3rd High Performance Yacht Design Conference

Auckland, 2-4 December, 2008

Measurement and Simulation of Pressure Distribution on Full Size Sails

William Graves 1 , wsgraves@mit.edu
Todd Barbera 2 , t.barbera@comcast.net
J.B. Braun 3 , jbb@prg.northsails.com
Len Imas 4 , limas@stevens.edu

Abstract. Technological advances in wireless networking equipment and atmospheric pressure sensors have enabled the
measurement of the pressure distribution across full size sails in normal operation. The pressure measurements may be
generated separately on the windward and leeward sides, and on other parts of the rig. Pressure maps of the entire sail
can be produced in real-time to provide a detailed time-dependent picture of the pressure distribution, showing the
fluctuations and deviations from nominal values due to any changes of the rig, boat motion, or wind. This information is
useful in the design process, where sail designers and research aerodynamicists can quantify real-world, full-scale
measured differences against computer simulations or alternative sail shapes. It also can be used by sail trimmers to set
the best sail shape rapidly and in changing conditions. The pressure sensors are small and lightweight, allowing them to
be applied in high density across the entire sail. Laptop software collects and analyses the data, displaying the pressure
values and logging the data for post-analysis. This paper provides a description of the technologies used to implement
the wireless pressure measurement system, presents examples of the data obtained, and compares the measured results
with CFD simulations.

NOMENCLATURE sensors now enable the measurement of the pressure

distribution across full size sails in normal operation.
AWA Apparent wind angle Sensor systems using this advanced technology are now
AWS Apparent wind speed commercially available [1]. The information generated
CFD Computational fluid dynamics is invaluable for understanding the accuracy and limits
FSI Fluid-structure interaction of the computer models in use, for quantifying the
kbps Kilobits per second actual forces at work, and for developing sails with
m/s Meters per second better performance. Furthermore it may be used
MEMS Micro-electro-mechanical systems directly by the sailors to adjust the sail shapes to
Pa Pascal achieve the best lift and drag. In addition to actual sail
Pa/m Pascal per meter pressure measurements, pressure measurements can be
TWA True wind angle extended to include other geometry interacting with the
TWS True wind speed sail, such as mast spreaders and boom.
VMG Velocity made good
ΔP Pressure difference For quantitative comparison of measured and simulated
ΔCp Coefficient of pressure difference results several factors contribute to the accuracy and
ρ Air density validity of the solutions. These include the physical
description of the environment and the flow, turbulence
1. INTRODUCTION modelling, aerolasticity and fluid-structure interactions,
and computational mesh type and quality. There has
Simulation of aerodynamic flows around sailing yachts been little validation of the accuracy of these tools
or yacht components has been undertaken in various through direct measurement of the dynamic pressure on
studies utilizing Navier-Stokes based CFD solvers with different parts of the rig and sails of full size yachts. In
quantitative success. Advances in solver technology, the past the most common method of measuring sail
and structural dynamic modeling of membranes, have performance has been to gauge the sail force and
enabled sail designers and research aerodynamicists to efficiency through changes in the yacht’s speed and
implement high fidelity aerodynamic and fluid- attitude, limited by roll moment. The present work has
structure interaction (FSI) simulation models of yacht moved beyond this to measure the actual pressure
and sail aerodynamics. However there is little distribution on different parts of the rig.
validation of these tools and how they relate to actual
sail aerodynamics. Technological advances in wireless This paper first discusses the value of measuring the
networking equipment and atmospheric pressure pressure directly, followed by the challenges the

