38

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0

INTRODUCTION
With the advanced reinforced concrete structures the heavy

reinforcing structures and complicated shapes of structures are no

longer unusual. During 1980s skilled labor shortage has become a
serious problem in particularly in Japan, at construction sites and a
need was felt for a concrete that would overcome the problems of
defective workmanship.
SCC was developed at that time to improve the durability of
concrete structures. The necessity of this type of concrete was
proposed by Professor Okamura of Kochi university of Technology,
Japan in 1986 [62].

Since then, various investigations have been

carried out and SCC has been used in structures in Japan, mainly by
large construction companies. Investigations for establishing a
rational mix-design method and self-compactability testing methods
have been carried out from the viewpoint of making it a standard
concrete. SCC flows like honey and has a very smooth surface level
after placing. With regard to its composition, self-compacting concrete
consists of the same components as conventionally vibrated concrete,
which are cement, aggregates and water, with the addition of chemical
and mineral admixtures in different proportions Dr.Okamura (1986)
defined SCC as follows at three different stages of concrete

39
(1)

Fresh

: Self - compactable.

(2)

Early age

: avoidance of initial defects

(3)

After hardening

protection against external factors.

Other applications of self compacting concrete are summarized below.

Bridge (Anchorage, arch, beam, girder, tower, pier)

Box culverts

Building

Concrete filled steel column

Tunnel (lining, immersed tunnel , fill of survey tunnel)

Dam ( concrete around structure)

Concrete products(block, culvert water tank, slab and segment)

Diaphragm wall

Tank (sidewall, joint between sidewall and slab)

2.1

Mehta. P.K. (1977)

[51]

did investigations on the properties of

blended cements made from RHA. For both lime RHA and Portland
RHA cements, RHA containing silica in a highly reactive form is an
excellent ingredient. Portland RHA cements when replaced up to 50%
by ash showed considerably high compressive strengths than OPC
even at as early as 3 and 7 days. This show RHA cements has
resistance to organic and mineral acids.
2.2

Mehta. P.K. (1977)

[52]

concluded that due to acid resistance

property Rice husk ash cements and concretes are more durable in
acidic environment. So in mortars and concretes made with reactive
aggregates, RHA can be used as mineral admixture.

40
2.3

Mehta. P.K. and Peritz (1978)[50] According to them, the use of

Rice husk ash reduces the temperatures in high strength mass

contents. By maintaining combustion temperature below 5000C,
under oxidizing conditions for prolonged periods or up to 6800C with a
hold time less than one minute, amorphous silica can be produced.
2.4

According to Chandraprasirt. P. (1983) and Cook (1984)

[16]

to

get a high degree of reactivity the finely ground RHA with a fineness of
9000-16000 sq.cm/gm (Blaines apparatus) is necessary and that can
be obtained with electrical motor steel ball mills
2.5

Kazumasa Ozawa et al (1989)

[63]

completed the first prototype

of self-compacting concrete using materials already in the market. By

using different types of super plasticizers, he studied the workability
of concrete and developed a concrete, which was more workable. It
was suitable for rapid placement and had a very good permeability.
Ozawa (1989) carried out experiments by focusing on the influence of
mineral admixtures, like fly ash and blast furnace slag, on the flowing
ability and segregation resistance of self-compacting concrete.

He

found out that the flowing ability of the concrete improved remarkably
when Portland cement was partially replaced with fly ash and blast
furnace slag.

After trying different proportions of admixtures, he

concluded that 10-20% of fly ash and 25-45% of slag cement, by

mass, showed the best flowing ability and strength characteristics.
2.6 Hsu and Hsu (1994)

[31]

A complete stress-strain equation under

axial compression was proposed by them. The empirical formula

41
includes the effect of steel fibres. The equation is in the form of
Y=a x / (a-1+xb)
Y = Normalized stress
x = Normalized strain
a, b are constants obtained using the experimental data.
2.7 Badawe B.R & B.R Kumbhar P.D (1997)

[10]

The concrete with

RHA as an admixture is almost similar to that of silica fume in terms

of relative silica. Significant improvement in permeability of concrete
with RHA compared to the controlled OPC concrete is observed. The
chemical resistance of RHA concrete improved significantly with
respect to H2SO4.With the addition of RHA as a pozzolanic material the
durability of concrete can be improved in multiple directions
2.8

M.Ouchi,

Hajime

Okamura

(1997)[49]

They

had

done

investigations on the effect of super plasticizer (a chemical admixture)

on flowability and viscosity of mortar in self-compacting concrete.
From experimental results, it is found that the ratio of funnel speed to
flow area of mortar with a fixed amount of super plasticizer is almost
constant, independent of the water-powder ratio. The higher the
amount of super plasticizer the lower is the ratio of funnel speed to
flow area. This ratio is proposed as an index for the effect of super
plasticizer on mortar flowability and viscosity from the viewpoint of
achieving self-compactability. This index is useful to evaluate the
amount of super plasticizer for proper flowability and viscosity of
mortar.

