessive
e
coompressive and
a tensile sstresses musst not arise in the concrrete. The
acceptabble value deppends on thee length of tiime during which
w
the co
oncrete has hardened.
h
Euurocode 2
suggestss that an acceeptable comppressive stresss is:
0.60
( )
with fck((t) as the charracteristic coompression strength

s
as a function of time
t
of the prestressing
p
o
operation.
fck(t) is ddefined in secction 3.1.2 inn Eurocde 2 and is foundd with the folllowing methhod:
( )=
( )8(
( )=
for 3 < t < 28 days
for t 28 days
41

fcm(t) is estimated from the following expressions:
( )=
( )
With cc(t) as:

( ) = exp
28
= exp 0.25 1
28
10
= 0.85
where s is chosen to 0.25 which is valid for cement of strength classes CEM Class N at 10 days and
fcm is 53 MPa. From this fcm(t) is determined to 44.79 MPa and fck(t) to 36.79 MPa. Hence, the
compressive strength at transfer becomes:
0.6
( ) = 0.6 36.79 = 22.07
And the concrete strength at service time is:

0.6
= 0.6 45 = 27
EC2 does not lay down any compulsory permissible tension stresses so the choice of concrete tension
stress limits is left to the discretion of the designer. Hence the design is restricted by not allowing high
tensile stresses to develop at service and only the concrete tensile strength at transfer:
. ,
2.7
And at service the maximum tensile stress is chosen to:

2.0
The stresses in the cross-section are calculated according to Naviers formula:
=
where P is the normal force, A is the area of the cross-section and I is the moment of inertia. Mg is the
moment generated by self-weight, es is the eccentricity of the normal force and y is the location in the
section where the stresses are calculated. In this equation P and es are unknown and have to be
determined. The prestress force and eccentricity will be determined by developing a Magnel diagram,
a method to determine a Magnel diagram is descriped in OBrien (1999). Magnel diagrams are
determined for the critical sections where the maximum transfer- and service moments occur. An
estimation of the ratio between the prestress force at service and the prestress force at transfer, , is
made (generally from 0.75-0.90) and is chosen here to be 0.75. The critical sections that will be
checked are external and internal spans and supports B and C. Figure 5-2 displays the load
arrangements to establish the largest moments at each section at service stage. These load
arrangements are determined based on influence lines that are created by the same method as in
section 4 and can be seen in appendix B.
42

Figu
ure 5-2: Momeent distribution
ns and load arrrangement forr moments at seervice for the calculated
c
secttions.
These m
moments are calculated in
i the compuuter program
m PCFRAME
E after influeence lines have been
developeed for each section
s
and thhe moments can be seen in table 5-2.
Table 55-2: Maximum

m moments at each
e
section wh
here M0 is the moment
m
at traansfer and Ms the
t moment at service.
Below iss a list that defines

d
necesssary notation, sign convventions and formulas forr the calculattions that
follow.
tmin: minnimum stress at extreme top fibre.
tmax: maaximum stresss at extremee top fibre.
bmin: miinimum stresss at extremee bottom fibre.
bmax: maaximum stress at extremee bottom fibrre.
These sttresses are deetermined acccording to:
=
43

a bottom annd is a negatiive value and

d Wt is at topp and is a
where W is the section modulus (I/y). Wb is at
positive value, A is area of thee cross-sectioon, e is the eccentricity of prestresss tendons (aabove the
centroidd is positive and
a below neegative) and M are applieed moments (M0 is the moment at trannsfer and
MS at seervice), see table 5-2. Sagg moments are
a positive and hog mom
ments are neegative. Thesse values
are show
wn in appenddix B. The nootation for peermissible strresses in thesse equations is the follow
wing:
omin: miinimum perm
missible stresss at transfer..
omax: maaximum perm
missible stress at transferr.
Smin: miinimum perm
missible stresss at service.
Smax: maaximum perm
missible stress at service.
In table 5-3 the numerical valuess for these peermissible strresses are giv
ven.
Table 5--3: Permissiblee stresses.
And finaally the resullts for these top

t and botto
om stresses are
a listed in table
t
5-4.
Table 5-4: Maximum

m stresses at toop and bottom fibers.
Note that for these calculationss compressivve stresses are considerred positive and tensilee stresses
negativee.
The folllowing four inequalities are used to determine thhe feasible zone
z
for the prestressing
p
force on
the Maggnel diagramss:
1
1
44

1
These inequalities represent half-planes bounded by the line on which the stress limits are just
satisfied. To determine which half-plane represents the inequality, the origin of the Magnel diagram is
substituted into inequality 1, 1/P=0 and e=0, and gives the following:
0
If this is true (A is positive), the correct half-plane is the one containing the origin and the same
procedure is done for the three remaining inequalities.
1
0
1
Thus, for inequality 1 the half-plane contains the origin, for inequality 2 it doesnt, for inequality 3 the
half-plane contains the origin and for inequality 4 it doesnt. For further information see appendix B
and OBrien (1999).
After some calculation the Magnel diagrams are established (Appendix B) and the appropriate
prestress force and eccentricity are chosen. The chosen prestress force is 46.512 kN (1/P=2.15 x 10-8
N-1) which is based on the maximum allowable eccentricity that is at supports B and C. That requires
approximately 8 tendons each with a breaking load of 7812 kN. The eccentricity limits at each section
are given below, based on these Magnel diagrams.
Section at support A: -180 mm e 283.6 mm
Section at span 1: -210 mm e -410 mm
Section at support B: 200 mm e 283.6 mm
Section at span 2: -300 mm e -420 mm
Section at support C: 250 mm e 283.6 mm
On figure 5-3 is the longitudinal feasible zone and the cable layout displayed. That zone is based on
the calculations above.
45

Figgure 5-3: Longiitudinal feasib

ble zone of the cable
c
(the beam
m size has the scale of 10 in vertical
v
directiion).
On figurre 5-4 the chosen eccentrricities are diisplayed.
Figu
ure 5-4: Chosen eccentricities for the cable line.
5.2.6 Prestress losses

The effeective prestreess force is not
n generally equal to thee applied jackking force noor is it constaant along
the lenggth of the member.
m
Therrefore, in orrder to deterrmine the eff
ffective stress due to preestress at
transfer and servicee, the losses in prestresss must first be calculateed at each design
d
section. These
losses can be divideed into two groups in acccordance with
w the time when they occur. Lossees which
occur prrior to the po
oint in time when stress is first felt by
b the concrrete are calleed pre-transffer losses
and lossses which occcur after the prestress is transferred to
t the concreete are calledd post-transfeer losses.
The pre--transfer lossses consist off:
Elastic shorrtening of thee cross-sectio

on.
Friction betw
ween the tenndons and thee surrounding ducts (in case of post-ttension).
The posst-transfer losses consist of:
Time depend
dent losses, which are frrom relaxatioon of the steel and by crreep and shriinkage of
the concrete.
Loss due to slippage of the tendons at the anchoorage knownn as draw-in loss (in casee of posttension).
46

