Instrumentation & Control Handout

CHAPTER 1
Functional Elements of Measurement System

Outcome Covered: 1. Define the functional elements of a typical measurement system.
Definition of the measurement:

The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the quantity
whose magnitude is unknown and a predefined standard. Here the comparison is done between
two quantities, so the result is expressed in numerical values. So, measurement can be defined as
the process of converting physical parameter to meaningful numbers.
Purpose of the measurement System:

For determining quantities or variables, measurements involve the use of instruments.
The instrument enables the man to determine the value of the unknown quantity or variable.
The purpose of measurement system is to give the user a numerical value corresponding to the
variable being measured. This numerical value may not be exact due to errors of the equipment
or human errors.
Example: Thermometer is used to give a numerical value for the temperature of a liquid. This
measured value may not be actually the true value of the variable. There may be errors due to
many reasons like as- reading falling between two scale markings, insertion of a cold
thermometer into a hot liquid, lowering the temperature of the liquid and so altering or changing
the temperature being measured.
The Functional Elements: A measurement system consists of three basic parts: Transducers,
Signal Processors and Data Presentation Elements. As illustrated in figure 2.
1-Transducer: This element is effectively in contact with the process. This element is a sensing
device that converts a measured physical input variable into a proportional output signal, usually
a voltage. The transducers change the input information into another useful form.
Example:
A -Thermocouple takes input as temperature and gives a small E.M.F as output.
B -Resistance thermometer (RTD) has input as temperature and output as change in resistance.
2-Signal Processor: This element takes output from the transducer and converts it into a form
which is suitable for display or for onward transmission to a control system. It performs filtering,
amplification, or other signal conditioning function on the transducer device. The figure
illustrates this concept VIA two examples of Thermocouple & RTD.
(1) For thermocouple sensor we need an amplifier to make the signal large.
(2) For RTD we need a Wheatstone bridge or potentiometer to convert the change in resistance to
a voltage and then the amplifier to make the change in voltage larger.
3- The Sensor: The term sensor is often used to refer to the transducer or to the combination of
transducer and signal processor.
4- The Recorder (Data Presentation): This element presents the data in the form, so that
observer can understand it.
(1) This may be display in a meter with the pointer moving across the scale.
(2) Information on a visual display unit, like computer monitor screen.
(3) Printing on a chart or paper.
(4) Writing on a floppy disk or CD etc.
The output from the signal processor may also be sent to another place for control operations.
Finally the following figure (5) shows how these basic functional elements mentioned previously
form a measurement system:
Example(1) : As shown below, the thermocouple is a transducer that converts temperature to a

small voltage; the amplifier increases the magnitude of the voltage; the A/D converter (Analog to
Digital) converts the analog voltage to a digital signal, and the LEDs (light emitting diode)
display the value of the temperature.
Example(2) : As shown below, resistance thermometer (RTD) represented by element (A) is

sensing element (Transducer), which changes resistance when the temperature changes. The
signal processor represented by element (B) converts the change in resistance into change in
current. Finally the change in current is used to move the pointer across the scale of meter to
represent the display element (C).
Loading Effect: The act of attempting to make the measurement modify the variable is called
Loading. That is when we introduce equipment for measurements the result will be different
from the actual value.
Examples for Loading Effect:
1. When we use a cold thermometer to measure a hot liquid, the temperature will change.
The reading shown by the thermometer will not be correct. This is also due to Loading
Effect.
2. When we insert an ammeter in series to measure current, the resistance of the ammeter
will affect the reading. The current shown will be less than actual value. This is also
Loading Effect. To get good reading the resistance of the ammeter should be very small.
3. When we insert a voltmeter in parallel to measure voltage; the reading will be changed,
because the voltmeter also takes some current. To minimize the error the resistance of the
voltmeter should b very large.
Essential Requirements of Measurement Systems:

1.
Fitness for the purpose:

The measurement system must give the result with the required accuracy for the user.
Accuracy of the measurement system is the amount of error in the result. This depends on
the purpose.
Example:
a) When we measure speed of car it is enough if we get the value as 80, 90 or 100
kmph. No need for a value like 81.25 kmph. Here we need less accuracy.
b) When we measure the temperature of a patient we should know weather it is
93.4C or 93.5C etc. Here we need more accuracy.
In order to deliver the required accuracy, the measurement system should be calibrated
regularly. Calibration is the process of comparing the output of a measurement system
against the standards of known accuracy.
2.
Quality:
Quality refers to the totality of the features and characteristics of the system based on its
ability to meet the needs of customer. Also, quality indicates the best available. Quality
systems will be fit for the purpose, which meets all requirements.
Example:
Rolls Royce car is quality car, but small car is not of quality.
3.
Reliability:
Reliability of system is defined as the probability that it will operate to an agreed level of
performance, for a specified period, subject to specified environmental conditions.
The agreed level of performance might be that the measurement system gives a particular
accuracy.
The reliability of measurement system just after calibration is 1. This mean that ten
(hundred) out of ten hundred) measurements the measurement system gives the result
with the agreed level of accuracy.
A highly reliable measurement system has low failure rate. Failure rate is the number of
times during some period of time that the measurement system fails to meet the required
level of performance.
Failure rate = number of failures / [(number of measurements observed) x (time
observed)].
A failure rate of 0.4 per year means that in one year, if ten (hundred) measurements are
observed then 4(forty) will fail to meet the required level of performance.
Failure rate is affected by the environmental conditions.
Example:
The failure rate for the temperature measurement system used in hot, dusty, humid,
corrosive conditions might be 1.2 per year, while for the same system used in dry,
clean, cool, non-corrosive environment condition it might be 0.3 per year.
4.
Repeatability:
It is the ability of the measurement system to give same value for repeated measurements
without disconnecting the system.
Characteristics of Functional Elements of Measurement System

Introduction: The general Performance Characteristics of the transducer can be divided into
Static and Dynamic Characteristics.
1. Static: The values are given when steady-state conditions occur, i.e. when the system
or element has settled down after having received some input.
2. Dynamic: Refer to the behavior between the time that the input value changes and
the time that the value given by the system or element settles down to the steadystate value.
Example: Figure (6) shows how the reading of an ammeter might change when the current
is switched on. The meter pointer oscillates before settling down to give the Steady-State
reading.
(A) Performance Terms: These are used to define the performance of measurement system
and functional elements.
1-Accuracy: Is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale

deflection (f. s. d.).
For example an ammeter has a F.S.D of (0-5A) and an accuracy of 5%
This means that accuracy of ANY reading of ammeter between 0 and 5A is PLUS or
MINUS 5% of 5A (f. s. d.) = [(5/100) x (5)] = 0.25A.
Reading of ammeter = 2.0A (measured value).
True value = lies between (2.0 - 0.25) A and (2.0 +0.25) A = [1.75A, 2.25A].
Similarly, thermometer may have an accuracy of 0.1C. (Directly expressed as percentage
of f. s. d.)
The accuracy is covering the all possible errors.

Error = measured value true value.
(1)
If measured value is 10.1 and true value is 10.0 then,
(2)
Error = 10.1 10.0 = 0.1 (positive).

If measured value is 9.9 and true value is 10.0 then,
Error = 9.9 10.0 = -0.1 (negative).
Example (1): An ammeter has a range of (0-5A) and an accuracy of 1% of f. s. d. What is the
accuracy can be quoted for the current reading of 3A?
Solution:
F.S.D. of ammeter = (0-5A) and an Accuracy = 1%.
This means that accuracy of ANY reading of ammeter between 0 and 5A is PLUS or
MINUS 1% of 5A (f. s. d.) = [(1/100) x (5)] = 0.05A.
Current Reading of ammeter = 3.0A (measured value).
Hence a current reading of 3A has an accuracy 0.05 A.
True value = lies between (3.0 - 0.05) and (3.0 +0.05) = [2.95A, 3.05A].
2-The Range: The range of an instrument is the limits between which readings can be made.
For example (1), an ammeter has range of 0-4 A. This means that ammeter can be used to
measure current values between 0A and 4A.
For example (2), a thermometer has range of -10 C to 110 C. This means that thermometer
can be used to measure temperature values between -10 C and 110 C.
The meter shown in figure (7) has the dual ranges 0 to 4 and 0 to 20.
Notice: The term Dead Band or Dead Space is used if there is a range of input values for which
there is no output.
3-Repeatability: The ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same
input value, without the system being disconnected from its input or any change in the
environment in which the test is carried out.
4-Reproducibility: The ability to give the same output when used with a constant input with
the system being disconnected from its input and then reinstalled.
5-Sensitivity: The rate of change of output of system with respect to input. Indicates to how
much you get per unit input, the ratio (output/input).
For e.g.: Thermocouple has sensitivity of 20v/C. That means when the temperature changes by
1C, the Thermocouple voltage will change by 20 v.
6-Resolution: The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being
measured that will produce the observable change in the reading of the instrument.
7-Stability: The stability of an instrument is its ability to display the same reading when it is
used to measure the constant quantity or when that quantity is measured on a number of
occasions. While the Drift is often used to describe the change in output that occur over a period
of time for a constant input.
8-Response Time: The increasing time of system from zero to a constant value up to this
point at which the system gives an output corresponding to some specified percentage, e.g. 95%
of the value of the input.
9-Rise Time: Refer to the time taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value
to 95% of it.
10-Settling Time: The time taken for the output to within some percentage e.g. 2%, of the
steady-state value (Final Output Value).
Example: A pressure measurement system is stated as having the following characteristics.

Explain the significance of the terms:
1-Range: 0 to 125 KPa and 0 to 2500 kPa.
2-Accuracy: 1% of the displayed reading.
3-Temperature Sensitivity: 0.1 % of the reading per C.
Solution:
1- The system can be used to measure pressure from 0 125 KPa or 0
2500kPa.
2- If the instrument indicates a pressure of, say, 100kPa then the error will
be 1kPa.
3- If the temperature changes by 1 C that displayed reading will be in error
by 0.1% of the value. Thus for a pressure of, say, 100kPa the error will be
0.1 KPa for a 1 C temperature change.
Example (3): A Hydrometer is specified as having a range of 600-650 Kg/m 3 and an accuracy of
0.5Kg/m3. Explain the significance of this data.
Solution:
Hydrometer is measurement system used to measure the density (weight-kg occupied by the
medium over a unit volume-m3).
(1) Range of hydrometer = 600-650 Kg/m3 means that it can measure the values of density
between 600 kg/m3 and 650 kg/m3.
(2) e. g. True value of density = 300 Kg/m 3 then the reading measured by the hydrometer will
be EITHER (300-0.5) kg/m3 OR (300+0.5) kg/m3 i.e. 299.5 kg/m3 OR 300.5 kg/m3.
Example (4): A voltmeter is quoted as having the range of 0-10V and an accuracy of 5% f. s.
d. What is the accuracy which can be quoted for a voltage reading of 6 V?
Solution:
RANGE of voltmeter = (0-10V).
F.S.D. of voltmeter = 10V and an Accuracy = 5% of FSD.
This means that accuracy of ANY reading of voltmeter between 0 and 10V is PLUS or
MINUS 5% of 10V (f. s. d.) = [(5/100) x (10)] = 0.5V.
Present reading of voltmeter = 6.0V (measured value).
Hence a present voltage reading of 6V has an accuracy 0.5V.
True value = lie either between (6.0 - 0. 5) V and (6.0 +0. 5) V = [5.5 V, 6.5V].
Example (5): A thermocouple is specified as having the sensitivity of 0.03millivolt / C. What
does this mean?
Solution:
When the input temperature to thermocouple changes by 1C then output voltage of
thermocouple will change by 0.03miilivolt.
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Example (6): A force-measuring system has a range of 0-200N with resolution of 0.1% f. s. d.
What is the smallest change in the force that can be measured?
Solution:
Resolution: The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being
measured that will produce the observable change in the reading of the instrument.
A smallest measurable change is:
0.1/100 x 200 = 0.2 N.
Question on Elements of Measurement Systems

1. Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
Sensor in a measuring system has,
(i) An input of the variable being measured.
(ii) An output signal in a form suitable for further processing in the measuring system.
Which option best describes the two statements?
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
2- The following lists the types of signals that can occur in sequence at the various stages in a
particular measuring system.
(i) Temperature.
(ii) Voltage
(iii) Bigger Voltage.
(iv) Movement of pointer across scale.
The signal processor is the functional element in the measuring system that changes the
signal form
A. (i)
to
(ii)
B. (ii) to
(iii)
C. (iii) to
(iv)
D. (ii) to
(iv)
3. Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
The difference between the measured value of the current in an electrical circuit and the value
before the measurement system, an ammeter, was inserted in the circuit is bigger, the larger:
(i) The resistance of the meter.
(ii) The resistance of the circuit.
A. (i) T
(ii) T
C. (i) F
(ii) T
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B. (i) T
(ii) F
D. (i) F
(ii) F
4- Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
A highly reliable measurement system is one were there is a high chance that the system will:
(i) Require frequent calibration.
(ii) Operate to the specified level of performance.
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
A measuring system which has a lack of repeatability is one where there could be:
(i) Random fluctuation in the values given by repeated measurements of the same variable.
(ii) Fluctuation in the values obtained by repeating measurements over a number of samples.
*Which option best describes the two statements?
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
For a measurement system to be of the right quality and so fit for the required purpose it must
have:
(i) The highest accuracy.
(ii) Been calibrated directly against national standards.
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
For a measurement system to be of the right quality and so fit for the required purpose it must
have:
(i)The accuracy needed for the measurement in question.
(ii) Been calibrated using a calibration system that is periodically and systematically reviewed to
ensure that it continues to be effective.
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
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8- List and explain the functional elements of a measurement system.