42
2.9 Seshagiri Rao. M.V., Janardhana.M.,etal (1999)

[86]

Authors

studies reveal that with addition of 60% FA and 30% RHA the 7 days
and 28 days compressive strengths are observed to have improved by
about 43%, which is due to significant contribution of RHA as an
admixture. There is marginal improvement in flexural strengths in
high fly ash concretes with RHA as an admixture. There is a clear cut
improvement in stress strain behaviour of fly ash concretes up to
60% FA and with 30% RHA as an additional admixture. The behaviour
is almost identical to that of ordinary concretes. Similarly the moduli
of elasticity of fly ash concretes with and without RHA are slightly low
with a marginal improvement in fly ash + RHA concretes. The fly ash
concretes with RHA are more durable in terms of permeability,
freezing and thawing, shrinkage, sulphate and acid resistance.
2.10 Gao peiwei. et al, (2000)

[25]

mentioned that the conventional

concrete is primarily made of only three fundamental ingredients viz.

cement, aggregates and water. A new type of concrete termed High
Performance

Concrete

(HPC)

has

become

popular

in

concrete

construction industry in recent years. To produce this type of

concrete, the admixtures like super plasticizer, super fine powder,
segregation reducing powder, viscosity modifying agents are used
apart from aggregate, cement and water. The most important principle
is to reduce the amount of cement in HPC. There are three reasons to
support this view (i) to attain long term durability, (ii) to preserve our
natural resources and (iii) to save the cost of the materials and energy.

43
2.11 K. Ganesh Babu and V. Sree Rama Kumar (2000)

[37]

Evaluated efficiency of various Supplementary Cementitious Materials

(SCM) such as GGBS, silica fume, fly ash in concretes. As per their
studies the utilization of SCMs is well accepted because of the several
improvements possible in the concrete composites and due to the
overall economy. They quantified the 28-day cementitious efficiency of
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) in concrete at the
various replacement levels. The overall strength efficiency was found
to be a combination of general efficiency factor (depending on the age)
and a percentage efficiency factor(depending upon the percentage of
replacement), as was the case with a few other cementitious materials
like fly ash and silica fume reported earlier. This evaluation makes it
possible to design GGBS concretes for a desired strength at any given
percentage of replacement.
They assessed the cementitious efficiency of GGBS in concrete
at the various replacement percentages through the efficiency concept
by establishing the variation of the strength to water-to-cementitious
materials ratio relations of the GGBS concretes from the normal
concretes at 28 days.
2.12 Nan Sua, Kung-Chung Hsub, His-Wen Chai (2001)

[57]

proposed

a new mix design method for self-compacting concrete (SCC), to

ensure that the concrete obtained has flowability, self-compacting
ability and other desired SCC properties. The amount of aggregates
required is determined, and the paste of binders is then filled into the
voids of aggregates. Thus by using appropriate material properties the

44
amount of aggregates, binders and mixing water, as well as type and
dosage of superplasticizer (SP) to be used are determined. Fresh
properties like Slump flow, V-funnel, L-flow, U-box and compressive
strength

tests

were

carried

out

successfully

to

examine

the

performance of produced high quality SCC. This method is simple

when compared to the method developed by the Japanese ReadyMixed Concrete Association, as it is easy for implementation, simple,
less time-consuming, saves cost and requires a smaller amount of
binders.
2.13 Neol P Mailvaganam (2001)[59] According to the author, various
constituents of cement and cement hydration reaction are influenced
by chemical and mineral admixtures. The performance of admixtures
depends on the nature, amount of admixtures, specific surface of the
cement, composition, water cement ratio, proportions of aggregates,
conditions of curing and temperature. Optimum use 0f these
materials study of interaction between admixture- cement and
admixture admixture is necessary. The influence of admixtures is in
five stages.
Stage I- 0-15 min-Initial hydration process
Stage II-15 min 4 hrs-Induction period or lag phase
Stage III-4 hrs 8 hrs- Acceleration and setting
Stage IV- 8 hrs 24 hrs hardening and
Stage V- 1 28 days-Curing.
2.14 Roy D.M, Arjunam .P., Silsbee M. R (2001)[80] The mortars
made with plain Portland cement are less acid resistant than mortars

45
made with substitution of SF, MK &FA. Mortars are less affected by
1% hydrochloric acid, 1% sulphuric acid and 1% Nitric acid
environment. But at higher acid concentrations i.e. at 5% sulphuric
acid, 5% acetic acid and 5% phosphoric acid the mortars showed less
resistance. Chemical resistance is in the order of SF, MK, and FA as
replacement levels increased from 0 to 10%.
2.15 Subramanyan.S and Chattopadhyay.D (2002)[92] The
development of the mix proportions for self-compacting concrete and
the procedure used for selecting the combination of viscosity
modifying agent, super plasticizer and ultra fine powders are studied
by authors in detail.
The reduction in dosage of Welan gum can be possible with the
appropriate dosage of Micro silica, which may reduce the final setting
time and increase the compressive strength. Suitability of self
compacting concrete mixture proportion was verified through a
complicated mould and in a field trail and the results are encouraging.
2.16 According to the investigations of Chai Jaturapitakkul and
Roongreung. (2003)[15] About 200 kg of rice husk is produced from
1000kg of rice grain. After rice husk was burnt, about 20% of rice
husk i.e. 40 kg would become RHA (Mehta 1986)[51]. It contains high
amount of Sio2, most of which is in amorphous form (Gambhir 1995),
which makes RHA a pozzolanic material according to ASTM C 618
(1997). The pozzolana which has high fineness in the presence of
moisture react with Ca(OH)2 at room temperature providing cementing
property. The main products in the cement hydration, are Calcium

46
Silicate Hydrate (C S H) Calcium Aluminate Hydrate (C A H) and
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2. CSH and CAH are the cementing
materials which contribute to the strength of the concrete. The CAH
produces lower compressive strength than that of CSH, while Ca(OH)2
reacts with SiO2 and Al2O3 to form pozzolanic material resulting in
additional CSH and CAH in mixture, improving some of the properties
of the concrete like reduced bleeding, increased compressive strength,
reduced permeability etc. RHA used by them was of specific gravity of
2.18 and Blaines fineness of 18,050 cm2/gm.
2.17 Ganesan N., Indira P.V, Santhosh Kumar P.T.(2003)

