Zen

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Zen
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Vietnamese
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Thin

dhyna

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Zen (Chinese: ; pinyin: Chn, Middle Chinese: djen) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism[note 1]
that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as Chn. It was strongly influenced by Taoism,
and developed as a distinguished Chinese style of Buddhism. From China, Chn spread south to
Vietnam, northeast to Korea and east to Japan, where it became known as Japanese Zen.[2]
Zen emphasizes rigorous meditation-practice, insight into Buddha-nature, and the personal
expression of this insight in daily life, especially for the benefit of others.[3][4] As such, it
deemphasizes mere knowledge of sutras and doctrine[5][6] and favors direct understanding through
zazen and interaction with an accomplished teacher.[7]
The teachings of Zen include various sources of Mahyna thought, especially Yogcra, the
Tathgatagarbha Sutras and Huayan, with their emphasis on Buddha-nature, totality, and the
Bodhisattva-ideal.[8][9] The Prajpramit literature[10] and, to a lesser extent, Madhyamaka have
also been influential in the shaping of the "paradoxical language" of the Zen-tradition.

Contents

1 Etymology

2 Zen practice
o 2.1 Dhyana - Zen meditation

2.1.1 Observing the breath

2.1.2 Observing the mind

2.1.3 Intensive group meditation

o 2.2 Insight - Kan practice

o 2.3 Zen chanting and liturgy
o 2.4 Lay services

3 Zen teachings
o 3.1 Rinzai
o 3.2 Soto
o 3.3 Sanbo Kyodan

4 Zen scripture
o 4.1 The role of scripture in Zen
o 4.2 Grounding Chn in scripture
o 4.3 Zen literature

5 Zen organization and institutions

6 Zen narratives

7 History of Zen
o 7.1 Chinese Chn

7.1.1 Periodisation

7.1.2 Origins and Taoist influences (c. 200-500)

7.1.3 Legendary or Proto-Chn - Six Patriarchs (c. 500-600)

7.1.4 Early Chn - Tang Dynasty (c. 600900)

7.1.5 Classical or Middle Chn (c. 750-1000)

7.1.5.1 An Lushan Rebellion (755-763) till end of Tang Dynasty

(907)

7.1.5.2 Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907960/979)

7.1.6 Literary Chn - Song Dynasty (c. 9601300)

7.1.7 Post-Classical Chn (c. 1300 till present)

7.1.7.1 Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

7.1.7.2 Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

7.1.7.3 Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)

7.1.7.4 Modern times

o 7.2 Spread of Chn

7.2.1 Thin in Vietnam

7.2.2 Seon in Korea

7.2.3 Zen in Japan

7.2.4 Zen in the Western world

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

11 Sources

o 11.1 Published sources

o 11.2 Web sources

12 Further reading

13 External links

Etymology
The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word (djen)
(pinyin: Chn), which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyna,[1] which can be
approximately translated as "absorption" or "meditative state".[11]

Zen practice
Dhyana - Zen meditation
See also: Dhyna in Buddhism
Central to Zen is the practice of dhyana or meditation.
Observing the breath

Venerable Hsuan Hua meditating in the Lotus Position. Hong Kong, 1953.
During sitting meditation, practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, halflotus, Burmese, or seiza postures, using the dhyna mudr. To regulate the mind, awareness is
directed towards counting or watching the breath or by bringing that awareness to the energy
center below the navel (see also anapanasati).[web 1] Often, a square or round cushion placed on a
padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. This practice may simply
be called sitting dhyna, which is zuchn () in Chinese, and zazen () in Japanese.

Observing the mind

In the Soto school of Zen, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of
practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and
pass away without interference. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological
justification of this practice can be found throughout Dgen's Shbgenz, as for example in the
"Principles of Zazen"[web 2] and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen".[web 3] In
the Japanese language, this practice is called Shikantaza.
Intensive group meditation
Intensive group meditation may be practiced occasionally in some temples. In the Japanese
language, this practice is called Sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate
for several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote themselves almost exclusively
to the practice of sitting meditation. The numerous 3050 minute long meditation periods are
interwoven with rest breaks, meals, and short periods of work that are performed with the same
mindfulness; nightly sleep is kept to seven hours or less. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan,
Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions, which are
typically 1, 3, 5, or 7 days in length. These are held at many Zen centers, especially in
commemoration of the Buddha's attainment of Anuttar Samyaksambodhi. One distinctive aspect
of Zen meditation in groups is the use of a kyosaku, a flat wooden slat used to keep meditators
focused and awake.

Insight - Kan practice

Main article: Kan

Chinese character for "nothing", Chinese: w (Japanese: mu). It figures in the famous
Zhaozhou's dog kan
At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, practice with the kan method became popular, whereas
others practiced "silent illumination."[12] This became the source of some differences in practice
between the Linji and Caodong traditions.
A kan, literally "public case", is a story or dialogue, describing an interaction between a Zen
master and a student. These anecdotes give a demonstration of the master's insight. Koans
emphasize the non-conceptional insight that the Buddhist teachings are pointing to. Koans can be
used to provoke the "great doubt", and test a student's progress in Zen practice.

