Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of contents
Abstract ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Background ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Scope and objective----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
Preparing the samples------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10
Preparing the grips ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Experimental work ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Moisture Content ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Specific Gravity-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Toughness Test --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------28
Hardness Test---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
Cleavage Test ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Compression perpendicular Test ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
Compression parallel Test ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
Tension perpendicular Test -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Tension parallel Test ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
Static Bending --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- 51
Designing the model ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------58
Outcomes and comparison------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------66
Recommendation -------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
References -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
2|Page
Table of Figures
Figure (1) Casurina as wind breaker for the highways-------------------------------------------------------------5
Figure (2) Casurina is planted in sandy dry soil---------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Figure (3) Casuarina as trees and fire wood ----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
Figure (4) Microscopic view of Casuarina wood fibers------------------------------------------------------------6
Figure (5) Peri beam girder GT24-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
Figure (6) GT24 used as girder beam in a slab formwork-------------------------------------------------------7
Figure (7) Purchasing Casuarina wood from el Sabteya-----------------------------------------------------------8
Figure (8) Sawing the tree into smaller lengths for better workability ------------------------------------- 9
Figure (9) Removing the Bark------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Figure (10) Robeya Samples are glided onto the blade to create a fair face-----------------------------10
Figure (11) Tarbee3 machine---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
Figure (12) Samples are dried in the oven----------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
Figure (13) Wood left to sun heat for three weeks----------------------------------------------------------------------12
Figure (14) A reading of 63.3% turned to be 19.4% MC after --------------------------------------------------12
Figure (15) New trial, wood placed as grid.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
Figure (16) Machining Center cuts notch-----------------------------------------------------------------------------13
Figure (17) Example of sample after notch was made with Machining center----------------------13
Figure (18) The grip drawings of the four tests required from ASTM----------------------------------14
Figure (19) The drawings with the dimensions of the required grips from the ASTM---------15
Figure (20) Lather Machine-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Figure (21) The simple cross section of the grips on AutoCAD-------------------------------------------17
Figure (22) Wire ADM Machine------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Figure (23) The main grips holding the new grips----------------------------------------------------------------18
Figure (24) Water is saved between the wood fibers-------------------------------------------------------------19
Figure (25) The samples are weighted after being dried in electric oven ------------------------------20
Figure (26) A simple drawing of impact test---------------------------------------------------------------------------26
Figure (27) Impact Tests and the sample is being hit by the hammer----------------------------------26
Figure (28) Values obtained from the hardness test--------------------------------------------------------------28
Figure (29) Radial and tangential side Hardness for different species of wood ---------------------29
3|Page
Figure (30) Radial and tangential side Hardness obtained for Casuarina SG check-------------29
Figure (31) Universal Testing Machine---------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
Figure (32) Cleavage test Load vs Deformation-------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Figure (33) Failure of sample at Maximum load------------------------------------------------------------------- 31
Figure (34) Material Tests system (compression machine) -------------------------------------------------- 32
Figure (35) Compression curves from MTS (upper) and ASTM (lower) -----------------------------33
Figure (36) Brooming or End bearing failure as a result of high Moisture content--------------- 33
Figure (37) Shapes of failure in compression------------------------------------------------------------------------34
Figure (38) The graphs between flexure stress and strain of the five samples------------------------39
Figure (39) All the shape failure of the wood------------------------------------------------------------------------39
Figure (40) Failure shapes of the five samplesFigure ------------------------------------------------------------40
Figure (41) Peri girders model GT24 L = 4.2 m-------------------------------------------------------------------41
Figure (42) The basic dimension of the girder beam GT24 with L = 4.2m-------------------------- 42
4|Page
Abstract:
This Project is testing one of the most growing woods in Egypt Casuarina Wood to
specify its mechanical and physical properties. Egypt depends totally on imported wood from
several areas as Europe and Australia and thats why it is so expensive to be used as structure
material in construction industry. If the mechanical and physical properties of wood was as good as
the imported types then it will be an economic gain for wood industry in Egypt. The properties
were measured by several tests according to ASTM standards for wood D-143. The results were
compared to the most commercially important types of wood in Egypt like Oak and Pine wood.
The result were pretty impressive Casuarinf lies second in most of the properties after the white
Oak and it was well known that Oak and Casuarina are considered very Hard wood. A simple
design for a girder beam was made and tested under bending force to be compared to other girder
beam widely used as formwork GT 24 in Peri standards. The comparison not only structure wise
but economically. The test was done but with some deviations in connections and dimensions than
Peri standards due to limitation of manufacturing process its self or in workshops. The result
werent better than Peri GT 24 beam but this test wasnt accurate enough to judge Casuairna wood.
There are recommendations for a better girder beam that carries more using Casurina according
to its properties.
5|Page
Background:
Casuarina has a very hard, heavy, dark red-brown structure; hence the name ironwood is
derived from its properties. The Casuarina trees are considered relatively new to Egypt, which
were introduced from South East Asia (Australia) at the beginning of the 19th century. "One of the
common names of Casuarina species, she-oak, widely used in Australia, refers to the attractive
wood pattern of large lines or rays similar to oak but weaker." (AgroForestry) This species of
Casuarina now breeds in over 15 different countries around the world including Egypt, Hawaii,
India, Thailand, Palestine, and much more. It has extensively been grown outside of its natural
habitat (native Australia). Casuarina Glauca is naturally used as wind shelterbelts along highways
and farms, preventing dust and wind from disturbing anything. It is also considered as a great
source of firewood, even when it's green it may be combusted. Information on this type of wood
in Egypt is limited in terms of its mechanical and physical properties for several reasons. In Egypt
there is a lack of forestry regions, therefore wood is considered as an expensive commodity in the
construction world. Instead concrete, cement, and steel are considered as the main elements of
the structural world in Egypt. So no one really ever bothered in discovering the possible structural
uses with woods grown in Egypt.