1
Principal Research Scientist, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2
President & CEO, Cima Potencia, Ltd
3
Designer, Performance Racing Group, North Sails and Aerodynamics Coordinator, BMW-Oracle Racing
4
Associate Professor, Department of Civil, Ocean, and Environmental Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology /
Aerodynamics CFD engineer at BMW-Oracle Racing at time the presented work was performed
measurements must overcome, and then the technical
details of the sensor units, followed finally by a
presentation of the results and discussion of future
directions.
2. WHY MEASURE SAIL PRESSURE?
CFD programs have long been available to predict
pressure distributions and the optimum sail shapes to
produce the desired pressures. But these programs are
able to model only a limited subset of the conditions
that exist in the real world. The sail shape is but one
factor in generating the best pressure distribution. Even
with the same mean apparent wind angle and speed, the
same sail shape will not necessarily result in the same
driving force and drag due to the differences in air
turbulence, shear, and sea state at different times and
different locations. Gaining the ability to measure
changes in lift and drag over time and under different
conditions quantifies an important performance metric
that today depends on the skills of individual sailors.
Crews are experienced in generating sail-shapes that
give good performance, but they do not in fact have
direct knowledge of the pressure distribution itself, the
optimization of which is the goal of sail shaping. One
important result of the ability to measure the changes in
lift and drag is to quantify the changes in sail shape
needed. The ideal situation is to measure directly the
pressure distribution in order to optimize it, rather than
the sail shape which is secondary. The shape that a
sail-design code recommends cannot account for
turbulence due to weather or nearby structures, or for
variations in wind shear, or transient or periodically
changing motion such as wave and wake encounters, or
sudden acceleration and deceleration due to race
maneuvers and tactics or nearby competition. All of
these factors have a significant impact on boat
performance, which can be quantified and optimized
through measurement of the sails’ pressure distribution.
Measurement of the pressure distribution on full-scale
sails has been limited to dedicated tests [2] with
equipment that is often cumbersome and prone to
damage [3]. Measurement of the pressure distribution
on sails and rigs during racing conditions and with real-
time feed back of the data to the sailors has been
impractical with these systems. This is in spite of the
fact that the instantaneous pressure distribution
determines the lift and drag of the sail and rig and thus
is the primary determinant of boat speed.
3. FULL-SCALE MEASUREMENT ISSUES
There are many challenges to measuring the dynamic
sailing pressure accurately. The sailing pressure varies
only slightly from the nominal atmospheric pressure,
which at sea level is approximately 105 Pa.
Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude at the rate of
~13 Pa/m, so that the absolute pressure variation from
the mast base to its top is 100 – 200 Pa, which is
Figure 1: CFD generated pressure map showing
ΔCp.
similar in magnitude to the dynamic sailing pressure.
The atmospheric pressure is always changing due to
weather, varying by as much as 3000 Pa. The dynamic
pressure generated by the sails is just a small fraction of
that. Figure 1 shows the delta Cp across the jib and
main for a sloop. The pressure difference from
windward to leeward is ΔP = ½ ΔCp×ρ×AWS2, so that
the maximum pressure difference is 150 Pa for an AWS
of 10 m/s. Most of the sail is experiencing lower
pressures so that the sensors should be quite sensitive,
with a resolution of ~1 Pa or better, or about ten parts
per million compared to the atmospheric pressure, a
difficult specification to meet under the challenging
environmental conditions of a boat at sea. Further
important attributes for the sensing units include low
static pressure offsets and low noise fluctuations so that
the pressure values from different sensors can be
directly compared with one another for quantitative
study.
A height change of just 10 cm corresponds to a
pressure change of over 1 Pa, so that motion of the boat
can significantly alter the pressures. Similarly weather
system pressure variations cause the reference pressure
to continually change at the level of a few Pascal over
timescales of seconds. One method of overcoming
these sensitive variations is to simultaneously compare
pressures at different points to each other. For instance,
sensors can simultaneously measure the pressure on the
windward and leeward sides of the sail and compare
their values so that only small differences are apparent.
Any changes due to common motion or changing
weather are subtracted, leaving only the differential
pressure across the sail.

