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Chapter three

Water Quality And Standards

CHAPTER 3

WATER QUALITY AND


STANDARDS
In This Chapter
History of Water Quality Standards
Importance of Water Quality Standards
National and International Water Quality Standards
Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristics

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Chapter three

Water Quality And Standards

Chapter (3)
WATER QUALITY AND STANDARDS

ater is very important for our life. Therefore, water must


be free from organisms that are capable of causing disease
and from minerals and organic substances that could

produce adverse physiological effects (Pontius, 1990).


Drinking water should be aesthetically acceptable; it should be free from
apparent turbidity, color, and odor and from any objectionable taste.
Water meeting these conditions is termed ''Potable Water''. This means
that it may be consumed in any desired amount without concern for
adverse effects on health ( Pontius, 1990).

3.1 History of Water Quality Standards


Water quality was hot very well documented and people knew relatively
little about disease as it related to water quality. Early historical treatment
was performed only for the improvement of the appearance or taste of the
water. No definite standards of quality other than general clarity or
palatability were recorded by ancient civilizations. The first drinking
water standards were issued at least 4000 years ago.

Hippocrates, the father of medicine, stated that ''water contributes much


to health.'' His interest in water centered on the purifying the most healthgiving source of supply rather than on purifying the waters that were bad.
Apparently, ancient people deduced by observation that certain waters
promoted good health. While others produced infection.
By the 18th century, filtration of particles from water was established as
an effective means of clarifying water. The general practice of making
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Water Quality And Standards

water clean was well recognized by that time, but the degree of clarity
was not measurable. The first municipal water filtration plant started
operations in 1832 in Scotland. Aside from the frequent references of
concern for the aesthetic properties of water, historical records indicate
that standards for water quality were notable absent up to and including
much of the 19th century.

With the realization that various epidemics (e.g., cholera and typhoid) had
been caused and spread by water contamination, people saw that the
quality of drinking water could not be accurately judged by sensory
perception. Reliance on taste and smell was not an accurate means of
judging the acceptability of water; more stringent quality criteria would
be a necessary historical development. As a result, in 1852 a law was
passed in London stating that all waters should be filtered.

In the mid-1890s, the Louisville Water Company, Louisville, combined


coagulation with rapid sand filtration, significantly reducing turbidity and
bacteria in the water.

The next major milestone in drinking water technology was the use of
chlorine as disinfection. Chlorination was first used in 1908 and was
introduced in a large number of water systems.
In the 19th century, the water quality standards was developed and
regulated to give best potable water. These standards (Pontius, 1990)
included the following :
i.

The basic formal and comprehensive review of drinking water


concerns was launched.

ii.

The concept of maximum permissible and safe limit was


introduced.
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Chapter three

Water Quality And Standards

iii.

Physical and Chemical constituents were limited.

iv.

Physical,

Chemical,

and

bacteriological

examinations

were

illustrated.
v.

Samples for bacteriological examination were to be obtained from


pointes in the distribution system.

vi.

Maximum concentrations, not to be exceeded always, where more


suitable.

3.2 Importance of Water Quality Standards


Water quality standards normally identify the concentration of component
properties shown by examinations of water samples to be safe, acceptable
and attainable from available sources.
The maximum permitted concentration of various substances in public
water supply is controlled throughout the world by legislation and varies
to some extent from country to country.
Standards of water quality (Babbitt et al, 1962) can be divided into three
types:
i.

For water of exceptionally great natural purity.

ii.

For pure waters from a restricted area, and.

iii.

For limits of matters permitted in water.

3.3 National and International Water Quality Standards


Several water quality standards were established and implemented. Some
of these are still in use, whereas, some were modified. National (Saudi
Arabian Standards) and selected international water quality standards for
drinking water which are currently in use are presented in Table 3.1. Brief
information about these standards is presented below.

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Chapter three

Water Quality And Standards

3.3.1 Saudi Arabian Standards


Drinking water quality standards in Saudi Arabia (SAS) are issued by the
Saudi Arabian Standards Organization (SASO). There are two drinking
water quality standards currently in use in Saudi Arabia. These are the
bottled drinking water quality standards (SASO, 1997) and the unbolted
drinking water quality standards (GCS. 1993). The former have been
issued in 1392 H (1972 G) by the Saudi Arabian Standards Organization
(SASO) and implemented in 1405 H (1985 G). The un bottled drinking
water quality standards have been issued in 1403 H (1982 G) by the Saudi
Arabian Standards Organization (SASO and standardization and
Metrology Organization for Gulf Cooperation Council Countries
(GSMO) and implemented in 1413 H (1993 G). The bottled drinking
water quality standards are currently in use of the water quality in the
distribution system.