6|Page
Casuarina glauca trees may be grown in desert areas however irrigation is required. For the
first six months it requires watering and after that it can survive on minimal amounts of water.
They are considered as moderately fast growing trees, by the age of 7 years the trees reach an
average height of 5m with a survival rate of 72 % (AgroForestry). Casuarina glauca in the Middle
East and North Africa over performs other Casuarinas by reaching a height of 20-25 m in only 1214 years. It has a maximum diameter of one meter, as it can reach half its diameter in barely three
years; also it has a "rapid colonizing ability on disturbed soils, especially in coastal or salt affected
situations." (AgroForestry) In addition to Casuarina's easy cultivation, it has many positive effects
on the natural environment by fixing the nitrogen in the atmosphere.
The Casuarina wood is grown in Egypt as a wind breaker like on El Sahrawy going to
Alexandria, in the market it is only available as green wood as it is only used as fuel wood so no
drying is done by the suppliers. It is considered a very cheap type of wood as it only costs 250 LE
per m3 compare to other imported woods that are about 3000 LE per m3. We took some images
using a stereo microscope which showed us that the fibers in the wood cross each other indicating
that its a strong bond which results in high strength.
9|Page
Figure (8): sawing the tree into smaller lengths for better workability during the rest of the process
Figure (10): 'Robeya' Samples are glided onto the blade to create a fair face
12 | P a g e
Important note: We later found out that the lab staff close the oven daily, thus subjecting our
samples to daily sudden heating and cooling! That probably increased the magnitude of sample
deformation.
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The following trials were to leave the wood, in the open air under sunlight. Three Weeks
into that process we bought a moisture meter and were able to test the wood. Some samples
dropped to acceptable moisture content less than 20 degrees others remained as high as 63.3
degrees, pictures below show actual readings on site.
Figure (14): A reading of 63.3% MC which is the maximum for the selected type of wood turned to
be 19.4% MC after the sample left to sun heat for three weeks
14 | P a g e
Below is a new trail, by placing the wood on top of each other in a grid shape to increase the
surface area subjected to air. Trial still in progress and its results are unknown.
Figure (17): Example of sample after notch was made with Machining center
15 | P a g e
Cleavage test
Tension parallel
Tension perpendicular
Nail withdrawal
Figure (18): the grip drawings of the four tests required from ASTM
The design of the grips was based on these drawings from ASTM:
Cleavage test
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Nail withdrawal
Tension parallel
Figure (19): the drawings with the dimensions of the four required grips from the ASTM
17 | P a g e
The material chosen for these grips was steel and it was bought from El Sabteya. The
material was purchased as blocks with bigger dimension than the required, taking in consideration
any loses at manufacturing it. These blocks were cut into smaller blocks with the exact dimension
in the drawings by the Lathe Machine as shown in figure (1). The cross section of each grip was
drawn on AutoCAD without dimensions or any dashed lines on it to be saved as a separate file for
each grip on a floppy disk as file of (DXF R 12) Figure (2). The Wire ADM machine (figure (3))
used these drawings on a floppy disk to shape the blocks into the required cross section. Then,
the grips were installed into the machines used for testing (universal testing machine) by fixing a
small rod to be held tightly with the machine grips figure (4). There was a another option of
making a smaller adaptor or converter to fix the grips directly to the machine but this option wasnt
applicable due to the tight schedule and the need to new raw materials.
18 | P a g e
Cleavage
Nail withdrawal
Tension Parallel
Tension perpendicular
Figure (21) (the simple cross section of the grips on AutoCAD)
20 | P a g e
Experimental work:
1- Moisture Content:
Typically a fresh cut piece of wood or green
wood has a section appearing as in figure 1 below.
The bound water is the liquid or vapor chemically
bound by hydrogen bonding to the cellulose of the
wood cell walls. As the free water is the water filling
in the voids or cavities in the wood cells. In terms of
drying the wood, the free water is first released and
the bound water liquid then gradually decreases.
The amount of water content affects the physical and
mechanical properties of wood and limits its uses
structurally.
The objective:
to determine the moisture content of a wood base material, in our case "Casuarina Wood"
of wood base material moisture content. This value will be further used in our research by
providing a wide range of use in our remaining tests, such as Hardness and Toughness.
The procedures:
The methodology of this experiment and all other tests strictly follow the database of the
American Standards Testing Methods. In this case we will refer to the Standard Test Methods
for Direct Moisture Content Measurement of Wood and Wood-Base Materials designation D
4442 92. There are several testing methods to do in order to calculate moisture content; we will
choose the Method A Oven Drying (Primary). This method is considered to give the most
accurate results in comparison to the others.
The methods of this test starts by first cutting the samples of the wood at the desired
dimensions, which are ten samples at 5 x 5 x 10 cm. The test will require a kiln or oven to dry the
21 | P a g e
samples to the oven-dry state. The oven used in this case will be an electric oven which will have a
temperature of 103C 2C. The samples are then numbered and weighed initially to get the
green weight and then placed in the oven at the right temperature. The samples are kept in the
oven at three hour intervals and their weights are recorded between every interval. Note, make
sure to keep that the lab room relative humidity must be less than 70% and the humidity exposed
to the samples to be consistent to achieve the best results. The endpoint of this test is reached
when the difference between the weight levels is extremely small and is considered to be negligible.