Battery
Central processor unit
charger
connector
Wireless unit
Data acquisition unit
On/Off 14 bit analog-to-
switch digital converter
Rechargeable lithium-ion battery Pressure sensor
12+ hours between charges
Height = 7 mm
Figure 2: 2nd generation miniature pressure device
containing pressure sensor, ADC, CPU, battery, and
wireless unit.
The sampling frequency of the measurements should be
at least 1 Hz to provide prompt feedback during
changing conditions, and may be considerably higher if
the user is interested in studying rapid fluctuations or
turbulence. While maintaining a high rate, the ADC
must accurately convert the pressure readings. The
sensor ADCs must have at least 17 bits of accuracy to
achieve sub-Pascal resolution over the full range of
atmospheric pressure. Most small, low power pressure
sensors are based on MEMS technology using silicon
substrates. These devices are sensitive not only to
pressure but also to changes in applied voltage or
ambient light level (photovoltaic effects). Thus
measurements at sub-Pa resolution require care with the
mechanical mounting and electrical circuit design. The
power consumption of the units must allow at least a
full day of sailing without recharge, and the sensor
units should be compact so as not to interfere with the
sail shape or flow. Furthermore the sensor units should
be robust, able to withstand mechanical shocks due to
flogging or contact with the rig, and must be
weatherproof and splash proof. The sensors should of
course be lightweight and small so that they do not
interfere with the sail, and they must easily attach and
detach for measurements on different sails.
In addition to the above requirements on the individual
sensors, the entire measurement system must be
capable of operating reliably in a difficult environment.
The wireless communications must have adequate
range, even in the presence of obstructions, the
different units must all be synchronized to within tens
of milliseconds so that the data represents simultaneous
measurements, and the networking protocol should be
robust to loss or replacement of sensors, or intermittent
signals.
4. HARDWARE & SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
A system of miniature, wireless, digital atmospheric
pressure sensors has been developed that address the
issues above. Their performance is a significant
advance in the ability to measure the actual pressure
distribution on aerodynamic structures such as sails,
rigs, or other industrial devices. Figure 2 shows
photographs of the sensor unit without its case. The
unit size is approximately 100 mm long X 50 mm
width X 7 mm height plus a 2 mm thick case. The
pictured unit represents the second generation of
sensors, which has undergone extensive testing during
which we came to understand the many requirements
on the units and the system. The results of those tests
have been integrated into the design of the next (3rd)
generation units. The 2nd generation achieved a
resolution of 6 Pa using a 14 bit ADC. It used a single
pressure sensor per wireless unit with a 1 Hz sampling
frequency.
The 3rd generation, just beginning operation now,
incorporate a number of improvements. The new sensor
element with integrated ADC measures with 19-bit
resolution, equivalent to 0.2 Pa. These sensors are very
small (5 mm diameter), allowing multiple pressure
sensors to be integrated onto a single board. The
multiple sensor layout has a number of advantages.
The sensors can be ganged so that the effective
sampling rate is 40 Hz, which is useful for data
processing with digital filter techniques, or different
sensors can sample different areas of the sail. The
housing is designed so that the sensors are isolated in
their own pressure chambers. The pressure port can be
routed for example through the sail or to another area
of interest. With appropriate design it may be useful
for boundary layer investigations, but the current
design and its placement are targeted for measuring
variations in the dynamics of the sail shape and the
corresponding static pressure distribution. It is not yet
meant to serve as a tool for measurements of turbulence
pressure fluctuations inside the boundary layer of the
sail. The new units also use less power resulting in
longer battery life, and have a higher communications
rate of up to 250 kbps. After some trial and error,
mounting techniques and housing design have been
developed that result in good isolation from light and
water, and enable operation in the difficult environment
of a racing sailboat. The sensor unit housings are
resistant to shock, water intrusion, and dust, meeting
IEC standard IP67. The sensors may be left installed
for extended periods of time with a battery life that is
currently around 16 hours of continuous operation. The
sensors may be remotely switched into or out of a low
power state to preserve battery power allowing testing
over multiple days without need to recharge.
The software consists of two packages, one performing
low-level hardware tasks and the other for high-level
user interaction. The low-level package performs data
acquisition, power management, and network
communication among sensors and with the laptop
base-station. The high-level package presents several
user screens for control and display of data. It also
performs numerical analysis on the data, and logs it to
 25 10.5 operating simultaneously. For very large systems,
more sensors can be accommodated by using multiple
10
base-stations. Network software dynamically
determines the best route to the base-station, allowing
Wind Speed (knots)

Boat Speed (knots)

20
data to hop from sensor to sensor to reach the base-
9.5
station. This permits robust communications over even
TWS very large areas (hundreds of square meters).
AWS 9
15 Boat Speed

