Introduction

Migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intentions
of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location. The movement is often
over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also
possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally. Migration may be individuals,
family units or in large groups
Nomadic movements are normally not regarded as migrations as there is no
intention to settle in the new place and because the movement is generally
seasonal. Only a few nomadic peoples have retained this form of lifestyle in modern
times. Also, the temporary movement of people for the purpose of travel, tourism,
pilgrimages, or the commute is not regarded as migration, in the absence of an
intention to live and settle in the visited places.
Migration is an important feature of human civilization. It reflects, human endeavor
to survive in the most testing conditions both natural and man made. Migration in
India is in existence historically, but, in the context of Neo Liberal Globalization
assumes special significance, for Trade Unions and Civil Society. As a consequence
of the neo-liberal policies followed by the successive governments, there are serious
income disparities, agrarian distress, inadequate employment generation, vast
growth of informal economy and the resultant migration from rural areas to urban,
urban to urban and backward to comparatively advanced regions in the most
appalling conditions. Under the pressure from the International Finance Capital,
Governments both Central & Provincial are further de-regulating the labour markets
and further enlargement of the informal sector. In the given context Migrant Labour
poses a serious threat and challenge to Civil Society in general and Trade Unions in
particular. Causes of Migration in India is mostly influenced by Social Structures and
pattern of development. The development policies by all the governments since
Independence have accelerated the process of migration. Uneven development is
the main cause of Migration. Added to it, are the disparities, Inter regional and
amongst different socio-economic classes. The landless poor who mostly belong to
lower castes, indigenous communities and economically backward regions
constitute the major portion of Migrants. In the very large Tribal Regions of India
intrusion of outsiders, settlements by the outsiders displacing the local tribal people

and deforestation also played a major role in Migration. The Indian daily Hindustan
Times on 14th October 2007, revealed that according to a study by a Government
Institute, 77% of the population i.e. nearly 840 million

HISTORY OF MIGRATION
Migrations: from 3000 BC
In historic times, since about 3000 BC, various clearly identifiable groups of people have moved
from area to area of the globe. In doing so they have profoundly influenced the human story.
There are several different senses in which such people can be identified as groups, but few
involve racial distinctions.
In prehistory the movement of a group is usually evident through traces of a shared language,
which the migrants bring to a new place. The spread of a cultural influence, such as styles of
pottery or religious practices, will show that there was a close link between regions but will not
necessarily prove permanent migration. Sometimes large numbers of people arrive so suddenly,
and with such hostile intent, that they are unmistakably recognizable as a group. They usually
have a close tribal link with each other, and their names are likely to be remembered with distaste
- the Huns, for example, or the Vandals. On other occasions identifiable groups are moved in
large numbers against their will. The transfer of Africans to America in the slave trade is the
most notable example, and here race comes closest to being a defining factor. But groups of
voluntary immigrants to America - the Irish, for example - remain almost as identifiable in later
generations and have a similar influence on the patterns of history.
Indo-Europeans: from 2000 BC
The next great identifiable movement of a large number of tribes, using related languages, is that
of the Indo-Europeans. By about 2000 BC tribes of this linguistic family are living as nomadic
herdsmen in the steppes which stretch from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions north of the
Black Sea and the Caspian. Over the coming centuries some of these tribes move south and west
into more appealing areas - occasionally in a process akin to open warfare, and invariably no

doubt with violence. But the development is much more gradual than our modern notion of an
invading force.
Migration by sea in the south Pacific: 2000 BC - AD 800
Probably at first more by accident than design, the islands of the south Pacific are reached by
people sailing or drifting from southeast Asia. The first to be settled are those immediately to the
east of New Guinea and Australia - the region given in modern times the name of Melanesia,
because of the dark skins of the inhabitants (from the Greek melas black and nesos island). The
pottery of the early settlers links them with the people of the Moluccas. In around 1300 BC
seafarers make the longest step so far in this process and reach Fiji, a group of islands
intermediate between Melanesia and Polynesia. The Pacific islanders develop a twin-hulled
sailing canoe which is an extremely effective sea-going vessel. In boats of this kind they
continue the process of spreading eastwards through Polynesia (Greek polus many, nesos island).
The first staging posts are Tonga and Samoa. The final thrust, to the most remote island groups
of the Pacific, takes place from the Marquesas. Hawaii is reached in about AD 400; Easter Island
perhaps a century later; Tahiti and the Society Islands in about 600.
8th - 18th century
Turks and Mongols: The high plateau of Mongolia, east of the Altai mountains, is rivalled only
by Scandinavia as a region from which successive waves of tribesmen have emerged to prey
upon more sedentary neighbours. Mongolia is the original homeland of both Turks and Mongols,
two groups much intermingled in history and loosely related in their languages. Mongolia is an
ideal starting point for the movement of nomadic tribes in search of new pastures, and for sudden
excursions of a more predatory nature. It lies at the extreme end of an unbroken range of open
grasslands, the steppes, which reach all the way to Europe. Horsemen can move fast along the
steppes. South of this nomadic highway live rich settled communities.
After 18 century
In ancient times, Indian traders established bases around the Indian and the Pacific oceans,
especially in East Africa and Western and Southeast Asia. However, those flows were not the
basis for Indian migration in the 19th century or the global dispersion seen today.