At that point the final weight level achieved is considered to be as the oven-dry weight of the wood.
As soon as the oven-dry weight is reached the data collected will be used in order to
calculate the moisture content of Casuarina Wood. The water content is calculated by simply
finding the difference ration between the initial (green) weight and the oven-dry weight. In addition
after performing the experiment the after (drying) dimensions of the samples are used to calculate
the radial and tangential shrinkage ratios, which are significant in terms of knowing the wood's
behavior with seasonal expansion. Look in the Data and Results section for the representation of
this
experiment's
results.
Figure (25): the samples are weighted after being dried in electric oven every three hours
22 | P a g e
Specimen
Dimensions
(After)
cm
Initial W1
Weight gm
gm
W2
gm
W3
(gm)
W4
(gm)
W5
(gm)
W6
(gm)
5 x 5 x 10
4.4x4.3x10.3 277.06
5 x 5 x 10
4.4x4.4
9.8
x 274.02
5 x 5 x 10
4.3x4.2x10.2 290.57
5 x 5 x 10
4.2x4.3x10.2 280.28
5 x 5 x 10
4.4x4.5x10.3 278.13
5 x 5 x 10
4.2x4.5x10.3 273.19
5 x 5 x 10
4.4x4.4x10.3 280.98
5 x 5 x 10
4.6x4.6x10.4 265.97
5 x 5 x 10
4.4x4.6x10.1 276.06
10
5 x 5 x 10
4.6x4.6x10.1 265.79
Average
5x5x10
161.00 152.1
W7
(gm)
W8
(gm)
147.66 147.11
Note: between each weight level (no.) there is a three hour interval
Therefore the oven dry weight is represented in the final column on the final row, which is 148.43
grams.
23 | P a g e
Note: m.c , m.c. , and m.c. , represent the moisture content of the samples at a certain semi-oven
1
dry state. These values are used in order to plot the moisture content and time curve shown
below.
W.C. vs Time
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
Time (Hours)
30
24 | P a g e
2- Specific Gravity:
The specific gravity is the property revealed in the wooden profile which gives a relevant
idea of the density of the material. Basically specific gravity is the measurement of actual wood
substance in the wood. This value is significant in terms of calculating other wooden properties
and it also gives us an estimate of the weight of the wood substance in the sample.
The methodology used for this experiment is according to the ASTM D-2395 reference.
The method used is Method A "Volume by Measurement ". In order to calculate the specific
gravity with this module the value of the moisture content achieved previously is extremely
significant to the calculation of the needed value. According to the ASTM D-2395 the equation
used to calculate the specific gravity is represented as follows
Specific Gravity = K x W /
((1+(M/100)) L x w x t.
Where:
W = oven-dry weight (grams)
M = Moisture content
L = Length (cm)
W = width (cm)
T = thickness (cm)
K = 1 when weight is in grams and volume is in cm3
Therefore,
Specific Gravity = K x W / ((1+(M/100)) L x w x t
Sp. Gr. (Casuarina) = 1 x 148.43 /((1 +(0.86/100)) 4.39 x 4.45 x 10.19= 0.45 g/cm
The value achieved for the specific gravity of Casuarinas Wood is 0.45 g/cm3. This value basically
means that if a sample of Casuarina Wood is submerged in a tank of water it would float, since it
density is less than that of water's, which is 1 g /cm3.
However by comparing the values of Casuarina wood with other woods, one is able to create a
bigger picture of the stance Casuarina wood takes in comparison with other types of woods in the
world.
25 | P a g e
26 | P a g e
Shrinkage Ratios:
After performing the moisture content test, we are able to calculate the shrinkage ratios of
Casuarina Wood. There are two ratios, the radial shrinkage ratio and the tangential shrinkage
ratio. By using the oven-dry dimensions and green dimensions from the moisture content
experiment we are able to calculate such figures. Shrinkage is the degree of shrinking a substance
has in terms of its exposure to moisture, since most wooden species deform volumetrically when
dried. In this case our substance Casuarina wood shrinks because of water moisture being released
due to the drying process. The significance of the shrinkage ratios is really important, since one
will be able to determine the seasonal behavior or changes to the wood species during different
seasons of the year (different climates).
After performing the moisture content test, you will realize
there is a column in the data table which represents the
dimensions of the samples after oven-drying. With these
and the original dimensions we were able to calculate the
shrinkage ratio.
that
values
Radial Shrinkage:
Its the amount the wood has shrunk across the grain
L oven-dry / L original
6.32 cm / 7.70 cm = 0.89
section of
Tangential Shrinkage:
The amount of wood shrunk along the grain.
L oven-dry / L
original
4.2cm / 5 cm = 0.84
The values of the tangential shrinkage and radial shrinkage are unit less, and the significance of
these two values is represented by taking the ratio between them, Tangential / Radial.
T/R ratio = 0.84 / 0.89 = 0.00943
27 | P a g e
The smaller the value of the T/R ratio, the more likely the wood specimen would remain flat and
avoid warping due to seasonal changes. This value shows the stability of the wood species to
changes in the surrounding environment (especially in terms of exposure to humidity).
28 | P a g e
3-Toughness test:
The test was done using the Charpy method, using 10*10*55mm samples. In accordance with
testing procedures a 2mm notch was made with 45 degrees done in mechanical lab using
machining center.
Test Procedure:
First the specimen is placed horizontally on the base of the impact machine, with the notch
centered and facing the other side of the hammer. Basically a hammer is dropped from a specified
point indented on the machines scale above hitting the specimen and swinging to the other side.
The difference between the initial height of hammer and highest height it swings to after hitting the
specimen results in the energy absorbed by that specimen. The results with their moisture content
are displayed in the following table.