5.2.6.1 Friction losses
l
The losss of prestresss force from friction
f
is caaused by two sources:
Friction due to curvaturee of the tendoon

Friction due to unintentioonal variatioon of the ductt from its preescribed proffile or wobbble.
The fricttion loss at section

s
i due to curvature is:
=
(
(1
where is a friction coefficient and

a i is the aggregate
a
chhange in slop
pe in radians between the jack and
section i and n is the
t total num
mber of secttions. The syystem produucer recomm
mends a valuue of the
friction coefficient as
a =0.2. To calculate the angle channges at each section the following
f
eqquation is
used:
= 2( )
where yi is the verrtical changee in height between thee sections thhat are calcculated and xi is the
horizonttal distance between
b
the correspondin
c
ng sections. These
T
sectionns are displayyed on figure 5-5.
Figure 5-5: Sections of thee beam for calcculations of friiction losses an

nd elastic shorttening losses.
The fricttion loss at section

s
i due to wobble iss:
=
(1
k is a woobble coefficcient which depends on the

t quality of
o workmansship, the distance betweeen tendon
supportss, the degree of vibrationn used in placcing the conccrete and thee type of the duct. For thhe chosen
system the
t producerr recommendds k=0.0008 m-1. The term
m xi is the distance
d
(in meters)
m
from
m the jack
to sectioon number i. Hence, the total friction loss becomees:
=
(1
1
The resuults of the calculated fricttion losses arre displayed in table 5-5.
47

Tablee 5-5: Friction losses.
5.2.6.2 Elastic sh
hortening losses
l
As the pprestress is transferred
t
t the concrete, the concrete underggoes elastic shortening. This can
to
cause a slackening of
o the strandd which resuults in a losss of prestresss force. The losses due to
t elastic
shorteninng in each tendon of post-tensione
p
ed members are differen
nt. The max
ximum loss is in the
tendon that
t
is releassed first and then less inn the next onne and etc. The
T elastic shortening
s
looss in the
tendon tthat is releaseed first is:
1=
where inndex 1 and 2 indicate tendon 1 andd 2 respectivvely. P and e are the prrestressing fforce and
eccentriccity respectiively. Ag is the area off the cross-seection. The results of the
t calculateed elastic
shorteninng loss for thhe whole cabble group in one
o girder arre displayed in table 5-6.
Table 5-6: Elastic shorteening losses.
5.2.6.3 Draw-in losses

l
After jacking the teendons are reeleased from
m the jacks and
a the force is applied directly through the
anchoragges to the cooncrete. This process resuults in a loss due to slipppage or draw
w-in of the strands
s
at
the anchhors. The drraw-in of thee tendons ressults in a losss of strain of jack at the anchorage.
a
H
However,
48

because of friction, this loss decreases along the length of the member to zero at a distance Ld from the
jack. The extent of draw-in losses is determined with the following equation:
=
)/
where (Pjack-PL)/L is the slope of the distribution of prestress force if the friction loss is assumed to
vary linearly. s is the total shortening of the tendon. The magnitude of the draw-in loss at the
anchorage is then given by the following equation:
=2
where P is the draw-in loss. The distribution of the prestress force after the draw-in loss is displayed
in figure 5-6 where the decrease of this loss along the length of the member becomes zero at distance
Ld approximately 15 m from the jack.
Draw-in loss
50000
P [kN]
0, 46512
Prestress due
to friction loss
45000
24, 44891
0, 43270
Draw-in loss
85, 40830
40000
0
20
40
60
80
x [m]
Figure 5-6: Distribution of the prestress force after the draw-in loss for half of the total span.
5.2.6.4 Time-dependent losses

Losses in prestress which occur gradually over time are caused by shortening of the concrete due to
creep and shrinkage and due to relaxation of the prestressing steel. Shrinkage is a time-dependent
strain which occurs as the concrete sets and for a period after setting. The shrinkage strain approaches
final value at infinite time. When maintained at a constant tensile strain, steel gradually loses its stress
with time due to relaxation. The extent of the loss of stress in prestressing strands due to relaxation is
determined by the stress to which the steel is tensioned, the ambient temperature and the class of steel.
Maximum allowable value for relaxation losses of the prestressing steel are specified by the
manufacturer as 2.5% for 15 mm strands. To determine the loss EC2 suggests that it should be based
on the 1000 hour values given in figure 5-7. These values should be trebled to determine the final
relaxation losses.
49

F
Figure
5-7: Reelaxation of preestressing steell.
o creep is essentially the

t same ass that of rellaxation. Th
he distinctionn is that
The pheenomenon of
relaxatioon refers to the
t loss of sttress under constant
c
straiin while creeep is the increase of straain which
occurs aat constant sttress. For preestressed conncrete, relaxaation occurs in the steel while
w
creep occurs
o
in
the conccrete.
EC2 reccommends th
hat these twoo prestress lo
osses, creep and shrinkagge, should be calculated with the
followinng formula:
=
1+
1+
(1 + 0..8 )
where
p,tot = loss of stress in steel
s
due to creep,
c
shrinkkage and relaxation.
cs = final sh
hrinkage straain calculatedd according to section 3..1.4 (6) in EC2. Calculatted value
of this strainn is cs=0.0000256.
Ep = modulu
us of elasticitty of the presstressing steeel.
p,r = loss of
o stress in thhe tendons att the design section
s
due to
o relaxation.
m = modularr ratio, Ep/Ec.
= final creeep coefficiennt taken from
m table 5-1.
c = stress inn the concrette at the levell of the tendoons due to peermanent loaads plus presttress.
Ap = area of prestressingg steel.
Ag, Ig = gross area and seecond moment of area off section.
e = eccentriccity of tendons from centtroid section..
The finaal shrinkage strain is com
mposed of tw
wo componeents, the dryying shrinkagge strain, cd, and the
autogenoous shrinkagge strain, ca. For detailedd explanationns of calculaations of the final shrinkaage strain
author refers to secttion 3.1.4 (6)) in EC2. Thhe loss of strress in the teendons due to
t relaxation, p.r, is
50

