You are on page 1of 76

Thesis I Final Report

Classifying the Properties of Casuarina


Wood in Egypt and Designing a Wooden
girder beam.
Coordinator : Dr. Sherif Safar
Supervisors : Dr. Khaled Nassar
: Dr. Tamer Brekah
TA : Menas

Done by : Noha El Gebaly


Omar Ewida
Khaled Ewida
Tariq Dino
Karim Abaza

Table of contents
Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Background ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Scope and objective----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
Preparing the samples------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10
Preparing the grips ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Experimental work ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Moisture Content ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Specific Gravity-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Toughness Test --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------28
Hardness Test---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
Cleavage Test ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Compression perpendicular Test ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Compression parallel Test ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
Tension perpendicular Test -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Tension parallel Test ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
Static Bending --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- 51
Designing the model ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------58
Outcomes and comparison------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------66
Recommendation -------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
References -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73

2|Page

Table of Figures
Figure (1) Casurina as wind breaker for the highways-------------------------------------------------------------5
Figure (2) Casurina is planted in sandy dry soil---------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Figure (3) Casuarina as trees and fire wood ----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Figure (4) Microscopic view of Casuarina wood fibers------------------------------------------------------------6
Figure (5) Peri beam girder GT24-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
Figure (6) GT24 used as girder beam in a slab formwork-------------------------------------------------------7
Figure (7) Purchasing Casuarina wood from el Sabteya-----------------------------------------------------------8
Figure (8) Sawing the tree into smaller lengths for better workability ------------------------------------- 9
Figure (9) Removing the Bark------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Figure (10) Robeya Samples are glided onto the blade to create a fair face-----------------------------10
Figure (11) Tarbee3 machine---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
Figure (12) Samples are dried in the oven----------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
Figure (13) Wood left to sun heat for three weeks----------------------------------------------------------------------12
Figure (14) A reading of 63.3% turned to be 19.4% MC after --------------------------------------------------12
Figure (15) New trial, wood placed as grid.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
Figure (16) Machining Center cuts notch-----------------------------------------------------------------------------13
Figure (17) Example of sample after notch was made with Machining center----------------------13
Figure (18) The grip drawings of the four tests required from ASTM----------------------------------14
Figure (19) The drawings with the dimensions of the required grips from the ASTM---------15
Figure (20) Lather Machine-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Figure (21) The simple cross section of the grips on AutoCAD-------------------------------------------17
Figure (22) Wire ADM Machine------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Figure (23) The main grips holding the new grips----------------------------------------------------------------18
Figure (24) Water is saved between the wood fibers-------------------------------------------------------------19
Figure (25) The samples are weighted after being dried in electric oven ------------------------------20
Figure (26) A simple drawing of impact test---------------------------------------------------------------------------26
Figure (27) Impact Tests and the sample is being hit by the hammer----------------------------------26
Figure (28) Values obtained from the hardness test--------------------------------------------------------------28
Figure (29) Radial and tangential side Hardness for different species of wood ---------------------29
3|Page

Figure (30) Radial and tangential side Hardness obtained for Casuarina SG check-------------29
Figure (31) Universal Testing Machine---------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
Figure (32) Cleavage test Load vs Deformation-------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Figure (33) Failure of sample at Maximum load------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Figure (34) Material Tests system (compression machine) -------------------------------------------------- 32
Figure (35) Compression curves from MTS (upper) and ASTM (lower) -----------------------------33
Figure (36) Brooming or End bearing failure as a result of high Moisture content--------------- 33
Figure (37) Shapes of failure in compression------------------------------------------------------------------------34
Figure (38) The graphs between flexure stress and strain of the five samples------------------------39
Figure (39) All the shape failure of the wood------------------------------------------------------------------------39
Figure (40) Failure shapes of the five samplesFigure ------------------------------------------------------------40
Figure (41) Peri girders model GT24 L = 4.2 m-------------------------------------------------------------------41
Figure (42) The basic dimension of the girder beam GT24 with L = 4.2m-------------------------- 42

4|Page

Abstract:
This Project is testing one of the most growing woods in Egypt Casuarina Wood to
specify its mechanical and physical properties. Egypt depends totally on imported wood from
several areas as Europe and Australia and thats why it is so expensive to be used as structure
material in construction industry. If the mechanical and physical properties of wood was as good as
the imported types then it will be an economic gain for wood industry in Egypt. The properties
were measured by several tests according to ASTM standards for wood D-143. The results were
compared to the most commercially important types of wood in Egypt like Oak and Pine wood.
The result were pretty impressive Casuarinf lies second in most of the properties after the white
Oak and it was well known that Oak and Casuarina are considered very Hard wood. A simple
design for a girder beam was made and tested under bending force to be compared to other girder
beam widely used as formwork GT 24 in Peri standards. The comparison not only structure wise
but economically. The test was done but with some deviations in connections and dimensions than
Peri standards due to limitation of manufacturing process its self or in workshops. The result
werent better than Peri GT 24 beam but this test wasnt accurate enough to judge Casuairna wood.
There are recommendations for a better girder beam that carries more using Casurina according
to its properties.

5|Page

Background:
Casuarina has a very hard, heavy, dark red-brown structure; hence the name ironwood is
derived from its properties. The Casuarina trees are considered relatively new to Egypt, which
were introduced from South East Asia (Australia) at the beginning of the 19th century. "One of the
common names of Casuarina species, she-oak, widely used in Australia, refers to the attractive
wood pattern of large lines or rays similar to oak but weaker." (AgroForestry) This species of
Casuarina now breeds in over 15 different countries around the world including Egypt, Hawaii,
India, Thailand, Palestine, and much more. It has extensively been grown outside of its natural
habitat (native Australia). Casuarina Glauca is naturally used as wind shelterbelts along highways
and farms, preventing dust and wind from disturbing anything. It is also considered as a great
source of firewood, even when it's green it may be combusted. Information on this type of wood
in Egypt is limited in terms of its mechanical and physical properties for several reasons. In Egypt
there is a lack of forestry regions, therefore wood is considered as an expensive commodity in the
construction world. Instead concrete, cement, and steel are considered as the main elements of
the structural world in Egypt. So no one really ever bothered in discovering the possible structural
uses with woods grown in Egypt.

Figure (1): Casurina as wind breaker for the highways

6|Page

Casuarina glauca trees may be grown in desert areas however irrigation is required. For the
first six months it requires watering and after that it can survive on minimal amounts of water.
They are considered as moderately fast growing trees, by the age of 7 years the trees reach an
average height of 5m with a survival rate of 72 % (AgroForestry). Casuarina glauca in the Middle
East and North Africa over performs other Casuarinas by reaching a height of 20-25 m in only 1214 years. It has a maximum diameter of one meter, as it can reach half its diameter in barely three
years; also it has a "rapid colonizing ability on disturbed soils, especially in coastal or salt affected
situations." (AgroForestry) In addition to Casuarina's easy cultivation, it has many positive effects
on the natural environment by fixing the nitrogen in the atmosphere.

Figure (2): Casurina is planted in sandy dry soil

Figure (3): Casuarina as trees and fire wood


7|Page

The Casuarina wood is grown in Egypt as a wind breaker like on El Sahrawy going to
Alexandria, in the market it is only available as green wood as it is only used as fuel wood so no
drying is done by the suppliers. It is considered a very cheap type of wood as it only costs 250 LE
per m3 compare to other imported woods that are about 3000 LE per m3. We took some images
using a stereo microscope which showed us that the fibers in the wood cross each other indicating
that its a strong bond which results in high strength.

Figure (4): microscopic view of Casuarina wood fibers


8|Page

Scope and Objective:


This project has two objectives; the primary objective of the research is to classify the
mechanical and physical properties of Casuarina wood in Egypt by testing for the compressive
strength, tensile strength, hardness, toughness, shear strength, moisture content and finally the
specific gravity of wood. These tests will all be in reference to the methodologies of the ASTM
standards. In addition to attaining our results, we will compare the results taken from our tests to
other types of woods in the construction industry. The secondary objective of the thesis is to
successfully design a truss looking system using Casuarina wood that is based on a Peri
standardized design for the specific model GT 24 Formwork Girder.