3.3.2 Gulf Cooperation Countries Standards


Gulf Cooperation Council Countries Standards are the ''Unbottled
Drinking Water Quality Standards'' (GCS, 1993) which have been issued
in 1403 H (1982 G) by the Saudi Arabia Standards Organization (SASO)
and Standardization and Metrology Organization for Gulf Cooperation
Council Countries (GSMO).

3.3.3 World Health Organization Guidelines for Drinking Water


Quality
The primary aim of the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines
for drinking water quality is the protection of public health and thus the
elimination, or reduction to a minimum, of constituents in water that
known to be hazardous to the health and well-being of the community
(Pontius, 1990).
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3.3.4 United States Environmental Protection Agency for Drinking


Water Regulations
U.S Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA's) secondary regulations
set desirable levels for drinking water contaminants that may adversely
affect the aesthetic value of drinking water. States may establish higher or
lower levels that may be appropriate depending upon local conditions
such as unavailability of alternative source water or other compelling
factors, provided that public health and welfare are not adversely
affected.

The present standards include maximum contaminant le4vel (MCL), also


known as primary standards, for those organic and inorganic chemicals
known to have toxic or carcinogenic effects, for turbidity, and for
bacterial population. In addition, recommended contaminant levels.
(RCL,

secondary

standards)

have

been

established

for

certain

contaminants, which are primarily of esthetic importance (Pontius, 1990).

3.3.5 European Economic Community Drinking Water Directives


The European Economic Community (EEC), having been established by
a treaty of the Council of the European Communities, issued a council
directive relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption.
Specifically, the EEC standards provide for both the setting of standards
to apply to toxic chemicals and bacteria that present a health hazard, and
the definition of physical, chemical, and biological parameters for
different uses of water. Specifically for the use of human consumption
(Pontius, 1990).

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Chapter three

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3.3.6 Canadian Drinking Water Guidelines


In Canadian, drinking water is a shared federal-provincial responsibility.
In general, provincial governments are responsible for an adequate, safe
supply, whereas the Federal Department of National Health and Welfare
develops quality guidelines and conducts research. Guidelines for
Canadian Drinking water quality (CGL) are developed through a joint
federal-provincial mechanism and are not legally enforceable unlesss
promulgated as regulations by the appropriate provincial agency. The first
comprehensive Canadian drinking water guidelines were published by the
Department of National Health and Welfare in 1968. They were
completely revised in 1978 and again in 1987. (Pontius, 1990).

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Chapter three

Constituent
pH
Electric
Conductivity
T.D.S
Color

Water Quality And Standards

Units

6.5-8.5
800-2300

GCS
(1993/149)
SAS
(1993/701)
6.5-8.5
160-1600

1500
50.0 TCU

100-1000
15.0 TCU

SAS
(1984/409)

USS

EEC

6.0 -8.5

6.5-8.5

6.5-8.5
400

6.5-8.5

1000
15.0 TCU

500
15.5
TCU

1500
1 mg/1
Pt/Co scale

<500

/cm at 20 C
mg/1
TCU(true
Color unit
NTU,
(nephelometrc
turbidity unit)

25.0 NTU

5.0 NTU

5.0 NTU

1.0-5.0
NTU

1(10) mg/1
SiO2

Taste

Acceptable

Acceptable

Inoffensive

Acceptable

Order

Acceptable

Acceptable

Inoffensive

Acceptable

O dilution
No. (3)
O dilution
No. (3)
100
30(50)
60 Ca
mg/1
minimum

Turbidity

CGL
(1987)

WHO

Calcium
Magnesium

Ca mg/1
mg mg/1

200
30-150

200
150

Total
Hardness

mg/1 as
CaCo3

500

500

500

Manganese
Sodium
Chloride

Mg mg/1
Na mg/1
C1 mg/1

0.05
--600

0.1
200
250

0.1
200
250

0.05

Fluride

F1 mg/1

0.6-1.0

0.6-1.7

1.5

1.4-2.4

Nitrite,NO2
Nitrite,NO3
Aluminum

mg/1
mg/1
mg/1

45
---

<1.0
10 as N
0.2

Sulfate,SO4

mg/1

400

Iron

Fe mg/1

Free residual

mg/1

<15.0 TCU
<5 NTU

Inoffensive
Inoffensive

<500

0.02 (0.05)
20(175)
25

<0.05
--<250

10
0.2

1.0 as N
10 as N
0.05

(0.7) at 253u C
(0.1)
25 (50)
0.05(0.2)

1.5
1.0 as N
10
10

400

400

250

25(500)

1.0

0.3

0.3

0.3

0.05(0.2)

0.2-1.0

0.2-0.5

<1/100

0/100 ml

ml

MF method

250

<0.3

chlorine
Coliform

no./100 ml

Bacteria
Fecal

no./100 ml

0/100 ml
0.0

0.0

Coliform

J
MF method

coliform
no./100 ml

<1/100 ml
0.0

0.0

j
MF method

MPN/100 ml

SAS : Saudi Arabia Standard


Community standard
GCS : Gulf Countries Standard
WHO : World Health Organization
USS : United States Standard

EEC : European Economic


CGL : Canadian Guideline

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Chapter three

Water Quality And Standards

3.4 Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristics


This section gives a brief description of the chemical and bacteriological
characteristics parameters that were measured in this study.