8.5 5. MEASURED BOAT PERFORMANCE

A number of experimental studies have been carried
10 8
14:27:00 14:27:43 14:28:26 14:29:10 14:29:53 14:30:36 14:31:19 out to characterize the pressure sensor measurements
Time and their correlation with other boat performance
measurements. Figure 3 displays several minutes of
125
measurement data obtained on board a 25 m sloop
crewed and helmed by professional sailors. The boat
75
Main Windward instruments were well calibrated. The data acquired
Pressure (Pa)

Jib Windward and displayed in the plots includes TWS, AWS, and
25 Main Leeward
Jib Leeward boat speed in the top plot, dynamic pressure on
-25
windward and leeward sides of the jib and main in the
middle plot, and TWA and AWA in the bottom plot.
-75
The vertical dashed lines identify times of particular
-125
interest that highlight aspects of the forces present as a
14:27:00 14:27:43 14:28:26 14:29:10 14:29:53 14:30:36 14:31:19 result of changes in wind or boat handling by the
Time skipper and crew. At all times the boat is sailing close-
45
hauled. However there are subtle differences in the
sailing mode at different times. From the start of data
35 at 14:27:00 until time T2 the boat is sailed in high-
Wind Angle (degrees)

mode, where the sails are trimmed relatively flat and

25
15
5
14:27:00 14:27:43 14:28:26 14:29:10 14:29:53 14:30:36 14:31:19
Time
T1 T2
Figure 3: Top plot is TWS and AWS vs time. Middle
plot shows windward and leeward pressure on jib and
main. Bottom plot shows TWA and AWA. The
vertical dashed lines identify times T1, T2, T3. See
discussion in section 5.
disk for later use. Both the low-level and high-level
packages can be modified to accommodate new
features and functionality. The analysis and display
account for ambient atmospheric pressure and
variations due to change in height, showing only the
pressure due to wind force. The logged data is
available to other software applications in real-time via
a standard TCP/IP port. The system is scalable and
fault-tolerant, automatically adding or dropping sensors
as they are added or removed. The sensors self-form
their own local radio network allowing signals to be
transmitted robustly from the masthead to deck. A
single base-station can handle up to 256 sensors
the object is to point as close as possible to the wind
TWA while maintaining good speed. At T2 the bow is
AWA pointed down a few degrees, the sails are retrimmed for
maximum power, and the boat sails at higher speed in
low-mode while still maintaining good pointing to
windward. At time T3 the boat changes to an
intermediate mode between low-mode and high-mode,
and sails that way until the very end of the data when it
luffs into the wind.
T3
At 14:27:00 the boat is close-hauled and sailing in high
mode in about 12 kts of wind. The mean TWA is ~27
degrees with an oscillation of +/- 2 degrees. The
oscillation has a period of about 1 minute and is due to
changes in both TWS and the helmsperson alternately
bearing off slightly to build speed and heading closer to
the wind to achieve best windward VMG. This is a
common technique for maintaining best performance.
The method’s impact on boat performance is quantified
by this data, which can be used to directly compare the
relative performance of 2 boats with different sail
configurations or to evaluate trimming techniques and
driving strategies. At 14:27:00 the boat speed and the
TWA are both at local maxima of their oscillations
indicating that speed has built as the boat bore off the
wind slightly. The pressure data shown in the middle
plot is also at a maximum at that time. The sailing
pressure on the main and jib at the sensor locations is
found by subtracting the (negative) leeward pressure
from the (positive) windward pressure. The sailing
 Table 1: Reconstructed sail shape parameters from images
during sailing.
Camber Draft Front Back Entry Exit Twist
Stripe
(%) (%) (%) (%) (deg) (deg) (deg)
4 4.34 40.7 76.14 59.29 10.07 4.47 10.17
3 6 42.6 77.61 72.74 11.12 8.18 9.25
2 7.66 40.48 73.89 67.19 19.29 8.23 7.49
1 5.79 47.23 70.49 60.32 7.77 5.58 3.41