Figure (5): Peri beam girder GT24

Figure (6): GT24 used as girder beam in a slab formwork

9|Page

Preparing the Samples


Preparing the wooden samples for testing is a long process mainly due to the time samples
are left to dry. We start by purchasing the Casaurina trees, two batches from El Sabteya while a
third batch was acquired from El Maryoteya. While purchasing the trees, we try to find dry ones or
ones that have been cut and stored for a while thus having less moisture content than when it was
green. The first batch was green and took longer to dry out, the second batch and third batch are
relatively drier. An important note is that you cant tell if it is dry by just looking at the tree because
although the bark might have dried out the interior still is full of water. All trees we purchased had
around 70% moisture content, and had to be dried to fewer than 20% for correct accurate testing.
In general the less the moisture content, the more strength and durability; basically its more
durable because water makes trees decay faster acting as a platform for fungi to deteriorate the
wood.

Figure (7): purchasing Casuarina wood from el Sabteya


Now that we have the trees, we start by sawing the trees to smaller lengths then the bark is
removed then depending on the dimensions of the samples needed the wooden samples are
placed in the Tarbe3 machine which cuts the wooden sample to the required dimension. For
example if a 5*5*10 Cm sample is needed, after sawing the tree and removing the bark, we
roughly cut a 7*7 using the sawing machine then it is placed on Robeya and gliding the sample
over that machine results in a straight face. Then that 7*7 is placed inside the Tarbe3 machine
which cuts the 7*7 first to 5*7 then reentering that piece of wood but with a rotation of 90 degrees
now the other sides are cut and the result is a 5*5*L. Now the length is easily cut to 10 cm pieces.
That process is repeated until the required number of specimens is cut.
10 | P a g e

Figure (8): sawing the tree into smaller lengths for better workability during the rest of the process

Figure (9): Removing the Bark


11 | P a g e

Figure (10): 'Robeya' Samples are glided onto the blade to create a fair face

Figure (11): Tarbee3 machine

12 | P a g e

Drying the Samples

Figure (12): samples are dried in the oven


Although we knew that Casaurina splits, cracks and twists under sudden heating when in its
green phase, we tried to dry it in the oven at 100 degrees and it did split, crack and twist as
expected. Later we tried heating the oven to 60 degrees, some of the samples were unaffected
some had less splits, cracks and twists but the moisture didnt drop as needed that we knew when
we tested them for compression perpendicular. Results of compression perpendicular test, we
rejected due to its end rolling failure which is unacceptable by ASTM.

Important note: We later found out that the lab staff close the oven daily, thus subjecting our
samples to daily sudden heating and cooling! That probably increased the magnitude of sample
deformation.

13 | P a g e

The following trials were to leave the wood, in the open air under sunlight. Three Weeks
into that process we bought a moisture meter and were able to test the wood. Some samples
dropped to acceptable moisture content less than 20 degrees others remained as high as 63.3
degrees, pictures below show actual readings on site.

Figure (13): Wood left to dry in the open air

Figure (14): A reading of 63.3% MC which is the maximum for the selected type of wood turned to
be 19.4% MC after the sample left to sun heat for three weeks

14 | P a g e

Below is a new trail, by placing the wood on top of each other in a grid shape to increase the
surface area subjected to air. Trial still in progress and its results are unknown.

Figure (15): New trial, wood placed as grid.


Shaping the Specimens:
After cutting and sawing the specimens to the required size, some tests like cleavage test require a
certain notch or cut to be made in the specimen. Samples are sent to the Mechanical Workshop
and a Job order is submitted with AutoCAD drawing of the specimen.

Figure (16): Machining Center cuts notch

Figure (17): Example of sample after notch was made with Machining center
15 | P a g e

Preparing the grips


There were four main tests that needed special grips which were not available in the Engineering
labs. Hence, these grips had to be manufactured according to the specifications and dimensions of
ASTM. One of the grip drawings (tension parallel) in ASTM wasnt provided with any dimension,
so it was estimated from the sample dimensions. These are the four grips required:

Cleavage test

Tension parallel

Tension perpendicular

Nail withdrawal

Figure (18): the grip drawings of the four tests required from ASTM

The design of the grips was based on these drawings from ASTM:

Cleavage test
16 | P a g e

Nail withdrawal

Tension parallel

Tension parallel sample

Figure (19): the drawings with the dimensions of the four required grips from the ASTM
17 | P a g e

The material chosen for these grips was steel and it was bought from El Sabteya. The
material was purchased as blocks with bigger dimension than the required, taking in consideration
any loses at manufacturing it. These blocks were cut into smaller blocks with the exact dimension
in the drawings by the Lathe Machine as shown in figure (1). The cross section of each grip was
drawn on AutoCAD without dimensions or any dashed lines on it to be saved as a separate file for
each grip on a floppy disk as file of (DXF R 12) Figure (2). The Wire ADM machine (figure (3))
used these drawings on a floppy disk to shape the blocks into the required cross section. Then,
the grips were installed into the machines used for testing (universal testing machine) by fixing a
small rod to be held tightly with the machine grips figure (4). There was a another option of
making a smaller adaptor or converter to fix the grips directly to the machine but this option wasnt
applicable due to the tight schedule and the need to new raw materials.

Figure (20): (Lather Machine)

18 | P a g e

Cleavage

Nail withdrawal

Tension Parallel

Tension perpendicular
Figure (21) (the simple cross section of the grips on AutoCAD)

Figure (22) (Wire ADM Machine)


19 | P a g e

The main grips of universal testing machine

the rod fixed into cleavage grips

Figure (23): the main grips holding the new grips

20 | P a g e

Experimental work:
1- Moisture Content:
Typically a fresh cut piece of wood or green
wood has a section appearing as in figure 1 below.
The bound water is the liquid or vapor chemically
bound by hydrogen bonding to the cellulose of the
wood cell walls. As the free water is the water filling
in the voids or cavities in the wood cells. In terms of
drying the wood, the free water is first released and
the bound water liquid then gradually decreases.
The amount of water content affects the physical and
mechanical properties of wood and limits its uses
structurally.

Figure (24): water is saved between the wood fibers

The objective:
to determine the moisture content of a wood base material, in our case "Casuarina Wood"
of wood base material moisture content. This value will be further used in our research by
providing a wide range of use in our remaining tests, such as Hardness and Toughness.

The procedures:
The methodology of this experiment and all other tests strictly follow the database of the
American Standards Testing Methods. In this case we will refer to the Standard Test Methods

for Direct Moisture Content Measurement of Wood and Wood-Base Materials designation D
4442 92. There are several testing methods to do in order to calculate moisture content; we will
choose the Method A Oven Drying (Primary). This method is considered to give the most
accurate results in comparison to the others.
The methods of this test starts by first cutting the samples of the wood at the desired
dimensions, which are ten samples at 5 x 5 x 10 cm. The test will require a kiln or oven to dry the
21 | P a g e

samples to the oven-dry state. The oven used in this case will be an electric oven which will have a
temperature of 103C 2C. The samples are then numbered and weighed initially to get the
green weight and then placed in the oven at the right temperature. The samples are kept in the
oven at three hour intervals and their weights are recorded between every interval. Note, make
sure to keep that the lab room relative humidity must be less than 70% and the humidity exposed
to the samples to be consistent to achieve the best results. The endpoint of this test is reached
when the difference between the weight levels is extremely small and is considered to be negligible.
At that point the final weight level achieved is considered to be as the oven-dry weight of the wood.
As soon as the oven-dry weight is reached the data collected will be used in order to
calculate the moisture content of Casuarina Wood. The water content is calculated by simply
finding the difference ration between the initial (green) weight and the oven-dry weight. In addition
after performing the experiment the after (drying) dimensions of the samples are used to calculate
the radial and tangential shrinkage ratios, which are significant in terms of knowing the wood's
behavior with seasonal expansion. Look in the Data and Results section for the representation of
this

experiment's

results.

