Basic Principles of Refrigeration

If you are like most of us in the HVAC industry, you are a hands-on person - you dont want to mess
with a lot of theory, but just get in and get the job done. But a refrigeration system is different from
most of our work. Unless you understand the basic principles covered in this article, you will never
understand refrigeration. The refrigeration process operates on scientific principles that are applied
to practical mechanical processes.

SAFETY
It doesnt make much sense to learn about refrigeration if youre going to get yourself killed or so
injured that you cant work on it or anything else - or if you endanger others. When you work
around the refrigeration system - or any part of the HVAC system - remember these principles:
You are dealing with electricity, heat, pressures, and possibly toxic gases. Dont start or stop
equipment, touch tubing, adjust valves, or open lines unless you really know what you are doing.
Almost all HVAC equipment operates automatically - it can start at any time. Always be aware of
this.
If you are working around any powered equipment, lock out and tag out the switch to be
absolutely certain that the power is off and cannot be turned on by anyone but you:
- Turn off the main disconnect switch to the equipment.
- Lock the switch with your padlock and tag it with your name and the date.
- Even though you have switched off the equipment, test the circuit to be sure the power is off.
Sometimes strange things happen with the wiring of electrical circuits.
Never attempt to service any refrigeration system unless you are qualified and certified. The high
side of the refrigeration cycle can be very hot, and you can be burned if you touch any uninsulated
parts. Opening a system can be very dangerous because it can freeze your skin. In addition, some
refrigerants are harmful to the atmosphere, so it is illegal to release them. You must not handle
them unless you have passed a certification test.

HUMIDITY
Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. In air conditioning we are concerned with the relative
humidity of the air. Relative humidity (rh) is the percent of moisture in the air as compared to
100 percent of the moisture that air at that temperature can hold:
An air measurement of 70F, 50 percent rh means that the air contains 50 percent of the
moisture that the air is capable of holding at 70F.
The amount of moisture that air can hold varies with the temperature. The warmer the air is, the
more moisture it can hold. For example, suppose that air at 60F has an rh of 50 percent. If the
temperature rises to 80F, the rh will decrease to 27 percent. The relative humidity has gone down,
but the amount of moisture in the air remains the same.
Relative humidity is as important as temperature in creating comfort conditions in air conditioning.
Generally, people feel more comfortable in a range of 40 percent to 50 percent rh.

HEAT
Above absolute zero, every substance contains some heat. Things that feel cold still contain heat.
Its just that the amount of heat they hold (as measured by temperature) is less than the
temperature of our body. For example, ice contains some heat - but it contains less heat than the
same amount of water.
The unit of heat used in the United States is the British thermal unit (Btu). The unit of heat in
the metric system is the joule, or the kilojoule (kj), which is 1,000 joules:
A Btu is the heat that will raise the temperature of one pound of water 1F. It is roughly equal to
the heat you would get by totally burning a wooden match.
A kilojoule is the rough equivalent of one Btu. To be more exact, one Btu is 1.055 kj.
You may want to remember these equivalents:
1 Btu = about 1kj = Heat needed to raise 1 lb. of water 1F = About the heat of burning one
wooden match.
The capacity of refrigeration units is often rated in tons. For example, a chiller for a medium-size
commercial building might be rated at 200 tons. The term tons of refrigeration is also used to
refer to the cooling load on a room or building. One ton of refrigeration is the amount of latent
heat absorbed when one ton of ice at 32F melts to water at 32F during 24 hours. (Latent heat is
explained later in this article.) One ton of refrigeration equals 12,000 Btu per hour (Btuh).
Delta T, T
The difference between two temperatures is called the T, pronounced delta T. A technician
might take the air temperature on the upstream and downstream sides of a cooling coil. The
difference between the two temperatures is the T.

HEAT FLOW
There is a saying, Heat flows downhill. This means that heat always flows from a warmer to a
cooler solid, liquid, or gas. The greater the T, the faster the heat flow. Heat flow is a basic
principle of refrigeration - in fact, of all HVAC work. For example, in the refrigeration cycle, the
evaporator (cooling coil) is colder than the air flowing around it, so heat flows from the warmer air
into the evaporator. The air-cooled condenser in the cycle is hotter than the ambient air, so heat
flows from the hot condenser to the cooler ambient air.

