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Eightformsofcorrosion

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WEBMASTER

EightFormsofCorrosion
by:Fontana&Greene,1967
Theideaofdescribingthevariouswayscorrosioncandamagemetalsbyitappearancehadbeusedby
manybeforeFontanaandGreenecoauthoredtheirfamousbookin1967.McKayandWorthington
werealreadydiscussingvariousformsofcorrosionintheir1936bookoncorrosion.followingAlan
Pollittinhisownbookpublishedthirteenyearssooner,i.e.1923.However,theclassificationthat
followsseemstohavegainedthewidestacceptancewithsubtlevariationsbetweenauthors.
Itisconvenienttoclassifycorrosionbytheformsinwhichitmanifestsitself,thebasisforthis
classificationbeingtheappearanceofthecorrodedmetal.Eachformcanbeidentifiedbymerevisual
observation.Inmostcasesthenakedeyeissufficient,butsometimesmagnificationishelpfulor
required.Valuableinformationforthesolutionofacorrosionproblemcanoftenbeobtainedthrough
carefulobservationofthecorrodedtestspecimensorfailedequipment.Examinationbeforecleaning
isparticularlydesirable.Someoftheeightformsofcorrosionareunique,butallofthemaremoreor
lessinterrelated.Theeightformsare:(1)uniform,orgeneralattack,(2)galvanic,ortwometal
corrosion,(3)crevicecorrosion,(4)pitting,(5)intergranularcorrosion,(6)selectiveleaching,or
parting,(7)erosioncorrosion,and(8)stresscorrosion.Thislistingisarbitrarybutcoverspractically
allcorrosionfailuresandproblems.Theformsarenotlistedinanyparticularorderofimportance.
Below,theeightformsofcorrosionarediscussedintermsoftheircharacteristics,mechanisms,and
preventivemeasures.Hydrogendamage,althoughnotaformofcorrosion,oftenoccursindirectlyasa
resultofcorrosiveattack,andisthereforeincludedinthisdiscussion.(reference)

UniformAttack
Uniformattackisthemostcommonformofcorrosion.Itisnormallycharacterizedbyachemicalor
electrochemicalreactionwhichproceedsuniformlyovertheentireexposedsurfaceoroveralarge
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area.Themetalbecomesthinnerandeventuallyfails.Forexample,apieceofsteelorzincimmersed
indilutesulfuricacidwillnormallydissolveatauniformrateoveritsentiresurface.Asheetironroof
willshowessentiallythesamedegreeofrustingoveritsentireoutsidesurface.
Uniformattack,orgeneraloverallcorrosion,representsthegreatestdestructionofmetalonatonnage
basis.Thisformofcorrosion,however,isnotoftoogreatconcernfromthetechnicalstandpoint,
becausethelifeofequipmentcanbeaccuratelyestimatedonthebasisofcomparativelysimpletests.
Merelyimmersingspecimensinthefluidinvolvedisoftensufficient.Uniformattackcanbe
preventedorreducedby(1)propermaterials,includingcoatings,(2)inhibitors,or(3)cathodic
protection.(backtotop)

GalvanicorTwoMetalCorrosion
Apotentialdifferenceusuallyexistsbetweentwodissimilarmetalswhentheyareimmersedina
corrosiveorconductivesolution.Ifthesemetalsareplacedincontact(orotherwiseelectrically
connected),thispotentialdifferenceproduceselectronflowbetweenthem.Corrosionoftheless
corrosionresistantmetalisusuallyincreasedandattackofthemoreresistantmaterialisdecreased,as
comparedwiththebehaviorofthesemetalswhentheyarenotincontact.Thelessresistantmetal
becomesanodicandthemoreresistantmetalcathodic.Usuallythecathodeorcathodicmetal
corrodesverylittleornotatallinthistypeofcouple.Becauseoftheelectriccurrentsanddissimilar
metalsinvolved,thisformofcorrosioniscalledgalvanic,ortwometal,corrosion.Itis
electrochemicalcorrosion,butweshallrestrictthetermgalvanictodissimilarmetaleffectsfor
purposesofclarity.(backtotop)

CreviceCorrosion
Intenselocalizedcorrosionfrequentlyoccurswithincrevicesandothershieldedareasonmetal
surfacesexposedtocorrosives.Thistypeofattackisusuallyassociatedwithsmallvolumesof
stagnantsolutioncausedbyholes,gasketsurfaces,lapjoints,surfacedeposits,andcrevicesunderbolt
andrivetheads.Asaresult,thisformofcorrosioniscalledcrevicecorrosionor,sometimes,deposit
orgasketcorrosion.(backtotop)

Pitting
Pittingisaformofextremelylocalizedattackthatresultsinholesinthemetal.Theseholesmaybe
smallorlargeindiameter,butinmostcasestheyarerelativelysmall.Pitsaresometimesisolatedor
soclosetogetherthattheylooklikearoughsurface.Generallyapitmaybedescribedasacavityor
holewiththesurfacediameteraboutthesameasorlessthanthedepth.
Pittingisoneofthemostdestructiveandinsidiousformsofcorrosion.Itcausesequipmenttofail
becauseofperforationwithonlyasmallpercentweightlossoftheentirestructure.Itisoftendifficult
todetectpitsbecauseoftheirsmallsizeandbecausethepitsareoftencoveredwithcorrosion
products.Inaddition,itisdifficulttomeasurequantitativelyandcomparetheextentofpittingbecause
ofthevaryingdepthsandnumbersofpitsthatmayoccurunderidenticalconditions.Pittingisalso
difficulttopredictbylaboratorytests.Sometimesthepitsrequirealongtimeseveralmonthsora
yeartoshowupinactualservice.Pittingisparticularlyviciousbecauseitisalocalizedandintense
formofcorrosion,andfailuresoftenoccurwithextremesuddenness.(backtotop)