[24]

While several attempts have been made in the recent years to study
the strength and behavior SCC, only a few studies have been carried
out on the strength and behavior of structural elements made of SCC.
From the literature, it may be noted that self compacting concrete
appears to be a very useful composite due to its high performance,
applicability in the congested zones and durability. The authors feel
that more number of studies have to be carried out to understand
short term and long term behavior of structural elements such as
beams, beams-column joints using SCC, Hence these studies.
2.18 Jagadish Vengala and Ranganath R.V. (2003)

[34]

developed

high performance self-compacting concrete and discussed the results

of an experimental study of the fresh concrete properties. Coarse
aggregate is replaced partly by fly ash which has increased the paste
content and enhanced the self-compacting properties. The high
powder content which has been advocated for development of SCC,

47
contributed to its long-term strength and durability as it imparts a
continuous hydrating system to the concrete. If the concrete is having
fly ash greater than 140 kg per cum, an increase in strength of the
order of 35% occurs at later ages where as similar increase occurs in
SCC mixes of high volume fly ash and the order is of 35-60%.
2.19 Muthu K.U, Puttappa C.G, Veeraraghavan.A (2003)

[54]

Observed that the flexural strength of High Strength Concrete (HSC)

beams is about one tenth of compressive strength of concrete. The
beams designed according to IS 456 deflected more when compared to
other beams. The service load was taken 2/3 of ultimate load. The
deflection at ultimate load for HSC beams occurred at an average
value of span/220.
2.20 Okamura Hajime and Masahiro Ouchis (2003)

[60]

main aim is

to establish a rational mix-design method. Self- compactability testing

methods have been carried out from the view point to make selfcompacting concrete a standard concrete. By using rational mixdesign method and an appropriate acceptance testing method at the
job site, the main obstacles for the wide use of self-compacting
concrete can be considered to have been solved. The next task is to
promote the rapid diffusion of the techniques for the production of
self-compacting concrete its use in construction. Rational training and
qualifications systems for engineers should also be established. In
addition, new structural design and construction systems making full
use of self-compacting concrete should be introduced.

48
2.21 Pal, S.C., Mukherjee, A, Pathak. S.R. (2003)[65] According to
them Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is a by-product
obtained in the manufacture of pig iron in the blast furnace and is
formed by the combination of constituents of iron ore with lime stone
flux. When molten slag is cooled, it forms into fine, granular, almost
fully non-crystalline, glassy form known as granulated slag. Such
granulated slag, when finely ground and combined with Portland
cement, exhibit excellent cementitious properties.
2.22 Rajamane N.P., Annie Peter, Lakshmanan N., (2003)

[73]

Lot

of investigation is done on fresh state of concrete but these authors

made investigations on the properties of SCC and reviewed its
properties in hardened state. Self compacting concrete (SCC) has
considerable advantages for complicated and heavily reinforced
structural elements and large construction projects. It is observed that
the structural behavior of SCC is similar to conventionally vibrated
concrete, and by proper combination of powdery materials and waterbinder ratio, any strength level of SCC can be achieved.
2.23 Sri Ravindrarajah R, et al (2003)

[90]

The authors investigated

workability, bleeding capacity, segregation potential, compressive and

tensile strengths, and drying shrinkage of SCC and ordinary concrete.
Ordinary concrete had 465 kg/m3 of cement whereas the selfcompacting concrete consists of 350 and 135 kg/m3 of cement and fly
ash respectively. The bleeding capacity for the self-compacting
concrete was less than that of ordinary concrete. When vibration was
employed at the time of moulding the strength of both concrete types

49
was found to increase. The mix compositions and superplasticiser
dosage has influenced the drying shrinkage.
2.24 Stefan Kordts and Wolfgang Breit (2003)

[91]

The property of

fresh concrete like workability, slump etc can be achieved in a variety

of ways with different concrete constituent materials and compositions
known as self compacting. The nature of the application determines
the requisite workability and

its period. By representing the

workability in a diagram using the slump flow parameter as a

measure of the yield value and the V-funnel flow time parameter as a
measure of the viscosity, an approach for assessing the self
compacting properties of a SCC has been developed. By varying the
levels of water and superplasticizer the optimum workability range for
self compaction as well as the limits of workability has to be tested
and specified for the corresponding SCC in fresh and hardened
concrete investigations.
2.25 Venkatesh Babu D.L. (2003)

[101]

Author presented an

experimental investigation on the properties like workability and

compressive strength of self-compacting concrete. Several tests are
conducted involving various binder combinations, water-binder ratio
and high range water reducing admixtures and set retarding
admixtures

to

optimize

the

mix

proportions

for

flowable

self

compacting concrete. Investigation on the properties like workability

and compressive strength of self-compacting concrete are done. Test
results show that the workability characteristics of SCC are within
limiting constraints of SCC. The highest compressive strength of SCC

50
mix at 28 days of age of curing is 71.33 MPa. The test results and
fresh properties of concrete are within the limits of self Compacting
Concrete i.e. flow ability, passing ability and resistance against
segregation.
2.26 Amit Mittal, Kaisare M.B and Shetty R.G (2004)

[3]

mentioned

that SCC is ideally suitable for heavily congested reinforced concreting

structures wherein the access for concreting is difficult. The author
described in brief the methodology adopted for the design of SCC mix,
testing methods to qualify SCC and method adopted for concreting
walls and other structures of a condenser cooling water pump house
at Tarapur Atomic power project (TAPP 3& 4).
2.27 Annie Peter.J, etal (2004)

[6]