29 | P a g e
Figure (27): Impact Tests and the sample is being hit by the hammer
The Results:
Wsemi=(1+WCsemi)*Wdry
WC=(Wwet-Wdry)/Wdry
30 | P a g e
4-Hardness test
Objectives:
to evaluate the hardness values determined from tests on specimens of Casuarina wood .second
objective is to compare the results we obtained for Casuarina with the hardness of other types of
wood. This test is important because it measures how much a specimen could hold before plastic
deformation. The test was done according to ASTM D143-09.
Procedure:
Hardness test was conducted using Brinell machine (modified ball test) by using a steel ball with a
10 mm diameter. Then the load was recorded at which the ball has penetrated to half its diameter.
The penetrations were far from the edges in order to prevent slipping or chipping and were
applied both to the tangential and radial surface of the wood specimen. The load was applied was
applied on a continuous basis and then the weight and the moisture content of the specimen tested
was measured.
Results:
The results for 21 different specimens were listed in a table and an average of 917.5kgf was
obtained as shown in fig (29). the average was obtained is compared to hardness of other types of
woods and we found out that it exceeded all the wood types in the fig(30) except true hickory.
Casuarina has exceeded red oak and Douglas fir (both types of wood heavily used in construction
industry). However, it should be noted that hardness is only one of the properties and not the only
property that it was taken into consideration when evaluating types of wood.
31 | P a g e
Figure (29): Radial and tangential side Hardness for different species of wood
Species
No. Of
Samples
Casuarina 21
Mean
Min
Radial (lb.f) Radial
(lb.f)
Max
Radial
(lb.f)
Mean
Tangential
(lb.f)
Min
Tangential
(lb.f)
Max
Tangential
(lb.f)
2022.7
2755.77
1339.3
881.84
1763.69
1433
Figure (30): Radial and tangential side Hardness obtained for Casuarina SG check
H(lbf) = 4090(G12/(1+0.162G12))
Deviations:
The rate of the machine was not according to ASTM standards and was supposed to be
6mm/minute. .
When performing the SG check the sample we used was not 12% but was about 8-9%
water content.
32 | P a g e
5-Cleavage test:
Objectives:
main objective is to form an initial idea of the cleavage values of Casuarina and to test whether our
newly formed grips were working .This test is important because it measures the resistance of
Casuarinas to splitting. The test was done according to ASTM D143-09 and was performed on the
Universal testing machine shown in Fig (32) that had a load capacity of 50 kN.
Procedure:
The specimen was held during the test in the grips as shown in Figs.(32) and (33).Then load was
applied at a rate of motion of 2.5mm/min and only maximum load was observed which is basically
the load at failure. Samples were cut into small cubes (5*5*9.5) cm then shaped with the
required groove according to the ASTM standards and dimensions provided in figure (32)
below.
33 | P a g e
Results:
The maximum load is recorded only like in sample 1 graph maximum load is 4 KN as shown in
Fig(11). The maximum load in this case, is smaller than loads recorded in other tests. This is
mainly because the tension applied is carried only by the glows of specimen. The shape of failure
was also sketched from Fig (33).
34 | P a g e
35 | P a g e
Results:
Mean Stress: 0.797 Mpa
Mean Modulus of Elasticity: 14.12 Mpa
Cleavage
Extension
Moisture
Sample Maximum at Break Length Content
No. Load (N) (mm)
(mm)
%
Area
Stress
(Mpa)
Modulus
of
Elasticity
Strain (Mpa)
4016.66
2.2
50
58
40
1.004165 0.044
22.82193
3505.85
2.5
50
58
40
0.876463 0.05
17.52925
2334.72
2.3
50
58
40
0.58368 0.046
12.6887
3741.34
2.4
50
58
40
0.935335 0.048
19.48615
2661.54
50
58
40
0.665385 0.08
8.317313
2840.56
4.2
50
58
40
0.71014 0.084
8.454048
3395.54
2.8
50
58
40
0.848885 0.056
15.15866
581.34
2.5
50
3.7
40
0.145335 0.05
2.9067
3019.36
4.4
50
58
40
0.75484 0.088
8.577727
Mean
3189.4463 3.1
50
58
40
0.797362 0.062
14.12922
S.D.
572.13238 0.9335034 0
Figure (35): Similar failure was observed while testing; the picture below shows we
had a similar fracture.
36 | P a g e
37
Procedure:
The compression perpendicular to grain test was made on a50 by 50 by 150 mm specimen. The
Load was applied through a metal plate placed (5 cm by 5 cm) at right angles to the length
(grain) like in figure () .The load was applied continuously at a rate of 0.305 mm/min and then the
moisture content of the samples tested was measured. Loading of the sample should be stopped
once it reaches deformation of 2.5 mm. the graph of this test is between load (KN) and
deformation (mm).
sample no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
mean
max
min
comp. perpendicular
max. load (KN)
max. pressure (Mpa)
65
8.67
27
3.60
24
3.20
65
8.67
80
10.67
50
6.67
52
6.93
60
8.00
60
8.00
20
2.67
15
2.00
47.09
6.28
80.00
10.67
15.00
2.00
Figure (39): the max pressure results for all the 11 samples of compression perpendicular test
38 | P a g e
Load (KN)
perp 1
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
Load (KN)
deformation (mm)
perp 2
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.5
1.5
deformation (mm)
Perp 3
60
100
40
80
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
50
30
60
20
40
10
20
0
0
1
2
Deformation (mm)
Perp 4
120
Deformation (mm)
39 | P a g e
perp 5
120
60
100
50
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
80
60
40
30
40
20
20
10
0
0
0
1
2
Deformation (mm)
50
60
40
50
Lod (KN)
60
30
20
10
40
30
20
10
0
3
0
Deformation (mm)
1
2
Deformation
60
70
50
60
40
50
30
20
40
30
10
20
10
0
perp 10
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
perp 9
-10
Perp 8
70
-10
1
2
deformation (mm)
perp 7
70
Load (KN)
perp 6
70
Deformation (mm)
0
0
1
2
Deformation (mm)
Figure (40): graphs of all the samples (load KN Vs. Deformation mm)
40 | P a g e
41 | P a g e
Figure (42): some of the samples that were tested for compression perpendicular and last photo
have the sample with the least moisture content.