w p at
derived from figure 5-7 with thee ratio of steeel stress/charracteristic tennsile strengthh as (p/fpk) with
the sectiion that is calculated as:
=
and the lloss of stresss in the tendoons due to relaxation as:
=3
The streess, c, in th
he concrete at the leveel of tendonns due to peermanent loaads plus preestress is
calculateed using the following eqquation:
=
Followinng these calcculations thee total time-d

dependent looss of stress in the tendonns can be caalculated.
From these results and
a from the calculationss of the draw
w-in losses th
he applied prestress at serrvice can
then be calculated.
c
The
T results off the calculatted time-dependent lossees are displayyed in table 55-7.
Table 5-7: Time-depend

dent losses.
5.2.7 Secondary
y effects off prestress
primary
For statically indeteerminate struuctures the prestress
p
mooment consissts of two components,
c
momentt and seconddary momennt. The prim
mary momennt is the product of prrestressing fo
force and
supports
eccentriccity, the secoondary moment is moment caused byy reactions deeveloped at intermediate
i
during pprestressing. To determine the secon
ndary momeent there aree two common methods;; support
displaceement methodd and equivaalent load meethod. In thiss thesis the equivalent loaad method iss applied.
The equuivalent load is a uniform
mly distributeed load estabblished by considering a simple beam
m with a
paraboliic tendon pro
ofile. The beending momeent at any pooint due to thhis prestressing force is given by
M1=Pe. If an equivaalent uniform
m upward loaad, w, is asssumed to act on the beam
m, see figuree 5-8, the
maximuum moment at
a mid-span is
i equal to:
=
Since thhe equation of the bendding momennt for uniforrmly loaded simply suppported beam
m is also
paraboliic, the momeents must be equal in the two beams at
a any point. Thus
=
Applicattion of this equation
e
at thhe mid-span gives
g
51

and
=
c
to the eccentricity
e
o the beam at mid-span..
of
where e is the distannce from the cable
Figure 5-8: Calculation off the equivalen

nt load for curvved tendons.
c
at suppports is not the
t same at two
t adjacent supports
In the caase when thee vertical possition of the cables
e is the eccentricity at mid spann from the cable
c
to the line that con
nnects these two positionns of the
cable, seee figure 5-9.
Figure 5-9: Determination

D
n of e for cable with eccentriccity e1 and e2.
Thus, thhe eccentricitty becomes:

=
+
2
To deterrmine the mooment at the intermediatee supports thee three-mom

ment equation
n (Clapeyronns theory)
is used. The calculattion procedurre of the threee-moment equation is in
n the followinng order:
Draw a free body diagram

m of the first two spans.
Label the sppans L1 and L2 and the sup
pports A, B aand C.
Use the three-moment eqquation to soolve the unknnown momen
nts.
Move one sppan further and
a repeat thee procedure above.
a
52

Repeat as needed,
n
alwaays moving one
o span to the right annd writing a new set off moment
equations.
Solve 3 simu
ultaneous eqquations for 4 spans to gett the internall moments.
In this ccase these mooment equatiions are three since theree are four spaans and threee unknown moments,
m
MA, MB aand MC. Theey are the following:
+2
)+
= 6(
+2
)+
= 6(
+2
)+
= 6(
The notaation for the formulas aboove is displaayed on figurre 5-10.
Figure 5-10: Notation

N
for calculations with
h the three-moment equation
n.
The term
ms on the rigght hand side of these equuations are accquired with
h the followinng formula for
fo beams
with uniiformly distriibuted load on
o span no. n:
n
=
24
In table 5-8 the calcculated valuees for w andd the prestresss moments are listed an
nd on figure 5-11 the
momentt diagrams fo
or the correspponding mom
ments. The secondary mo
oment is lineear between supports.
s
More deetailed calcullations to obttain the seconndary momeent are in apppendix B.
Table 5-8:
5 Prestress moment.
m
53

Figure 5-11:
5
Diagramss of primary an
nd secondary moments.
m
oment has been

b
obtaineed in the beeam, the ulttimate mom
ment capacityy can be
When thhe total mo
calculateed. That is doone in the neext chapter.
54
5.3 Ultimate moment capacity

When the member has been designed to satisfy the transfer and service stress limits it is necessary to
check for moment capacity in the ultimate limit state. As for ordinary reinforced concrete, the ultimate
moment capacity of a prestressed section is calculated by equilibrium of forces at the corresponding
section. The compressive strain in the concrete due to prestress, ce, at the level of the prestressing
tendon is given with the following formula:
1
where Mp is the moment due to prestress and P is the prestress force, both after all losses, at the
section that is calculated. The tendon strain is defined as (contraction positive):
=
where Ap is the area of the prestress reinforcement and Ep is its modulus of elasticity. ct is the total
ultimate strain in the concrete and is found with the following equation:
( )
EC2 recommends that ult should be taken as 0.0035. Here d is the effective depth, distance from
extreme fibre in compression to the center of tension reinforcement, and x is the distance from
extreme fibre in compression to neutral axis. To calculate the equilibrium of forces the force in the
steel, Fp, and the compressive force acting on the concrete in compression, Fc, are required:
=
= 0.8
Here b is the width of the section which Fc is acting on. is a coefficient which takes into account the
long-term effects on the compressive strength and is 1.0. c is the partial safety factor for concrete
strength and is equal to 1.5 according to EC2. Now the following equation for equilibrium of forces is
established and solved to find x:
+
=0
When x is found a check is made to see if the steel has yielded by substituting x into the equation for
the tendon strain defined above. The initial yield strain for prestressing steel is
where p is
the partial safety factor for reinforcement strength and is equal to 1.15 according to EC2. pu cannot
exceed the initial strain, otherwise the steel has yielded. Finally the ultimate moment capacity can be
determined with the following formula:
=
with z as:
= ( 0.4 )
55

