General Physics : Oscillations, Waves, Sound and Light

Instructor: Ilya Krivorotov (e-mail ikrivoro@uci.edu, phone: 824-6967)

Office hours:
- Wednesday from 4:30 pm to 5:30 pm in Rowland Hall, Room 310E
Textbook:
- "University Physics, 13th Edition" by Young and Freedman
- Ch. 12, 14-16, and 32-36
Material Covered:

- Fluid Mechanics (chapter 12)

- Oscillations and Waves, Sound (chapters 14 16)
- Light and Optics (chapters 32 36)
Course website is www.eee.uci.edu

Read the detailed syllabus posted there!

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General Physics : Oscillations, Waves, Sound and Light

Grading:
- homework (on-line through MasteringPhysics): 10%

- 2 midterms (closed book, 1 page of handwritten notes, 50 minutes): 40%

- final (closed book, 2 pages of handwritten notes, 1 hour 50 minutes): 50%
- free response questions at the midterm and final exams
- the final course grade will be curved to fit the following distribution:

A/A-: 15%, B+/B/B-: 35%, C+/C/C-: 35%, D+/D/D-/F: 15%

General Physics : Oscillations, Waves, Sound and Light

How to succeed in this course:

- Solving homework problems is the best way to learn

and to prepare for exams. Your grade is determined by
how well you can solve problems!
- Attend Discussion Sections to learn how to solve
problems

- Read the relevant sections of the textbook before

coming to lectures and discussion sections
- Ask questions, attend my office hours and your TA
office hours. Utilize the physics tutoring center.

Fluid Mechanics
States of Matter:
Solid - Has a definite volume and shape

object
vessel

Liquid - Has a definite volume but not a definite shape

Gas - Has neither a definite volume nor shape, occupies
the volume of the vessel it is confined to.

Gases and liquids flow and are called fluids

A branch of physics that deals with macroscopic properties
of liquids and gases is called Fluid Mechanics

States of Matter
All of the previous definitions are somewhat
artificial:
Window glass slowly flows although it appears to be a solid
Water and water vapor are indistinguishable at high
pressure and temperature
Is ice cream a solid or a liquid?

More generally, the time it takes a particular

substance to change its shape in response to an
external force determines whether the substance
is treated as a solid, liquid or gas
A tar drop may be treated as solid on time scales
much shorter than 10 years but must be treated as
fluid on time scales comparable to 10 years.

Pitch drop experiment set up in

1927 at the University of
Queensland in Australia. A tar
drop falls every ten years!

Fluid Mechanics and Life

Weather: Tornadoes, Hurricanes

Medicine: Blood flow

Transportation: Aircraft, Ships

Microfluidics: Lab on a chip

Beautiful science

Microscopic Structure of Fluids

From a microscopic point of view, a fluid is a collection of molecules that
are randomly arranged and held together by weak cohesive forces and
by forces exerted by the walls of a container.
Molecules in a solid maintain their positions with respect to each other
(thus there is fixed shape). Molecules in a fluid randomly move around
(thus fluids flow).
Atoms or molecules
in a typical fluid

Atoms or molecules
in a typical solid

Continuous Model of Fluids

In fluid mechanics we neglect the atomistic nature of matter
and treat fluids as continuous substances
We can apply the principles we learned in Newtonian
mechanics (statics and dynamics) to fluid mechanics
Similar to Newtonian mechanics, fluid mechanics has two
branches:
Fluid Statics
Describes fluids at rest

Fluid Dynamics
Describes fluids in motion

Forces in Fluids at Rest

- force exerted on a solid (e. g. spring)
- force exerted on a fluid (e. g. air)

solid

fluid

tension

- an object (e. g. brick)

shear

Fluids do not sustain shearing tensile stress

The only stress that can be exerted on an
object submerged in a static fluid is one that
tends to compress the object from all sides
The force exerted by a static fluid on an
object is always perpendicular to the
surfaces of the object

compression

Origin of Compressive Forces Exerted by Fluids - I

What is the origin of the compressive force exerted by a fluid on an
object submerged in it?
The compressive force comes from the random motion of the
molecules of a fluid.
Submerged object
Fluid molecules