Kan-inquiry may be practiced during sitting meditation (zazen), walking meditation (kinhin),
and throughout all the activities of daily life. Kan practice is particularly emphasized by the
Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the
teaching line.[13]
The Zen student's mastery of a given kan is presented to the teacher in a private interview
(referred to in Japanese as dokusan (), daisan (), or sanzen ()). While there is no
unique answer to a kan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the
kan and of Zen through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer
and guide the student in the right direction. The interaction with a Zen-teacher is central in Zen,
but makes Zen-practice, at least in the west, also vulnerable to misunderstanding and
exploitation.[14]

Zen chanting and liturgy

See also: Buddhist chant
A practice in many Zen monasteries and centers is a daily liturgy service. Practitioners chant
major sutras such as the Heart Sutra, chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the
"Avalokiteshvara Sutra"), the Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness, the Great Compassionate
Heart Dharani (Daihishin Dharani), and other minor mantras.
The Butsudan is the altar in a monastery where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha
or Bodhisattvas. The same term is also used in Japanese homes for the altar where one prays to
and communicates with deceased family members. As such, reciting liturgy in Zen can be seen as
a means to connect with the Bodhisattvas of the past. Liturgy is often used during funerals,
memorials, and other special events as means to invoke the aid of supernatural powers.[citation needed]
Chanting usually centers on major Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara (see also Guan Yin) and
Manjusri. According to Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas are beings who have taken vows to
remain in Samsara to help all beings achieve liberation from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
Since the Zen practitioner's aim is to walk the Bodhisattva path, chanting can be used as a means
to connect with these beings and realize this ideal within oneself.

Lay services
Though in western Zen the emphasis is on zen-meditation, and the application of Zen-teachings
in daily life, Japanese Zen also serves a function in public religion. Funerals play an important
role as a point of contact between the monks and the laity. Statistics published by the St school
state that 80 percent of St laymen visit their temple only for reasons having to do with funerals
and death, while only 17 percent visit for spiritual reasons and a mere 3 percent visit a Zen priest
at a time of personal trouble or crisis.[15]

Zen teachings
Main article: Doctrinal background of Zen

Though Zen-narrative states that it is a "special transmission outside scriptures" which "did not
stand upon words",[16] Zen does have a rich doctrinal background, which is firmly grounded in
the Buddhist tradition.[17] It was thoroughly influenced by the Chinese understanding of Yogacara
and the Buddha-nature doctrine,[18][19] Zen integrates both Yogacara and Madhyamaka,[20] and the
influence of Madhyamaka can be discerned in the stress on non-conceptual insight and the
paradoxical language of the koans.[18][web 4][21][note 2] Most essential are "the most fundamental
teaching that we are already originally enlightened",[22] and the Bodhisattva ideal, which
supplements insight with Karun , compassion with all sentient beings.[23]
To point out 'essential Zen-teachings' is almost impossible, given the variety of schools, the
extended history of 1500 years, and the emphasis on suchness, reality just-as-it-is, which has to
be expressed in daily life, not in words.[citation needed] But common to most schools and teachings is
this emphasis on suchness and Buddha-nature, the Bodhisattva-ideal, and the priority of zazen.
[citation needed]

Zen teachings can be likened to "the finger pointing at the moon".[24] Zen teachings point to the
moon, awakening, "a realization of the unimpeded interpenetration of the dharmadhatu".[25] But
the Zen-tradition also warns against taking its teachings, the pointing finger, to be this insight
itself.[26][web 5][web 6][27]
The various traditions lay various emphases in their teachings and practices:
There are two different ways of understanding and actually practicing Zen. These two different
ways are termed in Chinese pen chueh and shih-chueh respectively. The term pen chueh refers to
the belief that ones mind is from the beginning of time fully enlightened, while shih-chueh
refers to the belief that at some point in time we pass from imprisonment in ignorance and
delusion to a true vision of Zen realization: Our enlightenment is timeless, yet our realization of
it occurs in time. According to this belief experiencing a moment of awakening in this life is of
central importance.[28]

Rinzai
Main article: Rinzai school
Rinzai is the Japanese line of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang
Dynasty by Linji Yixuan.The Rinzai-tradition emphasizes kensho, insight into one's true nature.
[29]
This is followed by so-called post-satori practice, further practice to attain Buddhahood.[30][31]
[32]

Other Zen-teachers have also expressed sudden insight followed by gradual cultivation. Chinul, a
12th-century Korean Seon master, followed Zongmi, and also emphasized that insight into our
true nature is sudden, but is to be followed by practice to ripen the insight and attain full
Buddhahood. This is also the standpoint of the contemporary Sanbo Kyodan, according to whom
kensho is at the start of the path to full enlightenment.[33]

To attain this primary insight and to deepen it, zazen and kan-study is deemed essential. This
trajectory of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by Linji in
his Three mysterious Gates, and the Four Ways of Knowing of Hakuin.[23] Another example of
depiction of stages on the path are the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures which detail the steps on the
Path.

Soto
Main article: St
St is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was founded during the Tang
Dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. The St-school has de-emphasized kans since Gent Sokuch
(circa 1800), and instead emphasized shikantaza.[34] Dogen, the founder of Soto in Japan,
emphasised that practice and awakening cannot be separated. By practicing shikantaza,
attainment and Buddhahood are already being expressed.[35] For Dogen, zazen, or shikantaza, is
the essence of Buddhist practice.[36]
Gradual cultivation is also recognized by the Caodong-teacher Tozan. The first syllable of his
name is part of the word "Soto".[web 7]

Sanbo Kyodan
The Sanbo Kyodan combines Soto and Rinzai teachings.[33][37] It is a Japanese lay organization,
which is highly influential in the West through the work of Hakuun Yasutani, Philip Kapleau,
Yamada Koun, and Taizan Maezumi. Yasutani mentions three goals of Zen: development of
concentration (joriki), awakening (kensho-godo), and realization of Zen in daily life (mujodo no
taigen).[33] Kensho is stressed,[37] but also post-satori practice.[38][note 3]

Zen scripture
Main article: Zen and Sutras

The role of scripture in Zen

Contrary to the popular image, literature does play a role in the Zen-training. Zen is deeply
rooted in the teachings and doctrines of Mahyna Buddhism.[39] Unsui, Zen-monks, "are
expected to become familiar with the classics of the Zen canon".[40] A review of the early
historical documents and literature of early Zen masters clearly reveals that they were well
versed in numerous Mahyna Buddhist stras,[5][note 4][note 5][5][note 6] including Madhyamaka.[18]
Nevertheless Zen is often pictured as anti-intellectual.[39] This picture of Zen emerged during the
Song Dynasty (9601297), when Chn became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, and
gained great popularity among the educated and literary classes of Chinese society. The use of
koans, which are highly stylized literary texts, reflects this popularity among the higher classes.