HEAT TRANSFER
We just talked about heat flow. Heat transfer is the method by which heat flows. This is another
basic principle of refrigeration. The evaporator transfers heat into the refrigerant; the refrigerant
transfers this heat to the condenser; the condenser transfers the heat to a cooling medium (such
as water or outside air).
Heat is transferred by:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Conduction
Conduction is the flow of heat through a substance by contact of particles. If you hold one end of
an iron bar and heat the other end with a torch, soon the end you are holding will become too hot
to hold. This is because heat has transferred from one end of the bar to the other by conduction.
Heat from hot refrigerant transfers by conduction through the metal of a condenser coil to the
outside of the coil.
Conductivity is the ability of a substance to transfer heat by conduction. We are concerned here
with heat, but you should know that conductivity also means the ability of a substance to carry an
electric current. A material with high conductivity transfers heat well. Copper is used in the parts of
a refrigeration unit that transfer heat because it has high conductivity. Insulation has low
conductivity because it resists the flow of heat.
Convection
Convection is basically the transfer of heat by movement of a gas or a liquid. The heat that travels
through the walls of a condenser coil by conduction is carried into the air by convection. The heat
from HVAC supply air that is delivered into a room through an air outlet moves throughout the
room by convection, moving on air currents.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic energy. The rays from the sun turn into heat
when they strike an object that they cannot pass through. On a sunny day, any metal exposed to
the sun will become hot to the touch because of heat transfer by radiation.
Heat Transfer in HVAC Work
An HVAC system uses all three methods of heat transfer in many ways. For example:
On a sunny day, the suns rays heat the outside of a building by radiation.
This heat flows through the walls of the building by conduction to the interior surface of the
outside wall.
The heat from the wall is transferred to the air in the building by convection.

SPECIFICS
When you see the word specific in terms like specific heat, specific volume, and specific
gravity, you know that it is a means of comparing values to a standard.
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the heat required to raise one pound of the substance 1F.
The specific heat of water is 1. This means that 1 Btu will raise the temperature of one pound of
water 1F.
The specific heat of liquid R-134a refrigerant is 0.34. This means that only 0.34 Btu is required to
raise the temperature of one pound of R-134a refrigerant 1F. The specific heat of standard air is
0.24 Btu per pound per degree Fahrenheit.
In the metric system, specific heat is stated as the amount of heat that must be added to one
kilogram of the substance to raise the temperature 1K (Kelvin). The specific heat of water is 4.187
kj/kg K (kilajoules per kilogram, Kelvin).
Specific Volume
The specific volume of a gas is the volume in cubic feet of one pound of a gas at standard

conditions (70F at 14.7 psi). Compare the specific volumes of the following three gases:

These values show that hydrogen is much lighter than air and that carbon dioxide is heavier than
air.
Specific volume in the metric system is the volume in cubic millimeters of one kilogram of the gas
at standard conditions.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a liquid or solid as compared to an equal volume of
water. The specific gravity of water is 1. Any solid or liquid that has a specific gravity of less than 1
will float on water. Compare the specific gravities of the following three substances:

These figures show that gasoline is lighter than water so it will float on water. Muriatic acid is
heavier than water so it will sink to the bottom of a container of water.

PRESSURE
To understand the refrigeration cycle, you must understand pressure and the terms used with
pressure. In the HVAC industry, pressure is measured in three ways:
psi - pounds per square inch
inches Hg - inches of mercury
inches wg - inches water gauge
Pounds Per Square Inch - psi
You know the term psi (pounds per square inch) because you encounter it daily. Its the pressure
you measure for the air in your car tires. The same unit is used to measure the pressure of the air
around us. The air above us has weight. At sea level, the weight of the air exerts a pressure of 14.7
psi. This is called atmospheric pressure.

Inches of Mercury - Inches Hg

Inches of mercury (inches Hg) is used to measure small amounts of pressure, especially negative
pressures. It indicates how high a pressure will push mercury up in a tube. Figure 3 shows the
principle:
An open vessel contains mercury.
A glass tube is inserted into the mercury. The bottom of the tube is open and the top is closed.
All of the air is evacuated from the tube to create a vacuum.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level will push the mercury up into the tube to 29.92 inches.
This is the same as the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi.
In refrigeration work, inches Hg (inches of mercury) is used to measure negative pressures,

called vacuums. A vacuum is a negative pressure (pressure below zero) and is indicated by the
word vacuum, such as, 4.5 inches Hg vacuum (or Hg vac). The principle of a negative pressure is
shown in Figure 4:

Again an open vessel is filled with mercury.

The glass tube is open at the top and connected to a tank by a hose.
When a vacuum pump draws the air out of the tank, a negative pressure is created.
This negative pressure draws the mercury up into the tube. In Figure 3, the vacuum in the tank
has drawn the mercury up to the 4.5 inch mark, so the vacuum in the tank is read as 4.5 inches Hg
vac.
Mercury is a hazardous material, so in daily practice, other gauges are used to determine negative
pressures. However, measurements are still indicated in inches Hg. A compound gauge can be
used to measure pressure greater than zero in psi as well as pressures less than zero in inches Hg
vacuum.

Inches Water Gauge - inches wg

Inches water gage (inches wg) can be used to measure small pressures. This measurement is used
to measure the pressures in air conditioning ducts. It uses the same principle as inches Hg. The
method is shown in Figure 5:
A tube in the air duct senses the pressure.
This pressure is connected to a U-shaped glass tube that is filled with water.
The pressure pushes the water higher on the open side.
The difference in height of the two water columns is the pressure in inches wg.
Comparison of Pressure Units
The three pressures are compared below:

Pascals Law
Pascals Law says that if you apply pressure to a fluid (liquid or gas) in a confined container, the
fluid will apply the same pressure in all directions. This is why hydraulic systems work.
Refrigeration systems also operate on this principle. The refrigerant liquid and vapor fill the
available space.
You will not need to use Pascals Law, but you should know what it refers to.