Figure (25): the samples are weighted after being dried in electric oven every three hours

22 | P a g e

Data and Results:


Specimen Specimen
Dimensions
no.
(before)
cm

Specimen
Dimensions
(After)
cm

Initial W1
Weight gm
gm

W2
gm

W3
(gm)

W4
(gm)

W5
(gm)

W6
(gm)

5 x 5 x 10

4.4x4.3x10.3 277.06

246.43 224.28 191.24 168.5

5 x 5 x 10

4.4x4.4
9.8

x 274.02

245.70 222.41 200.84 165.00 158.50 151.08 147.43 146.87

5 x 5 x 10

4.3x4.2x10.2 290.57

258.80 236.60 214.30 180.15 173.00 160.30 158.07 156.15

5 x 5 x 10

4.2x4.3x10.2 280.28

250.89 224.98 200.65 162.50 157.00 148.23 144.51 144.08

5 x 5 x 10

4.4x4.5x10.3 278.13

250.10 226.60 203.11 167.00 160.00 151.85 147.93 147.45

5 x 5 x 10

4.2x4.5x10.3 273.19

242.25 218.26 195.28 158.25 153.00 145.02 141.40 140.81

5 x 5 x 10

4.4x4.4x10.3 280.98

248.98 225.65 202.84 167.50 161.50 154.84 150.90 150.45

5 x 5 x 10

4.6x4.6x10.4 265.97

238.36 218.41 196.26 166.0

5 x 5 x 10

4.4x4.6x10.1 276.06

247.95 225.20 204.10 173.36 166.50 158.05 153.29 153.29

10

5 x 5 x 10

4.6x4.6x10.1 265.79

233.24 212.72 194.82 167.85 160.00 153.50 148.87 148.87

Average

5x5x10

4.39 x 4.45 276.21


x 10.19

248.06 224.01 200.03 167.45 161.05 152.87 149.07 148.43

161.00 152.1

W7
(gm)

W8
(gm)

147.66 147.11

160.00 153.88 149.75 149.22

Note: between each weight level (no.) there is a three hour interval
Therefore the oven dry weight is represented in the final column on the final row, which is 148.43
grams.

23 | P a g e

Moisture Content Calculations


M.C. % = (A-B) / B x 100%
Where:

A = Original Mass (g)


B = Oven-Dry Mass (g)
m.c. 1 % = (248.06-148.43) / 148.43 = 86.1 %
m.c. 2 % = (224.01-148.43) / 148.43 = 50.42 %
m.c. 3 % = (200.03-148.43) / 148.43 = 34.7 %
m.c. 4 % = (167.45-148.43) / 148.43 = 12.8 %
m.c. 5 % = (161.05 148.43) / 148.43 = 8.5 %
m.c. 6 % = (152.87 148.43) / 148.43 = 4.44 %
m.c. 7 % = (149.02-148.43) / 148.43 = 0.43 %
Moisture Content = (276.205-148.43) / 148.43 x 1 = 86.08 %

Note: m.c , m.c. , and m.c. , represent the moisture content of the samples at a certain semi-oven
1

dry state. These values are used in order to plot the moisture content and time curve shown
below.

Water Content (%)

W.C. vs Time
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10
20
Time (Hours)

30

24 | P a g e

2- Specific Gravity:
The specific gravity is the property revealed in the wooden profile which gives a relevant
idea of the density of the material. Basically specific gravity is the measurement of actual wood
substance in the wood. This value is significant in terms of calculating other wooden properties
and it also gives us an estimate of the weight of the wood substance in the sample.
The methodology used for this experiment is according to the ASTM D-2395 reference.
The method used is Method A "Volume by Measurement ". In order to calculate the specific
gravity with this module the value of the moisture content achieved previously is extremely
significant to the calculation of the needed value. According to the ASTM D-2395 the equation
used to calculate the specific gravity is represented as follows

Specific Gravity = K x W /

((1+(M/100)) L x w x t.

Where:
W = oven-dry weight (grams)
M = Moisture content
L = Length (cm)
W = width (cm)
T = thickness (cm)
K = 1 when weight is in grams and volume is in cm3
Therefore,
Specific Gravity = K x W / ((1+(M/100)) L x w x t

Sp. Gr. (Casuarina) = 1 x 148.43 /((1 +(0.86/100)) 4.39 x 4.45 x 10.19= 0.45 g/cm

The value achieved for the specific gravity of Casuarinas Wood is 0.45 g/cm3. This value basically
means that if a sample of Casuarina Wood is submerged in a tank of water it would float, since it
density is less than that of water's, which is 1 g /cm3.
However by comparing the values of Casuarina wood with other woods, one is able to create a
bigger picture of the stance Casuarina wood takes in comparison with other types of woods in the
world.

25 | P a g e

Specific Gravity table:


Wood - seasoned & dry
g/cm3
Afromosia
0.705
Apple
0.66-0.83
Ash, black
0.54
Ash, white
0.67
Aspen
0.42
Balsa
0.17
Bamboo
0.30 0.40
Birch (British)
0.670
Cedar, red
0.380
Cypress
0.510
Douglas Fir
0.530
Ebony
0.96 1.12
Elm ( English )
0.60
Elm ( Wych )
0.69
Elm ( Rock )
0.815
Iroko
0.655
Larch
0.59
Lignum Vitae
1.28 1.37
Mahogany ( Honduras )
0.545
Mahogany ( African ) 0.495 0.85
Maple
0.755
Oak
0.59 0.93
Pine ( Oregon )
0.53
Pine ( Parana )
0.56
Pine ( Canadian )
0.35 0.56
Pine ( Red )
0.37 0.66
Redwood ( American )
0.45
Redwood ( European )
0.51
Spruce ( Canadian )
0.45
Spruce ( Sitka )
0.45
Sycamore
0.59
Teak
0.63 0.72
Willow
0.42
Casuarina (Egypt)
0.45
Keep in mind that in the wood construction world, wood is classified into three categories,
softwood, hardwood, and manufacture wood (such as plywood). Some softwoods are pine, fir,
spruce, hemlock, cedar and redwood. And some of the hardwoods are oak, maple, cherry, birch,
walnut, ash and poplar. Note that these are all types of woods located in North America (U.S.A)
which are seasoned and dried in a somewhat different environment (therefore keep in mind that
their might be some deviations to the results compared to ours). Our Casauarina wood

26 | P a g e

(Hardwood) is completely oven-dried therefore it's seasoned to a different limit. In general


seasoned wood means that the wood has been air dried containing only 15-20% moisture content.
In terms of using wood in construction there are several variables which imply on the
substance's dependency in the field. These variables include the strength, hardness, grain
characteristics, cost, stability, weight, color, durability and availability. In terms of the value we
achieved 0.45 g/cm3 is considered to be somewhat as a positive outcome, since we know now that
the weight of this species is not high, which is significant to other characteristics in wood uses.

Shrinkage Ratios:
After performing the moisture content test, we are able to calculate the shrinkage ratios of
Casuarina Wood. There are two ratios, the radial shrinkage ratio and the tangential shrinkage
ratio. By using the oven-dry dimensions and green dimensions from the moisture content
experiment we are able to calculate such figures. Shrinkage is the degree of shrinking a substance
has in terms of its exposure to moisture, since most wooden species deform volumetrically when
dried. In this case our substance Casuarina wood shrinks because of water moisture being released
due to the drying process. The significance of the shrinkage ratios is really important, since one
will be able to determine the seasonal behavior or changes to the wood species during different
seasons of the year (different climates).
After performing the moisture content test, you will realize
there is a column in the data table which represents the
dimensions of the samples after oven-drying. With these
and the original dimensions we were able to calculate the
shrinkage ratio.

that
values

Radial Shrinkage:
Its the amount the wood has shrunk across the grain

L oven-dry / L original
6.32 cm / 7.70 cm = 0.89

Note: the dimensions are taken according to the cross

section of

our wood as shown in the figure 1s below


.

Tangential Shrinkage:
The amount of wood shrunk along the grain.

L oven-dry / L

original

4.2cm / 5 cm = 0.84

The values of the tangential shrinkage and radial shrinkage are unit less, and the significance of
these two values is represented by taking the ratio between them, Tangential / Radial.
T/R ratio = 0.84 / 0.89 = 0.00943

27 | P a g e

The smaller the value of the T/R ratio, the more likely the wood specimen would remain flat and
avoid warping due to seasonal changes. This value shows the stability of the wood species to
changes in the surrounding environment (especially in terms of exposure to humidity).

28 | P a g e

3-Toughness test:
The test was done using the Charpy method, using 10*10*55mm samples. In accordance with
testing procedures a 2mm notch was made with 45 degrees done in mechanical lab using
machining center.

Figure (26) : a simple drawing for Toughness sample

Test Procedure:
First the specimen is placed horizontally on the base of the impact machine, with the notch
centered and facing the other side of the hammer. Basically a hammer is dropped from a specified
point indented on the machines scale above hitting the specimen and swinging to the other side.
The difference between the initial height of hammer and highest height it swings to after hitting the
specimen results in the energy absorbed by that specimen. The results with their moisture content
are displayed in the following table.