42 | P a g e
The procedures:
The sample size is (50 by 50 by 200) mm and loading rate was 0.003 mm/mm. The longitudinal
load is applied increasingly until compressive strength is well beyond the defined elastic limit or
until the specimen fails. The tests shall be continued but not after 150mm. A stress strain curve
should be made from these results and get the ultimate stress for each sample and get the average.
Also the failure type and shape shall be noticed according to the appearance of the fracture surface
even if the failure was a mix of more than one type. All the failure types should be described
because it indicates some of wood properties and
its behavior under the load. Figure () describes all
types of possible wood failure under compression
parallel according to ASTM D-143.
parallel Test
43 | P a g e
Figure (45): the max pressure results for all the 10 samples of compression parallel test
parallel 2
parallel 1
60
40
35
30
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
50
40
25
20
30
15
20
10
10
5
0
0
0
0.01
0.02
strain (m/m)
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.06
strain (m/m)
44 | P a g e
parallel 3
60
20
Stress (Mpa)
Stress (MPa)
50
40
15
30
10
20
10
5
0
0
0
0.01
0.02
Strain (m/m)
0.03
parallel 5
20
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Strain (m/m)
parallel 6
35
30
15
25
stress (MPa)
Stress (Mpa)
parallel 4
25
20
10
15
10
5
0
0
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.005
strain (m/m)
0.015
0.02
Strain m/m
parallel 7
50
0.01
parallel 8
70
60
50
stress (mpa)
stess (mpa)
40
30
40
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
0.01
0.02
strain (m/m)
0.03
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
strain (m/M)
45 | P a g e
Failure shape:
According to ASTM failure types of compression parallel, the most common one in these
tests were compression and shearing perpendicular failure which usually happens for
cross grain wood which is the case foe Casurina. The second most common failure is
crushing for the green samples with more moisture content. The end rolling failure is not
acceptable which happened for only one sample due to it improper cutting and excessive
moisture content.
crushing
Wedge split
Compression and
shearing perpendicular
to grain
shearing
End Rolling
splitting
46 | P a g e
Splitting
Crushing
Deviations
1- Samples were loaded in rate 1 mm/min instead of 0.302 mm/min as mentioned in ASTM
because of machine limitations
2- Samples were tested at different stages so some samples have moisture content different
than others significantly which affected the failure shape.
47 | P a g e
48 | P a g e
Tension Perpendicular
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Maximum Extension at
Load (N) Break (mm)
2773.38 1.6
4555.45 2.4
5442.29 3.8
5015.18 2.6
5062.9
4
6156.12 3.1
5714.13 2.5
5411.07 4
Length
(mm)
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
Moisture
Content%
58
58
58
58
57
58
58
58
Area
(cm^2)
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
12.5
Stress (Mpa)
2.218704
3.64436
4.353832
4.012144
4.05032
4.924896
4.571304
4.328856
Strain
0.032
0.048
0.076
0.052
0.08
0.062
0.05
0.08
Modulus
(Mpa)
69.3345
75.92417
57.28726
77.15662
50.629
79.43381
91.42608
54.1107
5221.12
50
57.4
12.5
4.176896
0.024
174.0373
Mean
5322.2825 2.95
50
57.8
12.5
4.257826
0.059
82.50062
S.D.
482.69654 0.97394632 0
1.2
0.38544964 0
49 | P a g e
Procedure:
1- Sample should be shaped as shown in the figure () below according to the ASTM standards
and same goes to the grips as described in the grips section earlier in the report.
2- Machine used is Universal Testing Machine
The Figure (54): a sample after being done according to dimensions Standard in ASTM and then
fixed to one of the grips.
50 | P a g e
Stress
(Mpa)
Strain
Modulus
(Mpa)
5516.66
3.37
460
4.2
0.5
4688.38
3.41
460
5.6
0.5
3100.81
2.2
460
6.6
0.5
4359.54
3.18
460
7.5
0.5
4341.47
4.19
460
4.3
0.5
6009.54
2.9
460
0.5
1147.96
3.25
460
9.3
0.5
Mean
4669.4
3.2083333 460
S.D.
1017.6651 0.6546882 0
5.866667 0.5
93.388
0.006975 13647.7
1.399524 0
Shape of failure:
The three figures above show the two types of fractures that were seen while testing.
Basically the fracture starts somewhere around the smallest cross section area of
0.5cm^2. Notice how the fracture doesnt happen exactly at the middle due to wood
being a non-homogenous material.
51 | P a g e
Figure (55): all shapes of failure it was produced by tension force parallel to grain.
Deviation:
1- A gage was supposed to be added at the center part of the sample to measure
deformation, but the universal testing machine gave us automatically the extension that
happened due to testing.
2- Deformations were measured/read to 0.01mm.
3- The sample werent exactly as the shape required with a radius of 444mm however it
was made to the center part with a slope that gave the same look and almost the effect
but the circular shape would be more homogenous in the effect of distributing the
tensile force on the center part.