The structural behavior of SCC &

Conventional Concrete (CVC) in hardened state is studied in detail;

reinforced concrete (RC) beams of size 150mm x 400mm x 3000mm
with similar concrete strength and identical reinforcement were cast,
tested and compared. The structural behavior such as load-deflection
characteristics, crack-widths, spacing of cracks, number of cracks,
crack pattern, ultimate load-carrying capacity, moments-curvature
relationship, longitudinal strain in both concrete and steel are
observed. It is observed that the load deformation behavior of both
SCC and CVC beams were similar up to the peak load stage. Beyond
the peak load stage, there is no drop in load in CVC beams with
increased deformation while drop in load is observed in SCC beams
with increased deformation. Whereas the peak and failure loads were

51
nearly the same for CVC beams but the failure load in SCC beams was
nearly 25% lower when compared to the peak load.
Crack spacing of both CVC and SCC were almost same. Crack
widths were within the limits specified by IS 456 at all load stages.
The average crack widths of both the types of beams were compared.
2.28 Bapat S.G., Kulkarni S.B. and Bandekar K.S. (2004)

[11]

They designed a SCC mix of M30 grade, the56-day strength

achieved was 50MPa. The SCC mix was produced with low water
content of 165 Kg/m3, powder content of 450kg/m3 and cement
content as low as

225kg/m3. This mix was used by Nuclear power

corporation of India Ltd.(NPICL) for various structure in nuclear power

plants (NPPs), especially for those having congested reinforcement. By
using this SCC mix, after de-shuttering which was done 13 hours
after concreting it was observed that concrete flowed and occupied the
form completely, surface finish both for the column and wall was good
with uniform distribution of aggregate. The finished product obtained
was more durable, better qualitative, less heat of hydration and ecofriendly too.
2.29

Chava Srinivas. et al (2004)

[18]

Studies about maximizing the usage of fly ash, High volume fly ash
(HVFA) can be incorporated into M20 grade concrete. On studying the
stress-strain behaviour, it is observed that the ductility of normal
concrete is more than that of fly ash concrete.
2.30 Lachemi M, Hossain K. M. A.(2004)[40] shown that the use of
viscosity

modifying

admixtures

(VMA)

proved

very

effective

in

52
stabilizing the rheology of SCC. The cost of concrete increases with the
usage of commercial VMAs currently available in the market which are
costly. This article presents the suitability of four different types of
new polysaccharide-based VMA in the development of SCC. The study
confirms the production of satisfactory SCC with acceptable fresh and
hardened properties comparable with or even better than that can be
made with commercial VMA and with Welgan gum which are
encouraging. When compared with commercial VMA the suggested
mix with 0.05% of new type VMA ,the SCC require 7% less VMA
dosage satisfying the requirement of fresh and hardened properties of
SCC and it is also cost-effective.
Since the chemical and mineral admixtures interact with various
constituents of cement and influence cement hydration reaction the
authors attribute the need of usage of admixtures.The cost of
materials will be decreased by using mineral admixtures like fly ash,
GGBS, silica fume, rice husk ash etc and there by reducing the
cement content. Use of superplasticizer imparts fluidity to the mix and
the use of viscosity modifying admixtures (VMA) has proved very
effective in stabilizing the rheology of SCC. Addition of mineral
admixtures increases the setting times due to slow pozzolanic
reaction.
2.31 Mahesh Y.V.S.S.U and Manu Santhanam (2004)

[44]

made an

attempt to correlate field test methods for flow behavior of SCC, so

that these can be used interchangeably. Based on the laboratory
work, the slump flow value and the U-box test can be used to

53
qualitatively

characterize

the

SCC

mixture

as

acceptable

or

unacceptable. It is observed that Viscosity of the SCC mixture

decreases with an increase in the water to powder-ratio. The decrease
in viscosity is indicated by drop in T50 and V-funnel flow time. The
data suggests a linear relationship between the V-funnel flow time and
the T50 slump flow, thus the two stages can be used interchangeable
in the field
2.32

Manu Santhanam and Subramanian.S

(2004)

[46]

have

discussed in detail the existing research about various aspects of selfcompacting concrete, mix design, test methods, construction related
issues, including materials and properties. By using the viscosity
modifying agents of the pseudo plastic variety complied with highrange water reducing agent for dynamic control of flow he observed
the segregation is increasing. The rheological parameter yield stress
and plastic viscosity-has made it easy to describe the role of
superplasticiser,

particle

packing

and

pseudo

plastic

viscosity

modifying agent in SCC. Their research also explained in detail the

prescribed variant of SCC based on the type of application and placing
conditions.
2.33 Mohammed Sonebi

(2004)[42] made an attempt to develop

medium strength SCC (MS-SCC), by reducing the cement content and

by using pulverized fuel ash (PFA) with a minimum amount of
superplasticizer (SP) resulting in the decrease in the cost of materials.
Totally twenty six mixes were prepared, of them twenty-one mixes
were used to derive the statistical models, and five were used for the

54
verification and the accuracy of the developed models.