Origin of Compressive Forces Exerted by Fluids - II

As molecules of a fluid hit the walls of the
object submerged in the fluid (or the walls
of the fluid container), they transfer
momentum to the object and thus
(second Newtons law) exert force on the
object.
Only perpendicular component of the
molecule momentum is transferred to the
wall of an object, therefore the force
exerted by molecules is perpendicular to
the wall
F force, p - momentum

dp
dt

Incident molecule
pinx
piny

pin
F

force

prx
pr

pry

Reflected molecule

Pressure
In order to quantify the force of
compression exerted by a fluid, we use
pressure
The pressure P of the fluid at the level to
which an object has been submerged is the
ratio of the force to the area

F
P
A
For example, if F is the force acting on the
cube top and A is the area of the side of
the cube, then pressure P exerted by water
on the top of the cube is F/A.
Cube in water

Pressure, cont
Pressure is more convenient than force because force F is
proportional to area A (more fluid molecules bouncing off the
object) and thus pressure P = F/A is independent of area!

Pressure is a scalar (not a vector!) quantity

Because the force by a fluid on an object is always exerted in one
direction perpendicular to the surface of the object
Since the direction of the force is pre-determined, there is no need to
introduce vector for pressure

If the pressure varies over an area, evaluate dF on a surface

of area dA as dF = P dA
Unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa)

1 Pa 1 N/m

Units of Pressure
SI: 1 Pascal = 1N / 1 m2
Metrology: 1 bar = 105 Pascal
1 atmosphere = 1.013 bar
1 Torr = 1/760 atmosphere = 133.3 Pascal
1 psi (pounds per square inch) = 6,890 Pa
1 atm = 14.7 psi

High and Low Pressure

Largest pressure achieved in the
laboratory:
Diamond anvil cell ~ 200 Giga Pa
Pressure in the center of the Sun ~
3.5*1011 atm

Diamond
anvil cell

Degrees of vacuum:

Atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kilo Pa

Vacuum Cleaner ~ 80 kilo Pa
Ultra high
Mechanical Vacuum pump ~ 1 Pa
vacuum
Near Earth outer space ~ 100 micro Pa chamber
Ultra high vacuum chamber ~ 1 nano Pa
Pressure on the Moon ~ 1 nano Pa
Interstellar space ~ 1 femto Pa

Measuring Pressure
The spring is calibrated by a
known force
The compression length of
the spring is proportional to
the force x = F/k
The force due to the fluid
pushing on the top of the
piston and compressing the
spring
The force the fluid exerts on
the piston is measured

Variation of Pressure with Depth

Fluids exert pressure that varies with depth (or height)
Air pressure is low at large heights, so cabins of aircraft must be pressurized
Water pressure is very high at large depths, so submarines must be
pressurized
Pressure increases with depth because the weight of fluid above an object in
a fluid pushes on this object

If a fluid in a container is at rest, all parts of the fluid are in static

equilibrium, which means that the total force on each part of the fluid
must be zero
We will use the fact that the total force exerted on each part of a fluid is
zero to derive the expression for pressure as a function of depth: P(h)

Pressure and Depth

Consider water in a beaker
Examine the darker region - the liquid within an
imaginary cylinder inside the beaker
The cylinder has a cross-sectional area A
Its cyclinder extends from depth d to d + h below
the surface
Water outside of the cylinder exerts compressive
forces on the cylinder:
P0 is pressure at the top of the cylinder at depth d.
Force on the cylinder due to this pressure is -P0 A
P is pressure at the bottom of the cylinder at depth
h+d. Force on the cylinder due to this pressure is P A
Forces due to pressure on the sides of the cylinder
cancel each other because water does not move
laterally

Pressure and Depth, cont

Three forces act on the cylinder of water in the vertical
direction: forces due to water pressure, -P0 A, P A, as well
as the force of gravity
Let us calculate the force of gravity acting on the cylinder
The liquid has a density r
Assume the density of water is the same throughout the
cylinder
This means this is an incompressible liquid

The three vertical forces are

Downward force on the top, P0A
Upward force on the bottom, PA
Gravity force acting downward, Mg
The mass can be found from the density:

M rV r Ah

Pressure and Depth, final

Since the net force must be zero:

PA
j

P
A
j

M
gj

o
This chooses upward as positive

Solving for the pressure gives

P = P0 + r g h

=0

Example: Force on a Divers Eardrum

What is the force on your eardrum due to the water above
when you are at the bottom of a 5 meter deep pool?
The air inside the middle ear is normally at atmospheric
pressure
We estimate the area of the eardrum as 1 cm2

Pbottom P0 rgh
r=103 kg/m3,

g = 9.8 m/s2, h = 5 m

F Pbottom P0 A
F=?