IntergranularCorrosion
Grainboundaryeffectsareoflittleornoconsequenceinmostapplicationsorusesofmetals.Ifa
metalcorrodes,uniformattackresultssincegrainboundariesareusuallyonlyslightlymorereactive
thanthematrix.However,undercertainconditions,graininterfacesareveryreactiveand
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intergranularcorrosionresults.Localizedattackatandadjacenttograinboundaries,withrelatively
littlecorrosionofthegrains,isintergranularcorrosion.Thealloydisintegrates(grainsfallout)and/or
losesitsstrength.
Intergranularcorrosioncanbecausedbyimpuritiesatthegrainboundaries,enrichmentofoneofthe
alloyingelements,ordepletionofoneoftheseelementsinthegrainboundaryareas.Smallamounts
ofironinaluminum,whereinthesolubilityofironislow,havebeenshowntosegregateinthegrain
boundariesandcauseintergranularcorrosion.Ithasbeenshownthatbasedonsurfacetension
considerationsthezinccontentofabrassishigheratthegrainboundaries.Depletionofchromiumin
thegrainboundaryregionsresultsinintergranularcorrosionofstainlesssteels.(backtotop)

Selectiveleaching
Selectiveleachingistheremovalofoneelementfromasolidalloybycorrosionprocesses.Themost
commonexampleistheselectiveremovalofzincinbrassalloys(dezincification).Similarprocesses
occurinotheralloysystemsinwhichaluminumiron,cobalt,chromium,andotherelementsare
removed.Selectiveleachingisthegeneraltermtodescribetheseprocesses,anditsuseprecludesthe
creationoftermssuchasdealuminumification,decobaltification,etc.Partingisametallurgicalterm
thatissometimesapplied,butselectiveleachingispreferred.(backtotop)

ErosionCorrosion
Erosioncorrosionistheaccelerationorincreaseinrateofdeteriorationorattackonametalbecause
ofrelativemovementbetweenacorrosivefluidandthemetalsurface.Generally,thismovementis
quiterapid,andmechanicalweareffectsorabrasionareinvolved.Metalisremovedfromthesurface
asdissolvedions,oritformssolidcorrosionproductswhicharemechanicallysweptfromthemetal
surface.Sometimes,movementoftheenvironmentdecreasescorrosion,particularlywhenlocalized
attackoccursunderstagnantconditions,butthisisnoterosioncorrosionbecausedeteriorationisnot
increased.
Erosioncorrosionischaracterizedinappearancebygrooves,gullies,waves,roundedholes,and
valleysandusuallyexhibitsadirectionalpattern.Inmanycases,failuresbecauseoferosioncorrosion
occurinarelativelyshorttime,andtheyareunexpectedlargelybecauseevaluationcorrosiontests
wererununderstaticconditionsorbecausetheerosioneffectswerenotconsidered.(backtotop)

Stresscorrosioncracking
Stresscorrosioncrackingreferstocrackingcausedbythesimultaneouspresenceoftensilestressand
aspecificcorrosivemedium.Manyinvestigatorshaveclassifiedallcrackingfailuresoccurringin
corrosivemediumsasstresscorrosioncracking,includingfailuresduetohydrogenembrittlement.
However,thesetwotypesofcrackingfailuresresponddifferentlytoenvironmentalvariables.To
illustrate,cathodicprotectionisaneffectivemethodforpreventingstresscorrosioncrackingwhereas
itrapidlyaccelerateshydrogenembrittlementeffects.Hence,theimportanceofconsideringstress
corrosioncrackingandhydrogenembrittlementasseparatephenomenaisobvious.Forthisreason,the
twocrackingphenomenaarediscussedseparatelyinthischapter.
Duringstresscorrosioncracking,themetaloralloyisvirtuallyunattackedovermostofitssurface,
whilefinecracksprogressthroughit.Thiscrackingphenomenonhasseriousconsequencessinceit
canoccuratstresseswithintherangeoftypicaldesignstress.ExposuretoboilingMgCl2at310F
(154C)isshowntoreducethestrengthcapabilitytoapproximatelythatavailableat1200F.
Thetwoclassiccasesofstresscorrosioncrackingare"seasoncracking"ofbrass,andthe"caustic
embrittlement"ofsteel.Bothoftheseobsoletetermsdescribetheenvironmentalconditionspresent
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whichledtostresscorrosioncracking.Seasoncrackingreferstothestresscorrosioncrackingfailure
ofbrasscartridgecases.Duringperiodsofheavyrainfall,especiallyinthetropics,crackswere
observedinthebrasscartridgecasesatthepointwherethecasewascrimpedtothebullet.Itwaslater
foundthattheimportantenvironmentalcomponentinseasoncrackingwasammoniaresultingfrom
thedecompositionoforganicmatter.
Manyexplosionsofrivetedboilersoccurredinearlysteamdrivenlocomotives.Examinationofthese
failuresshowedcracksorbrittlefailuresattherivetholes.Theseareaswerecoldworkedduring
rivetingoperations,andanalysisofthewhitishdepositsfoundintheseareasshowedcaustic,or
sodiumhydroxide,tobethemajorcomponent.Hence,brittlefractureinthepresenceofcaustic
resultedinthetermcausticembrittlement.Whilestressalonewillreactinwayswellknownin
mechanicalmetallurgy(i.e.,creep,fatigue,tensilefailure)andcorrosionalonewillreacttoproduce
characteristicdissolutionreactionsthesimultaneousactionofbothsometimesproducesthedisastrous
results.(backtotop)

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