By using

polynomial regression the influences of W/P, cement and PFA

contents and the dosage of SP were characterised and analysed. The
results show that a MS-SCC mix of 30 to 35 MPa of 28-day
compressive strength can be achieved by using PFA up to 210 kg/m3.
2.34 Narayana P.S.S, Srinivasa Rao. P, Swami.B.L.P(2004)

[55]

The

improvement in 28 days compressive strength is 20% more with 5%

addition of micro silica compared with 0% addition. With the addition
of micro silica the resistance of concrete to the attack of acids and
sulphates improved. The percentage of weight loss will be less at 20%
addition of micro silica, when immersed in H2SO4,HCl and Na2SO4.
2.35 Pai B.V.B. (2004)

[65]

According to him general opinion amongst

most of the engineers is that SCC cost is much more than that of the
corresponding normal strength or high-strength concrete (NSC/HSC).
But SCC materials cost just about 10-15 percent higher. It is superior
to conventional concrete in respect of all properties, more so it is the
preferred choice when concreting conditions are

difficult. But on a

more rational basis, the charges for form work including establishing
lab for making good finished surfaces, will be more advantageous.
2.36 Praveen Kumar and Kaushik.S.K. (2004)

[71]

The interfacial

transition zone (ITZ) in SCC and conventional concretes with similar

compressive strengths at 28 days is investigated by the authors in
detail and a new model for ITZ in SCC is proposed. If observations are
done using scanning electron microscopy on the transition zone in
samples of self-compacting concrete and normal concrete, the

55
microstructure distinctly differs from each other. In contrast to the
normal concrete the transition zone in self-compacting concrete was
free of micro-cracks. The porosity of this zone reduces due to the
presence of micro silica and fly ash particles in the transition zone.
2.37 Raghu Prasad P.S. et al (2004)

[72]

They reported that due to

the slow pozzolanic reaction developed, due to the addition of

admixtures to the cement or concrete during both initial and final
setting times gets delayed. This delayed setting is beneficial during the
hot

weather

concreting.

The

blended

cement

concrete

shows

considerable strength development and continues for longer period

beyond 28 days but surface absorption in blended cement concrete is
less compared to conventional concretes leading to migration of
corrosion in reinforcement.
2.38 Rama Rao.G.V. Seshagiri Rao.M.V. et al (2004)[75]

Authors

have done studies on M40-M80 grade concretes by taking optimum

percentage of 10% RHA as admixture. They observed at higher
percentages, the workability is

getting reduced drastically

requiring

high percentage of super plasticiser.

2.39 Amit Mittal, Kaisare M.B and Shetty R.G (2005)

[4]

described

the use of self compacting concrete, as per these studies it was

difficult to place concrete and do compaction for wall of a pump
house of Tarapur Atomic Power Project 3 & 4 (TAPP 3 & 4) which
were 14.4 m high, as all the other structures around these walls
were are already constructed. The use of self compacting concrete in
this structure has shown the significant role of SCC. This is an

56
excellent example of how innovative concrete technology can be
used

to

solve

practical

problems

and

improve

efficiency

of

concreting operation.
2.40 Anne-Mieke and Greet De Schutter (2005)

[5]

have done a

remarkable study on the fresh, hardening and hardened SCC, with

due attention given to the time dependent mechanical behaviour. In
this investigation, results are reported concerning the creep and
shrinkage of SCC. Comparison is done on the experimental results
with some traditional models which showed that the ACI- models
resulted into a accurate prediction while the models suggested by
Delarrard and Model Code resulted into an under estimation of
deformations. So it can be said that use of SCC will probably does not
lead to a necessity to take extra preventions considering shrinkage
and creep behaviour of the structure.
2.41 Cho-Lung Hwang and Chich-Ta-Tsai (2005)

[17]

As per them

the major parameters considered for evaluating the properties of SCC

are of

three types of aggregate packing (primitive, dense and gap

gradation) and five different paste contents (1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0
of void within aggregate). They observed that, the denser the aggregate
packing, the better the workability and engineering properties. By
application of the densified mixture design algorithm (DMDA), high
flow ability and suitable growth can be achieved for every aggregate
package type design mix. It is also observed that the strength
efficiency of SCC designed by DMDA is much higher than that by
traditional one.

57
2.42 Girish S.,Jagadish and Ranganath R.V. (2005)[27] They
developed SCC by using fly ash from Raichur Thermal Power Plant
and with three different super plasticizers. Based on the experimental
investigation, it was observed that with minor adjustment of super
plasticizer dosages self compacting concrete can be achieved using the
sequential procedure with different super plasticizer for the given mix
proportions. It was observed that performance of polycarboxylic based
super plasticizer was found to be superior with respect to time
retention among all the superplasticisers used in the present study.
By repeated dosage of superplasticisers at regular time intervals the
flow retention of the SCC mix can be achieved. For measuring SCCs
fresh properties the slump flow test and L-Box test give a good
combination.
2.43 Mario Collepardi (2005)

[47]

designed a special SCC mix

containing the amount of fine materials of approximately 500 kg/m3,

gravel of maximum

size of 18 mm, a very low cement content (150

kg/m3), a large amount of limestone filler (250-380 kg/m3) and fly ash
in the range of 50-150 kg/m3 .Due to the combined use of an acrylic
superplasticiser and a viscosity agent based on a colloidal biopolymer
emulsion, SCC with a slump flow of about 700 mm was manufactured
which has compressive strength of about 20 MPa at 3 days and 30-40
MPa at 28 days.
2.44 Paratibha Aggarwal, Yogesh and Siddique.R (2005)
discussed at length about the research aspects of

[69]

self-compacting

concrete, including materials and mix design, different tests such as

58
V-funnel test, L-Box test, J-ring etc, performance of SCC for under
water applications, in basement walls, columns, beams etc, properties
including fresh concrete properties like slump flow, compressive
strength, segregation resistance, permeability etc and durability
studies like sulphate resistance, internal frost resistance to freezing
and thawing also gives insight to predict the performance of SCC
mixtures using modeling techniques. The models developed can be
used as economical tools for optimized design of SCC mixtures there
by reducing number of mix trails and to generate further results using
other materials.
2.45 Ravindra Krishna.M,SeshagiriRao & Ranga Raju (2005) [82]
The present experimental studies are taken up to study the corrosion
behaviour of steel in high strength concrete using FA, GGBS and
superplasticiser as admixture in M 60 grade concrete. It is observed
that the Corrosion Durability Factors which is an indication of life
expectancy, reveals that the concrete with 25% FA +SP and concrete
with 25% GGBS +SP concrete will have the higher life expectancy
compared to Reference concrete.
2.46 Ravindra Krishna.M, A.V.Rama Prasad, Seshagiri Rao M.V &
Ranga Raju (2005)[79]
Durability Studies carried out in the investigation through acid attack
revealed that RHA concrete in present investigation is 81% more
durable in term of acid durability factors compared to reference
concrete