It is evident that pressure changes in the sail correspond

closely to changes in the rig tune, boat handling, and
wind. The pressure changes foretell change in boat
speed and can be used to optimize boat performance,
particularly in changing conditions where constant
Figure 4: Photo showing placement of pressure adjustment is needed.
sensors on sail at different vertical locations.
6. COMPARISON TO COMPUTER MODELS
pressure on the mainsail at 14:27:00 is 100 Pa + 18 Pa
In addition to comparing the pressure sensor data to
= 118 Pa, and on the jib is 113 Pa + 98 Pa = 211 Pa.
performance measurements on board, it is very useful
Note that the windward pressure on both main and jib
as a design tool to validate CFD simulation. A test has
are very similar but that the jib has substantially higher
been carried out to measure the vertical pressure
leeward pressure, in agreement with CFD models. The
distribution on the mainsail, simultaneously record the
mean absolute pressure that determines whether the
sail shape in detail, and then to reconstruct the sail
sailing pressure is positive to negative is set by the
shape and experimental wind conditions in a CFD
pressure value during tacks when it is equal on both
simulation to compare its solution to the measured data.
sides of the sail. Common-mode variations in pressure
Sensors were placed at mid chord as indicated in Figure
due to changes of sensor altitude from boat heel, pitch
4. For comparison to the steady-state CFD solution
or wave action are subtracted.
data from the sensors was averaged over small
oscillations during steady-state sailing to windward.
At time T1 the helmsperson has completed one cycle of
The condition simulated was selected from a time of
his steering oscillation. Halfway to T1, the TWA has
consistent TWS, TWA, and boat speed. During the
reached a minimum indicating that the boat is headed
testing period images of the sail shape were recorded
relatively high upwind while at the same time the speed
and then analyzed to document the flying sails shape.
has reduced and the pressures have reduced to 87 Pa +
16 Pa = 103 Pa on the main and 91 Pa + 61 Pa = 152 Pa
Stripe 4 is near the top portion of the sail at the 7/8th
on the jib. The 28% reduction of pressure on the jib is
height, stripe 3, 2, and 1 are ¾, ½, ¼ height
more than twice the 13% reduction on the mainsail. It
respectively. The geometry is described in Table 1.
is the reduction in driving force on the sails that slows
The flying sails shape was regenerated using the North
the boat, and this is apparent in the data, where the
Sails sail design software suite [4] with the flying sail
change in sail pressure is consistently several seconds
shape exported from Membrain. Membrain is a
ahead of changes in boat speed. With practice, crew
program package for structural analyses of sails, mast
can use the pressure data to know in advance that the
and rigging. The core program attempts to calculate
boat is about to slow or accelerate. At time T1, the first
the deformed sail and mast geometry resulting from the
oscillation is complete with the boat speed, TWA, and
aerodynamic pressure acting on the sails plus gravity
pressures resuming their maximum values (for high-
and any other load applied on the mast through the
mode). Two more oscillations occur from T1 to T2.
rigging. The package includes supporting programs
that prepare data for execution, and it post processes
At T2, the helmsperson cracks off to a TWA of ~35
the results for data visualization.
degrees +/- 2 degrees with a resulting increase in boat
speed and pressure. The TWS goes through a cycle,
The deformed geometry is iteratively calculated by
returning to mean strength again at T3. At T3 the
balancing external loads and internal stresses until a
pressure is at a maximum and the boat speed is building
static equilibrium geometry is reached. The
toward its highest point. The main pressure is 114 Pa +
aerodynamic pressure load can either be defined once
19 Pa = 133 Pa and the jib pressure is 108 Pa + 112 Pa
for all data in the preparation phase or the pressure can
= 220 Pa. These values are 13% and 4% higher than
be updated at regular intervals as the iteration
the maximum values in the high mode for the main and
progresses. The latter method requires that Membrain
jib respectively. The oscillations near T3 are again due
is run in tandem with an external flow solver, and that
to TWS and helmsperson changes.
these two programs exchange data during the iterations.
Membrain was used to adjust the computer simulation
until the flying sail shape matched the images from the
 35

30

25

20
Height (m)

15

10

5 Measured
Figure 6: The color variation represents changes in
CFD ΔCp as generated by a CFD model (only upper part
of rig shown). In addition the measured data at 4
0 sensor locations is shown as color-coded spots at
0 20 40 60 80 100 the level just above the forestay attachment.
Pressure (Pa)
Figure 5: Vertical pressure distribution along
mainsail for measured and reproduced flying shape.

measured tests. The converged sail shape was analyzed

in North Sails Flow to develop a pressure map of the
entire sail. North Sails Flow is a low order
source/doublet potential flow model for thin surface
sails and full bodies (hull and rotating mast). Both data
sets were converted to delta pressure across the sail at
Sensors on sail
the pressure sensor locations. The results of the
and mast
measurements and CFD analysis are shown in Figure 5,
showing good agreement in the reconstructed pressure
at the sensor locations.