29 | P a g e

Figure (27): Impact Tests and the sample is being hit by the hammer

The Results:

Wsemi=(1+WCsemi)*Wdry
WC=(Wwet-Wdry)/Wdry

30 | P a g e

4-Hardness test
Objectives:
to evaluate the hardness values determined from tests on specimens of Casuarina wood .second
objective is to compare the results we obtained for Casuarina with the hardness of other types of
wood. This test is important because it measures how much a specimen could hold before plastic
deformation. The test was done according to ASTM D143-09.

Procedure:
Hardness test was conducted using Brinell machine (modified ball test) by using a steel ball with a
10 mm diameter. Then the load was recorded at which the ball has penetrated to half its diameter.
The penetrations were far from the edges in order to prevent slipping or chipping and were
applied both to the tangential and radial surface of the wood specimen. The load was applied was
applied on a continuous basis and then the weight and the moisture content of the specimen tested
was measured.

Results:
The results for 21 different specimens were listed in a table and an average of 917.5kgf was
obtained as shown in fig (29). the average was obtained is compared to hardness of other types of
woods and we found out that it exceeded all the wood types in the fig(30) except true hickory.
Casuarina has exceeded red oak and Douglas fir (both types of wood heavily used in construction
industry). However, it should be noted that hardness is only one of the properties and not the only
property that it was taken into consideration when evaluating types of wood.

Figure (28): values obtained from the hardness test

31 | P a g e

Figure (29): Radial and tangential side Hardness for different species of wood

Species

No. Of
Samples

Casuarina 21

Mean
Min
Radial (lb.f) Radial
(lb.f)

Max
Radial
(lb.f)

Mean
Tangential
(lb.f)

Min
Tangential
(lb.f)

Max
Tangential
(lb.f)

2022.7

2755.77

1339.3

881.84

1763.69

1433

Figure (30): Radial and tangential side Hardness obtained for Casuarina SG check

H(lbf) = 4090(G12/(1+0.162G12))

G12 specific gravity at 12% moisture content


H = hardness in pounds force
Our value for the SG check was 778

Deviations:

The rate of the machine was not according to ASTM standards and was supposed to be
6mm/minute. .

10 mm steel ball instead of 11.4 mm

When performing the SG check the sample we used was not 12% but was about 8-9%
water content.

32 | P a g e

5-Cleavage test:
Objectives:
main objective is to form an initial idea of the cleavage values of Casuarina and to test whether our
newly formed grips were working .This test is important because it measures the resistance of
Casuarinas to splitting. The test was done according to ASTM D143-09 and was performed on the
Universal testing machine shown in Fig (32) that had a load capacity of 50 kN.

Procedure:
The specimen was held during the test in the grips as shown in Figs.(32) and (33).Then load was
applied at a rate of motion of 2.5mm/min and only maximum load was observed which is basically
the load at failure. Samples were cut into small cubes (5*5*9.5) cm then shaped with the

required groove according to the ASTM standards and dimensions provided in figure (32)
below.

Fig (31): Universal Testing Machine

33 | P a g e

Figure(32): a cleavage specimen as shown in ASTM

Results:
The maximum load is recorded only like in sample 1 graph maximum load is 4 KN as shown in
Fig(11). The maximum load in this case, is smaller than loads recorded in other tests. This is
mainly because the tension applied is carried only by the glows of specimen. The shape of failure
was also sketched from Fig (33).

Fig (33): Cleavage test Load vs Deformation

34 | P a g e

Fig (34): failure of sample at Maximum load

35 | P a g e

Results:
Mean Stress: 0.797 Mpa
Mean Modulus of Elasticity: 14.12 Mpa

Cleavage
Extension
Moisture
Sample Maximum at Break Length Content
No. Load (N) (mm)
(mm)
%
Area

Stress
(Mpa)

Modulus
of
Elasticity
Strain (Mpa)

4016.66

2.2

50

58

40

1.004165 0.044

22.82193

3505.85

2.5

50

58

40

0.876463 0.05

17.52925

2334.72

2.3

50

58

40

0.58368 0.046

12.6887

3741.34

2.4

50

58

40

0.935335 0.048

19.48615

2661.54

50

58

40

0.665385 0.08

8.317313

2840.56

4.2

50

58

40

0.71014 0.084

8.454048

3395.54

2.8

50

58

40

0.848885 0.056

15.15866

581.34

2.5

50

3.7

40

0.145335 0.05

2.9067

3019.36

4.4

50

58

40

0.75484 0.088

8.577727

Mean

3189.4463 3.1

50

58

40

0.797362 0.062

14.12922

S.D.

572.13238 0.9335034 0

0.143033 0.01867 5.551832

Figure (35): Similar failure was observed while testing; the picture below shows we
had a similar fracture.
36 | P a g e

6- Compression perpendicular to Grain test


Objectives:
Our main objective was to find the compression perpendicular to grain values determined
from tests on specimens of Casuarina wood. It shows the level of weakness of wood to handle
compression perpendicular to its grain compared to parallel to grain. This test is important
because joints and beams are usually supported or placed over on certain areas. As result the
compressive strength of the wood in perpendicular direction should be sufficiently high. The test
was done according to ASTM D143-09 on the MTS machine.

Figure (37): Comp- perpendicular


in ASTM

Figure (36): Material Tests system


(compression machine)

figure (38):comp. perpendicular as


one in the test without a plate

37

Procedure:
The compression perpendicular to grain test was made on a50 by 50 by 150 mm specimen. The
Load was applied through a metal plate placed (5 cm by 5 cm) at right angles to the length
(grain) like in figure () .The load was applied continuously at a rate of 0.305 mm/min and then the
moisture content of the samples tested was measured. Loading of the sample should be stopped
once it reaches deformation of 2.5 mm. the graph of this test is between load (KN) and
deformation (mm).

Results and Discussion:


There is no true ultimate strength value as the wood gets more crushed with higher load. Its
merely becomes consolidated and harder to crush further. As the load increases, additional wood
cell farther from the surface, and collapse and the strength increases again. Some of the samples
we were tested till the capacity of the machine were reached (450 KN). Thus, failure here is not
about reaching the ultimate load, but rather reaching a limit beyond which the degree of distortion
is considered unacceptable. According to ASTM this limit was specified to deformation 2.5 mm
then the load shall be discontinued. Some of the graphs didnt have a limit where distortion started
to happen but the graph is totally a straight line. This kind of unfamiliar graphs is due to excessive
moisture content or distortion of the shape of the sample itself because of improper ways of drying
it in oven. This is the table of the results with the maximum load presented by the machine before
the distortion of the sample and the second column is the load divided by the area (0.15*0.05). the
table is followed by graphs of the samples.

sample no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
mean
max
min

comp. perpendicular
max. load (KN)
max. pressure (Mpa)
65
8.67
27
3.60
24
3.20
65
8.67
80
10.67
50
6.67
52
6.93
60
8.00
60
8.00
20
2.67
15
2.00
47.09
6.28
80.00
10.67
15.00
2.00

Figure (39): the max pressure results for all the 11 samples of compression perpendicular test

38 | P a g e

Load (KN)

perp 1
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

Load (KN)

deformation (mm)

perp 2

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

0.5

1.5
deformation (mm)

Perp 3

60

100

40

80

Load (KN)

Load (KN)

50

30

60

20

40

10

20

0
0

1
2
Deformation (mm)

Perp 4

120

Deformation (mm)

39 | P a g e

perp 5
120

60

100

50

Load (KN)

Load (KN)

80
60

40
30

40

20

20

10
0

0
0

1
2
Deformation (mm)

50

60

40

50

Lod (KN)

60

30
20
10

40
30
20

10
0

3
0

Deformation (mm)

1
2
Deformation

60

70

50

60

40

50

30
20

40
30

10

20

10
0

perp 10

Load (KN)

Load (KN)

perp 9

-10

Perp 8
70

-10

1
2
deformation (mm)

perp 7

70

Load (KN)

perp 6

70

Deformation (mm)

0
0

1
2
Deformation (mm)

Figure (40): graphs of all the samples (load KN Vs. Deformation mm)

40 | P a g e

Fig (41): compression curves from the ASTM


Deviation:
1- The test was done without the small metal plate (5 by 5 cm) the compressive force was on
all the sample area.
2- Some of the samples had a graphs with a straight line rather than a curve as presented in
ASTM so the ultimate load was taken at 2.5 mm deformation.
3- The samples were done at different time so the moisture content werent the same for all
the samples.

