The Thermodynamics is that branch of Engineering - science which deals with the energies possessed by gases and vapors.

It also
includes the conversion of these energies in terms of heat and mechanical work and their relationship with properties of the
system.

Thermodynamic System
The thermodynamic system may be defined as a definite area or a space where some thermodynamic process takes
place. It may be noted that a thermodynamic system has its boundaries, and anything outside the boundaries is
called its surroundings. The thermodynamic system may be classified into the following three groups :
1. Closed system. This is a system of fixed mass whose boundaries are determined by the space of the working
substance occupied in it. In a closed system, heat and work cross the boundary of the system, but there is no
addition or loss of the original mass of the working substance. Thus the mass of the working substance which
comprises
the
system,
is
fixed.
2. Open system. In this system, the working substance crosses the boundary of the system. The heat and work may
also
cross
the
boundary.
3. Isolated system. It is a system of fixed mass and no heat or work cross its boundary..

Properties of a System
The state of a system may be identified by certain observable quantities such as volume, temperature,
pressure and density etc. All the quantities which identify the state of a system are called properties. The
thermodynamic
properties
are
divided
into
the
following
two
classes:
1.Extensive properties. The properties of the system, whose value for the entire system is equal to the sum of
their values for the individual parts of the system, are called extensive properties. For example, total volume, total
mass
and
total
energy
of
a
system
are
extensive
properties.
2. Intensive properties. The properties of the system, whose value for the entire system is not equal to the sum of
their values for the individual parts of the system, are called intensive properties. For example, temperature,
pressure and density of a system are intensive properties.

Thermal Equilibrium
When there are variations in temperature from point to point of an isolated system. the temperature at every
point first changes with time. This rate of change decreases and eventually stops. When no further changes are
observed, the system is said to be in thermal equilibrium.

Laws of Thermodynamics
Following are the three laws of thermodynamics : (Zeroth law of thermodynamics, First law of
thermodynamics&Second law of thermodynamics).
1. Zeroth law of thermodynamics. This law states that when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other
2. First law of thermodynamics. This law states that the heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible.
According to this law, a definite amount of mechanical work is needed to produce a definite amount of heat and vice
versa.
This law also states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be transformed from one form

to another. According to this law, the energy due to heat supplied (Q) must be balanced by the external workdone
(W) plus the gain in internal energy (E) due to rise in temperature. In other words,
Q=W+E
3. Second law of thermodynamics. This law states that there is a definite limit to the amount of mechanical
energy, which can be obtained from a given quantity of heat energy.
According to Claussius, this law may be stated as "It is impossible for a self-acting machine working in a cyclic
process, to transfer heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without the aid of an
external agency".
The second law of thermodynamics has also been stated by Kelvin-Planck as "It is impossible to construct an
engine working on a cyclic process, whose sole purpose is to convert heat energy in to work." According to this
statement, the second law of thermodynamics is sometimes called as law of degradation of energy

Laws of Perfect Gases

A perfect gas (or an ideal gas) may be defined as a state of a substance, whose evaporation from its liquid state is
complete. It may be noted that if its evaporation is partial, the substance is called vapor. A vapor contains some
particles of liquid in suspension. The behavior of super-heated vapors is similar to that of a perfect gas.
The physical properties of a gas are controlled by the following three variables :
1.Pressure exerted by the gas,
2. Volume occupied by the gas, and
3. Temperature of the gas.
The behavior of a perfect gas, undergoing any change in these three variables, is governed by the following laws :
1. Boyles law. This law was formulated by Robert Boyle in 1662. It states, "The, absolute pressure of a given mass
of a perfect gas varies inversely as its volume, when the temperature remains constant." Mathematically

The more useful form of the above equation is :

p1v1 = p2v2 = p3v3 = .. = Constant
where suffixes 1, 2 and 3 refer to different sets of conditions.
2. Charles' law. This law was formulated by a Frenchman Jacques A.C. Charles in about 1787. It may be stated in
two different forms :
(i) "The volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its absolute temperature, when the absolute
pressure remains constant." Mathematically,
where suffixes 1, 2 and 3 refer to different sets of conditions.
(ii) "All perfect gases change in volume by 1 / 273 th of its original volume at 0 C for every 1 C change in
temperature, when the pressure remains constant."
Let
Vo = Volume of a given mass of gas at 0 C, and

Vt = Volume of the same mass of gas at t C.

Then, according to the above statement,
where
T = Absolute temperature corresponding to t C.
To = Absolute temperature corresponding to 0 C.
A little consideration will show, that the volume of a gas goes on decreasing by 1/ 273th of its original volume for
every 1C decrease in temperature. It is thus obvious, that at a temperature of 273 C, the volume of the gas
would become zero. The temperature at which the volume of a gas becomes zero is called absolute zero temperature.
3. Gay Lussac law. This law states, "The absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its
absolute temperature, when the volume remains constant." Mathematically

where suffixes 1, 2 and 3.... refer to different sets of conditions.

Note : In dealing with a perfect gas, the values of pressure and temperature are expressed in absolute u
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