Pressure and Temperature of Atmosphere versus Elevation

- Atmospheric pressure does not vary linearly with height over large height
variations because the density of air is not constant (decreases with height).
- Pressure always decreases with increasing height.
- Temperature of air is a complex function of height.

Density
P = P0 + r g h

Density is defined as mass per unit volume: r = M / V

Gases have much lower densities than liquids
Liquids have densities similar to solids
rliquid >>rgas because the average inter-molecule
spacing in a gas is much greater than that in a liquid

Density Table

Atmospheric Pressure
If a liquid is open to the atmosphere, then pressure at the
surface of the liquid, P0, is equal to the atmospheric
pressure
P0 = 1.00 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
The pressure at a given point in a fluid depends on the
value of pressure at its surface, P0, and on depth, h.
An increase in pressure at the surface must be transmitted
to every other point in the fluid

Estimate the height of the Earth atmosphere

Assume that the density of air does not depend on height

The air pressure at the Earth surface, P0 =105 Pa

The air density is r = 1.29 kg/m3

P=rgh

h =P/(r g )

h = 105 Pa / (9.8 m/s2 * 1.29 kg/m3) = 7910 m

Since this is an order-of-magnitude estimate:
h 105 Pa / (10 m/s2 * 1 kg/m3) = 104 m

Air column above Earth

Estimate = make approximations

Earth surface

Pascals Law
Named after French scientist Blaise Pascal
A change in the pressure applied to a
fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every point of the fluid and to the walls
of the container
F

P0

P0+P

h
P0+rgh

P0+rgh+ P

Blaise Pascal
(1623 1662)

P = F /A

Pressure Measurements: Barometer

Invented by Torricelli
A long closed tube is submerged in a
dish full of mercury, flipped closed end
up and lifted
The column of mercury is in
equilibrium at a certain height
The closed end is nearly at vacuum

Measures atmospheric pressure as

P0 r Hg gh

mercury
Evangelista Torricelli
(1608-1647 )

One 1 atm = 0.760 m (of Hg)

P0=101.3 kPa, g = 9.8 m/s2, rHg=13.6 103 kg/m3

P0

r Hg g

0.76 m

Pascals Law, Hydraulic Press

Diagram of a hydraulic press

A large lifting force, F2, can

be applied by means of a
small force F1

P1 P2
F1 F2

A1 A2

A2
F2 F1
A1

- Force amplification can be very large.

- Since nothing is free, what is the tradeoff
for the force amplification?

Pascals Law, Hydraulic Press cont.

Since the total volume of liquid is
conserved, the volume of liquid pushed
down on the left is equal to the volume of
liquid pushed up on the right:

A1x1 A2 x2
We have shown that

A2 x1

A1 x2
A2 F2

A1 F1

Combining the equations:

F1x1 F2 x2

W1 W2

We have no gain in work (energy is

conserved!). Gain in force is due to the
fact that we have to push the liquid
down farther (lever action): x1 x2

Pressure Measurements: Manometer

A device for measuring the
pressure of a gas in a vessel
One end of the U-shaped tube is
open to the atmosphere
The other end is connected to the
pressure to be measured
Points A and B are at the same
height, hence pressure at points A
and B is the same
Pressure at B is P0+gh
Therefore P = P0+gh

liquid
gas

Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure

P = P0 + r g h
P is the absolute
pressure
The gauge pressure is
P P0
P P0 = r g h
This is what you measure in
your car tires

liquid
gas

Example: Two Immiscible fluids in a U-tube

Mercury is poured into a U-tube. The
left arm of the tube has cross-sectional
area A1 of 10.0 cm2, and the right arm
has a cross-sectional area
A2 of 5.00 cm2. One hundred grams of
water are then poured into the right arm.
-Determine the length of the water
column in the right arm of the U-tube.
- Given that the density of mercury is
13.6 g/cm3, what distance h does the
mercury rise in the left arm?