[43]

The famous saying "do not establish words and letters", attributed in this period to
Bodhidharma,[44]
...was taken not as a denial of the recorded words of the Buddha or the doctrinal elaborations by
learned monks, but as a warning to those who had become confused about the relationship
between Buddhist teaching as a guide to the truth and mistook it for the truth itself.[45]
What the Zen tradition emphasizes is that the enlightenment of the Buddha came not through
conceptualization, but rather through direct insight.[46] But direct insight has to be supported by
study and understanding (hori[47]) of the Buddhist teachings and texts.[48][note 7] Intellectual
understanding without practice is called yako-zen, "wild fox Zen", but "one who has only
experience without intellectual understanding is a zen temma, "Zen devil"".[50]

Grounding Chn in scripture

The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the
Tang Dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren (601674), the Zen school became
established as a separate school of Buddhism.[51] It had to develop a doctrinal tradition of its own
to ascertain its position,[43] and to ground its teachings in a specific sutra. Various sutras were
used for this, even before the time of Hongren: the rmldev Stra (Huike),[52] Awakening of
Faith (Daoxin),[52] the Lankavatara Sutra (East Mountain School),[52][5] the Diamond Sutra[53]
(Shenhui),[52] the Platform Sutra.[5][53] None of these sutras was decisive though, since the school
drew inspiration from a variety of sources.[54] Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a rich
corpus of written literature which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Other influential
sutras are the Vimalakirti Sutra,[55][56][57] Avatamsaka Sutra,[58] the Shurangama Sutra,[59] and the
Mahaparinirvana Sutra.[60]

Zen literature
See also: Zen literature
The Zen-tradition developed a rich textual tradition, based on the interpretation of the Buddhist
teachings and the recorded sayings of Zen-masters. Important texts are the Platform Sutra (8th
century), attributed to Huineng ;[43] the Chn transmission records, teng-lu,[61] such as The
Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu), compiled by Tao-yn and
published in 1004;[62] the "y-l" genre[63] consisting of the recorded sayings of the masters, and
the encounter dialogues; the koan-collections, such as the "Gateless Gate" and the "Blue Cliff
Record". 'and Dogen's Shobogenzo.

Zen organization and institutions

Main articles: Zen organisation and institutions, Zen ranks and hierarchy, Dharma transmission
and Zen lineage charts
Religion is not only an individual matter, but "also a collective endeavour".[64] Though individual
experience[65] and the iconoclastic picture of Zen[66] are emphasised in the western world, the

Zen-tradition is maintained and transferred by a high degree of institutionalisation and hierarchy.

[67][68]
In Japan, modernity has led to criticism of the formal system and the commencement of
lay-oriented Zen-schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan[37] and the Ningen Zen Kyodan.[web 8] How to
organize the continuity of the Zen-tradition in the west, constraining charismatic authority and
the derailment it may bring on the one hand,[69][70][14] and maintaining the legitimacy and authority
by limiting the number of authorized teachers on the other hand,[64] is a challenge for the
developing Zen-communities in the west.

Zen narratives
Main article: Zen Narratives
The Chn of the Tang Dynasty, especially that of Mazu and Linji with its emphasis on "shock
techniques", in retrospect was seen as a golden age of Chn.[43] This picture has gained great
popularity in the west in the 20th century, especially due to the influence of D.T. Suzuki,[71] and
further popularized by Hakuun Yasutani and the Sanbo Kyodan.[65] This picture has been
challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern scientific research on Zen.[72][73][43][74]
[75][76]

Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen,
its history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),[77][web 9] Buddhist Modernism (BM),
[71]
Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC).[77] An external narrative is Nondualism, which
claims Zen to be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.[78][79]

History of Zen
Chinese Chn
Main article: Chinese Chn
See also: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
Periodisation
The history of Chn in China can be divided in several periods. Zen as we know it today is the
result of a long history, with many changes and contingent factors. Each period had different
types of Zen, some of which remained influential while others vanished.[43][80]
Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th century:
1. The Legendary period, from Bodhidharma in the late 5th century to the An Lushan
Rebellion around 765 CE, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Little written information is
left from this period.[81] It is the time of the Six Patriarchs, including Bodhidharma and
Huineng, and the legendary "split" between the Northern and the Southern School of
Chn.[43]