9- The reliability of measurement system is 0.6. What does this mean?
10- The measurement instruments used in the tool room of a company are found to have failure
rate of 0.01 per year. What does this mean?
END OF THE CHAPTER # 1
CHAPTER 2
Classification of Functional Elements of Measurement System
Outcome Covered: 2. Identify various types of sensors and transducers.
(I)- Transducer / Sensor Classification :

The transducer or sensor is a sensing element used in the
measurement system to take the input information about the
physical variable (change in temperature, pressure, flow of liquid, level of
liquid, and displacement) to be measured and convert it into a more
suitable form. (Change in electrical voltage, resistance, capacitance, and
inductance)
The transducers or sensors are grouped into different types as:
DISPLACEMENT, SPEED, FLUID FLOW, And LIQUID LEVEL &
TEMPERATURE.
A- DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
- Measure a Linear displacement. e. g. Change in linear position of
thickness of metal sheet/slab.
- Measure an Angular displacement.
displacement of a drive shaft.
e. g.
Change in angular
- Measure the Position. e. g. linear or angular position of some object.
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- Detect motion or the presence of some objects. e. g. An alarm is

sounded or light is switched on when there is some movement of an object
within the view of sensor / transducer.
Two types of displacement sensors are available.
(1) Contact Type: Make direct contact with the object being monitored,
by spring loading or mechanical connection with the object.
(2) Non-contact Type: Non-contacting like using laser beam or ultrasonic
beam for detection.
The following are examples of displacement sensors:
1-Potentiometer: It consists of a resistance element with sliding contact, which can be

moved over the length of the element.
Supply voltage = VS (Volts).

Output voltage = V0 = VS x (R12 / R) (Volts) [between terminals 2 & 1].
R = Total Resistance.
R12= Resistance between terminals 2 & 1.
Hence, output voltage is directly proportional to the input linear displacement of the slider.
The slider movement in the form of linear displacement is used to create change in electric output
voltage.
CHANGE IN LINEAR DISPLACEMENT CHANGE IN VOLTAGE.
2-Capacitive Element: A common form of CAPACITOR consists of Two Parallel Plates

separated by a Dielectric Insulator Material between them.
The Capacitance- C of a parallel plate capacitor (Figure) is given by: C =
r 0
A
d
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r = relative permittivity of the dielectric insulator material between the plates.

0 = constant called the permittivity of free space.
A = area of overlap between the two plates.
d = distance between the plate separation.
The Capacitance- C changes if(1) If (d) = distance between the plates changes.
(2) If (A) = Area of overlap of between plates changes.
(3) If slab of dielectric insulator material is moved into or out of the plates - varying the
effective value of r .
All these methods can be used to give linear displacement sensor.
Example (1): Capacitive Pressure Gauge.
The fixed plate act as one of the capacitor plate.

A circular diaphragm held at the edges, acts as second plate of the capacitor.
Change in the applied pressure cause diaphragm to distort and so change the linear
separation between it and the fixed plate.
The result is change in the capacitance.
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The distortion of diaphragm due to applied pressure resulting into the linear displacement is used
to create change in capacitance.
CHANGE IN PRESSURE
CHANGE IN LINEAR DEFORMATION OF DIAPHRAGM.
CHANGE IN CAPACITANCE.
Example (2): Variable Plate Area Capacitive Sensing Element.
The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depends on the overlap area (A) between the two
plates.
The change in the area (A) produces the change in the capacitance (C).
Variable plate area capacitive sensing element as shown in the figure above has an input of
change in the angular displacement- () and the output as change in the capacitance- (C).
The angular displacement of shaft position is used to create change in capacitance.
CHANGE IN ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT ()
CHANGE IN OVERLAP AREA (A)
CHANGE IN CAPACITANCE (C).

Example (3): Push Pull Displacement Sensor.
It consists of TWO capacitors as shown in the figure above.

The upper (top) capacitor- C1 has upper (top) fixed plate and the central (middle) movable
plate.
The lower (bottom) capacitor- C2 has central (middle) movable plate and the lower (bottom)
fixed plate.
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The displacement x moves the central (middle) plate between the upper (top) and the lower
(bottom) plate.
Thus, when central (middle) plate moves down the plate separation distance (d) of upper
(top) capacitor increases and the plate separation distance (d) of lower (bottom) capacitor
decreases.
Thus, the capacitance-C1 of upper (top) capacitor decrease and the capacitance-C2 of lower
(bottom) capacitor increase.
When two capacitors are incorporated in opposite arms of an alternating current bridge, the
output voltage from the bridge is proportional to the displacement.
CHANGE IN LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
CHANGE IN CAPACITANCE
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
2-Strain-Gauge Element: It consists of a flat length of metal wire, foil resistance

element, or a semi-conductor strip, which can be stuck onto surface like a postage stamp.
The resistance (R) of the metal wire, foil resistance element, or semi-conductor strip changes
when it is subjected to strain ().
The strain is defined as: STRAIN = = (Change in Length) / (Original Length)
The CHANGE IN RESISTANCE-R is proportional to the STRAIN-.
The change in the resistance-R of a gauge of resistance-R when subject to a strain- is given
by:
R/R = G .
Change in the resistance - R = R G .
Where, G is constant of proportionality termed as gauge factor.
Metal wire strain gauge has gauge factors of order-2.0.
Ex.: (1) A strain gauge has resistance of R=120 (ohm) and a gauge factor of 2.1. What will be
the change in the resistance produced if the gauge is subject to a strain of 0.0005?
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Answer: Using the equation of change in resistance of given aboveChange in the resistance - R
= R G .
= 120 x 2.1 x 0.0005 = 0.13 (ohm).
Strain Gauge stretched Resistance increases.
Strain Gauge compressed Resistance decreases.
Example (1): Strain Gauge Cantilever.
The cantilever as shown in the figure below is deflected downward.
The strain gauge attached on the upper surface is stretched.

The strain gauge attached on the lower surface is compressed.
Thus, the resistance of the upper surface gauge is increased and of the lower surface gauge is
decreased.
When two STRAIN GAUGES are incorporated in opposite arms of an alternating current bridge,
the output voltage from the bridge is proportional to the displacement.
CHANGE IN LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
This type of sensor is used for linear displacements of the order of 1mm to 30mm, with a nonlinearity error of 1% of full range.
3- Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

It consists of ONE PRIMARY COIL and TWO SECONDARY COILS as shown in following
figure.
Typically, LVDTs have operating ranges from 2mm to 400mm.
Applied alternating a. c. voltage input to central (middle) primary coil = V (volts).
Alternating EMF induced in the upper secondary coil = E1 (volts).
Alternating EMF induced in the lower secondary coil = E2 (volts).
The middle-coil is the primary coil and the other two identical (upper & lower) secondary coils
are connected in series in such a way that their output EMFs oppose each other.
Thus, the NET OUTPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) volts.
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A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of the displacement being
monitored.
MAGNETIC CORE MIDDLE-CENTER POSITION
EMF induced in upper/lower secondary coil are equal (E1=E2).
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = 0 Volts.
However, when the core is displaced from the middle-central position the induced EMF in one
secondary coil is more than the other secondary coil.
MAGNETIC CORE UP POSITION LINEAR DISPLACMENT
EMF induced in upper secondary coil is MORE THAN EMF induced
in lower secondary coil. (E1 > E2).
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = (+VE).
MAGNETIC CORE DOWN POSITION LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
EMF induced in lower secondary coil is MORE THAN EMF induced
in upper secondary coil. (E2 > E1).
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = (-VE).
4- Digital Optical Encoders:

An ENCODER is a device, which gives the digital output in form of sequence of pulses for
angular or linear displacement.
Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most common type is rotary. Rotary
encoders are manufactured in two basic forms:
(1) Incremental Encoder: Detect the change in the angular displacement from some reference
fixed position.
(2) Absolute Encoder: Detect the actual angular displacement position.
(A) Incremental Encoder:
Basic form of incremental encoder for the measurement of angular displacement of shaft
with reference to fixed position is shown in the figure above.
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It consists of rotating disc, which rotates with shaft.

The rotating disc has number of windows through, which a beam of light can pass and is
detected by suitable light sensor.
When shaft rotates then rotating disc rotates, a pulse output is produced by the light sourcedetector pair.
The numbers of pulses are proportional to the angular displacement through which the shaft
(disc) rotates.
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT OF SHAFT (DISC) COUNTS OF NUMBER OF PULSES.
B- SPEED SENSORS
The following are examples of speed sensors that can be used to monitor linear and angular
speeds.
1-Optical Method:
Linear speed can be measured by determining the time between when the moving object
breaks one beam of radiation and when it breaks a second beam some measured distance
away. Refer the figure given below:
Breaking the first beam can be used to start an electronic clock and breaking the second
beam to stop the clock. This is a non-contact method.
2- Tachogenerator:
The basic tacho generator is consists of rotating coil mounted in a magnetic field.
When the coil rotates an alternating E. M. F. induce in the coil. This E. M. F. is proportional to
speed. The faster the coil rotates the greater the size of alternating E. M. F.
The size of the alternating E.M. F. Measure of the angular speed.
By measuring the voltage measure the speed.
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CHANGE IN ANGULAR SPEED
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
C- FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS

Fluid pressure sensor devices used in industrial processes involve the monitoring of the elastic
deformation of diaphragm, bellows, and tubes. The following are some common examples of
fluid pressure sensors.
1-Diaphragm Sensors: The movement of the center of a circular diaphragm as a result of a
pressure difference between its two sides is the basis of a pressure gauge. See figure below:
Diaphragm sensors are used to sense the pressure differences over the range 100 KPa to 100
MPa with accuracy = +/- 0.1%.
2- Bellows Sensor:
When the pressure inside bellows increases, relative to the pressure outside the bellows, then the
bellows increase in length. A displacement sensor can be used to monitor the movement of
bellows and hence give a measure of the pressure. Figure below shows how a bellows can be
combined with a (LVDT) to give a pressure sensor with an electrical output.
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Bellows sensors are used to sense the pressure differences up to few hundred KPa with
accuracy = +/- 1%.
3- Bourdon Tube:
Bourdon Tube is rectangular or elliptical cross-section tube made from stainless steel or
phosphor bronze.
C-shape & HELICAL- Shape BOURDON TUBE is shown in the figure below.
The bourdon tube is open at one end and closed at other end.
When the pressure inside the tube increases, closed end of the C-shape tube open out, thus the
displacement of the closed end becomes a measure of a pressure.
This tube can be used with gear system to make it a pointer type instrument.
Bourdon Tubes are used to sense the pressure differences over the range 10 KPa to 100 KPa
with accuracy = +/- 1%.
4- Piezoelectric Sensor:
It consists of a diaphragm, which presses against a Piezo-electric sensing element as shown in
figure.
Movement of the diaphragm produces the compression effect on to Piezo-electric crystal.
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The input for a Piezo-electric sensing element is the force due to applied pressure difference,
which compress the crystal and the output is voltage in the form of potential difference across the
surface.
CHANGE IN PRESSURE
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
D- FLUID FLOW SENSORS