In appenndix B are deetailed calcuulations of thee moment caapacity of eaach section displayed. In table 5-9
are the bbending mom
ments in ULS
S with prestreess and the m
moment capaacity summarrized for each section.
Tab
ble 5-9: Total design
d
momentt in the ULS with prestress (M
Mtotal) and the ultimate moment capacity (M
Mult).
Finally, the cross-secction with thhe cable elevaation is displlayed for eacch section in figure 5-12.
Fiigure 5-12: Cro

oss-section and
d cable elevatioon.
56
6 References
6.1 Literature
Austin, W.J., (1971), IN-PLANE BENDING AND BUCKLING OF ARCHES, Journal of the
Structural Division, May 1971, pp. 1575-1591.
Bunner, M. and Wright, K., (2006), Selecting the Shape of a Steel Arch, Bridgeline, Volume 15, NO.
1, April 2006.
Chen, W. and Duan, L., (2000), Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press LLC, Florida.
EN 1990:2002. Eurocode - Basis of Structural Design. CEN, 2002.
EN 1991:2002. Eurocode - Actions on Structures. CEN, 2002.
EN 1992:2004. Eurocode Design of Concrete Structures. CEN, 2004.
EN 1993:1992. Eurocode Design of Steel Structures. CEN, 1992.
Ghoneim, M. and El-Mihilmy, M., (2008), Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Vol. 3, Cairo
University, Cairo.
Gilbert, R. I., and Mickleborough, N. C., (2004), Design of Prestressed Concrete, Spon Press,
London.
ISE manual, (1985), I. Struct. E./ICE Joint committee, Manual for the Design of Reinforced
Concrete Building Structures, Institution of Structural Engineers, London.
Loretsen, M. and Sundquist, H., (1995), Bgkonstruktioner, KTH.
Loretsen, M. and Sundquist, H., (1995), Hngkonstruktioner, KTH.
Menn, C., (1986), Prestressed Concrete Bridges, Springer-Verlag, Wien.
Nawy, E. G., (2008), Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, 2nd edition, CRC Press LLC,
Florida.
OBrien, E. J. and Dixon, A. S., (1999). Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Design, Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh.
Prestress Manual, (2005), State of California, Department of Transportation, Engineering Services.
Thelandersson, S., (2009), Design of bridges Structural design project, Lund University,
Structural engineering.
Zhuan M. Q. and Guo. X. J., (1998), PE Shelled Large Pitch Twisted Stay Cable, For Construction
Use, Shanghai PuJiang Cable Co. Ltd. Shanghai.
57
6.2 Computer programs

AutoCAD 2009, Autodesk.
CSI SAP2000, version 14, Computers & Structures.
Microsoft Office Excel 2007, Microsoft.
Microsoft Office Word 2007, Microsoft.
PCFrame, version 2.15, AEC AB.
6.3 Other references

Hafliason, E. (2010), personal communication with Hafliason at ICERA.
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, University of Iceland.
VSL Post-Tensioning Systems, Technical Data, (2010), VSL International Ltd.
http://www.ingvason.com/
58
Appendix A
Appendix A
59
Appendix A
CALCULATIONSOFGDFFORBRIDGETYPE1
Q1k=
300
Q1=
0,9
Q1Q1k= 270
kN
Q2k=
200
Q2=
0,9
Q2Q2k= 180
q1k=
q1=
q1q1k= 9
kN
2
kN/m
q2k=
2,5
q2=
q2q2k= 2,5
kN/m
q3k=
2,5
q3=
q3q3k= 2,5
kN/m
F
RA
135
135
90
90
ForQ
z
5,6
6,8
4,8
3,8
1,8
M=
RA=
2
2
Forq
M
RAx
918
648
342
162
9
2,5
2,5
RA
2070
369,64
GDFQ=
1,37
RB=
80,36
l
3
3
3
z
5,6
5,8
2,8
0,2
M=
RA=
GDFq=
RB=
Totalactionsonhalfofthecrosssectionfortrafficloadsinthelengthdirection
Q=2*GDFQ*RA=
1012 kN
q=GDFq*RA=
37
kN/m
60
M
RAx
156,6
21
1,5
176,1
31,45
1,16
10,55
Appendix A
CalculationsforArea,MomentofInertiaandSectionModulusforBridgeType1
Note:Allcrosssectioncalculationsaredonefromthebottomfibre
Part
nr.
1
2
3
mm
mm
1080 2400
1080 2400
10000 250
y=
1631,1 mm
h=
2650 mm
Inthemiddleofthespan
y0
S=Ay0
yy0
A
2
mm
2592000
2592000
2500000
7684000
mm
1200
1200
2525
mm
3,11E+09
3,11E+09
6,31E+09
1,25E+10
5,36E+09
mm
WBottom=
3,35E+09
mm
A(yy0)
4
mm
1,24E+12
1,24E+12
1,30E+10
Ix
4
mm
4,82E+11
4,82E+11
2,00E+12
mm
1,73E+12
1,73E+12
2,01E+12
5,46E+12
A(yy0)2
Ix
mm
mm
2
N/mm
InthemiddleofthespanHalfcrosssection
y0
S=Ay0
yy0
I0
nr.
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm4
1
2
5000
1080
250
2400
1250000
2592000
3842000
2525
1200
3,16E+09
3,11E+09
6,27E+09
893,9
431,1
6,51E+09
1,24E+12
9,99E+11
4,82E+11
1,01E+12
1,73E+12
2,73E+12
y=
1631,1 mm
h=
2650 mm
WTop=
CreepEffectiveelasticmodulus
u=
30100
Perimeter:
2A/u=
511
Notionalsize:
=
1,54
Creepcoefficient:
Ec,eff=
14175
Effectiveelasticmodulus:
Part
mm
431,1
431,1
893,9
I0
WTop=
WBottom=
2,68E+09 mm
3
1,67E+09 mm
61
Appendix A
Part
nr.
1
2
3
mm
mm
1380 2400
1380 2400
10000 250
y=
1563,1 mm
h=
2650 mm
Part
nr.
1
2
b
mm
5000
1380
h
mm
250
2400
y=
1563,1 mm
h=
2650 mm
Overasupport
S=Ay0
yy0
y0
A
2
mm
3312000
3312000
2500000
9124000
mm
1200
1200
2525
mm
3,97E+09
3,97E+09
6,31E+09
1,43E+10
WBottom=
mm
1250000
3312000
4562000
WTop=
WBottom=
mm
2525
1200
mm
3,16E+09
3,97E+09
7,13E+09
IntheMiddleoftheSpan
InthemiddleoftheSpanhalf
Overasupport
Overasupporthalf
W,Top
mm
7684000
3842000
9124000
4562000
mm
5,36E+09
2,68E+09
5,87E+09
2,51E+09
pavement=
Selfweightofconcreteforhalfofthebridgesection
gconcrete=
96,1 kN/m
Ec =
mm
6,51E+09
1,59E+12
mm
1,16E+12
4,37E+11
Weight
25 kN/m
2
2,1 kN/m
106,6 kN/m
2
36000 N/mm
mm
961,9
363,1
A(yy0)2
I0
2,51E+09 mm
3
2,04E+09 mm
gtot=
5,87E+09 mm
3
4,08E+09 mm
Summary
10,5 kN/m
Ix
mm
mm
mm4
1,59E+12 4,36548E+11 2,03E+12
1,59E+12 4,36548E+11 2,03E+12
1,30E+10 2,31335E+12 2,33E+12
6,38E+12
OverasupportHalfcrosssection
y0
S=Ay0
yy0
gpavement=
WTop=
CreepEffectiveelasticmodulus
u=
30100
Perimeter:
2A/u=
606
Notionalsize:
=
1,50
Creepcoefficient:
Ec,eff=
14416
Effectiveelasticmodulus:
concrete=
mm
363,1
363,1
961,9
A(yy0)2
I0
62
mm
mm
2
N/mm
W,Bottom
3
mm
3,35E+09
1,67E+09
4,08E+09
2,04E+09
mm
5,46E+12
2,73E+12
6,38E+12
3,19E+12
kN/m
192,1
96,05
228,1
114,05
Ix
4
mm
1,16E+12
2,03E+12
3,19E+12
Appendix A
Q1k=
300
Q1=
0,9
Q1Q1k= 270
kN
Q2k=
200
Q2=
0,9
Q2Q2k= 180
q1k=
q1=
q1q1k= 9
kN
2
kN/m
q2k=
2,5
q2=
q2q2k= 2,5
kN/m
q3k=
2,5
q3=
q3q3k= 2,5
kN/m
F
RA
135
135
90
90
ForQ
z
10
9
7
6
4
M=
RA=
GDFQ=
RB=
2
2
Forq
M
RAx
1215
945
540
360
9
2,5
2,5
z
10
8
5
2
RA
3
3
3
M
RA
GDFq=
3060
306,00
RB=
1,13
144,00
Q=2*GDFQ*RA=
694
kN
q=GDFq*RA=
27
kN/m
63
M
RAx
216
37,5
15
268,5
26,85
0,99
15,15
Relevantdistancesforcrosssectioncalculationsofthearch
Appendix A
64
Iy
A
Ix
1949,8 mm
4
2,80E+06 mm
4
6,70E+06 mm
Stiffeners
65
Wel=
1700
h=
A
2
mm
3.900
3.900
285.097
mm
mm mm
1700 50 250.000
3.900
3.900
3.900
3.900
3.900
3.900
3.900
mm
3
1,24E+08 mm
850,0
y=
mm
900
nr.
BoxSection
StiffenersNr.1
StiffenersNr.2
StiffenersNr.3
StiffenersNr.4
StiffenersNr.5
StiffenersNr.6
StiffenersNr.7
StiffenersNr.8
StiffenersNr.9
Part
1525,00
1581,31
mm
850,00
118,69
175,00
400,00
625,00
850,00
1075,00
1300,00
y0
yy0
I0
4
mm
0,00E+00
2,09E+09
1,78E+09
7,90E+08
1,97E+08
0,00E+00
1,97E+08
7,90E+08
A(yy0)2
mm4
9,54E+10
2,09E+09
1,79E+09
8,03E+08
2,11E+08
1,34E+07
2,11E+08
8,03E+08
Ix
5,95E+06 675,0 1,34E+07 1,78E+09 1,79E+09