2. The Classical period, from the end of the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE to the
beginning of the Song Dynasty around 950 CE.[81] This is the time of the great masters of
Chn, such as Mazu Daoyi and Linji Yixuan, and the creation of the y-l genre, the
recordings of the sayings and teachings of these great masters
3. The Literary period, from around 950 to 1250,[81] which spans the era of the Song
Dynasty (960-1279). In this time the gongan-collections were compiled, collections of
sayings and deeds by the famous masters, appended with poetry and commentary. This
genre reflects the influence of literati on the development of Chn. This period idealized
the previous period as the "golden age" of Chn, producing the literature in which the
spontaneity of the celebrated masters was portrayed.
Although McRae has reservations about the division of Chn-history in phases or periods,[82] he
nevertheless distinguishes four phases in the history of Chn:[83]
1. Proto-Chn (c. 500-600) (Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui
Dynasty (589618 CE)). In this phase, Chn developed in multiple locations in northern
China. It was based on the practice of dhyana, and is connected to the figures of
Bodhidharma and Huike. Its principal text is the Two Entrances and Four Practices,
attributed to Bodhidharma.[84]
2. Early Chn (c. 600-900) (Tang Dynasty (618907 CE)). In this phase Chn took its first
clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601674), his
dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?-706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638713),
antagonist of the quintessential Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670-762), whose
propaganda elevated Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Prime factions are the
Northern School, Southern School and Oxhead School.[85]
3. Middle Chn (c. 750-1000) (from An Lushan Rebellion (755-763) till Five Dynasties
and Ten Kingdoms period (907960/979)). In this phase developed the well-known Chn
of the iconoclastic zen-masters. Prime figures are Mazu Daoyi (709788), Shitou Xiqian
(710-790), Linji Yixuan (died 867), and Xuefeng Yicun (822-908). Prime factions are the
Hongzhou school and the Hubei faction[note 8] An important text is the Anthology of the
Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives a great amount of "encounter-stories", and the wellknown genealogy of the Chn-school.[88]
4. Song Dynasty Chn (c. 950-1300). In this phase Chn took its definitive shape, including
the picture of the "golden age" of the Chn of the Tang-Dynasty, and the use of koans for
individual study and meditation. Prime figures are Dahui Zonggao (10891163), who
introduced the Hua Tou practice, and Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157), who emphasized
Shikantaza. Prime factions are the Linji school and the Caodong school. The classic
koan-collections, such as the Blue Cliff Record were assembled in this period,[89] which
reflect the influence of the "literati" on the development of Chn.[90][44] In this phase Chn
is transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.

Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chn following the Song-dynasty,
though McRae mentions
[5.] "at least a postclassical phase or perhaps multiple phases".[91][note 9]
Origins and Taoist influences (c. 200-500)
See also: Han Dynasty, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism and Six Dynasties
The practice of Buddhist meditation was practiced in China centuries before the rise of Chn by
people such as An Shigao (c. 148-180 CE) and his school who translated various meditation
treatises (Chn-jing, ). Other important translators of meditation texts were Kumrajva
(334413 CE) and Buddhabhadra. These Chinese translations of mostly Indian Yogacara
meditation manuals were the basis for the meditation techniques of Chinese Chan.[web 10]
When Buddhism came to China from Gandhara (now Afghanistan) and India, it was initially
adapted to the Chinese culture and understanding. Buddhism was exposed to Confucianist[92] and
Taoist[93][94][95][96] influences.[note 10] Goddard quotes D.T. Suzuki,[note 11] calling Chn a "natural
evolution of Buddhism under Taoist conditions."[97] Buddhism was first identified to be "a
barbarian variant of Taoism":[95]
Judging from the reception by the Han of the Hinayana works and from the early commentaries,
it appears that Buddhism was being perceived and digested through the medium of religious
Daoism (Taoism). Buddha was seen as a foreign immortal who had achieved some form of
Daoist nondeath. The Buddhists mindfulness of the breath was regarded as an extension of
Daoist breathing exercises.[60]
Taoist terminology was used to express Buddhist doctrines in the oldest translations of Buddhist
texts,[95] a practice termed ko-i, "matching the concepts",[98] while the emerging Chinese
Buddhism had to compete with Taoism and Confucianism.[92]
The first Buddhist recruits in China were Taoists.[95] They developed high esteem for the newly
introduced Buddhist meditational techniques,[99] and blended them with Taoist meditation.[100]
Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng were deeply
influenced by the Taoist keystone works of Laozi and Zhuangzi.[101] Against this background,
especially the Taoist concept of naturalness was inherited by the early Chn disciples:[102] they
equated - to some extent - the ineffable Tao and Buddha-nature,[103] and thus, rather than feeling
bound to the abstract "wisdom of the stras", emphasized Buddha-nature to be found in
"everyday" human life, just as the Tao.[103]
In addition to Taoist ideas, also Neo-Taoist concepts were taken over in Chinese Buddhism.[98]
Concepts such as "Ti -yung" (Essence and Function) and "Li-shih" (Noumenon and
Phenomenon) were first taken over by Hua-yen Buddhism,[98] which consequently influenced
Chn deeply.[58] The two truths doctrine was a point of confusion. Chinese thinking took this to
refer to two ontological truths: reality exists of two levels, a relative level and an absolute level.
[104]
Taoists at first misunderstood sunyata to be akin to the Taoist non-being.[105] In Madhyamaka

the two truths are two epistemological truths: two different ways to look at reality. Based on their
understanding of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra the Chinese supposed that the teaching of
the Buddha-nature was, as stated by that sutra, the final Buddhist teaching, and that there is an
essential truth above sunyata and the two truths.[60]
Legendary or Proto-Chn - Six Patriarchs (c. 500-600)
Main articles: Bodhidharma, Southern and Northern Dynasties and Sui Dynasty

Bodhidharma. Woodcut print by Yoshitoshi (Japanese), 1887.

Blue-eyed Central Asian monk and East-Asian monk. A fresco from the Bezeklik Thousand
Buddha Caves, dated to the 9th or 10th century (Kara-Khoja Kingdom).
Traditionally the origin of Chn in China is credited to Bodhidharma, an Iranian language
speaking Central Asian monk[106] or an Indian monk.[107] The story of his life, and of the Six
Patriarchs, was constructed during the Tang Dynasty to lend credibility to the growing Chnschool.[43]
Bodhidharma is recorded as having come into China during the time of Southern and Northern
Dynasties to teach a "special transmission outside scriptures" which "did not stand upon words".
[16]
Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather ill-tempered, profusely bearded
and wide-eyed barbarian. He is referred as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" (:Byn h) in