59
2.47 Sivarama Sarma B., Manohar S. & Bhattachar S.(2005)

[89]

Correlation is arrived between the L-Box, V-Funnel and slump spread

developed from the experimental programmed by the authors. It was
observed that the ideal range of slump-spread values 500-600 mm
has been related to all the empirical test procedures, shear stress and
viscosity values. The influence of various types of cements, aggregates,
mineral and chemical admixtures used throughout the country in the
production of SCC is studied in detail. All the requirements of
hardened SCC concrete are satisfied except modulus of elasticity.
2.48 The European Guidelines for Self Compacting Concrete
Specification, Production and Use (2005)

[95]

The European

Guidelines for Self Compacting Concrete represent a state of the art

document. The proposed specifications and related test methods are
intend to facilitate standardization at European level for ready-mixed
and site mixed concrete. These Guidelines and specifications were
prepared by a project group comprising five European Federations
dedicated to the promotion of advanced materials, and systems for the
supply and use of concrete. This approach encourages increased
acceptance and utilization of SCC. The European Guidelines for Self
Compacting Concrete defines SCC and many of the technical terms
used to describe its properties and use. It also provides information on
associated constituent materials used, standards related to mix
proportions

and

testing

in

the

production

of

SCC, providing

reassurance to designers on compliance of SCC on durability and

other engineering properties of hardened concrete. The guidelines

60
given for arriving trial mix proportions simplifies the mix design
procedure of SCC.They also cover specific and important requirements
regarding the site preparation, testing and methods of placing.
2.49 Wenzhong Zhu and Peter JM Bartos (2005)

[102]

The area of

interest was interfacial transition Zone (ITZ) between cement paste

and

aggregates

or

reinforcement,

its

significant

influence

on

engineering properties and durability of concrete or cementations

composites being widely recognized. There are general concerns that
the ITZ around steel bars and coarse aggregate in structural SCC
could be radically different from those in conventional concrete by
considering the different characteristics in particle packing and the
highly flowable and vibration-free packing nature of SCC. Results of
non indentation method appeared to indicate that the ITZ was denser
and significantly more uniform in SCC than in conventional concrete.
2.50 Zia P, Nanez R.A, Mata L.A. and Dwairi H.M. (2005)

[103]

The first experience of using self-consolidating concrete for prestressed concrete bridge girders in North Carolina is studied by
authors. It is a multi-span bridge which is under construction in
eastern North Carolina and will use one hundred thirty AASHTO Type
III girders, each 54.8 ft (16.7m) long.
By using different mineral admixtures like fly ash, GGBS, silica
fume,

Rice

husk

ash

and

their

combinations

with

proper

proportioning of the constituent material SCC of acceptable fresh

properties can be developed. The high powder content in SCC
contributes

to

long-term

strength

and

durability

because

of

61
continuous hydrating system of the concrete. The high amount of
SiO2, most of which is in amorphous form makes RHA a pozzolanic
material. Finely ground RHA with fineness of 16000 sq.cm/gm and
above improves the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone
(ITZ) between the cement paste and the aggregate in SCC. The
addition of large quantities of RHA greatly influenced the fresh
concrete properties like filling, passing abilities and segregation
resistance of SCC. There is no significant difference in the elastic
modulus, creep and shrinkage of SCC from the corresponding
properties of normal concrete. The moduli of elasticity in fly ash
concretes with and without RHA are slightly low.
The procedures used for selecting the combination of viscosity
modifying agent, superplasticizer and ultra fine powders for SCC was
studied by authors. By using appropriate material properties the
amount of aggregates, binders and mixing water, as well as type and
dosage of super plasticizer (SP) to be used are determined. Also by
using appropriate guidelines trial mix proportions of SCC can be
developed. SCC has a promising future in prefabrication. The benefits
include the complete elimination of vibration needed for compaction,
reduction in cost, improvement of the factory environment, extension
of the life of the moulds and good surface finishes that reduce the
need for manual finishing.
It is ideally situated for the concreting structures wherein the
access

for

concreting

is

difficult

due

to

heavily

congested

reinforcement. In recent years SCC is widely used at all places where

62
congestion

of

reinforcement

is

present

and

where

shapes

of

reinforcement are complicated for placing and compaction. SCC was

used in a condenser cooling water pump house at Tarapur Atomic
power project 3&4, Nuclear power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPICL).
2.51

Anirwan

Senguptha

and

Manu

Santhanam

(2006)[7]

produced six different consistency classes of SCC as per EFNARC2005 in the laboratory using locally available materials. All mixes
satisfied the criteria set forth by EFNARC, and showed good passing
ability and segregation to resistance. To get SCC of high flow
combined with stability, higher powder contents are needed. The
higher powder content mixtures also resulted in

the highest

compressive strengths.
2.52 Debashis Das, Gupta V.K. and Kaushik S.K. (2006)

[22]