Solution:

hw

(a) Using the definition of density:

mw = rw V = rw A2 L

L = mw/(rw A2) =
= 0.1 kg/(103 kg/m3 *510-4 m2) = 0.2 m

(b) Pressures at points A and B in the picture above are equal to each other because these
points are at the same level in the same liquid (mercury), and there is the same type of liquid
below these points.
Pressure at point A is: P = P0 + rw g L because this pressure comes from the column of
air (P0) and the column of water (rw g L) above the point A
Pressure at point B is: P = P0 + rm g (h+(L-hw)) because this pressure comes from the
column of air (P0) and the column of mercury (rm g (h+L-hw)) above the point B

Pressure values at A and B are equal, thus: P0 + rw g L = P0 + rm g (h+L-hw)

rw g L = rm g (h+L-hw)

(rw /rm) L = h+L-hw

h = hw-(1-rw /rm) L

(1)

Finally, the volume of mercury above the initial mercury level (black dashed line) is the same
as the volume of water below the initial mercury level (so that the total volume of mercury is
conserved):

A1 h = A2 (L-hw)

hw= L- (A1 /A2)h

(2)

Substituting (2) into (1) gives: h = L- (A1 /A2)h -(1-rw /rm) L

Solving this equation for h, we obtain: h +(A1 /A2)h = rw /rm L

h=

0.2 m * 103 kg/m3

13.6103

kg/m3

*(1+ 10/5)

h = (L rw)/(rm(1+A1 /A2))

= 0.0049 m = 4.9 mm

Buoyant Force
Let us revisit the example of an imaginary
cylinder of water inside of a beaker full of
water
The net force from the water surrounding the
cylinder exerted on the cylinder is (P-P0)A
This force is counterbalanced by the gravity
force acting on the water in the cylinder:
Mwater g
Since the gravity force points down, the force
acting on the cylinder from the surrounding
water must point up (the sum of the two
forces must be zero in equilibrium)
The buoyant force, FB, is the upward force
exerted by a fluid on any immersed object

Archimedess Principle
Since the buoyant force exerted on the cylinder of water is
counterbalanced by the gravity force (also called weight)
Mwater g, the magnitude of the buoyant force is

FB = Mwater g
This consideration forms the basis of the Archimedess
Principle:
The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object

Archimedess Principle, cont.

Archimedess Principle does not
depend on the material of the
object experiencing the buoyant
force
The objects composition is not a
factor since the buoyant force is
exerted by the fluid
Every object of a given shape at a
given depth in a fluid experiences
the same buoyant force = Mfluid g,
where Mfluid is the fluid mass of
the same volume as the objects
volume

Water in water:

FB = Mwater g
Steel in water:

FB = Mwater g >< Msteel g

FB

Mwater g
FB

Msteel g

Archimedes's Principle: Totally Submerged Object

An object is totally submerged in a
fluid of density rfluid
The upward buoyant force is:
FB = rfluid g Vfluid = rfluid g Vobject
The downward gravitaty force is:
FG = mg = robject g Vobject
The net force is:
FB - FG = rfluid g Vobject - robject g Vobject

FB - FG = (rfluid - robject ) g Vobject

Archimedess Principle: Totally Submerged Object, cont

If the density of the object is less than
the density of the fluid, the
unsupported object accelerates
upward

Wood in water

Steel in water

If the density of the object is more

than the density of the fluid, the
unsupported object sinks
The motion of an object in a fluid is
determined by the densities of the
fluid and the object

rwood<rwater

rsteel>rwater

Archimedess Principle, Crown Example

Archimedes was (supposedly)
asked, Is the crown made of pure
gold?
It was known that:
Crowns weight in air = 7.84 N
Weight in water (submerged) = 6.84 N

How did Archimedes solve this

problem?