Chinese Chan texts.[web 11] Only scarce historical information is available about him, but his
hagiography developed when the Chan tradition grew stronger and gained prominence in the
early 8th century. By this time a lineage of the six ancestral founders of Chn in China was
developed.[43] The short text Two Entrances and Four Acts, written by T'an-ln (; 506574),
contains teachings which are attributed to Bodhidharma. The text is known from the Dunhuangmanuscripts.
The actual origins of Chn may lie in ascetic practitioners of Buddhism, who found refuge in
forests and mountains.[108] Huike, "a dhuta (extreme ascetic) who schooled others"[108] and used
the Srimala Sutra,[52] one of the Tathgatagarbha stras ,[109] figures in the stories about
Bodhidharma. Huike is regarded as the second Chn patriarch, appointed by Bodhidharma to
succeed him. One of Huike's students, Sengcan, to whom is ascribed the Xinxin Ming, is
regarded as the third patriarch.
Early Chn - Tang Dynasty (c. 600900)
See also: Tang Dynasty
With the fourth patriarch, Daoxin ( 580651),[52] Chn began to take shape as a distinct
school. The link between Huike and Sengcan, and the fourth patriarch Daoxin "is far from clear
and remains tenuous".[108] With Daoxin and his successor, the fifth patriarch Hongren ( 601
674), there emerged a new style of teaching, which was inspired by the Chinese text Awakening
of Faith in the Mahayana.[52] A large group of students gathered at a permanent residence, and
extreme ascetism became outdated.[108] The period of Daoxin and Hongren came to be called the
East Mountain Teaching, due to the location of the residence of Hongren at Huamgmei.[110][43]
The term "East Mountain Teaching" was used by Shenxiu ( 606?-706), the most important
successor to Hongren. By this time the group had grown into a matured congregation which
became significant enough to be reckoned with by the ruling forces.[52] In 701 Shenxiu was
invited to the Imperial Court by Empress Wu, who paid him imperial reverence. This gave his
school the support and the legitimation of the imperial court.[111] The school was typified by a
"loose practice,"[54] aiming to make meditation accessible to a larger audience.[54] Shenxiu used
short formulas extracted from various sutras to package the teachings,[54] a style which is also
being used in the Platform Sutra.[54] Members of the "East Mountain Teaching" shifted the
alleged scriptural basis, realizing that the Awwakening of Faith is not a sutra but a sastra,
commentary, and fabricated a lineage of Lankavatara Sutra masters, as being the sutra that
preluded the Awakening of Faith.[52]
This growing influence, and the need to be supported by patrons, is reflected in the campaign of
Shenhui (670-762) for imperial patronage.[52] Shenhui was a successor to Hui-neng (; 638
713), a minor student of Hongren.[110][43] At 731 Shenhui started to propagate that Huineng was
the real successor of Hongren's, instead of the then publicly recognized successor Shenxiu.[43][110]
A dramatic story of Huineng's life was created, as narrated in the Platform Sutra, which tells that
there was a contest for the transmission of the title of patriarch. After being chosen by Hongren,
the fifth patriarch, Huineng had to flee by night to Nanhua Temple in the south to avoid the wrath
of Hongren's jealous senior disciples.[43][110] The Diamond Sutra was incorporated into the story

as being the favorite sutra of Huineng, thereby swifting the alleged textual basis of the Chnschool again.[112] Shenhui succeeded in his campaign, and Huineng came to be regarded as the
Sixth Patriarch.[110][43] Shenxiu's Northern School was denigrated as "gradual", in opposition to
the self-acclaimed "sudden" approach of Shenhui's Southern School. Shenhui's story was so
influential that all surviving schools regard Huineng as their ancestor. [43][110]
Classical or Middle Chn (c. 750-1000)
An Lushan Rebellion (755-763) till end of Tang Dynasty (907)

The An Lushan Rebellion (755-763) led to a loss of control by the Tang-dynasty, and changed
the Chan scene again. Metropolitan Chan began to lose its status, while "other schools were
arising in out-lying areas controlled by warlords. These are the forerunners of the Chan we know
today."[113]
The most important of these schools is the Hongzhou school () of Mazu, to which also
belong Shitou, Baizhang, Huangbo and Linji. This school became the archetypal expression of
Zen, with its emphasis on the personal expression of insight, and its rejection of positive
statements of this insight.[108] Shitou is regarded as the Patriarch of Caodong (Jp. St), while
Linji is regarded as the founder of Rinzai-Zen.
During 845-846 Emperor Wuzong persecuted the Buddhist schools in China.[114] This persecution
was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the Chan school of Ma-tsu and his likes survived,
and took a leading role in the Chan of the later Tang.[114]
This surviving rural Chan developed into the Five Houses of Chn (Ch. ) of Zen, or five
"schools". These were not originally regarded as "schools" or "sects", but historically they have
come to be understood that way. Most Zen lineages throughout Asia and the rest of the world
originally grew from or were heavily influenced by the original five houses of Zen.
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907960/979)

See also: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period

After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, China was without effective central control during the Five
Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. China was divided into several autonomous regions.
Support for Buddhism was limited to a few areas. The Hua-yen and T'ient-tai schools suffered
from the changing circumstances, since they had depended on imperial support. The collapse of
T'ang society also deprived the aristocratic classes of wealth and influence, which meant a
further drawback for Buddhism. Shenxiu's Northern School and Henshui's Southern School
didn't survive the changing circumstances. Nevertheless, chn emerged as the dominant stream
within Chinese Buddhism, but with various schools developing various emphases in their
teachings, due to the regional orientation of the period. The Fayan school, named after Fa-yen
Wen-i (885-958) became the dominant school in the southern kingdoms of Nan-T'ang (Jiangxi,
Chiang-hsi) and Wuyue (Che-chiang).[115]
Literary Chn - Song Dynasty (c. 9601300)