They investigated how to develop SCC to study the effect of maximum

size and volume of coarse aggregate on the properties of SCC. Overall
twelve mixtures were investigated and the water-powder ratio was
kept fixed throughout the programme. But successive replacement of
coarse aggregate was adopted to achieve self-compacting properties.
Even these properties can be achieved for a very high percentage of
sand content (that is up to 85%). According to them the selfcompacting concrete can also be developed without using any
viscosity modifying agent by using maximum size of the coarse
aggregate. As the size increases the tendency of the mix to segregate
increases. Finally the results conveys that best-compacting properties

63
are obtained for a sand content of 70% and a coarse aggregate content
of 30% of the total aggregate.
2.53 Gauld, Jasen (2006)

[26]

pointed out that the latent hydraulic

binder that can be used in conjunction with cement is GGBS to

produce Portland-slag or blast furnace cements. The material is an
ideal choice in both general and specialized concretes due to the
merits of GGBS within concrete. The concretes that replace certain
levels of cement with GGBS when compared with a concrete that
solely uses cement are characterized by a greater resistance to sulfate
attack, reduced chloride ion diffusion,lower early-age temperature rise
and benefits from longer-term strength development.
2.54 J.Annie,N. Lakshmanan & P. Devadas Manoharan (2006)[33]
made a comparison between SCC and conventionally vibrated cement
concrete having similar strength is done. Six double under-reamed
piles having a diameter of 250 mm and a length of 4 m, three made
of SCC and three of conventionally vibrated cement concrete, were
cast and tested to evaluate their static behavior in axial compression
and tension (pullout). The ductile provisions like envisage lap length,
anchorage length, and increased number of lateral ties at various
locations would lead to increased reinforcement and hence SCC would
be a preferred option for structural elements. The place where SCC
can be used with confidence is under-reamed piles. Also the surface
finish of SCC piles was excellent without any signs of segregation or
presence of honey combs.

64
2.55 Naveen Kumar C. Jagadish V and Ranganath R.V. (2006)

[58]

Discussed the successful use of fillers other than fly ash in self
compacting concrete. The available literature has been reviewed to
bring out the advantages of such fillers when used in SCC.
Experimental studies were done with fly ash, metakaolin and their
blends as fillers in SCC.The result shows that SCC can be produced
with cement content, as low as 200 Kg/m3 of concrete along with fly
ash as rest of the powder. High strength SCC can be obtained by
incorporation of metakaolin. With different fillers like silica fume and
metakaolin a high early strength mix of around 50-70MPa can be
achieved. It is also observed that as long as the paste volume
constituted by the powder and water is kept unaltered, SCC can be
obtained for widely differing flyash contents or cement contents.
Finally the experimental study reports that fly ash can be used in
large quantities in SCC and cement can be reduced to 200 kg.
2.56 Saeed Ahmed, Imran A., Bukari and Sajjad Afzal (2006)

[82]

As per their studies eight reinforced concrete beams with web

reinforcement were cast to get more knowledge about the properties
of fresh and hardened SCC. Test variable is shear span to effective
depth ratio (a/d). Two sets of four beams were cast for ordinary
concrete

and

SCC

separately.

Based

on

their

experimental

investigations they concluded that the concrete strength of SCC and

normal concrete are almost similar under comparable conditions.
Under similar conditions, ordinary concrete
deflection

beams

showed greater

as compared to the SCC beams however this difference

65
was more at higher shear span to depth ratios. With increase in shear
span to depth ratio equal to 4, a gradual increase in relative flexural
strength of the beams was observed in case of ordinary concrete
beams, where as for higher values of a/d ratio relative flexural
strength increased at a higher rate.
They also observed the structural behavior properties of SCC
and FRSCC members such as spacing of cracks, number of cracks,
crack pattern load-deflection characteristics, crack-widths, ultimate
load-carrying capacity, moments-curvature relationship, longitudinal
strain in both concrete and steel and are compared with conventional
concrete(CVC) properties. It was found that in CVC beams there is no
drop in load with increased deformation while in SCC beams there is a
drop in load with increased deformation. Also observed that the peak
and failure loads were nearly the same for CVC beams. The average
crack widths of both the types of beams were compared. Crack
spacing in both cases were almost same but finally addition of fibers
enhanced the ductility significantly in FRSCC.
2.57 Tahir Kibriya (2006)

[93]

His investigations aim was to evaluate

the properties of high strength SCC made from blended cements using
rice husk ash (RHA), Portland cement, natural aggregates and sand.
Wide range investigations were carried out to study the mechanical
behaviour and permeability for various mixes for compressive
strengths of 60N/mm2, 80N/mm2 and 100N/mm2. The results were
observed to be higher for concrete with 50% Portland cement blended
with 50% rice husk ash by about 4 to 9% than the control specimen.

66
Better sulphate and acid resistance, higher elastic moduli and
reduced permeabilities were observed.
2.58 A. Ahmadi,O. Alidoust, I. Sadrinejad et al (2007)

[1]

studied

using waste materials like rice husk ash (RHA), the cost of materials
used in concrete production decreases. RHA has been used as a
highly reactive pozzolanic material to improve the micro structure of
the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the cement paste and the
aggregate in SCC. According to the researchers RHA provides a
positive effect on the mechanical properties at age beyond 60 days
with 20% replacement of cement by RHA.
2.59

N.R.D. Murthy, D.R.Seshu and M.V.S.Rao (2007)

[56]

The

stress-strain behaviour of fly ash concrete with steel fibres in ordinary

grade M30 concrete is studied by the authors. Cement was replaced
by fly ash up to 40% at regular intervals of 10%. Improvement in
ductile behavior was observed in concrete with fly ash and steel. To
predict the behaviour of such concrete under compression an
empirical equation has been proposed and the empirical equation
proposed is in the form Y = A X / (1 + B X2),where A,B are the
constants in ascending and descending portion of stress-strain curve .
The proposed equation showed a good correlation with experimental
values and the energy absorption capacity has also shown an increase
up to when cement was replaced by fly ash up to 30%.
2.60 A. Sadr Momtazi et al (2008)[8] Different SCC mixes with
various amounts of Rice-Husk Ash were tested with the Slump-Flow
test, L-Box test,V-Funnel test to evaluate bleeding, resistance to