3.4.1 Chemical Characteristics


3.4.1.1.pH
pH is a measured of the acidic or basic (alkaline) nature of a solution. The
concentration of the hydrogen ion (H+) morality in a solution determines
the pH.
Pure water has pH equal 7 and is neutral. Water with a pH less than 7 is
acidic, and water with pH greater than 7 is basic. The principle system
regulating pH in natural water is the carbonate system composed of
carbon dioxide, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions. PH is
an important factor in the chemical and biological system of natural
water. The degree of dissociation of weak acids or bases is affected by
changes in pH.

3.4.1.2.Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is a numerical expression that shown the ability of
water to hold electrical current. The unit of Electrical conductivity is
mhos / cm. Electrical conductivity depends on the ionic forces of the
solution, appearance of the dissolved ions and their concentration, relative
concentration, and the measurement temperature.

3.4.1.3. Total dissolved Solid


Total dissolved Solid is the summation of all dissolves solids in the water,
such as non-organic materials, carbonate, bicarbonate, nitrate, sodium,
potassium, chloride, and magnesium. TDS affects the other characteristics
of drinking water such as taste and hardness.
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3.4.1.4. Dissolved Oxygen


Dissolved Oxygen

analysis measure the amount of gaseous oxygen

dissolved an aqueous solution. Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from


the surrounding air, by aeration, and as a waste product of photosynthesis.
It generally ahs also been considered significant in the protection of
aesthetic qualities.

Dissolved Oxygen concentration are an important tool to determine the


ability of a water body to support a well-balanced aquatic fauna.
Insufficient.

Dissolved Oxygen in the

water column causes

the

anaerobic

decomposition of organic materials leading to the formation of noxious


gases, such has hydrogen sulfide, and the development of

carbon

dioxide an methane in sediments that bubble to the surface or which tend


to float sludge.

Dissolved Oxygen in municipal water supplies is desired as an indicator


of satisfactory water quality in terms of low residual of biologically
available organic material. In addition, oxygen in water prevents the
chemical reduction and subsequent leaching of iron and manganese,
principally from the sediments. On the other hand, excess oxygen
increases the rate of metal corrosion, which can increase the
concentration of iron and other metals in drinking water supplies.

3.4.1.5. Alkalinity
The alkalinity of the water is its ability to neutralize an acid. It is the sum
total of components in the water that tend to elevate the pH of the water
above 4.5. Carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphates, and hydroxide
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Chapter three

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contribute the common materials in natural water that increase alkalinity.


Alkalinity resulting from naturally occurring materials is not considered a
health hazard in drinking water supplies. Maximum levels up to 400
mg/L as calcium carbonates are not considered a problem.

3.4.1.6. Nitrates
The continuous interchange between atmospheric terrestrial nitrogen is
referred to as nitrogen cycle. It has undergone profound modifications as
a result of agricultural and industrial activities of man.
Atmospheric nitrogen is transformed by microbial action in plants and in
the soil, by various atmospheric processes, and by industrial process
compounds, such as ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites.

Nitrates are salts of nitric acid, most of which are readily soluble in water.
Levels in cultivated soils, and thus levels in groundwater, may be
increased by the use of commercial nitrogenous fertilizers and farm
animal waste. Intensive animal farming produces large amounts of
nitrogenous materials that may be converted into nitrates.

3.4.1.7. Chloride
Chloride ion is one of the major inorganic anions in water and
wastewater. Chloride is a salt compound resulting from the combination
of the gas, chlorine, and metal. The typical taste may be absent in waters
containing as much as 1,000 mg/L when the predominant cautions are
calcium and magnesium
.
The chloride concentration is higher in wastewater than in raw water
because sodium chloride is a common component of the diet and passes
unchanged through the digestive system. High chloride content may
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Chapter three

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metallic pipes and structures, as well as growing plants. Chloride can


corrode metals and affect the taste of food products. Therefore, water is
used in industry or processed for any use has a recommended maximum
chloride level.

3.4.1.8. Calcium
The pressure of calcium in the form Ca2+ in water supplies as a result of
passage through or over deposits of limestone, dolomite, gypsum, and
gypsiferous shale. The calcium content may range from zero to several
hundred milligrams per liter, depending on the source and treatment of
the water. Calcium contributes to the total hardness of water.