Traditional method used for the measurement of fluid flow involves devices based on
(Bernoulli's equation). These involve the measurement of a pressure difference, the Ventures
tube and the Orifice plate described below.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE METHOD:
For horizontal tube- V1 fluid velocity, P1 pressure and A1 cross-sectional area of the
tube prior to the constriction (Figure below),
While V2, P2 and A2 similarly at the constriction, then Bernoulli's equation gives:
v 21 P1 v 22 P2
+ = +
2 g g 2 g g
With - liquid density, g- acceleration due to gravity.
Since the mass of liquid passing per second through the tube prior to the constriction must equal
that passing through the tube at the constriction,
A1V1 1 =A2V2 2 .
Rate of flow (Q) of liquid passing through the tube per second Q=A1V1=A2V2. Hence
A2
A1
2
,
1
A
Q= 2
This means that measurement of the pressure difference (P1-P2) can be used to give a
measure of the rate of flow (Q).
23
1- Venturi Tube:
Venturi tube gradually tapers from the full pipe diameter to the constricted diameter. Refer figure
below.
The pressure difference is measured between the flow prior to the constriction and at the
constriction.
A diaphragm pressure cell is used to measure the pressure difference.
CHANGE OF RATE OF FLOW
CHANGE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCE

The Venturi tube is used for liquids containing particles and gives the output with accuracy =
5%, but does give a pressure loss of about 10 to 15% as a result of its presence in the flow line.
2- Orifice Plate:
Orifice plate is simple disc with central hole. Refer figure below.
The Orifice plate is placed in the tube, through which the fluid is flowing and the pressure
difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a
point equal to half the diameter downstream.
A diaphragm pressure cell is used to measure the pressure difference.
CHANGE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCE

24
The Orifice plate is simple, cheap, with no moving parts, has accuracy = 15% of full range. It
does not work well with liquids containing particles because the orifice can become clogged.
3- Rotameter:
Rotameter is a float in a tapered vertical tube with the fluid flow pushing the float upwards.
Refer figure below.
The fluid has to flow through the gap between the float and the walls of the tube.
The tube is tapered and so the gap between the float and the tube wall increases as the float
moves up the tube.
When the fluid is flowing through the gap between float and tube wall, it will push the float up.
The level of the float indicates the flow rate.
A level sensor is used to indicate the level of the float in the tube.
CHANGE OF LEVEL
The Rotameter is cheap. Accuracy = 1% and can be used for flow rate over the range 3
m
30 x 106 1
.
sec
4-Turbine Meter:
Turbine meter consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally in the pipe along which
the flow occurs. Refer figure below.
The rotor rotates as a result of the fluid flow, the angular velocity being approximately
proportional to the flow rate.
25
The rate of revolution of the rotor can be determined by attaching a small permanent magnet
to one of the blades and using a pick-up coil.
An induced e. m .f. pulse is produced in the coil every time the magnet passes through it.
The pulses are counted and so the numbers of revolutions of the rotor are determined.
The meter is expensive, with an accuracy= 0.1%.
E-LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS

1-Potentiometer Float Gauge:
A simple float system is shown in the figure below.
The float is at one end of a pivoted rod with the other end connected to the slider of a
potentiometer.
Changes in level cause the float to move up and down. Hence move the slider over the
potentiometer resistance track and so give a output voltage related to the liquid level.
CHANGE IN LIQUID LEVEL
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
2-Load Cell:
The load cell consists of a strain gauged cylinder. Refer figure below.
The weight of a tank of liquid can be used as a measure of the height of liquid in the tank.
Load cells are commonly used for such weight measurement.
When the level of the liquid changes, the weight changes and so load on the load cell changes
and the resistance of the strain gauges changes.
The change in the resistance of the strain gauges is thus a measure of the level of the liquid.
Since the load cells are completely isolated from the liquid, the method is useful for corrosive
liquids.
26
CHANGE IN LEVEL
CHANGE IN WEIGHT
CHANGE IN LOAD
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE OF STRAIN GAUGE
F-TEMPERATURE SENSORS
The following are some of the most commonly used temperature sensors.
1-Glass Thermometer:
The liquid inside the thermometer expands with temperature and rise up in a small tube.
The height of liquid is proportional to temperature.
We can use as a liquid:

- Mercury: - 35C to +600C.
- Alcohol:
- 80C to +70C.
- Pentane:
-200C to + 30C.
a)- FRAGILE, b)-SLOW REACTING, c) - REASONABLE ACCURACY, d) - CHEAP.
2- Bimetallic Strips:
Bimetallic strips consist of two different metal strips of the same length bonded together.
Refer figure below.
Metals have different coefficients of expansion.
When temperature increases the composite strip bends into a CURVE STRIP.
The strip with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve will have grater length than
the one on the inside of the curve.
If one end of a bimetallic strip is fixed, the amount by which the free end moves is a measure
of the temperature.
This movement may be used to open or close electric circuits, as in the simple thermostat
commonly used with domestic heating system.
27
Bi-metallic strip
devices are
ROBUST,
SLOW TO
REACT, CHEAP
and used within a
range= - 30 C
to 600 C with
accuracy = +/1%.
3- Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs):

In RTD metal wire is used.
The resistance of metals linearly varies with temperature. Refer figure below.
Rt =R0 (1+t) ,
Rt
Resistance of metal wire at temperature t- (C)
R0
Resistance of metal wire at 0 (C)
Constant = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance.
Metals used: PLATINUM, NICKEL, OR COPPER ALLOYS.

TYPE
TEMPERATURE
RANGE
COEFFICIENT - (/ C)
PLATINUM
NICKEL
COPPER
0.0039 / C
0.0067 / C
0.0038 / C
CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
-200 C to 850 C
-80 C to 300 C
-200 v to 250 C
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
3- Thermistor:
Thermister is semiconductor temperature sensor made from mixture of metal oxides.
28
Metal-Oxides used: CHROMIUM, COBALT, IRON, MANGANESE & NICKEL.

Resistance of THERMISTER decreases very non-linearly with increase in temperature.
Refer figure below.
Example:
At +60C
0.75k
At +40C
1.6k
At + 20C
3.75k
At 0C
9.8k
At - 20C
29k
Thermister are very strong & small. HIGHLY SENSITIVE to temperature variations. Small
THERMAL capacity. The operating range= -250 C to +650 C with accuracy = 0.1%.
3-Thermocouples:
A thermocouple consists of two different metal wires joined together. Refer figure below.
When two different metals are joined together, a potential difference occurs across the junction.
The potential difference across the junction depends on the two metals used and the temperature
of the junction.
The Thermocouple involves two such junctions. Refer figure above.

If both junctions have same temperature, then there is NO NET E.M.F.
An EMF is produced between two junctions when there is a temperature difference between the
two junctions.
The value of EMF depends on the two metals in use and the temperature (t) of both
junctions.
Usually one junction (Cold Junction) is kept at 0 (C) so then value of EMF depends on the
temperature (C) of other junction (Hot Junction).
E at+ b t 2 ,
a & b are constants for metals in use.
29
TABLE-THERMOCOUPLES
SENSITIVIT
RANGE ( C)
Y V/ C
63
0 to 980
53
-180 to 760
41
-180 to 1260
6
0 to 1750
43
-180to 370
MATERIAL
CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN
IRON-CONSTANTAN
CHEOMEL-ALUMEL
PLATINUM-PLATINUM/
RHODIUM 13%
COPPER-CONSTANTAN
TYP
E
E
J
K
R
T
E, J, K & T ARE *- Cheap, Less Stable, Small Life, Accuracy=1.0 to 3.0 %.

R**- using Platinum + Rhodium, More Stable & Long-life, Fast Response, Accuracy = 1%.
Selection of Sensors
Sensors can be selected based on
a) The nature of the measurement
b) The nature of output required
a. The nature of the measurement: (sensor input)

a) Variable is measured.
b) Nominal value.
30
c) Range.
d) Accuracy.
e) Speed of response.
f) Reliability.
g) Stability.
h) Environmental conditions.
b. The nature of output required: (type of signal processor / display)

Selection of Signal Processor Output of Sensor
Selection Display Analogue / Digital.
CHAPTER 3
Data Presentation Elements
Outcomes Covered:
3. Be acquainted with all common analogue and digital devices for data presentation
7. Deal with all types of signal processing and conditioning
14. Compare the numbering systems
Number System
A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a writing system for expressing numbers, that
is a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using graphemes or symbols
in a consistent manner. It can be seen as the context that allows the numerals "11" to be
interpreted as the binary symbol for three, the decimal symbol for eleven, or a symbol for other
numbers in different bases.
Ideally, a numeral system will:
Represent a useful set of numbers (e.g. all integers, or rational numbers)
Give every number represented a unique representation (or at least a standard

representation)
31
Reflect the algebraic and arithmetic structure of the numbers.
Typical Number systems used in engineering applications are:

Binary Number System (Base of 2)
Decimal Number System (Base of 10)
Octal Number System (Base of 8)
Hexadecimal Number System (Base of 16)
Binary Number System (Base of 2)
Most digital signals have only two states, the high logic state (1) and the low logic state (0).
The two state system allows the application of Boolean logic & Binary number representation,
which form the foundation for the design of all digital devices.
In this system every number is represented by either 0 or 1 or combination of both
For example,
23 22 21 20
0 can be represented by
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
and so on.. up 15
11012=1 x 23 +1 x 22 +0 x 21 +1 x 20=810+ 4 10+110=1310

The digits of a binary number are called bits.
The first or leftmost bit is known as the most significant bit (MSB) since it represents the
largest power of (2).
The last or right bit is known as the least significant bit (LSB) since it represents the smallest
power of (2).
Binary Number: 1011 0110

1 Nibble=4bits,
1 Byte=8bits,
1k Byte=1024 Bytes,
1 MB=1024KB=1024 x 1024 Bytes
1 GB=1024MB=1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes
The group of bits Word.
32
The basic rule for adding binary numbers are:

0+0=0
0+1=1
1 + 1 = 10
Decimal Number System (Base of 2)
In this system every number is represented by power of 10
For example
103 102 101 100
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
and so on
Octal Number System (Base of 8)

For example
83 82 81 80
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
and so on
Hexa Decimal Number System (Base of 16)

For example
163 162 161 160
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
and so on
33
Signal Processor / Conditioner Classification:

A signal processor takes signal from the sensor and converts it into a form suitable for
display or transmission to other places.
Examples:
1-Small signal amplified Bigger signal.
2-Resistance change Current or Voltage change.
3-Analogue signal to Digital signal.
1-Resistance to Voltage Converter:

A potential Divider can be used to convert the resistance change into voltage change.
Thermister is used to measure temperature.
A constant source voltage (6V) is applied across the Thermister and another resistor (10K) in
series.
The output voltage (V0) is taken across the resistor (R).
When the resistance of the Thermister (RT) changes the output voltage of Potential divider
changes.
The potential divider (shown in figure below) is a simple resistance to voltage converter.
Hence it is a signal processor.
Source Voltage = VS (volts)

Output voltage (V0) = [R/(R + RT) X VS] (volts)
2-Wheatstone Bridge (R to V) Converter:

The basic form of Wheatstone bridge is shown in figure below.
34
Four resistances
R1 , R2 , R3 , R 4 are the arms of Wheatstone bridge.
R1 Thermister according to temperature.