52 | P a g e
Objective:
To determines the ductility or the strength of a material by bending the material over a
given radius and provides insight into the modulus of elasticity. Following the bend, the sample is
inspected for cracks on the outer surface.
Machined used: Universal testing machine (100 KN)
53 | P a g e
Results:
The average stress is: 75.64 which is considered a very high value for wood material.
This test were done on the secondary dimensions and samples were tested half of them at
one time and the other half after two weeks which affected slightly on the moisture content
of the samples. This test is considered the most perfect test was done in this research
because the samples were quit thin (2.5 by 2.5 cm) and it was left for enough time to be
dried so at the end it produced a very high value as bending stress.
1
2.32218
2
2.8092
3
1.79034
4
2.2262
5
2.07795
6
2.68009
7
0.99171
8
2.78978
9
1.69615
10
2.62823
11
2.06653
Mean
2.188941818
Standard Deviation 0.526262841
Minimum
0.99171
Maximum
2.8092
Moisture Content
(MPa)
(MPa)
80.25
97.09
61.87
76.94
71.81
92.62
34.27
96.41
58.62
90.83
71.42
75.64818182
18.23268983
34.27
97.09
7409.8
10504.47
5405.69
7394.32
7165.06
8595.98
5647.33
9231.48
7885.59
8061.37
7720.39
7729.225455
1385.327169
5405.69
10504.47
6.3
7.2
6.8
6.7
8.1
6.5
7.5
7.4
6.8
6.1
6.9
6.936363636
0.578399044
6.1
8.1
Sample 1
Flexure stress (Mpa)
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
54 | P a g e
Sample 2
Flexure stress (Mpa)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
5000
10000
15000
20000
Flexure strain (*10^-4) %
25000
30000
35000
Sample 3
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0
10000
20000
30000
flexure strain
40000
50000
60000
Sample 4
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
Flexure strain *10^-4 (%)
35000
40000
45000
55 | P a g e
Sample 5
80
70
Flexure stress
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0
5000
10000
15000
35000
40000
45000
50000
Sample 6
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.045
0.05
Sample 7
Flexure stress (MPa)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
strain (mm/mm)
56 | P a g e
Sample 8
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
Strain (mm/mm)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10 0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
Strain (mm/mm)
Sample 10
Flexure stress (MPa)
Sample 9
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.045
Strain (mm/mm)
Figure (59): the graphs between flexure stress and strain of the five samples
57 | P a g e
Sample (1)
Sample (2)
58 | P a g e
Sample (3)
Sample (4)
Sample (5)
Figure (61): failure shapes of the five samples
59 | P a g e
Background:
The design of the girder will imitate the design of an already existing girder from PERI
Formwork Systems; in particular we will adopt the design of model GT 24 with a length of 4.2
meters. The function of this girder is to simply provide efficient formwork for walls and slabs at a
cost effective state. GT 24 is strong enough to cover the formwork of all types of walls in the
construction industry, from ordinary residential walls to retaining walls, reaching up to 18 meters
using only 1 panel. In terms of slabs it allows formwork for large spans, and as a result the use of
GT-24 will tend to reduce the number of components used in a formwork system, which leads to
less labor requirements, and is more cost effective.
Figure (63) the basic dimension of the girder beam GT24 with L = 4.2m
60 | P a g e
Objective:
The constructed model from Casuarina wood was tested under binding test. The outcomes
of this test were compared to other types of wood used in similar girder beams to see if it worth it
to start exploring Casurina as a new material in construction industry. The significance of designing
such a model from Casuarina wood is really important; if successful we would have overcome a
groundbreaking achievement in the formwork industry due to the major cost savings between our
model and PERI's; the customers would be charged a third of what PERI industries are charging.
Procedures:
The methodology that was followed in order to produce such a design, is first analyze our
properties and design figures, place the design on AutoCad as in Figure() then transfer the design
to SAP in order to test the functioning of such a model. Afterwards a simple model of the GT 24
girder was constructed with some deviations due limitations in workshops and in available wood.
Then it was tested and the results were analyzed.
Figure(64): a simple design for a girder beam with some differences from G24 design
61 | P a g e
The building process of the wooden truss system is quite simple which may be summarized
in four to five steps. 1First we must acquire the wooden logs at the lengths needed according to the
design parameters. Next we saw off the bark from the logs Figure(65), during this process lots of
material is wasted due to the technicalities in sawing off bark from wooden logs. Afterwards the
expert will 3 smoothen out the surfaces (clean up) of the long beams created. The smoothening
surface is an important step especially in terms of formwork construction. Formworks are
required to contain a non-rough surface due the fact that concrete may stick to the surfaces of the
wooden formworks during the pouring and drying processes. Therefore the carpenter will
smoothen and clean the surface from any irregularities.
After we smoothen and clean the surfaces of the wooden beams, the expert will detail or
cut it in the specified dimension of the design. Keep in mind that during the initial cutting stages
the remainders left over may be used to create the smaller members of the truss only if they are
sufficient for use. After wards the most important part comes which is the placement of the pieces
together. The method of putting the pieces together is sincerely significant in terms of the overall
use of the truss, in specific the design of the joints.