6,17E+06 731,3 5,60E+06 2,09E+09 2,09E+09
2,42E+08
1,05E+11
mm
mm
mm
2,13E+08
0,0
9,54E+10
4,63E+05 731,3 5,60E+06
6,82E+05 675,0 1,34E+07
1,56E+06 450,0 1,34E+07
2,44E+06 225,0 1,34E+07
3,31E+06
0,0
1,34E+07
4,19E+06 225,0 1,34E+07
5,07E+06 450,0 1,34E+07
S=Ay0
CalculationsforArea,MomentofInertiaandSectionModulusFortheStrongerAxis
Appendix A
66
1,1
75984 kNm
M0=
Mpl.Rd=
N Sd
M Sd
+
M pl,Rd
N pl . Rd
@centerofarch:
@1/4ofarch:
5.4.8.1Bendingandaxialforce
355 MPa
fy=
M pl,Rd =Wpl f y / M0
M Sd M c.Rd
Msd=
15875 kNm
a)Designplasticresistancemoment
0,22
0,21
80000
5.4.5and5.4.5.2BendingMoment(page65)
ENV199311
mm
1949,8
1949,8
1949,8
1949,8
80000
45000
nr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Part
4
4
4
4
4
2
Web
Stiffener
Stiffener
Stiffener
Stiffener
Stiffener
Flange
Type
Design
15875
10901
0,22
9
009 kN
92009
Bending[kNm]
Compression[kN]
Combined
Npl.Rd=
N pl . Rd = Af y / M 0
NSd=
10901 kN
a)Designplasticresistancecompression
N Sd N c. Rd
2,35E+08
1,3E+08
mm
5703690
5264518
3509679
1754839
1,7E+07
7,4E+07
Wxi
5.4.4Compression((1)and(2))(page65)
400
4
Wxpl=
mm
731,31
675,00
450,00
225
53,00
825,00
Calculationsofplasticsectionmodulusofthesection
Resistance
75984
92009
1,00
OK!
OK!
OK!
Appendix A
Appendix A
MaingirdersBridgetype2
Part
h
2
[mm ]
300
40
300
TopFlange
Web
BottomFlange
[mm ]
40
1100
40
y=
h=
Wel=
Part
[mm ]
12000
44000
12000
68000
S=Ay0
yy0
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)=
Flange
Web
d/tw
Class
c
tf
c/tf
Class
Iy
5.4RestistanceofcrosssectionsinEC3
[mm ]
6,84E+06
6,05E+06
6,05E+06
6,84E+06
2,58E+07
44000
M0=
1,1
fy=
355
MPa
M Sd M c.Rd
VSd V pl . Rd
Where
VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
mm
Designvalues:
MSd,max=
7241 kNm
VSd,max=
2087 kN
CrossSectionClass,table5.3.1inEC3
d
tw
A(yy0)
[mm ] [mm] [mm ]