Output voltage = V0 = ZERO Bridge is balanced.
Potential difference between points B and D = ZERO.
Potential at B = potential at D.
V AB=V Ad . Thus I 1 R1=I 2 R3 .
V BC =V CD .Thus I 1 R 2=I 2 R4 .
R 1 R3
=
Now dividing the two equations:
.
R 2 R4
{The BRIDGE IS BALANCED IN THIS CASE}.
If one resistance (R1) changes, the bridge will become unbalanced and there will be voltage
across BD.
V S R1
The voltage drop in R1 across AB = V AB=
R1 + R 2
The voltage drop in
R3 across AD = V AD=
V S R3
R3 + R4
35
The potential difference between B & D = output voltage = VO is:

V R V R
R1
R3
V o=V AB V AD= out 1 out 3 =V S (
)
R1 + R 2 R 3+ R 4
R 1+ R 2 R 3 + R 4
The above equation gives the balanced condition V0 =0.
When R1 changes to ( R1 + R1 )
Then output voltage changes from V0 to (V0 + Vo ).
R1 + R1
R3
) .
Where: Vo+ Vo=V S (
R 1 + R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4
R 1+ R 1
R1
) .
Hence: (Vo+ Vo Vo=V S (
R1 + R 1+ R 2 R1 + R2
When ( R1 ) is very small than ( R1 ),
Then the denominator ( R1 + R1 + R2 )approximates to ( R1 + R2 ) and the above
equation approximates toVo V S
R1
.
R 1 + R2
3-Analogue To Digital Converters (A/D )

Introduction :
The electrical output from the sensors, are in the analogue form. (Thermocouples, Pressure
Gauges, Strain Gauges, etc..).
What is the analogue (&/or) Digital Signal?
An analogue Signal: is continuously varying as a function of time.
A digital Signal: In contrast to an analogue, a digital signal exist only at specific levels or states
and changes its level in discrete steps.
An analogue and a digital signal are illustrated in the following figure below.
36
Digital devices are categorized according to their function as Combinational logic or

Sequential logic devices.
The difference between them is based on signal timing. For sequential logic devices, the timing,
or sequencing history, of the input signals plays a role in determining the output.
This not the case with combinational logic devices whose outputs depend on the instantaneous
values of the input.
Most microprocessors and computers need digital signals.
The process of converting the analogue signals from the sensors to digital form is called
Analogue to Digital Conversion (ADC).
The output from computers and microprocessors is a digital form.
The conversion of digital signals into analogue form for operating the control system is
called Digital to Analogue Conversion (DAC).
ADC stages:
Stage 1:The sample of the analogue signal is taken at regular intervals. This gives a series of
narrow pulses with heights that vary as the analogue signal.
Stage 2: These samples are then converted into digital signals using analogue to digital
conversion.
37
For particular A/D, if three bits are used word length.

If we start with 000 and add 1 we obtain 001.
If we add a further 1 we have 010.
With three bits in word we thus have the possible digital outputs of:
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111.
There are eight possible words (digital outputs), which can be used for represent the analogue
voltage input.
Thus, if we divide the maximum analogue voltage into eight parts then each one out of eight
digital words correspond to fraction of maximum input value.
Thus each rise in the analogue voltage of (1/8) of the maximum analogue input results in a
further bit being generated.
38
Thus for word 000 we have 0V input.

To generate the next digit word of 001 the input has to rise to (1/8) of the maximum voltage.
Like this form mentioned above, if sampled analogue input of 8V.
The digital output would be 000 for 0V input and would remain at that output until the
analogue voltage rise to 1V (means that 1/8 of the maximum analogue input=8V)
It would remain at 001 until the analogue input rise to 2V (2/8).
This value of 001 would continue until the analogue input had rise to 3V.
The smallest change in the analogue voltage that would result in a change in the digital output is
thus 1V. This is termed the resolution of the converter.
With a word length of n bits, the maximum, or full scale, analogue input V FS is divided
into 2n pieces.
The minimum change in input that can be detected (The Resolution),is thus V FS /2n .
Example (1) : With an A/D converter having a word length of 10 bits and the maximum
analogue signal input range 10V, what will be the resolution?
Maximum analogue voltage = 10V.
Maximum analogue voltage is divided into 210=1024 pieces .
Resolution = V FS /2n = 10/1024=9.8V.
Example(2): A thermocouple gives an output of 0.4mv for each degree change in temperature.
What will be the word length required when its output passes through an A/D if temperatures
from 0 to 200C are to be measured with a resolution of 0.5C?
Solution:
The full scale output from the sensor is 200x0.4=80mV.
With a word length (n) there are 2n digital numbers.
Thus, this voltage will be divided into 2n levels and so the minimum voltage change that
can be detected is 80/ 2n mV.
For a resolution of 0.5C we must be able to detect a signal from the sensor of 0.5 x 0.4=0.20mV.
Hence: 0.20=80/ 2n 2n =400n=8.6.
Thus, a 9-bits word is required.
4-Digital to Analogue Converters(DAC):

The input to D/A converter is a binary word and the output its equivalent analogue value.
For example, if we have a full scale output of 7V then a digital input of 000 will give 0 V, 001
gives 1 V and 111 the full scale of 7 V, like in figure below:
39
The basic form of D/A converter involves the digital input being used to activate the electronic
switches.
1 activates switch and 0 does not activate the switch.
The position 1 in the word determines, which switch is activated.
For example: For 3-bits converter.
001 is received electronic switch for supply voltage of 1 V is switched on for an analogue
output.
output.
output.
digital word 011 is received least significant bit 001 switching 1 V to the output and 010 bit
switching 2 V to the output to give a summed output of 3V.
Example(3) : A microprocessor gives an output of an 8-bit word. This is fed through an 8-bit
D/A converter to a control valve, which requires 6.0 V to be fully open. If the fully open state is
to be indicated by the output of the digital word (11111111) what will be the change in output to
the valve when there is a change of 1 bit?
Solution:
40
The output voltage will be divided into 28 intervals.

Since there is to be an output of 6.0V when the output is
is a change in the output voltage of 6.0/ 28 =0.023 V.
of these intervals, a change of 1bit
III-Data Presentation Elements/ Classification:
1- Analogue Display: (Pointer moving over a scale)

(1)
The moving coil ammeter is analogue pointer type instrument.

Used for AC or DC.
Overall accuracy between 0.1 to 0.5%.
Time taken to reach final reading may be few seconds.
Low resistance of meter makes loading problems.
2-Digital Display: (LEDs & LCDs)

(1)
Alphanumeric Display:
It can display letters of alphabets and numbers.
USE of LEDs or LCDs.
(i) LEDs:
a- Require low voltages.
b- More power consumption than LCDs.
c- More expensive than LCDs.
d- Common colors are Red, Yellow & Green.
e- 7-segment or dot-matrix types.
7- Segment Displays:
By illuminating different segment, numbers and some alphabets can be displayed.
To show 2 the segments a, b, c, g) are illuminated.
41
Dot Matrix Displays:

It uses rectangular array of LEDs.
Using (5x7) matrix all alphabets and numbers can be displayed.
(ii) LCDs: They do not produce light.

- But use reflected light.
- Can be arranged in segments.
- When electric field is applied light is not allowed to pass through them so they are dark.
Example of such display is Digital Voltmeter:
They have a Sample &Hold circuit, an analogue to digital converter and display count.
If the input is changing very fast there may be errors in the output sampling.
Digital meters have very high resistance, so they do not have loading effects.
42
3-Large Screen Display:
4-Other Types: -Alphanumeric Printers.

-Chart Recorders.
-Magnetic Recording
-Computer Disks (Hard Disk, Floppy, CD, DVD).
Multiplexers:
It is an element in a measuring system, useful when there are many inputs in a system.
It is like a switch.
The Multiplexer will take many inputs and give only one at the output at a time.
It will help us to select one input from many.
43
CHAPTER 4
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Outcomes Covered:
5. Define basic element of a control system.
4. Distinguish between open and closed loop control systems.
8. Employ different control methods, which are suitable for different types of systems.
15 Use logic gates to build functional logic diagrams
Define Control System:

It is a system, which is used to control (or maintain) the output variable at some particular
operating value corresponding to the set point-SP value (or reference value) of the input variable.
Figure 4.1 (a) Control System used to Control a Variable at some Required Value.
The control system may also be defined as the system, which is used to provide at its output a
particular sequence of events (or actions) corresponding to the presence of certain input
conditions or /and events.
Figure 4.1 (b) Control System used to Control a Sequence of Events.

The field of automatic process control is concerned with maintaining the important physical
process variables TEMPERATURES, PRESSURES, FLOWS, LEVELS and the like at some
required operating values. If the physical variables associated with the process are constant and
are not varying as a function of time (t) then the state of the process is defined as STATIC.
However, in reality the processes are DYNAMIC. The change or the variation in the associated
process variables are always occurring as function of time(t) and if actions are not taken then the
44
important process variables those related to SAFETY, PRODUCT QUALITY &

PRODUCTION RATES will not achieve the desired design conditions.
Some important terms used in the field of automatic control systems:

1.
2.
Output Variable (Controlled) - This is the physical variable associated with the process,
which is to be controlled or maintained at some required operating value.
Input Variable (Set Point (SP) / Reference) This is the desired or required value of the
output controlled variable.
Manipulated Variable This is the process variable which is used to maintain the output
controlled variable at its set point (SP).
Disturbance Variable - This is in fact, any variable in the process that can cause output
controlled variable to deviate away from set point (SP) value. It may be defined as
disturbance signal or termed as an UPSET in the process.
3.
4.
Examples of Control Systems:

1.
Central heating system - As an example of the type of control system described by figure
4.1(a), the block diagram representation of central heating system is represented as shown in
the figure 4.2(a) below-
Figure 4.2(a) Central Heating System.

The input variable in the form of reference or set point (SP) value is set on the thermostat and
control system adjusts the heating furnace of the central heating process to produce the required
operating value of the temperature as the output variable. Here, the control system is used to
control a variable to a set value.
2.
Cloths washing machine - As an example of the type of control system described by figure
4.1(b), the block diagram representation of central heating system is represented as shown in
the figure 4.2(b) below-
Figure 4.2(b) Cloths Washing Machine System.
45
A cloths washing machine has as its input a set of several instructions representing the
sequence of events required to wash the cloths, e.g. fill the drum with cold water, heat the
water to 40(Deg.), tumble the cloths for the specific period of time, empty the drum of water etc.
Thus the input is the information determining the required sequence of events and the function of
the control system is to provide at the output the required sequence of event. Here, the control
system is used to control a sequence of events.
Few more Examples of Control Systems:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Mixing hot & cold water by checking the temperature.

Walking along a straight line.
Setting the temperature of air-conditioner.
Setting up the automatic washing machine.
Safety locks of automatic washing machine.
Automatic filling of bottles.
Packing machine using conveyor belt system.
Packing of biscuits by weights automatically.
Computer controlled lathe machine.
Conveyor belt system to feed the material.
OPEN & CLOSE LOOP CONTROL

OPEN LOOP CONTROL:
The temperature of the room is controlled by electric fire heater. The electric fire heater has two
heating elements of the rating viz. 1Kw and 2Kw. A SELECTION SWITCH is used to select
either 1Kw or 2Kw rating heating element.
Figure 4.3 (a) Electric Fire Open Loop System.

As shown in figure 4.3, 1Kw heating element is selected by means of selection switch to heat
up the room. The room will heat up and reach the temperature, which is determined by the fact
that 1Kw heating element is switched ON. The temperature of the room is thus controlled by
the initial setting, but there is no scope for any further adjustments. This is an example of openloop control. If there are any changes in the conditions, perhaps someone opening the window
there is no scope for any adjustment to maintain the temperature as per the initial setting. Here
there is no feedback of information from the output to the electric fire selection switch to adjust
it (to 2.0KW) to compensate for the change.
46
CLOSE LOOP CONTROL:

As shown in the figure 4.3(b) the electric fire system is modified. The temperature of the room
is again controlled by the electric fire heater. A person stands in the room and check the
temperature of the room with a THERMOMETER. He adjust the selection switch to switch the
heating element 1Kw or/and 2Kw at ON /OFF position to get the required temperature.
This is an example of close-loop control.
Figure 4.3 (b) Electric Fire Close Loop System.

In closed loop control the information from output is fed back to input.
The difference between SET value (REQUIRED) and FEEDBACK value (ACTUAL) is taken as
ERROR value. This ERROR value is used to correct the final output value.
Error = (Set Value) (Feedback Value).
The feedback signal is subtracted from the set point signal and hence it is called as NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK system.
Comparison between Open loop and Close loop Systems

No
1
2
3
4
Open Loop System

The circuit / system is simple
The circuit / system is Cheap
The circuit / system is easy to repair
The circuit / system is Less accurate
The output signal is directly affected by
the disturbance signal. The output signal
is determined by the initial setting only
It has no feedback
Input is not modified
There is no comparison element and

feedback sensor element
Closed Loop System

The circuit / system is complex
The circuit / system is expensive
The circuit / system is difficult to repair
The circuit / system is more accurate
The output signal is controlled and maintained
at the set point value even under the presence
of disturbance signal
It has feedback
The input is modified with the information
from output as feedback signal
There is a comparison element and a feedback
sensor element
47
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A CLOSE LOOP SYSTEM

Figure 4.4(a).Shows the general form of basic close-loop control system.
Figure 4.4(a) Basic Elements Of Close Loop Control System.