In the context of CFD validation, namely validation of

RANS tools, the use of the proposed pressure sensor
measurement systems is self-evident. Measured
pressures obtained over sailing conditions categorized
in terms of local Reynolds number and aerodynamic
angle of attack may be used to validate input
parameters related to assumptions about the
unsteady/steady nature of the flow in the near-field of
the sail, turbulence physics and corresponding model
selection, mesh and resolution both inside and outside
the sail boundary layer. CFD models based on such
calibration and validation information would not only
lead to an improved quantitative prediction of full-scale
sail aerodynamics but may also better explain
differences observed between model-scale and full-
scale aerodynamic flows over sails. Figure 6 shows a Figure 7: The sensors are shown arrayed on the sail
CFD map of the ΔCp distribution that reproduces one and rig. At high density entire pressure maps can
of our sailing tests. It also shows corresponding be produced as in Figure 8.
measured data at 4 points, again showing good
agreement between measured and modelled pressure resolution (<1 Pa), higher sampling frequency, and
distributions. smaller size and power consumption.

7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Future work includes generation of pressure maps over
the entire rig. It is possible to generate a complete map
The wireless digital pressure sensors have been shown
of the pressure distribution, similar to the CFD map of
to accurately measure the dynamic sailing pressure on
Figure 6, over the entire rig by increasing the number
full-scale sails in normal use. This has been of sensors as shown in Figure 7. The number of
demonstrated both through correlation of changes in
sampling points is then sufficient to interpolate an
boat performance with changes in pressure readings,
accurate pressure map across the entire rig. This idea
and through careful comparison of measured pressures has been tested by generating a CFD pressure map,
with the results of CFD simulations that reconstruct the
sampling it only at the sensor locations shown in Figure
sail shapes and wind conditions encountered in the 7, and recreating the entire map as shown in Figure 8.
tests. The sensors have been developed through several That display includes RMS noise as measured in the
generations to achieve the current accuracy and
sensors and so is an accurate representation of the
reliability, which must be maintained while operating experimental pressures. The maps can update
in the harsh marine environment, and without adversely
constantly so that the sailors observe the changing
affecting the boat’s operation or performance.
pressure distribution as it occurs. It is saved to disk for
later use to analyse the sail performance and compare
The data gained and the resulting insights into
with design codes, as well as review the crew
performance can be used in at least two ways: first to
performance.
validate the computational tools used for sail design
and performance prediction, and second as a sailing
Acknowledgements
instrument that can provide immediate display of the
effects of changing wind conditions, or turbulence due The authors wish to thank members of the BMW-
other boats or structures, or changes in rig trim or
Oracle Racing team for discussion and support.
helming. The sail pressure changes are a direct
measure of changes in the driving force in the sails in
contrast to secondary measures such as the boat speed.

Although the data shown in this paper was generated

with the 2nd generation sensor units, the 3rd generation
sensors are now under test. They demonstrate
significantly improved properties including better

Port Starboard

Figure 8: Simulated full pressure maps on port and starboard sides recreated from samples at discrete
points with realistic statistical variations to model sensor data. Such a map can be generated in real-
time updating at 1 Hz to produce a continuous display of sail pressure maps while underway.
 References

1. Pressure sensor systems from BB&G Technology

Inc. See http://bbgtech.net

2. Puddu, P., Erriu, N., Nurzia, F., Pistidda, A., Mura,

A., “Full scale investigation of one-design class
catamaran sails”, Proceedings of High
Performance Yacht Design Conference, Auckland,
2006, 131 – 136.

3. Flay, R.G.J. and Millar, S., “Experimental

considerations concerning pressure measurements
on sails: wind tunnel and full-scale”, Proceedings
of High Performance Yacht Design Conference,
Auckland, 2006, 123 – 130.

4. See the design software description at site

http://na.northsails.com/NorthTechnology/SailDesi
gn/DesignSoftware/tabid/8522/Default.aspx