Archimedess Principle, Crown Example

- Gold (Au) was the heaviest substance known at the
time (largest density)
- Archimedes argued:
- if rcrown=rAu then the crown must be golden
- if rcrown<rAu then the crown is a fake

Archimedess Principle, Crown Example, cont.

Let T1 be the weight of the crown in air and T2 be

the weight of the crown in water

T1 = Fg = Mcrown g = rcrown Vcrown g

T2 = Fg-FB = Mcrown g Mwater g
= rcrown Vcrown g - rwater Vcrown g
= (rcrown - rwater )Vcrown g

T2 /T1 = 1- (rwater / rcrown )= 6.84 (N)/7.84(N)

rwater= 103 (kg/m3); solving for rcrown , we

obtain: rcrown = 7.84 103 (kg/m3)

Archimedess Principle: Floating Object

Consider an object with
robject<rfluid floating on the surface
of the fluid
The object is in static equilibrium
and thus the upward buoyant force
FB is balanced by the downward
force of gravity FG= Mobject g =robject
Vobject g
Volume of the fluid displaced Vfluid
is equal to the volume of the object
beneath the fluid level
According to the Archimedess
Principle, FB= Mfluid g =rfluid Vfluid g

FG= FB

robject Vobject g = rfluid Vfluid g

robj Vfluid

rfluid Vobj

Archimedess Principle: Floating Object, cont

robj Vfluid

rfluid Vobj
The fraction of the volume
of a floating object that is
below the fluid surface is
equal to the ratio of the
density of the object to that
of the fluid

Archimedess Principle, Iceberg Example

An iceberg that appeared to be small
sank Titanic
What fraction of a typical iceberg is
below water?
The iceberg is only partially submerged
and so Vfluid / Vobject = robject / rfluid
applies
The fraction below the water will be the
ratio of the volumes f:

Vwater
rice
917kg / m3
f

0.89
3
Vice
r water 1030kg / m

Archimedes
- Discovered his principle while taking a bath, then
took to the streets naked crying "Eureka!" ("I have
found it!")
- His most famous word: "Give me a lever long enough
and a place to stand, and I will move the world."
- Was killed by a Roman soldier during a siege of
Syracuse. At the moment he was working on a
geometry problem drawing on sand and his last words
to the soldier were: "Don't disturb my circles"

287-212 BC
The father of integral calculus
and mathematical physics

Types of Fluid Flow

So far we studied fluids at rest, now let us concentrate on
moving (flowing) fluids (fluid dynamics)
Laminar flow
Steady flow
Each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path (a particle consists
of millions of atoms)
The paths of the different particles never cross each other
The path taken by the particles is called a streamline

Turbulent flow
An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool like regions.
Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical
speed

Types of Fluid Flow Turbulent

There is a $1,000,000 prize for
explaining turbulent flow
Turbulent flow of air creates
irregular, quasi-chaotic spatial
distribution of density and velocity
of air. This can significantly affect
aircraft flight.
We will only study laminar flow of
fluids
Image of turbulent flow

Viscosity
Characterizes the degree of internal friction in the fluid
This internal friction, viscous force, is associated with the
resistance that two adjacent layers of fluid have due to
moving relative to each other
Viscosity causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be
converted to internal energy (heat)
Viscous force is similar to the friction force exerted on an
object sliding on rough surface
Viscosity is also called internal friction

Ideal Fluid Flow

We will study a simplified model of a fluid flow. There are
four simplifying assumptions made to the complex flow of
fluids to make the analysis easier
(1) The fluid is nonviscous internal friction is neglected
(2) The flow is steady the velocity of each point remains
constant
(3) The fluid is incompressible the density remains
constant
(4) The flow is laminar no eddies (vortices) are formed

Streamlines
The path the particle takes in
steady flow is a streamline

The velocity of the particle is

tangent to the streamline
A set of streamlines is called a
tube of flow
Streamlines do not cross each
other

Equation of Continuity
Consider a fluid moving through a
pipe of nonuniform size (diameter)
The particles move along streamlines
in steady flow
The volume of fluid that crosses area
A1 in some time interval is the same
as the volume that crosses area A2 in
that same time interval
This is because (i) fluid is
incompressible and (ii) does not
accumulate in the pipe