The block diagram shown above consists of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Comparison Element.
Control Law & Implementation Element.
Correction Element.
Process Element.
Measurement Element.
1. Comparison Element
The comparison element in the close loop control system is represented by the circular symbol
with + sign for the set-point (SP) input signal and - sign for the feedback signal.
This element compares the set value and the measured value to find the error.
ERROR= Set Value- Measured value of the output signal (FEEDBACK).
Negative feedback is used here as the feedback is subtracted from the set value with - sign.
Positive feedback may be used if the feedback is added to the set value with + sign.
2. Control Law & Implementation Element
This element decides what action is to be taken when there is error. (Selection Switch: To Select
1Kw heating coil or/and 2Kw heating coil!)
The control law is to correct the error (to decrease or increase the temperature).
48
3. Correction Element
This is a final correction element. This produces the change required to correct the error. (1Kw
heating coil or/and 2Kw heating coil).
The term Actuator is used for the element of correction unit, which gives the power to carry out
the action.
This is also called as final control element (FCE).
4. Process Element
The process element is the physical element or the set of elements which are designed and
assembled to perform the particular function. The process variable, which is the physical variable
associated with the process is what is being controlled. Temperature of the Room, Speed of Car,
and Level of Water in the Tank etc. are examples.
5. Measurement Element
This produces the feedback signal related to the output value of the variable. This is some kind
SENSOR and suitable Signal Conditioner Circuit. (Together-TRANSDUCER). This is used to
give the feedback information regarding the statues of the output variable.
The input gives set-point (SP) (or reference) required value of the output variable, which is to be
controlled.
The output is the physical variable of the process, which is of the interest of the user whose
operating value is required to be controlled or maintain at the set-point (SP) value.
The comparison element and control law implementation unit together is called Control Unit.
Speed Control of the Motors Shaft:

As an example of a control system involving close loop feedback, consider the motor system as
shown in figure 4.4(b).
Input: The input signal representing the required speed value (set point-SP) is set by the position
of the moving contact of potentiometer. This applies certain voltage proportional to the required
speed of rotation to the comparison element.
The comparison element (differential amplifier) has two input terminals.
One input terminal (Non-inverting terminal with + sign) receives the input set-point (SP)
signal as measure of the required rotation of speed of motor.
The second input terminal (Inverting terminal with sign) receives the feedback signal as
the measure of the actual output speed of the rotation of the shaft of motor.
The differential amplifier produces power output proportional to the difference between input
set point (SP) signal and the feedback signal as the measure of the actual value of the output
speed. When there is no difference then the output is zero. The differential amplifier is thus used
to both compare & implement the control law.
49
The resulting control signal from the output of the differential amplifier is then given to the
motor, which adjusts the speed of the rotating shaft according to size of control signal.
The speed of the rotating shaft of motor is measured by the tachogenerator. The
tachogenerator is connected to motor shaft by means of pair of bevel gears. The signal from the
output of tachogenerator is given to the differential amplifier as feedback.
Figure 4.4(b) Control of the Speed of Rotation of a Shaft of Motor.
50
Classification of Different Control System Strategies & Techniques

The following are some of the terms used to describe different types of Control Systems:
1.
Process Control
The term process control is used to describe the control of physical variables associated with
the process in order to maintain them at some particular operating value.
Ex.1: Central Heating System for House with the output variable is to be controlled is the
TEMPERATURE (Deg.) of the Room.
Ex.2: Overhead Water Tank for House with the output variable is to be controlled is the
LEVEL (meters) of the water inside the overhead Tank.
2.
Servomechanisms
The term servomechanism is used to for the continuous feedback control systems in which
the output controlled variable is a position or speed.
Ex.1: Speed Control of the Shaft of Motor with the output variable to be controlled and
maintained at constant value is the speed of the shaft driven by the motor.
3.
Sequential Control
This type of control system exercises control over the sequencing of events. The event might
be sequenced so that one can not take place until the previous one is complete or to occur at
particular times.
Ex.1: Washing Machine System is an example of the type sequential control. Here, the
control is of sequence of events so that one event follows another. Thus we might have
control (pre wash cycle) that only after event1 (Start when switch is pressed) is complete
event2 (Open an inlet valve and allow water to fall into the drum of the machine up to some
particular required level) starts. When event2 is complete (Level sensor indicates that water
has reach to the required level) then event3 (close the inlet valve) starts, etc. One action
starts when the one before is complete.
Ex.2: Automatic Kettle is a simple example of sequential control. Here, first the kettle is
switched ON, the water heats up and continuous heating until temperature sensor indicates
that the water is boiling. The kettle is then automatically switched OFF. The heating element
of kettle is not continuously controlled like in the central heating process control system but
only given start and stop signals.
4.
Numerical Control
With such type of control system the input set-point (SP) values are stored in the form of
information as digital codes on paper tape, magnetic tape or disk. This information can be
used by the system to control the position, direction and speed of motion of machine tool.
51
Ex.1: Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) Machine Tool belongs to the class of
numerical control system to automatically machine the work piece to required shape. Here, a
controlled sequence of operations being carried out with the position sensors being used to
initiate and stop actions. This is a one kind of sequential control with the exception that input
set-point (SP) data is fed to the computer by means of storage device. The computer is used
with the stored programs to perform the job of control unit (Comparison and Control Law
Implementation) while robots are used as final control element (FCE) to perform the job of
actuators or correction elements.
5.
Direct Digital Control (DDC)

The term direct digital control is used for the system where the comparison of the feedback
signal with the set point (SP) signal and the determination of the control signal used to
control the correction element is exercised by the microprocessor, or microcontroller, or
computer and such type of devices (logic gates), which operate on digital signals.
Ex.1: Digital ON / OFF Control Systems designed around hardwired logic gates like OR/
AND/NOT and several combinations of same.
Ex.2: Digital ON / OFF Control Systems designed around 8085-Microprocessor or
8051Microcontroller programmable device. The programmable devices like microprocessors
and microcontrollers are used to implement number of logic functions by means of
programming instructions instead of hardwired logic devices. The system designed around
programmable devices thus offers more flexibility and reliability.
6.
Distributed Control (DCS)

The term distributed control is used for the system where microcontrollers are used to control
local activities and they are controlled by another microcontroller or computer.
Ex.1: A chemical plant computer may be used to control local controller controlling the
various process parameters like temperature, pressure, flow & level etc. at a number of points
in the process plant. The figure 4.5 shows the block representation of such distributed control
system.
Figure 4.5 Distributed Control Systems.
52
Use of Logic Gates to build ON/OFF DIGITAL CONTROL

Direct Digital Control systems involve digital signals where there are only TWO possible
signal levels. The two possible signal levels of logic high (+5V) & logic low (0V) may
represent various states like shown in the table below OR VICE VERSA -
DIGITAL SIGNALS are processed by one or more LOGIC GATES. (Figure 4.6(a)).
The relationships between the inputs to a logic gates and the outputs (Figure 4.6 (b)) can be
tabulated in the form of truth table.
The truth table specifies the relationships between inputs and outputs.
As per the BOOLEAN ALGEBRA the notation used for LOGIC HIGH =1 & LOGIC
LOW =0.
Figure 4.6 (a) Logic Gate Systems
Figure 4.6 (b) Truth Table AND Logic Gate.

The AND, OR, & NOT are the three fundamental basic building block logic gates.
With the several combinations of the basic logic gates the number of other logic gate
functions like- NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR, etc... Can be realized.
53
AND LOGIC GATE

The functional block diagram and truth table of AND logic gate function is as shown in
figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7(a) Functional Block Diagram
Figure 4.7(b) Truth Table of AND Logic Gate.

For an AND gate logic function the output Q=1 if and only if both A=1 & B=1.All other
combinations of A and B generate the output Q=0.
The AND gate function can be realized by means of electric circuit with TWO switches A
and B are in series. Figure 4.7(c). Only when switch A and switch B are closed then there
is flow of current in the circuit.
Figure 4.7 (c) AND GATE

Ex. 1. With the AND gate logic it is possible to realize the control system required for
domestic washing machine if it is only TO OPERATE (ON) if the door is closed and the
electrical power on. (Figure 4.8)
54
Figure 4.8(a) - AND Gate System for Washing Machine Operation.

Ex. 2. With the AND gate logic it is possible to realize the interlock control system for a
machine tool such that if the safety guard is IN place, giving signal of logic HIGH(1), and
the power is ON, giving signal of logic HIGH (1), then there can be output signal of logic
HIGH (1) and the machine will operate. If either of the input is not there i.e. signal of logic
LOW (0) then the machine will not operate with the corresponding output is of logic LOW
(0) as per the truth table of AND gate.
Figure 4.8 (b) - AND Gate System for Machine Tool Operation.
55
OR LOGIC GATE
The functional block diagram and truth table of OR logic gate function is as shown in figure
4.9.
Figure 4.9 (a) Functional Block Diagram OR Logic Gate.
Figure 4.9(b)-Truth Table of OR Logic Gate.

For an OR gate logic function the output Q=1 if either A=1 or B=1 and both A=B=1.
If both A=B=0 then output Q=0.
The OR gate function can be realized by means of electric circuit with TWO switches A
and B are in PARALLEL. Figure 4.9 (c). When switch A or switch B or both are closed
then there is flow of current in the circuit.
Figure 4.9(c) OR GATE

Ex. 1. With the OR gate logic it is possible to realize the control system required for
controlling the situation of an automatic door is to open if the person approaches from either
side. (Figure 4.10)
56
Figure 4.10 - OR Gate System for Operation of Door.

Ex. 2. With the OR gate logic it is possible to realize the control system required for
Conveyor belt system transporting finished bottled products to packaging where an arm is
required to deflect bottles of the belts if either weight of bottle is not within certain limit
or there is no cap on bottle.(Figure 4.11)
57
Figure 4.11- OR Gate System for Discarding the Bottles from the Packaging.
NOT LOGIC GATE

The functional block diagram and truth table of NOT logic gate function is as shown in
figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12(a) Functional Block Diagram NOT Logic Gate.
Figure 4.12 (b) Truth Table of NOT Logic Gate.

A NOT gate has just ONE input (A) and ONE output (Q). For an NOT gate logic function
the output Q=1 if A=0 and the output Q=0 if A=1. The input and the output are just
compliment of each other.
The NOT gate function can be realized by means of electric circuit with ONE switch S as
shown in figure 4.11(c). The switch S is normally closed (NC) when it is UNPRESSED to
give the flow of current. When the switch S is PRESSED then it is open and does not
allow the flow of current.
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Figure 4.12(c) NOT GATE

Ex. 1. With the NOT gate logic it is possible to realize the control system required for part
of chemical plant where an alarm is to be activated if the temperature falls below a
certain level .(Figure 4.13).
Figure 4.13 NOT Gate System for Chemical Plant Temperature Monitoring.
NAND LOGIC GATE

The NAND gate is the combination of AND & NOT gate. The functional block diagram and
truth table of NAND logic gate function is as shown in figure 4.14.
59
Figure 4.14 (a) Functional Block Diagram
Figure 4.14 (b) Truth Table of NAND Logic Gate.

For an NAND gate logic function the output Q=1 if and only if both A=0 & B=0.All other
combinations of A and B generate the output Q=1.
NOR LOGIC GATE

The NOR gate is the combination of OR & NOT gate. The functional block diagram and
Figure 4.15 (a) Functional Block Diagram OR Logic Gate.
Figure 4.15 (b) -Truth Table of OR Logic Gate.

60
For an NOR gate logic function the output Q=0 if either A=1 or B=1 and both A=B=1.
If both A=B=0 then output Q=1.
XOR LOGIC GATE

The XOR gate is the combination of OR & AND gate. The functional block diagram and
Figure 4.16 (a) Functional Block Diagram XOR Logic Gate.
Figure 4.16 (b) Truth Table of XOR Logic Gate.

For an XOR gate logic function the output Q=0 if A= B=1 / 0. & the output Q=1 if A B.
XNOR LOGIC GATE

The XNOR gate is the combination of OR & AND & NOT gate. The functional block
diagram and truth table of NAND logic gate function is as shown in figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17 (a) Functional Block Diagram XNOR Logic Gate.
Figure 4.17 (b)-Truth Table of XNOR Logic Gate.

For an XNOR gate logic function the output Q=0 if A B. & the output Q=1 if A= B=1 / 0.
61
Summary of Different Forms of Control Systems Strategies & Techniques

The control systems can take number of forms:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Open-loop control.
Close-loop control.
Outputs which are continuously monitored & controlled (Process Control).
Outputs ON/ OFF controlled by number of Inputs ON/OFF. (Digital ON/OFF Control).
Sequential Control where sequence of actions are carried out. (Sequential Control).
Examples:
1.
Mixing hot & cold water by checking the temperature.