See also: Song Dynasty

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period was followed by the Song Dynasty, which
established a strong central government. During the Song Dynasty, Chn () was used by the
government to strengthen its control over the country, and Chn grew to become the largest sect
in Chinese Buddhism. An ideal picture of the Chn of the Tang period was produced, which
served the legacy of this newly acquired status, and the period of the Tang Dynasty came to be
regarded as the "golden age" of Chan.[116][43] With the establishment of the Wu-shan (Gozan)
system during the Southern Sung, the Chinese bureaucratic system entered into Zen temples
throughout the country, and a highly organized system of temple rank and administration
developed.[117]
The Linji school became the dominant school within Chn, due to support from literati and the
court.[118] Before the Song Dynasty, the Linji-school is rather obscure, and very little is known
about its early history.[110] The first mention of Linji is in the Zutang ji, compiled in 952, 86 years
after Linji's death.[118] But the Zutang ji pictures the Xuefeng Yicun lineage as heir to the legacy
of Mazu and the Hongzhou-school.[118] According to Welter, the real founder of the Linji-school
was Shoushan (or Baoying) Shengnian ()(926-993), a fourth generation dharma-heir of
Linji. The Tiansheng Guangdeng lu (), "Tiansheng Era Expanded Lamp Record",
compiled by the official Li Zunxu ()(988-1038) confirms the status of Shoushan
Shengnian, but also pictures Linji as a major Chan patriarch and heir to the Mazu, displacing the
prominence of the Fayan-lineage.[118] It also established the slogan of "a special transmission
outside the teaching", supporting the Linji-school claim of "Chan as separate from and superior
to all other Buddhist teachings".[119]
During the 12th century, a clear difference between the Linji and the Caodong schools emerged.
The two schools were competing for support of the literati, who became more powerful when the
Song-government started to limit her influence on society. Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157) of the
Caodong-school emphasized silent illumination or shikantaza as a means for solitary practice,
which could be undertaken by lay-followers. Dahui Zonggao (10891163) introduced k'an-hua
practice, "observing the word-head", as a means of solitary practice.[120]
During the Song, both schools were exported to Japan, were they eventually became two clearly
distinguished schools or "sects".
Post-Classical Chn (c. 1300 till present)
This was different from China, where the Buddhist schools tended to coalesce into a syncretic
Chinese Buddhist school.
Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

See also: Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan Dynasty was the empire established by Kublai Khan, the leader of Mongolian Borjigin
clan, after Mongol conquered the Jin and the Southern Song dynasty in China. Chn-teachings

started to be mixed with Pure Land teachings, as in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (12631323).
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

See also: Ming Dynasty

Chn Buddhism enjoyed something of a revival in the Ming Dynasty with teachers such as
Hanshan Deqing (), who wrote and taught extensively on both Chn and Pure Land
Buddhism; Miyun Yuanwu (), who came to be seen posthumously as the first patriarch
of the baku Zen school; as well as Yunqi Zhuhong () and Ouyi Zhixu ().
Chn was taught alongside Pure Land Buddhism in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries. In time
much of the distinction between them was lost, and many masters taught both Chn and Pure
Land.[121]
With the downfall of the Ming Dynasty several Chinese Chn-masters fled to Japan, founding
the baku school.[122]
Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)

See also: Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China.
In the beginning of the Qing Dynasty Chn was "reinvented", by the "revival of beating and
shouting practices" by Miyun Yuanwu (15661642), and the publication of the Wudeng yantong
("The strict transmission of the five Chan schools") by Feiyin Tongrongs (15931662), a dharma
heir of Miyun Yuanwu. The book placed self-proclaimed Chan monks without proper Dharma
transmission in the category of "lineage unknown" (sifa weixiang), thereby excluding several
prominent Caodong-monks.[123]
Modern times

See also: Republic of China (19121949), China and Taiwan

Shuixin Chn Temple in Anhai Town, Fujian

After further centuries of decline during the Qing Dynasty (16441912), Chn was revived again
in the early 20th century by Hsu Yun () (1840-1959), a well-known figure of 20th-century
Chinese Buddhism. Many Chn teachers today trace their lineage back to Hsu Yun, including
Sheng-yen () and Hsuan Hua (), who have propagated Chn in the West where it has
grown steadily through the 20th and 21st centuries.
Chn was repressed in China during the 1960s in the Cultural Revolution, but subsequently has
been re-asserting itself[citation needed] on the mainland, and has a significant following in Taiwan and
Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.

Spread of Chn
Thin in Vietnam
See also: Vietnamese Thin and Buddhism in Vietnam

Thin monks performing a service in Hu.

According to traditional accounts of Vietnam, in 580 an Indian monk named Vinitaruci
(Vietnamese: T-ni-a-lu-chi) travelled to Vietnam after completing his studies with Sengcan,
the third patriarch of Chinese Chn. This, then, would be the first appearance of Vietnamese
Thin Buddhism. Other early Vietnamese Chn schools included the V Ngn Thng, which was
associated with the teaching of Mazu, and the Tho ng, which incorporated nianfo chanting
techniques; both were founded by Chinese monks.
Seon in Korea
See also: Korean Seon and Buddhism in Korea

Seon monk in Seoul, South Korea

Seon was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla period (7th through 9th centuries)
as Korean monks of predominantly Hwaeom () and Consciousness-only () background
began to travel to China to learn the newly developing tradition. Seon received its most
significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul () (11581210), who
established a reform movement and introduced koan practice to Korea. Jinul established the
Songgwangsa () as a new center of pure practice.
Zen in Japan
See also: Buddhism in Japan and Japanese Zen

Sojiji Temple, of the Soto Zen school, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Japan

Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myan Eisai traveled to
China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished.[web 12] Decades later,
Nanpo Shmy (?) (12351308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding
the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of Rinzai in Japan.
[web 12]
In 1215, Dgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he

became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dgen established
the St school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.
The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan are the St (?), Rinzai (?),
and baku (?). Of these, St is the largest, Rinzai is middle, and baku the smallest. These
are further divided into subschools by head temple, with 2 head temples for St (Sji-ji and
Eihei-ji, with Sji-ji having a much larger network), 14 head temples for Rinzai, and 1 head
temple (Manpuku-ji) for baku, for a total of 17 head temples. The Rinzai head temples, which
are most numerous, have substantial overlap with the traditional Five Mountain System, and
include Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenry-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji, among others.
Besides these traditional organizations, there are modern Zen organisations which have
especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.
Zen in the Western world
See also: Buddhism in the West and Zen in the United States
Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of
Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World
Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the
Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners,
other than the descendants of Asian immigrants, pursuing a serious interest in Zen began to reach
a significant level. Especially Japanese Zen has gained popularity in the West. The various books
on Zen by Reginald Horace Blyth, Alan Watts, Philip Kapleau and D. T. Suzuki[citation needed]
published between 1950 and 1975, contributed to this growing interest in Zen in the West, as did
the interest from beat poets such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder.[124]

See also

List of Buddhists

Outline of Buddhism

Timeline of Buddhism

Chinese Chn

101 Zen Stories

Notes
1.

Dumoulin writes in his preface to Zen. A History. Part One: India and China:
"Zen (Chin. Ch'an, an abbreviation of ch'an-na, which transliterates the Sanskrit Dhyna
(Devanagari: ) or its Pali cognate Jhna (Sanskrit; Pli ) , terms meaning

"meditation") is the name of a Mahayana Buddhist school of meditation originating from

India and passed to China. It is characterized by the practice of meditation in the lotus
position (Jpn., zazen; Chin., tso-ch'an and the use of the koan (Chin., kung-an), as well as
by the enlightenment experience of satori[1]
2.

According to Kalupahana, the influence of Yofacara is stronger in the ts'ao-tung

school and the tradition of silent meditation, while the influence of Madhyamaka is clear
in the koan-tradition and its stress on insight and the use of paradoxical language.[21]
Yasutani discerns five kinds of Zen:[33]

3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Bompu Zen: aimed at bodily and mental health

Gedo Zen:, practices like dhyana, Yoga and Christian contemplation
which are akin to Zen, but not Buddhist
Shojo Zen: the Hinayana, aimed at one's own liberation
Daijo Zen: the Mahayana, aimed at attaining kensho and the realisation of
Zen in daily life
Saijojo Zen: in which practice is enlightenment

4.

Sasaki's translation of the Linji yulu contains an extensive biography of 62 pages,

listing influential Chinese Buddhist texts which played a role in Song dynasty Chn.[41]

5.

Albert Low: "It is evident that the masters were well versed in the sutras. Zen
master Tokusan, for example, knew the Diamond Sutra well and, before meeting with his
own Zen master, lectured upon it extensively; the founder of the Zen sect, Bodhidharma,
the very one who preached selfrealization outside the scriptures, nevertheless advocated
the Lankavatara Sutra; Zen master Hogen knew the Avatamsaka Sutra well, and koan
twenty-six in the Mumonkan, in which Hogen is involved, comes out of the teaching of
that sutra. Other koans, too, make reference directly or indirectly to the sutras. The
autobiography of yet another Zen master, Hui Neng, subsequently became the Platform
Sutra, one of those sutras so condemned by those who reject intellectual and sutra
studies"[42]

6.

Poceski: "Direct references to specific scriptures are relatively rare in the records
of Mazu and his disciples, but that does not mean that they rejected the canon or
repudiated its authority. To the contrary, one of the striking features of their records is that
they are filled with scriptural quotations and allusions, even though the full extend of
their usage of canonical sources is not immediately obvious and its discernment requires
familiarity with Buddhist literature." See source for a full-length example from "one of
Mazu's sermons", in which can be found references to the Vimalakrti Scripture, the
Huayan Scripture, the Mahsamnipata-stra, the Foshuo Foming Scripture ,
the Lankvatra scripture and the Faju jing.[5]

7.

Hakuin goes as far as to state that the buddhat path even starts with study: "[A]
person [...] must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of
wisdom by studying all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the
classic works Buddhist and nonBuddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of
other traditions. It is for that reason the vow states "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I
vow to study them all.""[49]

8.

McRae gives no further information on this "Hubei faction". It may be the

continuation of Shenxiu's "Northern School". See Nadeau 2012 p.89.[86] Hebei was also
the place where the Linji branch of chn arose.[87]

9.

During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) Chn
was part of a larger, syncretic Buddhist culture. A final phase can be distinguished from
the 19th century onward, when western imperialism had a growing influence in SouthEast Asia, including China. A side effect of this imperial influence was the modernisation
of Asian religions, adapting them to western ideas and rhetorical strategies.[71]

10.

See also The Tao of Zen, which argues that Zen is almost entirely grounded in
Taoist philosophy, though this fact is well covered by Mahayana Buddhism.[96]

11.

Godard did not provide a source for this quote.

References
1.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. xvii.

2.

Harvey 1995, p. 159169.

3.

Yoshizawa 2010, p. 41.

4.

Sekida 1989.

5.

Poceski Year unknown.

6.

Borup 2008, p. 8.

7.

Yampolski 2003a, p. 3.

8.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 48.

9.

Lievens 1981, p. 5253.

10.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 4145.

11.

Kasulis 2003, p. 24.

12.

Blyth 1966.

13.

Loori 2006.

14.

Lachs 2006.

15.

Bodiford 1992.

16.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 85-94.

17.

Lai 1985, p. 17-18.

18.

Cheng 1981.

19.

Lai 1985.

20.

Newland 2001, p. 137.

21.

Kalupahana 1994, p. 228-236.

22.

Schltter 2008, p. 3.

23.

Low 2006.

24.

Suzuki 1997, p. 154.

25.

Buswell 1993, p. 245.

26.

Abe 1996, p. 19.

27.

Luk Year unknown, p. 59-60.

