VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY

PWM GENERATION

SUBMITTED BY:

PREET BATRA

SRUSHTI AVLANI

BT13EEE078

AVANTI SAPRE

BT13EEE090

BT13EEE091
RUTUJA MOHARIL

BT13EEE093

Op-amp as Multivibrator
The op amp as multivibrator is an astable oscillator circuit that generates a
rectangular output waveform using an RC timing network connected to the
inverting input of the operational amplifier and a voltage divider network
connected to the other non-inverting input.
Unlike the monostable or bistable, the astable multivibrator has two states,
neither of which are stable as it is constantly switching between these two
states with the time spent in each state controlled by the charging or
discharging of the capacitor through a resistor.
Working:
Initially the capacitor is uncharged condition, and we can expect 0V at the
inverting pin of the op-amp. In this condition the output is high, and the noninverting pin of the op-amp is getting a voltage, which is the output voltage
divided by the two resistors. The capacitor starts charging to the high
voltage of the output pin through the variable resistor RV1. While it is
charging the potential at the inverting pin gradually increases. Eventually at
some point of time, the voltage at the inverting pin reaches slightly above
the voltage at the non-inverting pin. At this point of time the output of the
op-amp goes low (negative) abruptly.
When the output pin becomes negative, the capacitor suddenly discharges
to zero and then starts charging in the negative direction. While it charges in
the negative direction, the output remains low since the non-inverting pin is
getting a low voltage divided from the output pin. At some point of time the
voltage at the inverting pin reaches below the voltage of the non-inverting
pin and the output goes high (positive) abruptly.

Op-amp as Integrator
When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating
amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit
like a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow via the input
resistor, Rin as potential difference exists between the two plates. No current
flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero
output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain
ratio of Xc/Rin is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than
one, ( voltage follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the
input voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of
charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC time
constant, ( ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces the opamp to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the opamps inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amps inverting input
(which is at earth potential) and the op-amps output (which is negative), the
potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly increases
causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor

increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing a linearly

increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor
is fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of
DC current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( Xc/Rin ) is now
infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to the
op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into
saturation as shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of
the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with little
or no control in between).

Op-amp as Comparator
In the inverting configuration, the reference voltage is connected to the noninverting input of the operational amplifier while the input signal is
connected to the inverting input. Then when VIN is less than VREF the op-amp
comparators output will saturate towards the positive supply rail, Vcc.
Likewise the reverse is true, when VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp
comparators output will change state and saturate towards the negative
supply rail, 0v.
Then depending upon which op-amp inputs we use for the signal and the
reference voltage, we can produce an inverting or non-inverting output.

Circuit Diagram

COMPONENTS:
NAME

Number

op amp ic 741

Resistors: 1k,10k

5,1

Capacitors: 0.2uF,0.01uF

1,1

Pot: 1M

Buzzer

Connecting wires

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a method of changing the duration

of a pulse with respect to the analog input. The Pulse Width
Modulation is a technique in which the ON time or OFF time of a
pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
keeping the (ON time + OFF time) time of the pulse as constant. The
(ON time + OFF time) of a pulse is called Period of the pulse, and the
ratio of the ON time or OFF time with the Period is called the Duty
Cycle. Hence the PWM is a kind of modulation which keeps the Period
of pulses constant but varying their duty cycle according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.

First an astable multivibrator is constructed using ic 741 to generate a

square wave. The output of the square wave is given to the integrator
which integrates it to a triangular wave.

Triangular wave obtained from second op amp is given to the third op

amp which acts as a comparator. The non- inverting terminal is given a
reference voltage by varying a pot. Thus comparator output is a pwm
signal.

Now varying the reference voltage level we can vary the on and off
period of the pwm signal. This can be seen by the different intensity of
the buzzer sound with varying duty ratio.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram.

2. Give the dc biasing to all the op amps +Vcc and -Vee equal to 15v
3. Connect the CRO probes to pin no. 6 and ground of the comparator
op amp (i.e. third op amp)
4. Observe the output on the CRO. Now we can vary the duty ratio.
5. Vary the duty ratio of pwm waveform by varying the pot.

CONCLUSION
1. Thus a pwm generator can be constructed using ic 741.
2. The duty ratio can be varied by varying the reference voltage level.
3. Intensity of the sound of a buzzer is varied due to varying duty ratio.