Rather, flows of the last 175 years began with the era of British colonial rule. The British had
strategic portions of India under their control by the end of the 18th century and gained control
over more territory in the 19th century.
Following the abolition of slavery, first by the British in 1833 and subsequently by other colonial
powers such as France, the Netherlands, and Portugal, the colonies urgently needed manpower,
particularly on sugar and rubber plantations. To meet this demand, the British established an
organized system of temporary labor migration from the Indian subcontinent. On the laborsupply side of the equation, poverty among the South Asian peasantry accounted for the principal
reason to leave the subcontinent.
In 1834, Britain began exporting Indian labor to Mauritius. The Netherlands and France, which
replicated the British system, also relied on Indian workers. By 1878, Indians were working in
Guyana, Trinidad, Natal (South Africa), Suriname, and Fiji.
n response to severe criticism, the British Imperial Legislative Council abolished the indenture
system in 1916. By that time, more than 1.5 million Indians had been shipped to colonies in the
Caribbean, Africa, Asia, and Oceania, according to estimates by the historian Brij V. Lal.
During roughly the same period, another form of labor migration was taking place. Tapping the
labor surplus of South India, mostly in Tamil Nadu, the managers of tea, coffee, and rubber
plantations in Sri Lanka, Malaya (part of present-day Malaysia), and Burma authorized Indian
headmen, known as kangani or maistry, to recruit entire families and ship them to plantations.
Thus the system is commonly referred to as the kangani system for Sri Lanka and Malaya, and
the maistry system for Burma. India, Malaya, and Sri Lanka played a role in this system by
licensing the recruiters and partly by subsidizing transportation to the plantations. In Malaya,
kangani migration took place in addition to the indentured labor system and mostly replaced it
from 1900 onwards.
Indian workers in these three locations had close ties to India, partly because of the relatively
short travel distance. Especially in Sri Lanka, however, the host society prevented any settling or
mingling with the local Sinhalese. Compared to indentured laborers, the lives of kangani

migrants were less regulated and provided the comfort of having moved with their families and
village contacts.

Scope of the study

in rural India. An overwhelming 120 million people or more are estimated to migrate
from rural areas to urban labour markets, industries and farms. Migration has
become essential for people from regions that face frequent shortages of rainfall or
suffer floods, or where population densities are high in relation to land. Areas facing
unresolved social or political conflicts also become prone to high out migration.
Poverty, lack of local options and the availability of work else where become the
trigger and the pull for rural migration respectively. Migrants form the largest part
of India's vast unorganized work sector. Their entry into the labour markets is
marked with several endemic disadvantages. Devoid of critical skills, information
and bargaining power, migrant workers often get caught in exploitative labour
arrangements that forces them to work in low-end, low-value, hazardous work. Lack
of identity and legal protection accentuates this problem. The hardships of migrant
workers are especially magnified when state boundaries are crossed and the
distance between the "source" and "destination" increases. Migrants can also
become easy victims of identity politics and parochialism.
Need of the study
Despite the vast numbers of migrant workers, the policies of the Indian state have
largely failed in providing any form of legal or social protection to this vulnerable
group. In a continuous state of drift, migrants are left out of the scope of state
provisions at both ends - the "source" and the "destination". The urban labour
markets treat them with opportunistic indifference extracting hard labour but
denying basic entitlements such as decent shelter, fair priced food, subsidized
healthcare facilities or training and education. They are also usually out of bounds
of government and civil society initiatives, both because of being "invisible" and for
their inability to carry entitlements along as they move. Economic growth in India
today hinges on mobility of labour. The contribution of migrant workers to national
income is enormous but there is little done in return for their security and well-being.

There is an imminent need for solutions to transform migration into a more dignified and
rewarding opportunity. Without this, making growth inclusive or the very least,
sustainable, will remain a very distant dream

Statement of the problem

the economic analysis of rural migration on agricultural sector a case study of shikaripura talluk
The problem of migrant labour is huge and requires cooperation and coordination between the
government and other social actors including the trade unions. NGOs having skilled manpower and
resources can provide research and background. Trade unions with their organizational structures,
organizing skills can take on the employers, policy makers and governments for a better deal for migrant
workers and contribute for social harmony and sustainable growth