PRESSURES YOU NEED TO KNOW

Pressure is pressure - right? WRONG! You will be dealing with three different pressure
measurements.

 Atmospheric pressure
Gauge pressure (psig)
Absolute pressure (psia)
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure placed on us by the atmosphere. Air has weight, and atsea
level, the weight of the air above us results in a pressure on us of 14.7 psi (or 29.92 inches Hg).
Elevation affects atmospheric pressure. As we go higher above sea level, there is less air above us
and therefore less pressure. At 5,000 feet elevation, atmospheric pressure is 12.23 psi (compared
to 14.7 psi at sea level).
Temperature also affects atmospheric pressure. As air heats up, it expands and therefore weighs
less. (That is why hot air tends to rise.)
Standard air is dry air at sea level with a temperature of 70F. It has a pressure of 14.7 psi. For air
conditioning calculations, the value of standard air is used for altitudes up to 2,000 ft. and for
temperatures between 40F and 100F.
Variations in pressure are important for refrigeration work. Refrigerant changes state (boils) at a
lower temperature when it is at a higher elevation which has less atmospheric pressure.
Gauge Pressure
The pressure you see on gauges is the pressure above or below atmospheric pressure. Gauge
pressure is the pressure in a system (apart from atmospheric pressure). It can be indicated by the
term psig (pounds per square inch gauge). In other words, 100 psig is 100 psi greater than
atmospheric pressure.
The pressure reading for a gauge is generally given as psi, although it is understood that it means
psig (gauge pressure).
Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. It is indicated by the
term psia(pounds per square inch absolute). A gauge pressure of 100 psig is the same as 114.7
psia (100 psi + 14.7 psi atmospheric pressure).

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

A change in pressure affects the temperature at which a liquid changes state (boils or condenses).
The pressure-temperature relationship is an important principle for refrigeration.
As pressure decreases, the change-of-state temperature also decreases. For example, at sea level,
water boils at 212F. At 5,000 feet, water boils at 202F. This principle is applied in the refrigeration
system:
When the pressure is increased, refrigerant condenses or boils at a higher temperature.
When the pressure is decreased, the refrigerant condenses or boils at a lower temperature.
The relationship between pressure and temperature allows the refrigeration system to make use of
the latent heat absorbed or released by a change of state.

LATENT HEAT
There are three states of a substance:
Solid
Liquid
Gas
For example, the three states of water are:
Solid - Ice
Liquid - Water
Gas - Steam or vapor
The term vapor can mean the same as gas, or it can mean a gas with droplets of liquid suspended
in it (also called wet vapor). The term vapor is used with refrigerants in the refrigeration cycle.

Sensible heat is the heat we can feel (sense).

Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a substance when it changes state, with no
change in temperature. For example:
When steam at 212F condenses to water, 970 Btu/lb is released.
When water at 212F boils to steam, 970 Btu/lb is absorbed.
If a pound of water is heated to 212F, it will start to turn to steam. The temperature of the steam
will be the same as the water - 212F. When the entire pound of water has evaporated to steam, it
will contain an additional 970 Btu. If you let the steam cool, it will condense back to water and it
will have released 970 Btu/lb.
When ice changes to water or water changes to ice, a latent heat of 144 Btu/lb is absorbed or
released by the same process:
When water at 32F changes to ice at 32F, 144 Btu/lb is removed.
When ice at 32 changes to water at 32, 144 Btu/lb is added.

The latent heat added or removed to make a change of state has specific names, as shown in
Figure 7. The important ones for refrigeration are:
Latent heat of vaporization
Latent heat of condensation
Latent heat is the basis of refrigeration, because it means that relatively large amounts of heat can
be transferred using relatively small changes in temperature.

Each substance has different latent heat values. For example, compare the latent heat of
vaporization for water and Refrigerant R-134a:

The refrigerants (such as R-134a) have a lower amount of latent heat of vaporization than water.
However, in the refrigerants the change of state occurs at a lower temperature and higher
pressure. That is why they are used for the refrigeration process.

HEAT OF COMPRESSION
When a gas is compressed, the energy used to compress it is turned into sensible heat and is
absorbed by the gas. This is the heat of compression. In the refrigeration cycle, the compressor
adds pressure to the low-pressure refrigerant vapor that comes from the evaporator. This adds the
heat of compression to the refrigerant, and this heat is transferred from the refrigerant into the air
by the condenser.

ENTHALPY
For all practical purposes, enthalpy is the total heat content of a substance:
The enthalpy of a liquid = the sensible heat at that temperature.
The enthalpy of a vapor = the sensible heat plus the latent heat that was required to form the
vapor at that temperature.
Engineers use enthalpy in design work, but it is not used in the field.
Excerpted and reprinted from Refrigeration for HVAC Technicians by Leo A. Meyer, one of the books
in the Indoor Environment Technicians Library series published by LAMA Books.