41 | P a g e

Figure (42): some of the samples that were tested for compression perpendicular and last photo
have the sample with the least moisture content.

42 | P a g e

7- Compression parallel to Grain test


The Objective:
Members such as columns and posts and struts must resist loads that are applied
compressive forces which are parallel to its full length. In this test, the ultimate compressive
strength of the Casurina wood longitudinal to its axis. The test was done according to ASTM
D143-09 on the MTS machine.

The procedures:
The sample size is (50 by 50 by 200) mm and loading rate was 0.003 mm/mm. The longitudinal
load is applied increasingly until compressive strength is well beyond the defined elastic limit or
until the specimen fails. The tests shall be continued but not after 150mm. A stress strain curve
should be made from these results and get the ultimate stress for each sample and get the average.
Also the failure type and shape shall be noticed according to the appearance of the fracture surface
even if the failure was a mix of more than one type. All the failure types should be described
because it indicates some of wood properties and
its behavior under the load. Figure () describes all
types of possible wood failure under compression
parallel according to ASTM D-143.

figure (43): a sample data sheet for

Figure(44): sample for compression


parallel after failure

parallel Test

43 | P a g e

Results and analysis:


compression parallel
Sample. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
mean
max
min

Max. pressure (Mpa)


58
37
49
20
18
32
44
60
45.00
60.00
42.3
60
18.00

Figure (45): the max pressure results for all the 10 samples of compression parallel test

parallel 2

parallel 1

60

40
35
30

Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

50
40

25
20

30

15

20

10

10

5
0

0
0

0.01

0.02

strain (m/m)

0.03

0.02

0.04

0.06

strain (m/m)

44 | P a g e

parallel 3

60

20

Stress (Mpa)

Stress (MPa)

50
40

15

30

10

20
10

5
0

0
0

0.01

0.02

Strain (m/m)

0.03

parallel 5

20

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

Strain (m/m)

parallel 6

35
30

15

25

stress (MPa)

Stress (Mpa)

parallel 4

25

20

10

15
10

5
0

0
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.005

strain (m/m)

0.015

0.02

Strain m/m

parallel 7

50

0.01

parallel 8

70
60
50

stress (mpa)

stess (mpa)

40
30

40
30

20

20

10

10

0
0

0.01

0.02

strain (m/m)

0.03

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

strain (m/M)

Figure (46): graphs of compression parallel samples

45 | P a g e

Failure shape:
According to ASTM failure types of compression parallel, the most common one in these
tests were compression and shearing perpendicular failure which usually happens for
cross grain wood which is the case foe Casurina. The second most common failure is
crushing for the green samples with more moisture content. The end rolling failure is not
acceptable which happened for only one sample due to it improper cutting and excessive
moisture content.

crushing

Wedge split

Compression and
shearing perpendicular
to grain

shearing
End Rolling

splitting

Fig (47): shapes of failure in compression

46 | P a g e

Splitting

Crushing

Deviations
1- Samples were loaded in rate 1 mm/min instead of 0.302 mm/min as mentioned in ASTM
because of machine limitations
2- Samples were tested at different stages so some samples have moisture content different
than others significantly which affected the failure shape.

47 | P a g e

8- Tension Perpendicular to Grain:


Objective: The main objectives of this test are to determine the yield stress, tensile stress,
modulus of elasticity and behaviors of casuarinas wood when subjected to an axial tensile load.
Machine Used: Universal testing machine
Procedure: Fasten the specimen in grips and observe maximum load.
The specifications from ASTM:
1. Size of the Specimen: 5cm*5cm*6.3cm
2. Radius of Grooves: 13mm radius after
penetrating inside of sample a distance of
6mm (Groove to be done on both sides of
specimen) as explained in figure ()
3. Rate of loading: (2.5mm/min)

Figure (49): tension perpendicular sample


according to ASTM standards

Result and analysis:


Only the maximum load is recorded and the average of the 10 samples is taken as the tensile
strength of Casurina wood. Almost all of the samples were green and not dry enough. Many of the
samples were photographed after the failure and almost all of the samples have same shape of
failure as shown in the figure ().
Maximum load: 2773.38 N
Maximum Extension: 1.6mm
Mean Tensile stress: 93.338 Mpa
Mean Modulus of Elasticity: 148847.68
Mpa

Figure (50): Sample No.1 Tension


Perpendicular to Grain

48 | P a g e

Table of all the results for nine samples

Tension Perpendicular
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Maximum Extension at
Load (N) Break (mm)
2773.38 1.6
4555.45 2.4
5442.29 3.8
5015.18 2.6
5062.9
4
6156.12 3.1
5714.13 2.5
5411.07 4

Length
(mm)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50

Moisture
Content%
58
58
58
58
57
58
58
58

Area
(cm^2)
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5

Stress (Mpa)
2.218704
3.64436
4.353832
4.012144
4.05032
4.924896
4.571304
4.328856

Strain
0.032
0.048
0.076
0.052
0.08
0.062
0.05
0.08

Modulus
(Mpa)
69.3345
75.92417
57.28726
77.15662
50.629
79.43381
91.42608
54.1107

5221.12

50

57.4

12.5

4.176896

0.024

174.0373

Mean

5322.2825 2.95

50

57.8

12.5

4.257826

0.059

82.50062

S.D.

482.69654 0.97394632 0

1.2

0.38544964 0

0.38615723 0.019479 39.63647

Figure (51): simple sketch from


ASTM D-143 for a sample failure
under tension perpendicular

Figure(52): some of the tension perp. Samples after


failure

49 | P a g e

9- Tension Parallel to grain (ASTM D143):


Objective:
Some members like the bottom chord of a truss are subjected to tension parallel to its
grain. The slope of grain of each type of wood affects significantly on the tension value so this test
is to measure the value at which the sample fails in tensile force in parallel to the grain.

Procedure:
1- Sample should be shaped as shown in the figure () below according to the ASTM standards
and same goes to the grips as described in the grips section earlier in the report.
2- Machine used is Universal Testing Machine

Figure (53): Tension parallel specimen according to ASTM

The Figure (54): a sample after being done according to dimensions Standard in ASTM and then
fixed to one of the grips.

50 | P a g e

Results and analysis:


Tension Parallel
Extension
Moisture
Sample Maximum at Break Length Content Area
No.
Load (N) (mm)
(mm)
%
(cm^2)

Stress
(Mpa)

Strain

Modulus
(Mpa)

5516.66

3.37

460

4.2

0.5

110.3332 0.007326 15060.32

4688.38

3.41

460

5.6

0.5

93.7676 0.007413 12649

3100.81

2.2

460

6.6

0.5

62.0162 0.004783 12967.02

4359.54

3.18

460

7.5

0.5

87.1908 0.006913 12612.51

4341.47

4.19

460

4.3

0.5

86.8294 0.009109 9532.583

6009.54

2.9

460

0.5

120.1908 0.006304 19064.75

1147.96

3.25

460

9.3

0.5

22.9592 0.007065 3249.61

Mean

4669.4

3.2083333 460

S.D.

1017.6651 0.6546882 0

5.866667 0.5

93.388

0.006975 13647.7

1.399524 0

20.3533 0.001423 3187.677

Mean Tensile stress: 93.338 Mpa


Mean Modulus of Elasticity: 148847.68 Mpa
Mean Extension at Break: 3.25mm
Maximum Force: 5516.66N

Shape of failure:
The three figures above show the two types of fractures that were seen while testing.
Basically the fracture starts somewhere around the smallest cross section area of
0.5cm^2. Notice how the fracture doesnt happen exactly at the middle due to wood
being a non-homogenous material.

51 | P a g e

Figure (55): all shapes of failure it was produced by tension force parallel to grain.

Figure (56): shapes of failure in ASTM


F
F
i
Figure (57): Sample Number one Tension
Parallel to grain:

Deviation:
1- A gage was supposed to be added at the center part of the sample to measure
deformation, but the universal testing machine gave us automatically the extension that
happened due to testing.
2- Deformations were measured/read to 0.01mm.
3- The sample werent exactly as the shape required with a radius of 444mm however it
was made to the center part with a slope that gave the same look and almost the effect
but the circular shape would be more homogenous in the effect of distributing the
tensile force on the center part.