You run a bath and adjust the temperature of the bath water by varying the flow of water
run in from the hot tap and the cold tap. This is an example of closed loop control
system. The output variable is the temperature of the water in the bath. It is continuously
monitored & changed to meet the required set-point value. (Figure 4.18)
Figure 4.18 Bath Water Control Systems

2.
Walking along a straight line.

You walk in straight line along the road. This is an example of close loop control system.
Your EYE here working as feedback sensor element. The feedback signal is provided by
your eyes by observing the persons positions relative to straight line. Your BRAIN
compares the feedback signal provided by your eyes with the intended reference straight
line position set in the mind set. Your brain further determines the control signal
regarding to follow the particular direction of the path. Thus, your BRAIN here working
as a comparator and the control law & implementation element. The control signal
provided by the brain is given to your LEG MUSCLES, which here acts as correction
62
unit or final control element (FCE). Your BODY in fact represents the entire process,
which performs intended function. (Figure 4.19)
Figure 4.19 Straight Line Walk Control Systems

3.
Setting the temperature of air-conditioner.

This is like electric fire central heating system as discussed earlier. It is a close loop
feedback control system.
4.
Setting up the automatic washing machine.

One may set the dial on the automatic clothes washing machine to indicate that only
WHITE CLOTHS are WASHED. The machine then goes through the complete washing
cycle appropriate to the WHITH CLOTHES type of clothing. This is an example of
sequential control system. There are the feedback loops with the sensors like- Water level
sensor, water temperature sensor, Drum speed sensor, door close/open position sensor etc.
to indicate that certain events are over so as to initiate immediate one.
Figure 4.20 Washing Machine System.
63
5.
Safety locks of automatic washing machine.

The automatic clothes washing machine has safety lock on the door. The machine will not
operate if the power is off and the door open. This type of control as it is discussed earlier
is basically an open-loop AND logic ON/OFF control.
6.
Automatic filling of bottles.

In a bottling plant bottles are automatically filled to the required level. This could be the
close loop system with the level of liquid in the bottle is monitored by a level sensor and
information about the liquid level is feedback to adjust the opening of an input valve of
the liquid inlet.
7.
Packing machine using conveyor belt system.

A packing machine is used to select the required number of items from a conveyor belt
and pack them into the box. The numbers of items are monitored and when the number
reaches to required value an action is initiated. This type of control is regarded as one
stage in a sequential control.
8.
Packing of biscuits by weights automatically.

Packets of biscuits moving along the conveyor belt have their weights checked. The
packet of biscuit whose weight is below the required minimum weight is
automatically rejected. The control system required for this situation might be simple
NOT gate logic system with the weight of packet of biscuit is monitored. The NOT gate
logic ON/OFF control with the truth table shown below can be implemented.
QUESTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS

Questions 1 to 13 have four answer options: A, B, C and D. Choose the correct answer from the
answer options.
1.
Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).

An open loop control system:
(1) Has negative feedback.
(2) Responds to changes in conditions.
A.
C.
(i) T
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) T
B.
D.
(i) T
(i) F
(ii) F
(ii) F
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2.

A close loop control system:
(1) Has a measurement system which gives feedback of a signal which is a measure of the
variable being controlled.
(2) Has a controller which supplies the signal to a correction unit based on the difference
between the set value and the feed back value for the variable being controlled?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
(i) T
(i) T
(i) F
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(ii) T
(ii) F

A sequential control system is one which can have:
(i) One event starting when the one before is complete.
(ii) One event starting when a certain amount of time has elapsed.
A.
B.
C.
D.
(i) T
(i) T
(i) F
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
Questions 4 and 5 refer to following forms of control systems:

A.
B.
C.
Open-Loop.
Closed-Loop.
Sequential.
D. Logic Gate.
4. Which type of control is required for a domestic washing machine if it is only to switch on if
the door is closed and electrical power switch is on?
5. Which type of control system is required if a room temperature is to be maintained constant

regardless of any disturbances resulting from doors being open?
Questions 6 to 9 refer to the following lines from the truth table:
6.
For an OR gate it is necessary to have:

A.
X=0, Y=0.
C. X=0, Y=1
B.
X=1, Y=1.
D. X=1, Y=0
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7. For an AND gate it is necessary to have:

A. X=0, Y=0.
B. X=1, Y=1.
C.
D. X=1, Y=0.
X=0, Y=1.
8. For an NOR gate it is necessary to have:

A.
B.
C.
D.
X=0, Y=0.
X=1, Y=1.
X=0, Y=1.
X=1, Y=0.
9. For an NAND gate it is necessary to have:

A.
B.
E.
F.
X=0, Y=0.
X=1, Y=1.
X=0, Y=1.
X=1, Y=0.
10. For the control system shown in the figure 4.21, the output Q =0 when:
(i) A, B, C and D are all 0.
(ii) A and B are 0, C and D are1.
Figure 4.21 - Problem No 10. Control System

A.
B.
C.
D.
(i) T
(i) T
(i) F
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
66
Questions 11 to 13 refer to the following LOGIC GATE SYSTEMS:

A.
B.
C.
D.
NOT
AND
OR
NOR
11.
Which gate system should be used for the red light to come on if the temperature of a heat
treatment bath falls below certain value?
12.
Which gate system should be used with traffic lights if the light is to switch on to go if a car
is detected and certain time has elapsed since it had switched to red?
13.
Which gate system should be used if the burglar alarm is to sound if any one of the detectors
is activated?
Suggest the possible form of control systems might take for the following situations:
(a) Controlling the thickness of sheet steel produced by a rolling mill.
(b) A conveyor belt is to be used to transport packages from a loading machine to a
pick up area. The control system must start the belt when a package is loaded onto
belt, run the belt until the package arrives at the pick up area, then stop the belt
until package is removed. Then the entire sequence then starts again.
(c) Monitoring breathing in an intensive care unit, sounding an alarm if the breathing
stops.
(d) Controlling the amount of chemical supplied by the hopper into the sacks.
(e) Controlling the volume of water supplied to tank in order to maintain a constant
level.
(f) Controlling the illumination of the road in front of car by switching on the lights.
(g) Controlling the temperature in a car by the driver manually selecting the heater
controls, switching between them as necessary to obtain the required temperature.
14.
15.
Figure 4.22 shows two systems that might be used to control the temperature of the room.
With the block diagram representation explain in short how each operates?
67
16.
17.
Figure 4.22 (a) & (b) Temperature Control System.

Device a logic gate system that could be used with a vending machine so that it dispenses
either tea or coffee when the appropriate button is pressed and when money is inserted into
the machine?
Device a logic gate system for use in car so that a light will flash if when the key is turn to
activate the ignition, the seat belts are not fastened.
Chapter 5
TRANFER FUNCTION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Outcome Covered:
10. Determine the transfer function of open and closed loop control system
Define Transfer Function:

The transfer function of the control system is the mathematical relation between the input and the
output variable of the system. As shown in the figure 5.1 it is expressed in terms of S-domain.
Figure 5.1 Transfer Function of Control System

T(s) = C(s) / R(s)
R(s) = Input Variable in S-domain.
C(s) = Output Variable in S-domain.
T(s) = Close loop Transfer in S-domain.
(5.1)
The transfer function is the simplified mathematical representation (MODEL) of control system.
It is used to determine the output response of the control system.
The output response of the control system is defined as the change (or variation) in output
variable C(s) due to the change (or variation) in the input variable R(s).
R(s) = Change in Input Variable in S-domain.
C(s) = Change in Output Variable in S-domain.
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Transfer Function of Open-loop Control System (Without Feedback)

The figure 5.2(a) shows an open-loop control system without feedback.
Figure 5.2 (a) Open-loop Control System

In open-loop control system there is no feedback loop. The information about the output variable
is not feedback to input.
Here, the output signal is determined only by the initial set-point (SP) / reference value of the
input signal.
Under the event of any DISTURBANCE subjected to the process the output variable will
change or deviate away from the required set-point (SP) value.
The output of the CONTROLLER (Comparator + Final Control Element) does not have any
control on the output variable.
No corrective action will be taken here to adjust the output variable to its set-point (SP) value
under the event of disturbance to the process due to the absence of feedback loop.
Thus, in an open-loop system the controller (series combination of comparator and the
correction element / final control element) and the process are connected together in cascade
(series) between the input variable and the output variable. They are represented as shown in
figure 5.2 (b) as - FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION G(s) between the input variable
and the output variable.
Figure 5.2 (b) Block Diagram Representation of Open-loop Control System

From figure 5.2(b) it is clear that the only transfer function that exist between the input R(s) and
the output variable C(s) is the forward path transfer function G(s).
69
Hence for an open loop control system the overall transfer function T(s), which relates the
mathematical relationship between the input R(s) and the output variable C(s) is the forward
path transfer function G(s) only.
Thus, For an OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM the TRASNFER FUNCTION=T(S) is
given as-FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION =G(S).
T(s) = G (s) = C (s) / R (s)
(5.1)
Transfer Function of Close -loop Control System (With Feedback)

The figure 5.3 (a) shows close-loop control system with feedback.
Figure 5.3 (a) Close-loop Control System

In close-loop control system there is feedback loop. The information about the output variable is
feedback to the input by means of feedback sensor element.
Here, the output signal is continuously monitored by feedback sensor element and is compared
with the set-point (SP) reference input signal by means of comparator.
Any deviation or change in the output variable on account of any DISTURBANCE subjected to
the process result into the error signal at the output of the comparator.
This error signal is further processed through the controller to provide the control signal. The
control signal derived from the output of controller is given to correction element or final control
element (FCE) of the process element to provide the output signal so as to reduce (mitigate) the
error. Here, thus the output of the CONTROLLER (Comparator + Final Control Element) does
have control on the output variable.
A corrective action will be taken here to adjust the output variable to its set-point (SP) value
under the event of disturbance to the process due to the presence of feedback loop.
70
In a close-loop system the controller, the correction element / final control element and the
process are connected together in cascade (series) are represented as shown in figure 5.3 (b) as FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION = G(s).
The feedback sensor element, which gives the feedback signal = B(s) as a measure of the
output variable is also termed as TRANSDUCER (combination of SENSOR + SIGNAL
CONDITIONER) is represented by the FEEDBACK TRANSFER FUNCTION= H(S).
Figure 5.3 (b) Block Diagram Representation of Close-loop Control System with Negative
Feedback
The comparator element is represented by the crossed circle.
It is marked with + sign (Positive) for the set-point (SP) input signal=R(s) and with -sign
(Negative) for the feedback signal=B(s).
This element gives the error signal=E(s) as a measure of difference
point (SP) / reference signal = R(s) and the feedback signal = B(s)
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
between the input set-
(5.11)
Negative feedback is used here as the feedback is subtracted from the input set-point (SP) /
reference signal = R(s) with - sign.
Positive feedback may be used if the feedback is added to the input set-point (SP) / reference
signal = R(s) with + sign.
The Overall Transfer Function -T(s), for close loop system with negative feedback which
relates the mathematical relationship between the input R(s) and the output variable C(s) is
given as-
T(s) = C(s) / R(s)

= G(s) / [1 + (G(s) * H(s)]
(5.12)
71
From figure 5.3 (b) it is clear that the input signal to the forward path transfer function = G(s)
is an error signal=E(s) and the output signal is C(s).
G (s) = C(s) / E(s)

E(S) = C(s) / G(s)
(5.13)
From figure 5.3(b) it is clear that the input signal to the Feedback Transfer Function = H(s) is
an output signal C(s) and the output from it is the feedback signal = B(s) as a measure of the
output variable
H (s) = B(s) / C(s)

B (s) = C(s) * H(s)
(5.14)
Recall (5.11):
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
(5.11)
Substitute E(s) as (5.13) and B(s) as (5.14) in (5.11):

C(s) / G(s) = R(s) (C(s) * H(s))
C(s) = G(s) * [R(s) (C(s) * H(s))]
C(s) = G(s) * R(s) G(s) * C(s) * H(s)
C(s) [1+ (G(s) * H(s))] = G(s) * R(s)
T(s) = C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / [1+ (G(s) * H(s))]
(5.12)
The close-loop feedback system with FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION =

G(s) and FEEDBACK TRANSFER FUNCTION = H(s) with negative feedback can be
represented by the-
72
CLOSE-LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION = T(s)

= C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / [1+ (G(s) * H(s))]
Figure 5.3 (c) Block Diagram Representation of Close-loop Control System with Negative
Feedback
The close-loop feedback system with FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION = G(s)
and FEEDBACK TRANSFER FUNCTION = H(s) with positive feedback can be represented
by theCLOSE-LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION = T(s)
= C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / [1 - (G(s) * H(s))]
T(s) = C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / [1- (G(s) * H(s))]
(5.13)
Figure 5.3 (d) Block Diagram Representation of Close-loop Control System with Positive
Feedback
73
Chapter 6
CONTROLLERS
Outcomes Covered
6. Be familiar with system control strategies and techniques used in engineering.
13 Valuate the performance of a given control system.
Controllers:
The Controller in the closed-loop control system detects the error between the set value and the
measured value and implements some method of control. The error might arise due to change in
the process conditions or change in the set-point (SP) value. The different control methods are
employed for different types of control systems, which convert the error (error signal) into
control action (control signal). This control action reduces the error. The ways in which
controllers react to error changes are called as CONTROL LAWS or CONTROL MODES or
CONTROL METHODS.
The Different Control Methods Suitable For Different Control Systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The ON/OFF Mode: in this controller is just the switch activated by the error signal.
The control action is just on-off.
The Proportional (P) mode: produces a control action, which is proportional to error.
The Proportional plus the Derivative mode (PD): produces the control action, which
has 2 parts. One is proportional to the error and the other proportional to derivative
of the error.
The Proportional plus Integral mode (PI): produces the control action, which has 2
parts. One is proportional to the error and the other proportional to integral of the
error.
The Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative mode (PID): 3 term PID mode. One
is proportional to the error and other proportional to integral of the error and the third
is proportional to derivative of the error.
System Time Lags:

In any feedback control system, the system can not respond instantly to any change and hence
there will be some delay in the response. This delay in the system response is termed as System
Time Lag or Lags.
ON/OFF Control Mode:

It is also called TWO-STEP mode. Example is a control system for heating a room with the
heater. The heater is switched ON/OFF as according to required reference or set-point (SP)
temperature.
74
If the room temperature is above the required value then the heater will be switched OFF. If the
room temperature falls below the required value then the heater will be switched ON.
Here, the error signal is used by the controller to decide the switching ON/OFF operation of
heater.
Figure 6.1 Temperature changes with an ON/OFF Modes.

Initially at time t=0, the temperature of room as shown in the figure 6.1 is well below the
required set-point (SP) temperature. The error signal will switch ON the heater. The temperature
of room increases and reaches to the set-point value. The error signal thus reduces down to zero
value, but the system time lag will not allow the heater to switch OFF. The heater, remain ON
during this switching off delay time. The temperature of the room overshoots the required value.
After the (switching off) time delay lag taken by the system the heater is switched OFF.
Then heater will take its own time to cool down and the temperature of the room decreases and
reduce down to the required set-point (SP) value. The error signal thus reduces down to zero
value, but again the (switching on) system time lag will not allow the heater to switch ON
immediately. This delay in the action of control system reduces the temperature of room below
the required set-point (SP) value. The temperature of the room thus undershoots the required
value.
The cycle repeat and the temperature of the room oscillate between the above and below the
required set-point (SP) value. This phenomenon is known as hunting.
The time taken to respond will depend on the size of the room, size of heater and in turn the
sensitivity of the control system.
This switching ON/OFF control is used in many places (applications) where the changes in the
variable take place very slowly and gives the oscillation about the set-point (SP) value with the
longer periodic time (less frequency).
This ON/OFF control is not accurate, but it is simple and cheap.
75
On-OFF Devices:
Figure 6.2 shows the relationship of the output control signal from the ON/OFF controller with
the error signal.
Controller Output
Error
Figure 6.2 Controller Output

An ON-OFF device is a switch which is activated by the error signal.
A most common analog ON-OFF controller device is Relay. Figure 6.3 shows the basic form of
relay. A small current at a low voltage applied to the solenoid produces a magnetic field. When
the current is high, the electromagnet attracts the armature towards the pole piece in doing so
operates the relay contacts. This relay contact is used in the correction element (heater / motor)
circuit to switch on the large current.
When the current through the solenoid drops below the set-point value (SP) value, the springy
nature of the strip on which the contact is mounted pushes the armature back to the off position.
As the armature goes back to the original off position the relay contact becomes off and switch
off the large current of the correction element (heater / motor) circuit.
Error signal can be applied to the connections to solenoid. If the error reaches the certain size or
threshold value then it trips on the relay to switch on the much larger current in a correction
element such as heater or motor.
Figure 6.3 The Electromagnetic Relay as ON/OFF Controller Device.

A bimetallic strip also can be used for the same purpose. Figure 6.4 shows the basic principle of
operation of bimetallic strip.
76
Figure 6.4 Bimetallic Thermostat

As the temperature decreases the bimetallic strip bends towards the contact, switching the heater
ON. As the temperature increases, the bimetallic strip moves away from the contact. The heater
is then switched off. It is like the electric iron.
The output control signal of ON-OFF controller is either an ON signal or OFF signal.
The size of the ON signal is independent of the size of the error signal.
Proportional (P) Mode:

In this method the size of controller output signal is proportional to the size of an error signal
which is the input signal to the controller.
Controller Output
Controller Input
Controller Output
KP * Controller Input (Error).
(6.1)
Where, KP is called as gain constant.

Gain KP = Controller Output / Controller Input.
The correction element of the control system will get a signal proportional to the error.
100
% Controller Output
% Error
100
Figure 6.5 Proportional Controller Output Input Signal.

As shown in the figure 6.5, the output of a proportional controller is expressed as the
percentage of the full range of output that it is capable of passing on to the correction element.
77
Here, the controller output is proportional to the error.

Therefore, the percentages of the output signal of the proportional controller (0 % - 100 %)
corresponds to zero value for the error (0%) and the maximum possible error value
(100%).
e. g. When the error is 50% of its maximum possible value then the controller output will be 50%
of its full range.
Example 1: The float method of controlling the level of water in the tank is an example of
proportional controller. Refer figure 6.7. The control mode is decided by the lever. The error
signal is the input to the ball end of the lever and the output is movement of the lever.
Output movement = x/y * error
The output is proportional to the error. The gain constant=KP= x/y.
Figure 6.7 Float-lever Proportional Controller.

Problem 1:
A proportional controller has a gain of 4. What will be the percentage steady state error signal
required to maintain an output from the controller 20% when the normal set value is 0%.?
The normal set value of error is 0 % (input signal to P-type of controller) therefore the
corresponding output signal value of the controller will be 0 % of full range.
% controller output = gain (KP) * % error input.
The output signal from the controller is constant = 20% (full range value.)
20 = 4 * (% error input).
Hence, % error = 5 %.
78
Proportional + Derivative (PD) Control Mode:

With derivative control the change in the controller output value (% of full range of output!)
from the set point value (0% error value - i.e. 0% of the full range of output value) is
proportional to the rate of change with time of the error signal.
Controller Output
Rate of change of error with time.
Controller Output
KD * Rate of change of error with time.
(6.2)
It is usual to express these controller outputs as a percentage of the full range of value output and
the input error as percentage of full range.
KD = constant of proportionality and referred to as derivative time since it has unit of time.
Error
0
Time
Controller Output
Time
Figure 6.8 Derivative Control

The figure 6.8 represents the output of the derivative controller when there is steadily increasing
error signal.
As the error signal is increasing but at the constant rate (constant slope) the derivative
controller gives the constant output signal to the correction element.
With the derivative control, as soon as the error signal begins to change there can be a quite
large change in the controller output since it is proportional to the rate of change of error
signal and not the value of the error signal.
79
The output of derivative controller is a large signal proportional to the derivative of error and not
its value. Thus it will give rapid corrective responses whenever the error will change as function
of time.
Derivative controllers are not suitable for the constant error signals. (Zero output) Hence it is
always combined with proportional control.
Controller Output = KP * (error + KD * rate of change of error).
(6.3)
The figure 6.9 represents the output of the proportional-derivative (PD-Type) controller when
there is steadily increasing error signal.
There is initial quick change in the controller output because of the derivative action followed by
the gradual change due to proportional action.
Error
0
Time
Controller Output
Time
Figure 6.9 Proportional-Derivative Control

Problem 2: A derivative controller has a derivative constant KD of 0.4s. What will be the
controller output when the error changes
(a) Changes at 2%/s (b) constant at 4%.
(a) With the derivative control law equation;
Controller Output
=
KD * Rate of change of error with time.
Controller Output
=
0.4 * 2.
=
0.8 %.
This is the constant output.
(b) With a constant error there is no change in error with time and thus the derivative controller
output is ZERO.
80
Problem 3: What will the controller output be for the a proportional plus derivative controller
(a) Initially and (b) 2 s after the error begins to change from the zero at the rate of 2% / s (Figure
6.10). The controller has KP = 4 and KD = 0.4s.
Error
6
4
2
0
3
Time (S)
Figure 6.10 Problem 3

(a) Initially the error is zero and so there is no controller output due to proportional action. There
will be an output due to derivative action since error is changing at 2%/s.
With the proportional-derivative (PD) control law equation;
= 4 * (0 + 0.4 * 2) = 3.2%.
(b) After 2 sec;
Error = 4%.
The controller output due to proportional mode as per proportional control mode equation;
Controller Output
=
KP * Controller Input (Error).
Controller Output =
4 * 4 = 16 %.( Proportional Mode only)
Error is still changing at 2%/s (constant rate)
Therefore, the controller output due to derivative mode equation;
Controller Output = KP * (KD * rate of change of error).
Controller Output = 4 * (0.4 * 2) = 3.2 % (Derivative Mode only)
Hence the total controller output due to both the modes is the sum of the above two outputs.
Total Controller (PD) Output = 16% + 3. 2 % =19.2 %
(OTHERWISE)
With the proportional-derivative (PD) control law equation;
= 4 * (4 + 0.4 * 2) = 19.2%.
81
Proportional + Integral (PI) Control Mode:

With integral control the controller output value (% of full range of output!) From the set point
value (0% error value - i.e. 0% of the full range of output value) is proportional to the integral of
the error with respect to time.
Controller Output
integral of error with time.
Controller Output
KI * integral of error with time.
(6.4)
It is usual to express these controller outputs as a percentage of the full range of value output and
the input error as percentage of full range.
KI = Constant of proportionality and has unit S-1. The reciprocal of KI is called integral time
and is expressed in seconds.
What do you mean by the integral of error with respect to time!
Refer figure 6.11, Here, the error signal varies with time (t).
The value of integral of error at some timet is the area under the graph between t=0 and t.
Controller Output
area under the graph between t=0 and t.
Ast increases, the area increases and so the controller output increases.
Here,
area
time (t).
Therefore,
Controller Output
time (t).
Figure 6.11 Integral Control Mode.
82
Alternate way of description of Integral Control:

Refer figure 6.11.
As the error is constant with respect to time (t).
The constant error gives the constant rate of change of controller output.
(The slope=m= controller output with respect to time (t) =constant)
Therefore,
rate of change of controller output
error
(6.5)
The integral action is added to proportional control system then the controller output is given by:
Controller Output = KP * (error + KI * integral of error with time).
(6.6)
The Output response of System with Proportional + Integral Control Mode.

Refer figure 6.12:
Figure 6.12 Proportional + Integral Mode

Here, as ERROR changes from one value to another value, due to the proportional action there is
proportional change in the controller output value. The integral action allows the controller
output to increase at constant rate (with constant slope=m) since error does not change and is
constant at one value for all time.
Problem 4: An integral controller has a value of KI of 0.10 S-1. What will be the output after times of (a) 1 s, (b) 2
s, if there is sudden change to constant error of 20% as shown in figure 6.12?
Figure 6.12 Problem 4
83
KI = 0.10 S-1.
Controller Output
KI * integral of error with time.
(a) Area under the graph between a time of 0 and 1 second is = (20 %) * (1s) = 20%s.
Controller Output
= (0.10) * (20) = 2%.
(b) Area under the graph between a time of 0 and 2 second is = (20 %) * (2s) = 40%s.
Controller Output
= (0.10) * (40) = 4%.
Proportional + Integral + Derivative (PID) Control Mode:

Combination of all three modes of controller Proportional + Integral + Derivative together
produce the PID type of control action.
Controller Output = KP * (error + KI * integral of error with time + KD * rate of change of error)
(6.7)
A PID-mode controller is considered to be proportional controller which has integral control to off-set error and
derivative control to reduce the time lags.
Problem 5: Determine the controller output of PID controller with KP = 4, KI = 0.10 S-1 and KD =
0.5s, at time(a) T =0.
(b) T =2 s. when there is an error input which starts at t=0 and increases at 1% / s.
Refer figure 6.13.
Figure 6.13 Problem 5.