28.

Lachs 2012, p. 4.

29.

Dumoulin 2005b, p. 380.

30.

Sekida (translator) 1996.

31.

Cleary 2010, p. xii-xiii, quoting Hakuin.

32.

Yen 1996, p. 54).

33.

Kapleau 1989.

34.

Heine 2000, p. 245.

35.

Tomoaki 2003, p. 280.

36.

Tomoaki 2003, p. 284.

37.

Sharf 1995c.

38.

Maezumi 2007.

39.

Low 2000.

40.

Sharf 1995c, p. 427.

41.

Sasaki 2009.

42.

Low 2000, p. 4.

43.

McRae 2003.

44.

Welter 2000.

45.

Welter 2000, p. 94.

46.

Yanagida 2009, p. 62.

47.

Hori 2000, p. 296.

48.

Hori 2000, p. 295-297.

49.

Yoshizawa 2009, p. 42.

50.

Hori 2000, p. 297.

51.

Ferguson 2000, p. 17.

52.

Lai 2003, p. 17.

53.

McRae 2003, p. 62.

54.

Lai 2003, p. 18.

55.

Domoulin-2005a, p. 49-51.

56.

Snelling 1987, p. 157-158.

57.

Low 2000, p. 83-112.

58.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 45-49.

59.

Low 2000, p. 135-154.

60.

Lai 2003.

61.

Welter 2000, p. 82-86.

62.

Welter 2000, p. 83.

63.

Chappell 1993, p. 192.

64.

Kon 2000.

65.

Sharf 1995b.

66.

McRae 2002.

67.

Borup 2008.

68.

Hori 1994.

69.

Bell 2002.

70.

Lachs 1999.

71.

McMahan 2008.

72.

Sharf 1993.

73.

Sharf 1995.

74.

McRae 2005.

75.

Heine 2007.

76.

Jorgensen 1991.

77.

Heine 2008, p. 6.

78.

Wolfe 2009, p. iii.

79.

Katz 2007.

80.

Ferguson 2000.

81.

Ferguson 2000, p. 3.

82.

McRae 2003, p. 11-15.

83.

McRae 2003, p. 11-21.

84.

McRae 2003, p. 13, 15-17.

85.

McRae 2003, p. 13, 17-18.

86.

Nadeau 2012, p. 89.

87.

Yanagida 2009, p. 63.

88.

McRae 2003, p. 13, 18-19.

89.

McRae 2003, p. 13, 19-21.

90.

Gimello 1994.

91.

McRae 2003, p. 13.

92.

Brown Holt 1995.

93.

Goddard 2007, p. 10.

94.

Verstappen 2004, p. 5.

95.

Fowler 2005, p. 79.

96.

Grigg 1994.

97.

Goddard 2007, p. 11.

98.

Oh 2000.

99.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 65.

100.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 64.

101.

Dumoulin 2005a, pp. 70&74.

102.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 167.

103.

Dumoulin 2005a, p. 168.

104.

Lai 2003, p. 11.

105.

Lai 2003, p. 8.

106.

Broughton 1999, p. 54-55.

107.

Broughton 1999, p. 8.

108.

Whalen Lai 1985.

109.

McRae 2004.

110.

Dumoulin 2005a.

111.

McRae 2003, pp. 3336.

112.

Lai 2003, p. 17-18.

113.

Yampolski 2003a, p. 11.

114.

Yampolski 2003a, p. 15.

115.

Welter 2000, p. 86-87.

116.

McRae 1993, pp. 119120.

117.

Yampolski 2003b, p. 266.

118.

Welter year unknownb.

119.

Young 2009.

120.

Schltter 2008.

121.

Sharf 2002.

122.

Dumoulin 2005b, p. 299.

123.

Meng-Tat Chia 2011.

124.

Aitken 1994.

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brackets". Lirs.ru. 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2013-02-04.

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MEDIEVAL CHINESE BUDDHISM: AN EXAMINATION OF KUMRAJVAS
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Further reading
Modern classics
Sowing the seed

D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, First Series (1927), Second Series (1933), Third
Series (1934)

R. H. Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, 5 volumes (19601970; reprints of works from 1942
into the 1960s)

Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (1957)

Lu K'uan Yu (Charles Luk), Ch'an and Zen Teachings, 3 vols (1960, 1971, 1974), The
Transmission of the Mind: Outside the Teaching (1974)

Growing roots

Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones (1957)

Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (1966)

Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (1970)

Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods & Philosophy (1975)

Classic historiography

Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World
Wisdom Books. ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1

Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom
Books. ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7

Critical historiography
Overview

Heine, Steven (2007), A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky. In: Philosophy
East & West Volume 57, Number 4 October 2007 577592 (PDF)

Formation of Chn in Tang & Song China

Mcrae, John (2003), Seeing through Zen. Encounter, Transformation, and Genealogy in
Chinese Chan Buddhism. The University Press Group Ltd . ISBN 978-0-520-23798-8

Welter, Albert (2000), Mahakasyapa's smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an
(Koan) Tradition. In: Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright (eds)(2000): "The Koan. Texts
and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Schltter, Morten (2008), How Zen became Zen. The Dispute over Enlightenment and the
Formation of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i
Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3508-8

Japan

Bodiford, William M. (1993), St Zen in Medieval Japan, University of Hawaii Press,

ISBN 0-8248-1482-7

Modern times

Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Sharf, Robert H. (1995a), Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited (PDF)

Orientalism and east-west interchange

Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and
genealogical networks

King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The
Mystic East", Routledge

McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University

Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6

Contemporary practice

Borup, Jrn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myshinji, a Living Religion, Brill

Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery. In:
Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.20, No. 1, (Winter, 1994), 5-35 (PDF)

Buswell, Robert E. (1993a), The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in

Contemporary Korea, Princeton University Press
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