[mm ]
[mm4]
[mm]
1160 1,39E+07 570 1,60E+06 3,90E+09 3,90E+09
590 2,60E+07
0
4,44E+09 0,00E+00 4,44E+09
20 2,40E+05 570 1,60E+06 3,90E+09 3,90E+09
4,01E+07
1,22E+10
Wpl
[mm ]
[mm]
570
12000
275
22000
275
22000
570
12000
Wpl=
I0
590 [mm]
1180 [mm]
3
2,07E+07 [mm ]
TopFlange
Web1
Web2
BottomFlange
y0
0,81
1100
40
0,5
27,5
Class1 d/tw33
150
40
3,75
Class1 c/tf9
Moment
Shear
Combined
Resistance:
8320 kNm
OK!
8198 kN
OK!
Noreductionneeded!
Providedthatthedesignvalueoftheshearforce
V sd doesnotexceed50%ofthedesignplastic
shearresistanceV pl.Rd noreductionneedbe
made
67
Appendix A
CrossbeamsBridgetype2
Part
h
2
[mm ]
200
30
200
TopFlange
Web
BottomFlange
[mm ]
30
800
30
y=
h=
Wel=
Part
[mm ]
6000
24000
6000
36000
S=Ay0
yy0
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)=
Flange
Web
[mm ]
2,49E+06
2,40E+06
2,40E+06
2,49E+06
9,78E+06
24000
M0=
1,1
0,81
d
tw
800
30
0,5
26,67
Class1
100
30
3,333
Class1
fy=
355
MPa
M Sd M c.Rd
VSd V pl . Rd
Where
VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
mm
MSd,max=
CrossSectionClass,table5.3.1inEC3
c/tf
Class
Iy
[mm ] [mm] [mm ]

[mm ]
[mm ]
[mm]
845 5,07E+06 415 4,50E+05 1,03E+09 1,03E+09
430 1,03E+07
0
1,28E+09 0,00E+00 1,28E+09
15 9,00E+04 415 4,50E+05 1,03E+09 1,03E+09
1,55E+07
3,35E+09
Wpl
[mm ]
[mm]
415
6000
200
12000
200
12000
415
6000
Wpl=
d/tw
Class
c
tf
A(yy0)2
I0
430 [mm]
860 [mm]
3
7,79E+06 [mm ]
TopFlange
Web1
Web2
BottomFlange
y0
VSd,max=
Moment
Shear
Combined
Designvalues:
3025 kNm
1359 kN
Resistance:
3156 kNm
OK!
4472 kN
OK!
Noreductionneeded!
shearresistanceV pl.Rd noreductionneedbe
made
68
Appendix A
Q1k=
300
Q1=
0,9
Q1Q1k= 270
kN
Q2k=
200
Q2=
0,9
Q2Q2k= 180
q1k=
q1=
q1q1k= 9
kN
2
kN/m
q2k=
2,5
q2=
q2q2k= 2,5
kN/m
q3k=
2,5
q3=
q3q3k= 2,5
kN/m
F
RA
135
135
90
90
ForQ
z
10
9
7
6
4
M=
RA=
GDFQ=
RB=
2
2
Forq
M
RAx
1215
945
540
360
9
2,5
2,5
z
10
8
5
2
RA
3
3
3
M
RA
GDFq=
3060
306,00
RB=
1,13
144,00
Q=2*GDFQ*RA=
694
kN
q=GDFq*RA=
27
kN/m
69
M
RAx
216
37,5
15
268,5
26,85
0,99
15,15
Appendix A
CrossbeamsBridgetype3
Mmax
Vmax
Part
h
2
[mm ] [mm ]
TopFlange
300
30
Web
30
800
BottomFlange 300
30
y=
h=
Wel=
Part
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)=
Flange
Web
d
tw
d/tw
Class
c
tf
c/tf
Class
[mm ]
9000
24000
9000
42000
[mm]
845
430
15
[mm ]
7,61E+06
1,03E+07
1,35E+05
1,81E+07
Wpl
[mm] [mm ]
415
9000
200 12000
200 12000
415
9000
Wpl=
CrossSectionClass
S=Ay0
yy0
I0
A(yy0)
4
Iy
[mm ]
[mm4]
[mm] [mm ]
415 6,75E+05 1,55E+09 1,55E+09
0
1,28E+09 0,00E+00 1,28E+09
415 6,75E+05 1,55E+09 1,55E+09
4,38E+09
430 [mm]
860 [mm]
3
1,02E+07 [mm ]
TopFlange
Web1
Web2
BottomFlange
y0
5.4Restistanceofcross
sectionsinEC3
[mm ]
3,74E+06
2,40E+06
2,40E+06
3,74E+06
1,23E+07
24000
M0=
1,1
fy=
355
MPa
M Sd M c.Rd
VSd V pl . Rd
Where
VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
mm
MSd,max=
VSd,max=
0,81
800
30
0,5
26,67
Class1 d/tw33
150
30
5
Class1 c/tf9
Moment
Shear
Combined
Designvalues:
3237 kNm
672 kN
Resistance:
3960 kNm
OK!
4472 kN
OK!
Noreductionneeded!
ProvidedthatthedesignvalueoftheshearforceV sd
doesnotexceed50%ofthedesignplasticshear
resistanceV pl.Rd noreductionneedbemade
70
Appendix A
MaingirderBridgetype3
Part
h
2
[mm ] [mm ]
TopFlange
400
30
Web
30
1140
BottomFlange 400
30
y=
h=
Wel=
Part
[mm ]
12000
34200
12000
58200
S=Ay0
[mm]
1185
600
15
Wpl
[mm] [mm ]
585 12000
285 17100
285 17100
585 12000
Wpl=
Sheararea:Av=(dtw)=
Flange
Web
d
tw
d/tw
Class
c
tf
c/tf
Class
A(yy0)2
I0
4
Iy
[mm ] [mm] [mm ]