67
segregation and workability. The results showed higher compressive
strength in SCC, whereas shrinkage does not differ when compared
with normal concrete, but the properties like Modulus of Elasticity
and Poisson's ratio were almost higher in SCC. The samples were
cured in different environmental conditions such as water, humid and
air.
2.61 K. Ganesh Babu and P. Dinakar (2008)

[36]

mentioned that the

percentage replacement of pozzolana is the basic parameter in

deciding the amount of water for good flow but not the super
plasticizer. It was observed that in the case of fly ash there was a
continuous increase of flow with increase in the percentage, whereas
in case of ground granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume there
was an optimum percentage beyond which there was a decrease in the
flow. For both GGBS and silica fume the highest flowability that can
be achieved is around 45% and 10% respectively. Also, compressive
strength variation was also observed with water to binder ratio of all
pastes (for 2 % super plasticizer dosage) resulting in strengths of
around 20 to 80 MPa for the different paste mixtures, which serves as
a guideline for the strength of different concretes under investigation.
2.62 Malathy R., Govindasamy T. (2007) [45] Design mixes of SCC
for different grades varying from M20 to M60 were considered by
authors to study flow properties and strength properties. Various tests
were conducted to study the flow properties such as passing ability,
filling ability, viscosity and segregation resistance and compaction
factor. Different charts have been developed for obtaining quantity of

68
cement, fly ash and coarse aggregate required for different grades of
SCC. It is found that the flow properties of developed SCC for various
grades are satisfying the recommended values. The segregation
resistance is also good. The difference between the tensile strength of
SCC and normal concrete is very negligible. It is also observed that the
relationship between compressive and split tensile designed SCC
mixes is obeying power law similar to normal concrete.
2.63 M. Sonebi and P. J. M. Bartos (2007)[42] discussed at length
about the investigations carried out on fresh properties of selfcompacting concrete, such as filling ability (measured by slump flow
and flow time) and plastic fresh settlement measured in a column.
Various combinations of fine inorganic powders and admixtures were
incorporated in the SCC mixes. The results on SCCs were compared
with the normal mix. Apart from compressive strength and splitting
tensile strength of SCCs the effects of water/powder ratio, slump and
nature of the sand on the fresh settlement were also evaluated. They
concluded that with the increase in water/powder ratio and slump,
the settlement of fresh self-compacting concrete increased, also the
nature of sand influenced the maximum settlement.
2.64 Ravindra Gettu (2008)

[77]

In some pioneering applications of

SCC, where the experience has led to a better understanding of the

merits and limitations of the associated technology is highlighted by
the author. The applications considered for study are prefabricated
elements, tunnel linings and the framed structure of a residential
building and the repair of roof girders. It is found that by the usage of

69
SCC in prefabricated elements, the major benefits in terms of the
noise, vibration reduction and lower wear and- tear of the moulds and
faster production times are observed, whereas in the residential
construction, SCC can be used beneficially in the construction of
piles, pile caps, beams, columns and slabs. The possibility of
achieving high strength as well as good flow behavior in the
construction of a tunnel lining resulted in a slender lining with an 80MPa strength
2.65 Shobha.M (2007)

[88]

Several studies are done on SCC and the

use of admixtures in it. The main objective of her study is to

investigate the effect of maximum size of aggregate on the fresh and
hardened properties of SCC. The compressive strength of SCC in
which 20% of sand replaced by GGBS and with maximum aggregate
size of 20mm is good at an early age of 7 days. The Ultra Pulse
Velocity values of all SCC mixes are found to be greater. Hence the
mixes posses excellent general conditions i.e. minimum cracks, good
concrete strength and excellent uniformity.
2.66 T. Suresh Babu, M.V. S.Rao & D. Rama Seshu [2008]

[98]

Glass

Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete was developed and an

attempt has been made to study mechanical properties and stressstrain behaviour of self compacting concrete and glass fibre reinforced
self compacting concrete. A strength based mix proportion of self
compacting concrete was arrived based on Nan-Su method of mix
design and the proportion was fine tuned by using Okamuras
guidelines. Five self compacting concrete mixes with different mineral

70
admixtures like fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and rice
husk ash were taken for investigation with and without incorporating
glass fibres. A marginal improvement in the ultimate strength was
observed due to the addition of glass fibres to the self compacting
concrete mix. Also incorporation of glass fibres had enhanced the
ductility

of

self

compacting

concrete.

Complete

Stress-Strain

behaviour has been presented and an empirical equation is proposed

to predict the behaviour of such concrete under compression.
2.67 Michele Valente, Michele Vigneri, Marco Bressan, Alessandro
Pasqualini, Sebastiano Bianchini
According

to

them

the

use

[41]

of

the

pozzolanic

activity

index

characterizes the efficiency of fly ash. Although the factor of efficiency

can be defined for any concrete property, their study will refer
specifically

the

compressive

strength

and

the

permeability

to

chlorides. The effects of fly ash on the concretes properties were

described using the efficiency factor. In their study the fly ash
efficiency factor was referred to two very important concrete
properties: compressive strength and permeability to chlorides. The
variability of aforesaid efficiency factors depends on cement content,
fly ash content and age of concrete. The experimental data obtained in
their study show that the efficiency factors suggested by European
standards are much lower, especially when referred to 56-90 days
aged concrete.