Figure (65): sowing the logs and smoothing the surface for a Casuarina Tree
Figure (66): the final product of a truss after lacing the member in its joints
62 | P a g e
Figure (69): some joints were not placed over the supporter exactly
63 | P a g e
Load (kgf)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
Note: Permanent
Deformation = 6.5mm
10
15
20
25
Deformation (mm)
Figure (70): Loading Vs. deformation curve for the wooden truss constructed from Casuarina
As we can realize the shape and results of the curve is somewhat unusual however we need
to keep in mind that the wood in the truss had a moisture content of nearly 70% and the
dimensions of the truss system used in this test are different than the theoretical design (theoretical
design is larger). The maximum load was somewhat low compared to values of other truss
systems, however we had relatively high moisture content and the configuration of the joints were
somewhat sloppy. These two factors significantly affected the strength of the truss, if it where drier
(12% moisture content) and had improved joint designs the maximum load the truss would sustain
would be doubled or even higher. In addition there is a permanent deformation of 6.5 mm.
64 | P a g e
During the testing of the truss a certain shape of failure appeared. In the Figure (), the
actual shape of failure is evident. The shape of failure here is more of a bending failure rather
than compression, as it is expected. As well as the most of the load is carried on the top chord
because the truss failed to behave as a truss under the load once the members were pulled out of
its joints. As a result, the top chord were carrying the load a lone with some members hanging on it
and almost disconnected to the bottom chord which supposed to have the failure earlier as tension
failure. Because of the tension members being vulnerable like that, it supposed to be investigated
in the design of the joints thoroughly in order to prevent a fault such as this to occur in the future.
As well as there is an advantage to the failure of the truss, its that the wood did not attempt to
crack in an explosive manner (fragments of wood did not fly all over the place), instead the wood
stayed
together
that is due to the high ductility of the material itself and the high water content
Initial
shapeand
of failure
of the
atwood.
top chord
Figure (71): the failure in the top chord of the truss after loading it.
65 | P a g e
Joints:
There are many factors that may affect the strength of a truss such as knots, slope of grain,
shrinkage fissures, and other defects (such as bacterial and insects infestation). The joints are yet
one of the most important factors of any system since they have a direct effect on the mechanical
of the system. Unfortunately, the joints of the truss are the factor that have not been studied
thoroughly yet by our research team due to certain time constraints, and that is why our results
varied from others. However in reference to the Peri GT-24 model we were able to improvise on
the details of our joint design. We attempted to have a wood on wood connection just like Peri,
but due to the company's secret of trade, they trademarked (copyrighted) their method of design
for such trusses. So in our system the joints were done in the way as shown in the figures below.
In one joint there will be two heads faced opposite of each other fitting into a joint. They will be
basically fixed in with their dimensions with the help of some sort of super glue. The photo below
will show an actual image of our truss joint.
Member head within
joint
7.5 cm
As shown in the image above the joint consists of a wood to wood connection, the width of the
joint is 15 cm where the width of one member head is 7.5 cm and width 2 cm. The tongue
("lissan") or key of the member is the part that enters the members. Keep in mind that the
construction of the truss was done at a basic wood workshop; therefore we were absent to some of
the engineering expertise needed at the workshop (other than our engineering knowledge). In
comparison to Peri's GT 24 model, both our joints and theirs are composed of wood to wood joint
basis, however the specific design of Peri's joints are different as shown in the figure below.
66 | P a g e
Sap Analysis:
After testing the girder model, and recording the maximum load till failure 746 Kgf, a Sap
analysis was constructed using the actual dimensions of the girder and applying same maximum
load is withstood.
When analyzing the model, two critical conditions were tested. The first is the girder acting
as truss by releasing the moment at the nodes but that was unstable and showed that it was crucial
to have moment and explains why Peri opted for a girder instead of a truss. The second critical
condition which was tried is using total fixation at the nodes, this is a better representative of the
girder model since it accounts for moment at the nodes. In addition the members of the girder
penetrate the upper and bottom chords a significant distance of around 70% of their total depth
thus explaining how the model is very much closer to being a girder than a truss.
Figure(): the load analysis on the members and top and bottom chords.
The Figure above shows the normal forces in the members and chords of the girder. The
distance between the roller and the hinged was 180 Cm which is exactly similar to the testing
conditions previously done. The length from roller and hinge to the end of the girder is 40cm on
each side, also similar to the testing conditions. The load was placed in the same place as girder
tested specifically at intersection of the two inclined members at upper chord's midpoint.
Knowing that our girder model failed due to tension members failing to work because they
werent held properly by the connections at the nodes, we were looking for data from the sap
analysis to proof our theory.
67 | P a g e
Girder (Sap
Analysis)
Material Testing
Compression Parallel
(Member)
2.3 Mpa
42.3Mpa
Compression Parallel
(Upper Chord)
1.63 Mpa
42.3Mpa
Tension Parallel
(Member)
1.6 Mpa
93Mpa
Tension Parallel to
grain (Lower chord)
1.63 Mpa
93Mpa
The maximum stress, tension and compression on the members and chords was calculated
and compared with the maximum stress of Casuarina wood we already found in our previously
stated tests.
Knowing that the girder was under compression and tension parallel, their corresponding
test results were compared with the maximum stress from the sap analysis.
-Casuarina wood could have carried up to 42.3Mpa in compression parallel but failed at
2.3Mpa in members and 1.63Mpa in upper chord!
-Casuarina wood could have carried up to 93Mpa in the tension parallel but failed at
1.6Mpa in members and 1.63 in the lower chord. So these results confirm our theory, that our
girder failed at 746kgf under maximum stress that could have been carried easily by Casuarina
wood but due to the fact that the connections at the nodes werent designed correctly they failed
the girder and exposed the upper chord to withstand the load alone which was like witnessing a
bending test.
68 | P a g e
Compressive
Strength (lb/in)
Low
Medium
High
680
1750
2830
Tensile
Strength
(lb/in)
1100
2890
4670
Tensile/Compressive Strength
Ratio
1.617647
1.651429
1.650177
Clearly, balsa wood is 60% stronger under tension than under compression for all densities.