52 | P a g e

10- Static Bending Test


This test is not totally finished. 15 specimens should be tested but only 5 are done but it
gives a simple idea about this test.

Objective:
To determines the ductility or the strength of a material by bending the material over a
given radius and provides insight into the modulus of elasticity. Following the bend, the sample is
inspected for cracks on the outer surface.
Machined used: Universal testing machine (100 KN)

The specifications from ASTM:


Size of the specimen: 50 by 50 by 760 mm
The span length: 710 mm
Rate of loading: (2.5 mm)/min
Load deflection curves: Load-deflection curves shall be recorded to or beyond the
maximum load for all static bending tests. The curves shall be continued to a 6 in. (150 mm)
deflection, or until the specimen fails to support a load of 200 lbf (890 N)

The deviations from the ASTM:


There wasnt any wide machine available in the labs that could tests a sample wide as 760
mm and provide stress strain curve so it the size of specimen was chosen to be the secondary
choice to be applicable for universal testing machine and hence, some of these specification has
been changed according also to ASTM specification and these are the new standards.
Size of the specimen: 25 by25 by 410 mm
The span length: 360 mm
Rate of loading: (1.3 mm)/min
Load deflection curves: The curves shall be continued to a 3 in. (76 mm) deflection or
until the specimen fails to support a load of 50 lbf (220 N) for secondary method specimens.

53 | P a g e

Results:
The average stress is: 75.64 which is considered a very high value for wood material.
This test were done on the secondary dimensions and samples were tested half of them at
one time and the other half after two weeks which affected slightly on the moisture content
of the samples. This test is considered the most perfect test was done in this research
because the samples were quit thin (2.5 by 2.5 cm) and it was left for enough time to be
dried so at the end it produced a very high value as bending stress.

Static Bending results


Specimen label Maximum Load Maximum Stress Flex Modulus
(KN)

1
2.32218
2
2.8092
3
1.79034
4
2.2262
5
2.07795
6
2.68009
7
0.99171
8
2.78978
9
1.69615
10
2.62823
11
2.06653
Mean
2.188941818
Standard Deviation 0.526262841
Minimum
0.99171
Maximum
2.8092

Moisture Content

(MPa)

(MPa)

80.25
97.09
61.87
76.94
71.81
92.62
34.27
96.41
58.62
90.83
71.42
75.64818182
18.23268983
34.27
97.09

7409.8
10504.47
5405.69
7394.32
7165.06
8595.98
5647.33
9231.48
7885.59
8061.37
7720.39
7729.225455
1385.327169
5405.69
10504.47

6.3
7.2
6.8
6.7
8.1
6.5
7.5
7.4
6.8
6.1
6.9
6.936363636
0.578399044
6.1
8.1

Figure(58): table of results for 11 samples of bending tests

Sample 1
Flexure stress (Mpa)

100
80
60
40
20
0
-20

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

Flexure strain (%)* 10*-4

54 | P a g e

Sample 2
Flexure stress (Mpa)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20

5000

10000

15000
20000
Flexure strain (*10^-4) %

25000

30000

35000

Sample 3
70

Flexure stress (Mpa)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0

10000

20000

30000
flexure strain

40000

50000

60000

Flexure stress( Mpa)

Sample 4
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0

5000

10000

15000
20000
25000
30000
Flexure strain *10^-4 (%)

35000

40000

45000

55 | P a g e

Sample 5
80
70

Flexure stress

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0

5000

10000

15000

20000 25000 30000


Flexure strain

35000

40000

45000

50000

Sample 6
100

Flexure stress (MPa)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

0.045

0.05

Flexure strain (mm/mm)

Sample 7
Flexure stress (MPa)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

0.014

0.016

0.018

0.02

strain (mm/mm)
56 | P a g e

Flexure stress (MPa)

Sample 8
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

Strain (mm/mm)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

Strain (mm/mm)

Sample 10
Flexure stress (MPa)

Flexure stress (MPa)

Sample 9

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

0.035

0.04

0.045

Strain (mm/mm)

Figure (59): the graphs between flexure stress and strain of the five samples
57 | P a g e

Description of static bending failure:


Static bending (flexural) failures shall be classified in accordance with the appearance of the
fractured surface and the manner in which the failure develops. There were two types of the failure
types that were described in the following figure and all of the sample fractures were photographed
and four of them are cross grain failure while only one is splintering type.

Figure (60): all the shape failure of the wood

Sample (1)

Sample (2)

58 | P a g e

Sample (3)

Sample (4)

Sample (5)
Figure (61): failure shapes of the five samples

59 | P a g e

Designing a Wooden Girder:


The initial phase of our research is to classify Casuarina wood species in Egypt in terms of
all of its physical and mechanical properties. Afterwards the secondary objective of our research
includes a designing phase, in specific designing a wooden girder which is primarily used for wall
and slab formworks in the construction field. Of course the success of this design all depends on
the final properties or characteristics achieved for the Casuarina Wood.

Background:
The design of the girder will imitate the design of an already existing girder from PERI
Formwork Systems; in particular we will adopt the design of model GT 24 with a length of 4.2
meters. The function of this girder is to simply provide efficient formwork for walls and slabs at a
cost effective state. GT 24 is strong enough to cover the formwork of all types of walls in the
construction industry, from ordinary residential walls to retaining walls, reaching up to 18 meters
using only 1 panel. In terms of slabs it allows formwork for large spans, and as a result the use of
GT-24 will tend to reduce the number of components used in a formwork system, which leads to
less labor requirements, and is more cost effective.

Figure (62) Peri girders model GT24 L = 4.2 m

Figure (63) the basic dimension of the girder beam GT24 with L = 4.2m
60 | P a g e

Objective:
The constructed model from Casuarina wood was tested under binding test. The outcomes
of this test were compared to other types of wood used in similar girder beams to see if it worth it
to start exploring Casurina as a new material in construction industry. The significance of designing
such a model from Casuarina wood is really important; if successful we would have overcome a
groundbreaking achievement in the formwork industry due to the major cost savings between our
model and PERI's; the customers would be charged a third of what PERI industries are charging.

Procedures:
The methodology that was followed in order to produce such a design, is first analyze our
properties and design figures, place the design on AutoCad as in Figure() then transfer the design
to SAP in order to test the functioning of such a model. Afterwards a simple model of the GT 24
girder was constructed with some deviations due limitations in workshops and in available wood.
Then it was tested and the results were analyzed.

Figure(64): a simple design for a girder beam with some differences from G24 design

61 | P a g e

The building process of the wooden truss system is quite simple which may be summarized
in four to five steps. 1First we must acquire the wooden logs at the lengths needed according to the
design parameters. Next we saw off the bark from the logs Figure(65), during this process lots of
material is wasted due to the technicalities in sawing off bark from wooden logs. Afterwards the
expert will 3 smoothen out the surfaces (clean up) of the long beams created. The smoothening
surface is an important step especially in terms of formwork construction. Formworks are
required to contain a non-rough surface due the fact that concrete may stick to the surfaces of the
wooden formworks during the pouring and drying processes. Therefore the carpenter will
smoothen and clean the surface from any irregularities.
After we smoothen and clean the surfaces of the wooden beams, the expert will detail or
cut it in the specified dimension of the design. Keep in mind that during the initial cutting stages
the remainders left over may be used to create the smaller members of the truss only if they are
sufficient for use. After wards the most important part comes which is the placement of the pieces
together. The method of putting the pieces together is sincerely significant in terms of the overall
use of the truss, in specific the design of the joints.

Figure (65): sowing the logs and smoothing the surface for a Casuarina Tree

Figure (66): the final product of a truss after lacing the member in its joints

62 | P a g e

Truss Load Testing:


The truss was built and then the next step was to test the sustainability or strength of the
system. The American University of Cairo has a unique testing machine which was suitable of
performing such a test with the use of a hydraulic jack system fixed to a steel frame as shown in
figure(67).The truss was supported on two rollers with a span of 180 cm that pointed in Figure
(67). A concentrated load was added to the truss approximately at the center of it as shown above.
Afterwards the load is applied until failure is reached. The device Shown in Figure (68) on the
bottom the Linear Variable Differential Transformer is working as a dial gage to measure the
deformation of the system during loading and unloading. Some of the joints were not placed
accurately over the rollers like in figure (69) below however the load from the jack were exactly
over one of the joints.