Objectives:
1. 1.To examine the demographic profile of migration in agricultural sector
2. To see what challenges/constraint faced by agricultural labour after migration
3. To suggest the framework for the development and promotion of agricultural labour in
current scenario.
4. To explore gender differences in migration
5. To identify problems unique to agricultural labour
6. To document existing policies, programmes, institutional networks and the involvement
of support agencies in promoting women's entrepreneurship.
Research Methodology
This study will be using descriptive design because it will be considered as the most appropriate
design in this study. Also qualitative design will be used in this study. Qualitative research allows
the researcher to familiarize him/herself with the problem or concept to be studied, and perhaps
generate descriptive data. Qualitative approach will also used in this study because in this study
qualitative approach is more proper than quantitative. In this study the researchers will be
selected some agricultural migration labour who are working in shikaripura
Hypotheses:1. low income group exercise greater freedom in making the decision to start business as
compared to middle class labour

2. Gender discrimination is encountered at every stage for business development.

3. A large number of labour with little or no education enter into business without undergoing
any training
The sample size of this study will be 50 labour who are entrepreneurs especially those who are
working in a micro and macro businesses; in this case the researchers will be select labour who
own small shops. The reasons we will choose this is businesses their popularities and their easy
way to reach and meet our objectives of the study
Methodology
Area of Study
The broad geographical area of the present study was restricted to the shimoga district in
Karnataka. However, the focus was on shikaripura taluk, for scheme was the target group in the
proposed study.
Sources of Data
Primary Data
primary data will be collected from various people form study area of shikaripura talluk Primary
data required for the analysis were collected by testing a structured questionnaire covering 50
sample farmers of the talukas of the area. Sample of the labour was selected on the basis of
random sampling techniques.
Secondary data for the study has been gathered from published sources such as various titles,
journals, periodicals and reports on the subject. For the purpose of gathering the latest
information on the topic internet sources were also consulted.
Limitations of the study
A study of this nature which is dependent on facts and figures provided by the respondents is
bound to have certain limitations. They are :
1. This study is covered only in Shikaripura taluk.

2. The study cannot cover all rural areas of study area

Neoclassical economic theory

This theory of migration states that the main reason for labour migration is wage
difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually
linked to geographic labour demand and supply. It can be said that areas with a
shortage of labour but an excess of capital have a high relative wage while areas
with a high labour supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage. Labour
tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of
labour comes changes in the sending as well as the receiving country. Neoclassical
economic theory is best used to describe transnational migration, because it is not
confined by international immigration laws and similar governmental regulations.

Dual labour market theory[edit]

See also: Dual labour market and studies
Dual labour market theory states that migration is mainly caused by pull factors in
more developed countries. This theory assumes that the labour markets in these
developed countries consist of two segments: tertiary, which requires high-skilled
labour, and primary, which is very labour-intensive but requires low-skilled workers.
This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries into more
developed countries is a result of a pull created by a need for labour in the
developed countries in their secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill

the lowest rung of the labour market because the native labourers do not want to
do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for migrant
workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labour pushes wages up,
making migration even more enticing.[16] A rapid change can be diagnosed in 21st
century when labours from less developed countries are treated as high-skilled
immigrants a they play a crucial role in tertiary segment.

The new economics of labor migration[edit]

This theory states that migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at
the level of individual workers and their economic incentives, but that wider social
entities must be considered as well. One such social entity is the household.
Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion on the part of a household that
has insufficient income. The household, in this case, is in need of extra capital that
can be achieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate
in migrant labor abroad. These remittances can also have a broader effect on the
economy of the sending country as a whole as they bring in capital.[16] Recent
research has examined a decline in U.S. interstate migration from 1991 to 2011,
theorizing that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the
geographic specificity of occupations and an increase in workers ability to learn
about other locations before moving there, through both information technology
and inexpensive travel.[17] Other researchers find that the location-specific nature
of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labour reallocation.
[18]

Relative deprivation theory[edit]

Main article: Relative deprivation
Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between
neighbors or other households in the migrant-sending community is an important
factor in migration. The incentive to migrate is a lot higher in areas that have a high
level of economic inequality. In the short run, remittances may increase inequality,

but in the long run, they may actually decrease it. There are two stages of migration
for a worker: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try to
capitalise on their investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new
capital to provide for better schooling for their children and better homes for their
families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an example for neighbors
and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success.[16]

World systems theory[edit]

World systems theory looks at migration from a global perspectives. It explains that
interaction between different societies can be an important factor in social change
within societies. Trade with one country, which causes economic decline in another,
may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more vibrant economy. It can be
argued that even after decolonisation, the economic dependence of former colonies
still remains on mother countries. This view of international trade is controversial,
however, and some argue that free trade can actually reduce migration between
developing and developed countries. It can be argued that the developed countries
import labour-intensive goods, which causes an increase in employment of unskilled
workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant workers.
The export of capital-intensive goods from rich countries to poor countries also
equalises income and employment conditions, thus also slowing migration. In either
direction, this theory can be used to explain migration between countries that are
geographically far apart.[16]