So, what possible use is this? Well, recall that the compressive and tensile forces in the top and
bottom chords are equal (each are 60 pounds), as are their cross sectional areas (about 7/32 square
inches for each chord and 2 x 7/32 = 14/32 for the left and right chords together). Let's compute
the failure points for two cases, one where the lighter material is on the top, and the other where it
is on the bottom.
Chord
top
bottom
Case 1:
Case 2:
Clearly, this supports Katherine's "rule of thumb" of using lighter wood for the "Bottom Chord"
(which is under tension) and heavier wood for the "Top Chord" (which is under compression)
since it is better to have the bridge tear at 14/32 * 1,100 pounds than be crushed at 14/32 * 680
pounds.
Summary: We can get two engineering rules from this analysis.
Even light grades of balsa can support a lot of weight without failing under tension and
compression. So think carefully about using heavier grades of wood.
Balsa is stronger under tension than compression. So, it makes sense to put lighter wood
on tension members and heavier wood on compression members if the cross sections have
equal area.
The previous example, applies to casuarinas wood since it too is stronger in tensile strength than
compression strength. Ratio of Tensile Parallel/Compressive parallel is 93Mpa/42.3Mpa=2.19 So
if one must use a combination of low and high density woods, the lower density ones would be
better used in tension while the higher density ones would be better used in compression.
70 | P a g e
The table below shows simple comparison between GT24 and Casaurina model
Category
Peri GT-24
Weight
2.5kg/m
Cost
1500 LE/unit
Permissible
Bending
Moment
7k Nm
3.35 kNm
Joint
Configuration
Conclusion
71 | P a g e
Recommendation:
Drying the wood
Wood drying is a process in which we dry the wood to reduce its moisture content. This is done
because when wood is used in construction it will absorb or desorbs moisture until it reaches
equilibrium with the surroundings. This causes unequal shrinkage in the wood which causes
damage to the wood if it dries quickly and reaches equilibrium fast. The equilibration must be
controlled to prevent damage.
Air drying
When air drying we mainly make stacks of sawn timber on raised foundations in a dry
place. Depending on climatic conditions the rate of drying will vary. It also will depend
on the air movement and exposure to the wind. The rate of moisture loss increase if the
flow of air increases and vice versa.The rate of loss of moisture can be controlled by
coating the planks ordinary mineral oil .Coating the ends of logs with oil or thick paint,
improves their quality upon drying. Wrapping logs in a way which will allow some
movement of moisture will also work provided. But before doing this the wood is first
treated against infection of Fungus by coating in gasoline or oil. When we started air
drying the wood we just put it in the desert and assumed the hot climate is enough.
Later, in order to increase the rate we arranged the wood in a way to have larger areas
exposed to the air and sun.
Figure (): Air Drying by exposing larger areas of the wood to the surroundings
72 | P a g e
Kiln drying
Kiln drying consists basically of introducing heat. This may be using natural gas ,
electricity or even through steam-heated heat exchangers. Nowadays Solar heated kilns
are also used. During heating we should control temperature, relative humidity and air
movement and circulation to achieve effective drying. Therfore, the timber is stacked in
chambers or drying kilns which are fitted with equipment that manipulates and controls
the temperature and the relative humidity of air and its circulation rate. We used kiln
drying method in the schools oven and used a temperature of 50-70 C which is
effective for both dring the wood and killing any fungi that may grow on it.
73 | P a g e
Joints problem:
Other methods of truss joint systems are available and may be induced in our own truss, such
as using steel plates and nails. One method is the gang-nailed system.
Figure (): steel plates used as a way to fasten the joints more
"A Gang-Nail connector is a steel plate with a collection of spikes or nails projecting from one face. The
spikes or teeth are formed by punching slots in steel but leaving one end of the plug connected to the
sheet. The teeth are then formed so they project at right angles to the plate. During this process the
teeth are shaped to produce a rigid projection. When the teeth of a connector plate are pressed into
timber laid end to end, the plate welds them together by forming a Gang-Nail joint. Connectors are
always used in pairs with identical plates pressed into both faces of the joint." ()
In the image below is a representation of the steel connector on the truss system.
74 | P a g e
"The quarter sawn is the most stable, and usually gives a straight grain pattern down the
length of the plank. The flat sawn will usually cup up on the ends as it dries (as shown in
this location), and will have a more pronounced grain down its length. The rift cut will
come out somewhere in the middle."
75 | P a g e
References:
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry: Casuarina equisetifolia:
http://agroforestry.net/tti/Casuarina-she-oak.pdf
NFT Highlights: (A quick guide to useful nitrogen fixing trees from around the world)
http://www.winrock.org/fnrm/factnet/factpub/FACTSH/Casuarina_sp.html
The wood explorer:
http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/maindata/we267.html
ASTM tests:
ASTM D143 - 09 Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber
ASTM D2395 -09 Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Wood and Wood-Based
Materials
ASTM D4442 -09 Test Methods for Direct Moisture Content Measurement of Wood
and Wood-Base Materials
ASTM D2915 - 09 Practice for Sampling and Data-Analysis for Structural Wood and
Wood-Based Products
GT 24 Formwork Girder:
http://www.wiehahn.co.za/upload/uploads/35/GT-VT_Girders_original.pdf
Blasa Wood comparsion:
http://www.sisterzone.com/Adv-Material%20Analysis.htm
Joints metal plate:
http://www.mii.com/artefact/download.asp?aid=27341
http://mysite.verizon.net/ELLshipmodeler/logging.html
76 | P a g e