[mm ]
[mm ]
1,42E+07 585 9,00E+05 4,11E+09 4,11E+09
2,05E+07
0 3,70E+09 0,00E+00 3,70E+09
1,80E+05 585 9,00E+05 4,11E+09 4,11E+09
3,49E+07
1,19E+10
[mm ]
7,02E+06
4,87E+06
4,87E+06
7,02E+06
2,38E+07
34200
M0=
1,1
fy=
355
MPa
M Sd M c.Rd
VSd V pl . Rd
Where
VSd V pl . Rd = Av ( f y / 3) / M 0
mm2
MSd,max=
CrossSectionClass
yy0
600 [mm]
1200 [mm]
3
1,99E+07 [mm ]
TopFlange
Web1
Web2
BottomFlange
y0
Designvalues:
7311 kNm
VSd,max=
0,81
1140
30
0,5
38
Class1 d/tw33
200
30
6,67
Class1 c/tf9
Resistance
Moment
7677 kNm
Shear
6372 kN
Combined Noreductionneeded!
1247 kN
OK!
OK!
shearresistanceV pl.Rd noreductionneedbemade
71
Appendix A
Column
mm
A
tx
ty
300
1500
900
300
2300
1700
2
1920000 mm
Reinforcement
mm
Cover
50
x (Pcs.)
18
Outside Bars
Sox
y (Pcs.)
80,9
26
Soy
80,6
Inside Bars
x (Pcs.) Sox y (Pcs.)
13
85,4
21
CrossSection
ReshapeChartforRightScaling
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
500
1000
1500
72
2000
Soy
83,0
Appendix A
Materials
Safety Class
Concrete
1,2
C40/50
Outside Bars
25
Aslo
490,9
mm2/Bar
Inside Bars
25
Aslo
490,9
mm2/Bar
Stirrups
Creep, RH %
2
95
10
1
Asv
78,5
mm2/Bar
Reinforcement
Ks40
Ks60
Ss260S
B500B
Ks600S
Ns500
Nps500
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Concrete
fcck
MPa
38
fcc
MPa
19,8
fctk
MPa
2,4
fct
MPa
1,33
Eck
MPa
35.000
fyk
MPa
500
500
500
fst
MPa
435
435
435
Esk
MPa
200.000
200 000
200.000
200.000
Es
MPa
200.000
200 000
200.000
200.000
sy
0,00217
0 00217
0,00217
0,00217
Rebars
Outside
O
id Bars
B
Inside Bars
Stirrups
Creep, RH %
Innomhus i uppvrmde lokaler
Normalt utomhus samt inomhus i icke
uppvrmde lokaler
Mycket fuktig milj
75
95
Ec,eff
MPa
12.153
cu
0,0035
XAxis
Load
70.000
5121 kN
k
27292 kNm
60.000
50.000
40.000
30.000
N(kN)
NSd=
MSd=
Ec
MPa
24.306
55
20.000
10.000
0
10.000
5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000
20.000
30.000
M(kNm)
73
Appendix B
Appendix B
74
Appendix B
InfluenceLinesforMomentinInternal
spans
1.00
0.80
0.60
M/Mmax
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.2*48
x/Ltot
0.4*48
0.6*48
0.8*48
1.0*48
InfluenceLinesforMomentinExternal
Spans
1.00
0.80
0.60
M/Mmax
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.2*37
x/Ltot
0.4*37
0.6*37
75
0.8*37
1.0*37
Appendix B
InfluenceLinesforReactionForcesat
Supports
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
R/Rmax
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
x/L
RA
RB
76
RC
0.80
1.00
Appendix B
77
Appendix B
78
Appendix B
79
Appendix B
80
Appendix B
81
Appendix B
Calculations of secondary moment with the three-moment

equation
kN
w1 := 99.023
m
kN
w2 := 79.685
m
Span lengths:
L1 := 37m
L2 := 48m
L4 := L1
L3 := L2
M A := 0kN m
M E := 0kN m
M B := 1kN m
M C := 1kN m
M D := 1kN m
EI1 :=
w1 L1
EI2 :=
24
EI4 := EI1
w2 L2
24
EI3 := EI2
Given
M A L1 + 2 M B L1 + L2 + M C L2 = 6 EI1 + EI2
M B L2 + 2 M C L2 + L3 + M D L3 = 6 EI2 + EI3
M C L3 + 2 M D L3 + L4 + M E L4 = 6 EI3 + EI4
Thus, solving these equations, the total moment, with primary and secondary effects, are:
MB
MC := Find( MB , MC , MD) =
M
D
16134
14882 kN m
16134
82
Appendix B
Secondary moment from prestress

Prestress forces at service and eccentrities at corresponding positions after losses:
PsupportA := 35890kN
eA := 0mm
M primaryA := PsupportA eA = 0 kN m
Pspan1 := 36875kN
e1 := 410 mm
M primaryspan1 := Pspan1 e1 = 15119 kN m
PsupportB := 37441kN
eB := 283.6mm M primaryB := PsupportB eB = 10618 kN m
Pspan2 := 35482kN
e2 := 420 mm
PsupportC := 34795kN
eC := 283.6mm M primaryC := PsupportC eC = 9868 kN m
M primaryspan2 := Pspan2 e2 = 14902 kN m
Hence the secondary moments become:

M secondaryA := 0kN m
M secondaryB := M B M primaryB = 5515 kN m
M secondaryspan1 :=
13875
37000
M secondaryB = 2068 kN m
M secondaryC := M C M primaryC = 5015 kN m

M secondaryspan2 := M secondaryB +
M secondaryC M secondaryB
2
Total bending from prestress:

M pA := M secondaryA + M primaryA = 0 kN m
M p1 := M secondaryspan1 + M primaryspan1 = 13050 kN m
M pB := M secondaryB + M primaryB = 16134 kN m
M p2 := M secondaryspan2 + M primaryspan2 = 9637 kN m
M pC := M secondaryC + M primaryC = 14882 kN m
83
= 5265 kN m
Appendix B
Calculations of ultimate moment capacity

2
Ap1 := 4200mm
Ep := 195000MPa
Ap := 8 Ap1
Ec := 36000MPa
12
Igsupport := 1.5648 10 mm
12
Igspan := 1.3462 10 mm
Agsupport := 3770000mm
2
Agspan := 3230000mm
Bending from self-weight and traffic loads in ULS:

M supportA1 := 0kN m
M span11 := 30314kN m
M supportB1 := 40838 kN m
M span21 := 31954kN m
M supportC1 := 43737 kN m
Bending in ULS with prestress:
M A.ULS := M supportA1 + M A = 0 kN m
M 1.ULS := M span11 + M secondaryspan1 + M primaryspan1 = 17264 kN m
M B.ULS := M supportB1 + M secondaryB + M primaryB = 24704 kN m
M 2.ULS := M span21 + M secondaryspan2 + M primaryspan2 = 22317 kN m
M C.ULS := M supportC1 + M secondaryC + M primaryC = 28855 kN m
84
Appendix B
Effective depth, d:
Width of the girder:
d 1 := 1163.3mm
b span := 1100mm
d B := 1523.5mm
b support := 1400mm
d 2 := 1173.3mm
Allowable yield strength of the steel (figure 3.10 in EC2):
d C := 1523.5mm
fck := 45MPa
c := 1.5
:= 1
fpk := 1860MPa
fp0.1k := 1640MPa
p := 1.15
fpd :=
fp0.1k
p
ud := 0.02
= 1426 MPa
fpd
Ep
= 0.007313
Strain limit recommended by EC2.
85
Appendix B
Ultimate moment capacity at span 1:

Ultimate compressive strain in concrete:
ult := 0.0035
Concrete strain due to prestress at the level of the tendon:
M p1 e1
1 Pspan1
ce.1 :=
+
= 0.000428
Ec Agspan
Igspan
Total ultimate strain in concrete at the level of the tendons:

ult d 1 x 1
ct.1 =
x1
Tendon strain:
Pspan1
pu.1 =
+ ct.1 ce.1
Ap Ep
Concrete compressive force:
fck
Fc.1 = 0.8 x 1 b span
c
Total force in tendon:
Fp.1 = Ap Ep pu.1
Equilibrium of forces:
Fp.1 + Fc.1 = 0
Which leads to:
x 1 := 1mm
Given
fck
Pspan1 ult d1 x1
Ap Ep
+
ce.1 + 0.8 b span x 1
=0
c
x1
Ap Ep
( )
x 1 := Find x 1 = 1.371 m
Check if steel stress is ok:
ct.1 :=
pu.1 :=
ult d 1 x 1
x1
Pspan1
Ap Ep
) = 0.000531
+ ct.1 ce.1 = 0.005525
86
Less than f pd/Ep=0.007313
Appendix B
Ultimate moment capacity:
z1 := d 1 0.4 x 1 = 0.615 m
fck
Fc1 := 0.8 b span x 1
= 36199 kN
c
M ult1 := Fc1 z1 = 22256 kN m
87
Appendix B
Ultimate moment capacity at support B:

ult = 0.0035
M pB eB
1 PsupportB
ce.B :=
+
= 0.000357
Ec Agsupport
Igsupport

ult d B x B
ct.B =
xB
Tendon strain:
PsupportB
pu.B =
+ ct.B ce.B
Ap Ep
fck
Fc.B = 0.8 x B b support
c
Fp.B = Ap Ep pu.B
Fp.B + Fc.B = 0
Which leads to:
x B := 1mm
Given
PsupportB
Ap Ep
Ap Ep
ult d B x B
xB
fck
+
0.8
ce.B
support B = 0
c
( )
x B := Find x B = 1.301 m
ct.B :=
pu.B :=
ult d B x B
xB
PsupportB
Ap Ep
) = 0.000599
+ ct.B ce.B = 0.006671
88
Appendix B
zB := d B 0.4 x B = 1.003 m
fck
FcB := 0.8 b support x B
= 43707 kN
c
M ultB := FcB zB = 43846 kN m
89
Appendix B
Ultimate moment capacity at span 2:

ult = 0.0035
M p2 e2
1 Pspan2
ce.2 :=
+
= 0.000389
Ec Agspan
Igspan

ult d 2 x 2
ct.2 =
x2
Tendon strain:
Pspan2
pu.2 =
+ ct.2 ce.2
Ap Ep
fck
Fc.2 = 0.8 x 2 b span
c
Fp.2 = Ap Ep pu.2
Fp.2 + Fc.2 = 0
Which leads to:
x 2 := 1mm
Given
fck
Pspan2 ult d2 x2
Ap Ep
+
ce.2 + 0.8 b span x 2
=0
c
x2
Ap Ep
( )
x 2 := Find x 2 = 1.335 m
ct.2 :=
pu.2 :=
ult d 2 x 2
x2
Pspan2
Ap Ep
) = 0.000424
+ ct.2 ce.2 = 0.00538
90
Appendix B
z2 := d 2 0.4 x 2 = 0.639 m
fck
Fc2 := 0.8 b span x 2
= 35248 kN
c
M ult2 := Fc2 z2 = 22532 kN m
91
Appendix B
Ultimate moment capacity at support C:

ult = 0.0035
M pC eC
1 PsupportC
ce.C :=
+
=
Ec Agsupport
Igsupport

ult d C x C
ct.C =
xC
Tendon strain:
PsupportC
pu.C =
+ ct.C ce.C
Ap Ep
fck
Fc.C = 0.8 x C b support
c
Fp.C = Ap Ep pu.C
Fp.C + Fc.C = 0
Which leads to:
x C := 1mm
Given
PsupportC
Ap Ep
Ap Ep
ult d C x C
xC
fck
ce.C + 0.8 b support x C = 0

c
( )
x C := Find x C = 1.25 m
ct.C :=
pu.C :=
ult d C x C
xC
PsupportC
Ap Ep
) = 0.000767
+ ct.C ce.C = 0.006409
92
Appendix B
zC := d C 0.4 x C = 1.024 m
fck
FcC := 0.8 b support x C
= 41990 kN
c
M ultC := FcC zC = 42982 kN m
93

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Design of a 170 m span

bridge over the fjord

Jhannes Helgi Jhannesson

Rapport TVBK - 5185

Department of Structural Engineering

Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in

Lund, October 2010

Outline of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 1

Bridge types .................................................................................................................................... 2

Concrete bridge ....................................................................................................................... 2

Arch bridge ............................................................................................................................. 3

The actual project geometry and boundary conditions ................................................................ 5

Preliminary design .......................................................................................................................... 7

Permanent loads .............................................................................................................. 7

Variable loads ................................................................................................................. 7

Load combinations .......................................................................................................... 8

The concrete beam bridge ..................................................................................................... 10

Geometry for type 1 ...................................................................................................... 10

Size estimation .............................................................................................................. 10

Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 13

The arch bridge ..................................................................................................................... 16

Geometry for type 2 ...................................................................................................... 16

Bridge Deck .................................................................................................................. 22

Transversal Bracing ...................................................................................................... 23

Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 24

The cable-stayed bridge ........................................................................................................ 26

Aesthetics of cable-stayed bridges ................................................................................ 26

Geometry for type 3 ...................................................................................................... 27

Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 35

Final design ................................................................................................................................... 38

Building codes .............................................................................................................. 39

Exposure classes and service life .................................................................................. 40

Tendon alignment and prestress force........................................................................... 40

Prestress losses .............................................................................................................. 46

Secondary effects of prestress ....................................................................................... 51

Summary and choice of bridge type...................................................................................... 37

Ultimate moment capacity .................................................................................................... 55

Other references .................................................................................................................... 58

Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland

1.3 Outline of the thesis

Design of a 170 m long bridg

These issues and th

Figure 2-11: A typical crooss-section for a concrete girder bridge.

These tyypes of cross-sections with

Figure 2-2: An exam

ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland

Figure 2-3: A model of a zeero hinge arch.

Figure 2-4: A typical arch bridge with

ge over the ffjord orskaffjrur in Iceeland

Figure 2-55: A cable-stayed bridge with

Design of a 170 m long bridg

Figure 3-1: Poosition of the fjord

As was mentioned, the bridge will have tw

Design of a 170 m long bridg

Figure 3-22: The road lin

b consists of sediment layers. The sediment lay

The fjorrd is not loccated in an earthquake zone

Figure 3-4: Maximu

Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland

Design of a 170 m long bridg

Tablee 4-1: Axle load

These looad arrangem

4.2.3 Load comb