Figure (67): the truss is supported on


two rollers to resist the load produced
by the hydraulic jack

Figure (68): the Linear Variable


Differential Transformer

Figure (69): some joints were not placed over the supporter exactly
63 | P a g e

Result and analysis:


The results of our test were as follows, the maximum load was 746.91 kgf, the deflection at
maximum load is 19.81 mm, and with a deformation recovery of 13.81 mm.
The curve below is a representation of the relationship of the load (kgf) vs deformation (mm).
800
700

Load (kgf)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
Note: Permanent
Deformation = 6.5mm

10

15

20

25

Deformation (mm)

Figure (70): Loading Vs. deformation curve for the wooden truss constructed from Casuarina
As we can realize the shape and results of the curve is somewhat unusual however we need
to keep in mind that the wood in the truss had a moisture content of nearly 70% and the
dimensions of the truss system used in this test are different than the theoretical design (theoretical
design is larger). The maximum load was somewhat low compared to values of other truss
systems, however we had relatively high moisture content and the configuration of the joints were
somewhat sloppy. These two factors significantly affected the strength of the truss, if it where drier
(12% moisture content) and had improved joint designs the maximum load the truss would sustain
would be doubled or even higher. In addition there is a permanent deformation of 6.5 mm.

64 | P a g e

During the testing of the truss a certain shape of failure appeared. In the Figure (), the
actual shape of failure is evident. The shape of failure here is more of a bending failure rather
than compression, as it is expected. As well as the most of the load is carried on the top chord
because the truss failed to behave as a truss under the load once the members were pulled out of
its joints. As a result, the top chord were carrying the load a lone with some members hanging on it
and almost disconnected to the bottom chord which supposed to have the failure earlier as tension
failure. Because of the tension members being vulnerable like that, it supposed to be investigated
in the design of the joints thoroughly in order to prevent a fault such as this to occur in the future.
As well as there is an advantage to the failure of the truss, its that the wood did not attempt to
crack in an explosive manner (fragments of wood did not fly all over the place), instead the wood
stayed
together
that is due to the high ductility of the material itself and the high water content
Initial
shapeand
of failure
of the
atwood.
top chord

Figure (71): the failure in the top chord of the truss after loading it.

Figure (72): Tension members were pulled out of the joints

65 | P a g e

Joints:
There are many factors that may affect the strength of a truss such as knots, slope of grain,
shrinkage fissures, and other defects (such as bacterial and insects infestation). The joints are yet
one of the most important factors of any system since they have a direct effect on the mechanical
of the system. Unfortunately, the joints of the truss are the factor that have not been studied
thoroughly yet by our research team due to certain time constraints, and that is why our results
varied from others. However in reference to the Peri GT-24 model we were able to improvise on
the details of our joint design. We attempted to have a wood on wood connection just like Peri,
but due to the company's secret of trade, they trademarked (copyrighted) their method of design
for such trusses. So in our system the joints were done in the way as shown in the figures below.
In one joint there will be two heads faced opposite of each other fitting into a joint. They will be
basically fixed in with their dimensions with the help of some sort of super glue. The photo below
will show an actual image of our truss joint.
Member head within
joint
7.5 cm

As shown in the image above the joint consists of a wood to wood connection, the width of the
joint is 15 cm where the width of one member head is 7.5 cm and width 2 cm. The tongue
("lissan") or key of the member is the part that enters the members. Keep in mind that the
construction of the truss was done at a basic wood workshop; therefore we were absent to some of
the engineering expertise needed at the workshop (other than our engineering knowledge). In
comparison to Peri's GT 24 model, both our joints and theirs are composed of wood to wood joint
basis, however the specific design of Peri's joints are different as shown in the figure below.

Peri GT-24 Joint configuration


(finger joints)
As shown in the figure above is the finger joint configuration Peri uses in their GT-24 model. As
mentioned before the details to their joint construction is rather classified and may not be
disclosed to any unfamiliar member to the company.

66 | P a g e

Sap Analysis:
After testing the girder model, and recording the maximum load till failure 746 Kgf, a Sap
analysis was constructed using the actual dimensions of the girder and applying same maximum
load is withstood.
When analyzing the model, two critical conditions were tested. The first is the girder acting
as truss by releasing the moment at the nodes but that was unstable and showed that it was crucial
to have moment and explains why Peri opted for a girder instead of a truss. The second critical
condition which was tried is using total fixation at the nodes, this is a better representative of the
girder model since it accounts for moment at the nodes. In addition the members of the girder
penetrate the upper and bottom chords a significant distance of around 70% of their total depth
thus explaining how the model is very much closer to being a girder than a truss.

Figure(): the load analysis on the members and top and bottom chords.
The Figure above shows the normal forces in the members and chords of the girder. The
distance between the roller and the hinged was 180 Cm which is exactly similar to the testing
conditions previously done. The length from roller and hinge to the end of the girder is 40cm on
each side, also similar to the testing conditions. The load was placed in the same place as girder
tested specifically at intersection of the two inclined members at upper chord's midpoint.
Knowing that our girder model failed due to tension members failing to work because they
werent held properly by the connections at the nodes, we were looking for data from the sap
analysis to proof our theory.

67 | P a g e

The following table summarizes our findings.


Maximum
Stress

Girder (Sap
Analysis)

Material Testing

Compression Parallel
(Member)

2.3 Mpa

42.3Mpa

Compression Parallel
(Upper Chord)

1.63 Mpa

42.3Mpa

Tension Parallel
(Member)

1.6 Mpa

93Mpa

Tension Parallel to
grain (Lower chord)

1.63 Mpa

93Mpa

The maximum stress, tension and compression on the members and chords was calculated
and compared with the maximum stress of Casuarina wood we already found in our previously
stated tests.
Knowing that the girder was under compression and tension parallel, their corresponding
test results were compared with the maximum stress from the sap analysis.
-Casuarina wood could have carried up to 42.3Mpa in compression parallel but failed at
2.3Mpa in members and 1.63Mpa in upper chord!
-Casuarina wood could have carried up to 93Mpa in the tension parallel but failed at
1.6Mpa in members and 1.63 in the lower chord. So these results confirm our theory, that our
girder failed at 746kgf under maximum stress that could have been carried easily by Casuarina
wood but due to the fact that the connections at the nodes werent designed correctly they failed
the girder and exposed the upper chord to withstand the load alone which was like witnessing a
bending test.

68 | P a g e

Outcomes and comparison


This figure below is a simple comparison between Casuarina wood and the most commercially
important wood in Egypt like Oak wood and pine Wood (as known in the market El Aro and El
Mosky) and Dougles fire wood which is very popular as in USA for formwork industry. The
comparison was in mechanical and physical properties and the prices per m3 in Egypt.
It is clear in the comparison that almost Casaurina lies the second after white Oak in all
strengths except in modulus of elasticity lies the third. On the other hand, it is considered one
of the cheapest ever compared to its natural strength with other wood that are as strong as
Casuarina.
Modulus compressive
Tensile
Tensile
Compression
Type of
Moisture Specific
of
strength
strength strength
Price
perpendicula
wood
content Gravity elasticity
parallel
parallel perpendicul (LE/ton)
r (Mpa)
(Mpa)
(Mpa)
(Mpa)
ar (Mpa)
Casurina
12%
0.45
7729.2
42.3
5.64
93.2
4.25
250
Oak Red
12%
0.61
11300
23.90
4.9
77.9
5.2
6000
Oak White
12%
0.68
12300
51.3
7.4
112.4
5.3
7000
Pine White
12%
0.34
6800
16.8
1.5
73
2.1
1800
Pine Lodgepole 12%
0.4
7400
18
1.7
84
2
2000
Pine Jack
12%
0.38
8500
20.3
2.1
63
2.9
1200
Douglas Fir
12%
0.45
13,400
49.3
5.5
75.8
2.3

Economics of Casuarina Model:


Engineers always attempt to construct at the lowest cost but at the same time maintain a
certain acceptable value of quality. In formworks the there are two main parts that affect its
overall costs, first is the actual cost of the formwork system used, second is the labor cost for
formwork installation.
Our model is based on the Casuarina wood grown in Egypt. The price of 1m3 of Casuarina wood
in Egypt reaches up to 250 LE/m3 in comparison the Pine wood used in Peri's Gt24 is 1800
LE/m3.
In terms of the cost of the amount of wood used in a single truss, our model also tends to
performs better than Peri's GT 24. The cost for the amount of wood used in a single truss
reaches up to 50-60 LE, and then include the cost of technical operations and chemical
treatment, the overall cost of to build a single truss is 120 LE/truss. Peri offers the price of a
single truss at about 1,500LE/truss. Keep in mind that if our model is produced in large
quantities the prices of single truss will be even lower due to the mass production rates. In
addition that with the use of such systems during the formwork phases of construction, there
will be reduction in the cost of custom formworks. This is because of the reduced amount of
labor costs required to use such formworks at any construction site.
As you can see the price differences between our model and Peri's is quite significant, which
makes it worthwhile for us to pursue our research and making it the best in its field of use
(formwork).
69 | P a g e

Following example taken from Sisterzone.com it compares tensile strength to


compressive strength of Balsa wood.
Density

Compressive
Strength (lb/in)

Low
Medium
High

680
1750
2830

Tensile
Strength
(lb/in)
1100
2890
4670

Tensile/Compressive Strength
Ratio
1.617647
1.651429
1.650177

Clearly, balsa wood is 60% stronger under tension than under compression for all densities.
So, what possible use is this? Well, recall that the compressive and tensile forces in the top and
bottom chords are equal (each are 60 pounds), as are their cross sectional areas (about 7/32 square
inches for each chord and 2 x 7/32 = 14/32 for the left and right chords together). Let's compute
the failure points for two cases, one where the lighter material is on the top, and the other where it
is on the bottom.

Chord

top
bottom

Case 1:

Case 2:

Force needed to fail with low


density on top chord, medium
density on bottom
14/32 * 680 <- weak point
14/32 * 2,890

Force needed to fail with medium


density on top chord, low density on
bottom
14/32 * 1,750
14/32 * 1,100 <- weak point

Clearly, this supports Katherine's "rule of thumb" of using lighter wood for the "Bottom Chord"
(which is under tension) and heavier wood for the "Top Chord" (which is under compression)
since it is better to have the bridge tear at 14/32 * 1,100 pounds than be crushed at 14/32 * 680
pounds.
Summary: We can get two engineering rules from this analysis.

Even light grades of balsa can support a lot of weight without failing under tension and
compression. So think carefully about using heavier grades of wood.
Balsa is stronger under tension than compression. So, it makes sense to put lighter wood
on tension members and heavier wood on compression members if the cross sections have
equal area.

The previous example, applies to casuarinas wood since it too is stronger in tensile strength than
compression strength. Ratio of Tensile Parallel/Compressive parallel is 93Mpa/42.3Mpa=2.19 So
if one must use a combination of low and high density woods, the lower density ones would be
better used in tension while the higher density ones would be better used in compression.

70 | P a g e

The table below shows simple comparison between GT24 and Casaurina model

Category

Peri GT-24

TK-NO-11 (our model)

Weight

2.5kg/m

7.5kg/m 58% M.C (3.84kg/m12% M.C )

Cost

1500 LE/unit

80+ durability treatment


(50)=125LE/turss

Permissible
Bending
Moment

7k Nm

3.35 kNm

Joint
Configuration

Conclusion

Failed due to connection errors, since


members could have carried more stress.
As seen tension chords were pulled
before major failure was seen.

71 | P a g e

Recommendation:
Drying the wood
Wood drying is a process in which we dry the wood to reduce its moisture content. This is done
because when wood is used in construction it will absorb or desorbs moisture until it reaches
equilibrium with the surroundings. This causes unequal shrinkage in the wood which causes
damage to the wood if it dries quickly and reaches equilibrium fast. The equilibration must be
controlled to prevent damage.

Ways to dry the wood


The two most economical ways to dry the wood is by either Kiln dryring or Air drying. Correct
exposure of lumber to the outside air can reduce moisture content to 1219 percent; At this
moisture content, The wood is suitable for many construction uses and applications.

Air drying
When air drying we mainly make stacks of sawn timber on raised foundations in a dry
place. Depending on climatic conditions the rate of drying will vary. It also will depend
on the air movement and exposure to the wind. The rate of moisture loss increase if the
flow of air increases and vice versa.The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by
coating the planks ordinary mineral oil .Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint,
improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping logs in a way which will allow some
movement of moisture will also work provided. But before doing this the wood is first
treated against infection of Fungus by coating in gasoline or oil. When we started air
drying the wood we just put it in the desert and assumed the hot climate is enough.
Later, in order to increase the rate we arranged the wood in a way to have larger areas
exposed to the air and sun.

Figure (): Air Drying by exposing larger areas of the wood to the surroundings

72 | P a g e

Kiln drying
Kiln drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be using natural gas ,
electricity or even through steam-heated heat exchangers. Nowadays Solar heated kilns
are also used. During heating we should control temperature, relative humidity and air
movement and circulation to achieve effective drying. Therfore, the timber is stacked in
chambers or drying kilns which are fitted with equipment that manipulates and controls
the temperature and the relative humidity of air and its circulation rate. We used kiln
drying method in the schools oven and used a temperature of 50-70 C which is
effective for both dring the wood and killing any fungi that may grow on it.

Figure (): Drying Chambers for wood

Figure (): conventional drying chamber for wood

73 | P a g e

Joints problem:
Other methods of truss joint systems are available and may be induced in our own truss, such
as using steel plates and nails. One method is the gang-nailed system.

Figure (): steel plates used as a way to fasten the joints more
"A Gang-Nail connector is a steel plate with a collection of spikes or nails projecting from one face. The
spikes or teeth are formed by punching slots in steel but leaving one end of the plug connected to the
sheet. The teeth are then formed so they project at right angles to the plate. During this process the
teeth are shaped to produce a rigid projection. When the teeth of a connector plate are pressed into
timber laid end to end, the plate welds them together by forming a Gang-Nail joint. Connectors are
always used in pairs with identical plates pressed into both faces of the joint." ()

In the image below is a representation of the steel connector on the truss system.

Figure (): a steel plate nailed in a joint

74 | P a g e

Woods failure due to improper cutting:


It was noticed that when cutting wooden planks from a log, there arises a problem in
how to most effectively cut the planks to get the most pieces of planks. It was
discovered that the samples, that had the center of the log somewhere in the sample
split and cracked near to that center point. The possible explanation is that the
center point of the log, has the most moisture content and dries slower than the parts
further away from that center thus due to difference in shrinkage rates the samples
would crack and splits example of our samples splitting due to that weak point.
Thats why when we researched more into it, we found out that wood is generally cut
in a certain fashion to make sure the center point doesnt lie somewhere inside a
wooden plank; see figure below.
Also we found out that a plank's grain pattern can be categorized by where that plank
was cut from the log.

"The quarter sawn is the most stable, and usually gives a straight grain pattern down the
length of the plank. The flat sawn will usually cup up on the ends as it dries (as shown in
this location), and will have a more pronounced grain down its length. The rift cut will
come out somewhere in the middle."

75 | P a g e

References:
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry: Casuarina equisetifolia:

http://agroforestry.net/tti/Casuarina-she-oak.pdf
NFT Highlights: (A quick guide to useful nitrogen fixing trees from around the world)
http://www.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/FACTSH/Casuarina_sp.html
The wood explorer:
http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/maindata/we267.html

Why Build with Wood?


http://www.wood-works.org/NR/rdonlyres/E681783E-AAD5-4F54-B4BF853D10489E2B/0/WhyBuildwithWood.pdf

ASTM tests:
ASTM D143 - 09 Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber
ASTM D2395 -09 Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Wood and Wood-Based
Materials
ASTM D4442 -09 Test Methods for Direct Moisture Content Measurement of Wood
and Wood-Base Materials
ASTM D2915 - 09 Practice for Sampling and Data-Analysis for Structural Wood and
Wood-Based Products

GT 24 Formwork Girder:
http://www.wiehahn.co.za/upload/uploads/35/GT-VT_Girders_original.pdf
Blasa Wood comparsion:
http://www.sisterzone.com/Adv-Material%20Analysis.htm
Joints metal plate:
http://www.mii.com/artefact/download.asp?aid=27341

Improper cutting affect sample later:

http://mysite.verizon.net/ELLshipmodeler/logging.html
76 | P a g e

You might also like