Equation of Continuity, cont

Volume of fluid that flows through area A1 in a
time interval t is:
V1=A1 x1=A1v1 t

Volume of fluid that flows through area A1 in a

time interval t is:
V2=A2 x2=A2v2 t
Since the fluid is incompressible, V1=V2
Therefore: A1v1 = A2v2
This is called the equation of continuity
The product of the area and the fluid speed at
all points along a pipe is constant for an
incompressible fluid

Equation of Continuity, Implications

The speed is high where the tube is constricted (small A)
The speed is low where the tube is wide (large A)
The product, Av, is called the volume flux or the flow rate

Av = constant is equivalent to saying the volume that

enters one end of the tube in a given time interval equals
the volume leaving the other end in the same time

Bernoullis Equation
As a fluid moves through a region
where its speed and/or elevation
above the Earths surface changes,
the pressure in the fluid varies with
these changes

The relationship between fluid

speed, pressure and elevation
was first derived by Daniel Bernoulli

1700 - 1782

Bernoullis Equation, 2
Consider a segment of a fluid in a pipe
from point 1 to point 2
In a time interval t the left boundary of
the segment moves through a distance
x1 while the right boundary of the
segment moves through a distance x2
Consider forces exerted on the right and
the left boundaries of the segment as
the segment moves in the pipe:
Force exerted on the left boundary:
F1 = P1A1
Force exerted on the right boundary:
F2 = -P2A2

Bernoullis Equation, 3
Work done by force F1 is W1 = P1 A1 x1
Work done by force F2 is W2 = - P2 A2 x2
Since the fluid is incompressible,
A1 x1 = A2 x2 = V
The net work W done by the two forces
on the segment is
W = W1+W2 = (P1 P2) V
Part of this work goes into changing the
kinetic energy of the segment and part
goes into changing the gravitational
potential energy of the segment

Bernoullis Equation, 4
There is no change in the kinetic energy of the
grey portion of the segment (steady-state
streamline flow)
The net effect of the flow in a time interval t is
displacement of a the volume of fluid V from
the lower part of the pipe to the upper part
Initial kinetic energy of the lower portion of
volume V is m v12

Final kinetic energy of the upper portion of

volume V is m v22
The net change of kinetic energy of the
segment:
K = m v22 - m v12

Bernoullis Equation, 5
There is no change in potential energy
of the fluid in the grey middle portion of
the section
The change in gravitational potential
energy due to displacement of volume
V from the lower part to the upper part
of the pipe is:
U = m g y2 m g y1

From the conservation of energy, work

done on the segment of the fluid goes
into changing kinetic energy and
potential energy of the segment:
W = K+U

Bernoullis Equation, 6
Substituting the expressions for W, K
and U:
(P1 P2)V = m v22 - m v12 + m g y2 m g y1

Rearranging terms, dividing by V and

writing m/V as density r:
P1 + r v12 + r g y1 = P2 + r v22 + r g y2

This is Bernoullis equation and is often

expressed as
P + r v 2 + r g y = constant

Bernoullis Equation, Final

Consider a flow in a horizontal pipe. In this case Bernoullis equation
simplifies to P + r v 2 = constant . This expression tells us that pressure
in a fluid decreases as its speed increases. This means that pressure in
narrow sections of pipes is low.
When the fluid is at rest, Bernoullis equation simplifies to P + r g y =
constant
This is equivalent to P1 P2 = r g h which is consistent with the pressure
variation with depth we found earlier
The general behavior of pressure with speed is true even for gases
(compressible fluids)
As the speed increases, the pressure decreases although quantitatively
Bernoullis equation does not apply

Airplane Wing

Streamline flow around a moving airplane

wing

Lift is the upward force on the wing from

the air

Drag is the resistance

The lift depends on the speed of the

airplane, the area of the wing, its curvature,
and the angle between the wing and the
horizontal

Example: Pitot tube

A Pitot tube can be used to
determine the velocity of air flow
by measuring the difference
between the total pressure and
the static pressure.
If the fluid in the tube is mercury,
density rHg = 13 600 kg/m3, and
h = 5.00 cm, find the speed of air
flow.