Controller Output = KP * (error + KI * integral of error with time + KD * rate of change of error)
(6.7)
(a) For t = 0s,
Error = 0%.
Rate of change of error = 1% / s.
Integral of error with time = Area under between the previous arbitrary value of t and t=0 = 0%s.
84
Controller Output = (4) * [0 + (0.10) * (0) + (0.5) * (1)]

= 2.0 %.
(b) For t = 2s,
Error = 2.0 %.
Rate of change of error = 1% / s.
Integral of error with time
= Area under between the previous arbitrary value oft= 0s andt
= 2s:
= [(1/2) * (2s) * (2%)] = 2 % s.
Controller Output = (4) * [2 + (0.10) * (2) + (0.5) * (1)]
= 10.8 %.
QUESTIONS ON CONTROLLERS
85
86
Chapter 7
Operational Amplifiers and Programmable Logic Controllers
Outcome Covered
9. To deal with operational amplifier controllers and programmable logic controllers
Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifier is an extremely efficient and versatile device that perform various
mathematical operations along with amplification of the input signal.
Typical Operational Amplifier

1. Vout = A Vin where Vin V+ - VA is the open loop gain of the amplifier and for an ideal op amp is infinity and for a typical
op amp is between 106 to 108. since we are dealing with an actual physical device its output
voltages can never exceed its supply voltages, V-- and V++.
2. V-- < Vout < V++
Typical supply voltages are V-- = -15V and V++ = +15V.
Applying these two conditions leads to 3 different cases:
2a: If A Vin > V++ then Vout = V++
2b: If A Vin < V-- then Vout = V-2c: If V-- < A Vin < V++ then Vout = A Vin
Feedback
The most important step in analyzing an op-amp circuit is to determine first the type of
feedback that is being employed!
Feedback refers to connecting the output of the op-amp to its input, usually through resistors, and
there are three basic ways to do that, shown below:
87
Operational Amplifiers Applications

Comparator
Compares two voltages and switches its output to indicate which voltage is larger.
(where Vs is the supply voltage and the opamp is powered by +
Vs and Vs.)
Inverting amplifier
An inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to invert and amplify a voltage. The Rin,Rf resistor
network allows some of the output signal to be returned to the input. Since the output is 180 out
of phase, this amount is effectively subtracted from the input, thereby reducing the input into the
operational amplifier. This reduces the overall gain of the amplifier and is dubbed negative
feedback
Zin = Rin (because V is a virtual ground)
A third resistor, of value

, added between the noninverting input and ground, while not necessary, minimizes errors due to input bias
currents
The gain of the amplifier is determined by the ratio of Rf to Rin. That is:
88
The presence of the negative sign is a convention indicating that the output is inverted. For
example, if Rf is 10 000 and Rin is 1 000 , then the gain would be -10 000/1 000, which is
-10
Non-inverting amplifier
Amplifies a voltage (multiplies by a constant greater than 1)
Differential amplifier
The circuit shown is used for finding the difference of two voltages each multiplied by some
constant (determined by the resistors).
The name "differential amplifier" should not be confused with the "differentiator", also shown on
this page.
89
Differential Zin (between the two input pins) = R1
+ R2 (Note: this is approximate)
For common-mode rejection, anything done to one input must be done to the other. The addition
of a compensation capacitor in parallel with Rf, for instance, must be balanced by an equivalent
capacitor in parallel with Rg.
Whenever
When
follower:
and
and
, the differential gain is
and
the differential gain is A = 1 and the circuit acts as a differential
Voltage follower
Used as a buffer amplifier to eliminate loading effects (e.g., connecting a device with a high
source impedance to a device with a low input impedance).
(realistically, the differential input impedance of the op-amp itself, 1 M to 1

T)
Due to the strong (i.e., unity gain) feedback and certain non-ideal characteristics of real
operational amplifiers, this feedback system is prone to have poor stability margins.
Consequently, the system may be unstable when connected to sufficiently capacitive loads. In
these cases, a lag compensation network (e.g., connecting the load to the voltage follower
through a resistor) can be used to restore stability. The manufacturer data sheet for the
operational amplifier may provide guidance for the selection of components in external
compensation networks. Alternatively, another operational amplifier can be chosen that has more
appropriate internal compensation.
Programmable Logic Controllers

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used
for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory
assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and
machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and
output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance
90
to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in batterybacked or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results
must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended
operation will result.
ThestructureofaPLCcanbedividedintofourparts.Theyareinput/outputmodules,central
processingunit(CPU),memoryandprogrammingterminal.
Programming
Terminal
Power
Supply
Memory
CPU
Input
Module
Output
Module
Input
Devices
Output
Devices
PLC
PROCESS
Fig.1:
Programmablelogiccontroller(PLC)structure
A programmable controller operates by examining the input signals from a process and
carrying out logic instructions (which have been programmed into its memory) on these input
signals,producingoutputsignalstodriveprocessequipmentormachinery.Standardinterfacesbuilt
intoPLCallowthemtobedirectlyconnectedtoprocessactuatorsandtransducerswithouttheneed
forintermediatecircuitryorrelays.
PLCs require shorter installation and commissioning times than do hard-wired systems.
Although PLCs are similar to 'conventional' computers in term of hardware technology, they
have specific features suited for industrial control:
1
Rugged, noise immune equipment;
(b) Modular plug-in construction, allowing easy replacement or addition of units (e.g.
input/output);
91
(c) Standard input/output connections and signal levels;

(d) Easily understood programming language;
(e) Ease of programming and reprogramming in-plant;
(f) Capable of communicating with other PLCs, computers and intelligent devices;
(g) Competitive in both cost and space occupied with relay and solid-state logic
systems;
These features make programmable controllers highly desirable in a wide variety of
industrial-plant and process-control situations.
Programming the PLC
Most of the programming methods in use today for PLCs are based on the ladder logic diagram. This
diagram has been found to be very convenient for shop personnel who are familiar with circuit
diagrams because it does not require them to learn an entirely new programming language. What is
required is a means of inputting the program into the OPLC memory:
There are various approaches for entering and interconnecting the individual logic elements.
These include:
Entry of the ladder logic diagram
Low-level computer-type languages
High-level computer-type languages
Functional blocks
Sequential function chart
Chapter 8
Valves, Actuators and Logic Diagrams
Outcome Covered
16. Identify the types of control valve bodies. Actuators and accessories
17. Construct functional logic diagram for fire and gas system.
Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and
liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from
92
controllers that compare a "setpoint" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors
that monitor changes in such conditions.
The opening or closing of control valves is done by means of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
systems. Positioners are used to control the opening or closing of the actuator based on Electric,
or Pnuematic Signals. These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more
common now are 4-20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, & the introduction of
"Smart" systems, HART, Fieldbus Foundation, & Profibus being the more common protocols.
Types of control valve bodies
The most common and versatile types of control valves are sliding-stem globe and angle valves.
Their popularity derives from rugged construction and the many options available that make
them suitable for a variety of process applications, including severe service.[2] Control valve
bodies may be categorized as below:
Angle valves
o
Cage-style valve bodies
DiskStack style valve bodies
Angle seat piston valves
Globe valves
o
Single-port valve bodies
Balanced-plug cage-style valve bodies
High capacity, cage-guided valve bodies
Port-guided single-port valve bodies
Double-ported valve bodies
Three-way valve bodies
Diaphragm Valves
Rotary valves
o
Butterfly valve bodies
V-notch ball control valve bodies

93
Eccentric-disk control valve bodies
Eccentric-plug control valve bodies
sliding cylinder valves

o
Directional control valve
spool valve
piston valve
air operated valves

o
air operated valve
relay valve
air operated pinch valve
Actuators
An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It takes
energy, usually transported by air, electric current, or liquid, and converts that into some kind of
motion.
Types of actuators include
Standard Electric Actuators
Universal Electric Actuators
Micro electric Actuators
Air Actuators
Fire and gas (F&G) detection and mitigation systems are key to maintaining the overall safety and operation of
industrial facilities. F&G systems include offshore petroleum exploration and production, onshore oil and gas facilities,
refineries and chemical plants, marine operations, tank farms and terminals, pipelines, power plants, mining and
paper mills.
A F&G safety system continuously monitors for abnormal situations such as a fire, or combustible or toxic gas release
within the plant; and provides early warning and mitigation actions to prevent escalation of the incident and protect
the process or environment.
94
The first measurement using half-splitting would be made at point E (the middle of the faulty
path). If the signal is okay at point E the path to the left of point E is good and the problem lies
between points E and I. Thus one measurement has reduced the size of the faulty path by onehalf (half-splitting)
The next measurement would be made at point G again splitting the faulty path
in half.
If the measurement at point G is bad (no signal) the next measurement
would be made at point F. This method of splitting a faulty path in half is continued until
the faulty stage is isolated
95

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CHAPTER 1

Functional Elements of Measurement System

Definition of the measurement:

Purpose of the measurement System:

Example(1) : As shown below, the thermocouple is a transducer that converts temperature to a

Example(2) : As shown below, resistance thermometer (RTD) represented by element (A) is

Essential Requirements of Measurement Systems:

Fitness for the purpose:

Characteristics of Functional Elements of Measurement System

1-Accuracy: Is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale

The accuracy is covering the all possible errors.

If measured value is 10.1 and true value is 10.0 then,

Error = 10.1 10.0 = 0.1 (positive).

Example: A pressure measurement system is stated as having the following characteristics.

Question on Elements of Measurement Systems

8- List and explain the functional elements of a measurement system.

(I)- Transducer / Sensor Classification :

- Measure the Position. e. g. linear or angular position of some object.

- Detect motion or the presence of some objects. e. g. An alarm is

1-Potentiometer: It consists of a resistance element with sliding contact, which can be

Supply voltage = VS (Volts).

2-Capacitive Element: A common form of CAPACITOR consists of Two Parallel Plates

r = relative permittivity of the dielectric insulator material between the plates.

The fixed plate act as one of the capacitor plate.

CHANGE IN CAPACITANCE (C).

It consists of TWO capacitors as shown in the figure above.

2-Strain-Gauge Element: It consists of a flat length of metal wire, foil resistance

The strain gauge attached on the upper surface is stretched.

3- Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

4- Digital Optical Encoders:

It consists of rotating disc, which rotates with shaft.

CHANGE IN ANGULAR SPEED

C- FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS

D- FLUID FLOW SENSORS

CHANGE OF RATE OF FLOW

CHANGE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCE

CHANGE OF RATE OF FLOW

CHANGE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCE

CHANGE OF RATE OF FLOW

E-LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS

CHANGE IN LIQUID LEVEL

We can use as a liquid:

3- Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs):

Constant = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance.

Metals used: PLATINUM, NICKEL, OR COPPER ALLOYS.

Metal-Oxides used: CHROMIUM, COBALT, IRON, MANGANESE & NICKEL.

The Thermocouple involves two such junctions. Refer figure above.

E, J, K & T ARE *- Cheap, Less Stable, Small Life, Accuracy=1.0 to 3.0 %.

a. The nature of the measurement: (sensor input)

b. The nature of output required: (type of signal processor / display)

Represent a useful set of numbers (e.g. all integers, or rational numbers)

Give every number represented a unique representation (or at least a standard

Reflect the algebraic and arithmetic structure of the numbers.

Typical Number systems used in engineering applications are:

11012=1 x 23 +1 x 22 +0 x 21 +1 x 20=810+ 4 10+110=1310

Binary Number: 1011 0110

The basic rule for adding binary numbers are:

Octal Number System (Base of 8)

Hexa Decimal Number System (Base of 16)

Signal Processor / Conditioner Classification:

1-Resistance to Voltage Converter:

Source Voltage = VS (volts)

2-Wheatstone Bridge (R to V) Converter:

R1 , R2 , R3 , R 4 are the arms of Wheatstone bridge.

Instrumentation & Control Handout

Instrumentation & Control Handout