3.4.1.9. Magnesium
Magnesium, in the form of Mg2+, ranks eighth among the elements in
order of abundance and is a common constituent of natural water.
Important contributes to the hardness of water, magnesium salts breaks
down when heated, forming scale in boilers. The magnesium may very
from zero to several hundred milligrams per liter, depending on the
source and treatment of the water.

3.4.1.10. Sodium
Sodium, in the form of Na+, ranks sixth among the elements in order of
abundance and is present in most natural waters. The levels may very
from less than 1 mg Na/1, to more than 500 mg Na/1. The ratio of sodium
to total cations is important in agricultural and human pathology.

3.4.1.11. Potassium
Potassium, in the form of K, ranks seventh among the elements in order
of abundance, yet its concentration in most drinking waters seldom
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Chapter three

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reaches 20 mg/L. However, occasional brines may contain more than 100
mg/L potassium.

3.4.1.12. Phosphorus
Phosphorus, in the form of P+, is particularly toxic and is subject to
bioaccumulation in much same way as mercury. However, phosphorus as
phosphate (PO4+) is one of the major mutrients

required for plant

nutrition and essential for life. Phosphorus enters waterways from several
different sources.

The human body excretes about 1 pound per year of phosphorus. The use
of phosphate detergents and other domestic phosphates increases the
phosphorus load to natural habitats. Some industries, such as potato
processing, have wastewater high in phosphates. It was found that total
phosphorus concentrations in excess of 100 mg/L might interfere with
coagulation in water treatment plants.

3.4.1.13. Ammonia
Ammonia in the form of NH3 is a pungent, colorless, gaseous, alkaline
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen that is highly soluble in water. It is a
biologically active compound present in natural waters as a normal
biological degradation product of nitrogenous organic matter and
wastewater. It may also reach surface waters through the discharge of
industrial wastes containing ammonia as a byproduct or wastes from
industrial processes using ''ammonia water''.

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3.4.1.14. Cadmium
Cadmium in the form of (Cd) occurs as a soft, blue-white, malleable
metal or grayish-white powder. Cadmium has been shown to be toxic to
man when ingested or inhaled. When ingested, it caused symptoms
resembling food poisoning.

The naturally occurring presence of cadmium in the environment results


mainly from gradual phenomena, such as rock erosion and abrasion, and
of singular occurrences, such as volcanic eruptions. Cadmium is,
therefore, naturally present in air, water, soil, and foodstuffs. It is soluble
in acid, ammonium nitrate, and insoluble in water.

3.4.1.15. Lead
Lead in the form of (Pb) is a silver-gray soft metal that occurs in the
earth's at crust at an average concentration of about 13 mg/kg, however,
some environment have much higher concentrations. Since these areas
constitute a small percentage of total land, exposures of man to these
sources are negligible.

People are exposed to lead by ingestion of food and fluids and by


inhalation. Man's intake of lead through water, particularly in urban areas,
is generally low in comparison with exposure through air and food.

3.4.1.16. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)


Chemical oxygen demand is a measure of water pollution resulting from
organic matter. STET the amount of oxygen required, or equivalent, for
the oxidation of all chemically oxidyzable matter contained in a water
sample. This is accomplished using a number of methods utilizing a

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Chapter three

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strong chemical oxidant. Boiling a solution containing chromic and


sulfuric acids can digest the majority or organic matter.

3.4.2. Bacteriological Characteristics


3.4.2.1. Fecal coliform Bacteria
Total coliforms are measure of thee concentration of bacteria associated
with the presence of sewage pollution. Fecal coliform bacteria are the
most frequently applied microbiological indicators of water quality to
determine the safety of water for drinking, swimming, and shellfish
harvesting.

The coliform group is made up of a number of bacteria. Total coliform


bacteria are all gram-negative asporogenous rods and have been
associated with faces of warm-blooded animals and with soil. They are
able to grow at 44.50C and ferment lactose, producing acid and gas. Use
of fecal coliform bacteria has proven to be of more sanitary significance
than the use of total coliform bacteria because to define water quality for
swimming.

The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatie environments indicates


that the water has been contaminated with the fecal material of man or
other animals. At the time this occurred, the source water might have
been contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses,
which can also exist in fecal material. Some waterborne pathogenic
diseases include typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and
hepatitis A.

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Chapter three

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The presence of fecal contamination is an indicator that a potential health


risk exists for individual exposed to this water, fecal coliform bacterial
may occur in ambient water as a result of the overflow of domestic
sewage or nonpoint sources of human and animal waste. Shellfish
concentrates fecal coliform bacteria, other bacterial pathogens, and
viruses found in water and sediment. Shellfish, as filter feeders, require a
high quality of water in order to be microbiologically safe for human
consumption, either raw or partially cooked.

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