Bridges

11

INTRODUCTION

11.1

A bridge circuit in its simplest fonn consists of a network of four resistance arms
fonni.ng a closed circuit, wi th a de source of current applied to two opposite junctions and a current detector connected
A
tO the oU1er two junction~, as shown in
'/
':::-!._2
Fig. I I. I.
Bridge circuits are extensively
used for measuring component values
such as R, L and C. Since the bridge
circuit merely compares the value of
an unknown component with that of
an accurately known component (a
standard), its measurement accuracy
can be very high. This is b ecause the
readout of this comparison is based on
B
the null indication at bridge balance,
Fig. Ill Wheatstone's bridge
and is essentially independent of the
characteristics of the null detector.
The measurement accuracy is therefore directly related to the accuracy of the
bridge componen and not to that of the null indicator used.
The basic de bridge is used for accurate measurement of resistance and is
called Wheatstone's bridge.

WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)

I I .2

Wheatstone's bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring

res istances and is popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical
Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig. 1I .I. The source of emf and switch is connected
topomts A andB, while a sensitive current indicating meter, the galvanometer, is
connected to points C andD. The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with
a2ero center scale. When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer
poi nter rest~ at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one direction causes the pointer to
deflect on one side and current in the opposite direction to the other side.
~cp~ r

!CCI maT.Cr

Bridges 323

When SW 1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point
A , i.e. I 1 and I2 . The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the

galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C and Dis equal, i.e. the
potential across the galvanometer is zero.
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11 .1.

II Rl = 12 R2

(ll.l)

For the galvanometer current to be zero, tl1c following conditions should be

satisfied.
( 11.2)
{11.3)

Substituting in Eq. ( 11.1 )

ExR1

ExR2

Rl + Rl R2 +R4
Rl X (R2 + R4) = (RI + RJ) X R2
R1 R2 + R 1 R4 =R1 R2 + R3 R2

R4 = R2 RJ
Rl
Thls is tlle equation for tlle bridge to be balanced.
ln a practical Wheatstone's bridge, at least one of the resistance is made
adjustable, to permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, tlle unknown
resistance (normally connected at R4 ) may be determined from the setting of the
adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor because it is a precision
device having very small tolerance.
R = R2 R3

Hence

..

(11.4)

RI

Example fl.l

Figure 11.1 consists ofthe following parameters. R 1 = I 0 k,

R 1 = I 5 k and R1 = 40 k. Find the unknown resistance Rr
Solution

From the equation for bridge balance we have

R 1 R 4 = R 2 R 3 , i.e. R 1 Rx = R 2 R 3

Therefore

R2 R3
Rx=

IS k x 40 k
=
10k

60kil

11.2.1 Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge

When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows tllrougb tlle
galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer. The amount of deflection is a

324

flectronic lnstrumen!Orion

function of the sensitivity of the galvanometer. Sensitivity can be thought of as

deflection per unit current A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater
amount for the same current. Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular
units of measure, and sensit ivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/J.IA or
degree/j.lA or radianslj.lA.
Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S xI, where Sis defined
above and I is the current in microamperes.
11.2.2

Unbalanced Wheats.tone's Bridge

To determine the amount of deflection

that would result for a particular degree
of unbalance, general circuit analysis can
be app lied, but we shall use Tbevenin 's
theorem.
Since weare interested in d etermining
the current through the galvanometer; we
wish to find the Thcvenin's equivalent,
as seen by the galvanometer.
Th~vcoin 's

equiva!em vo!t&ge is

found by disconnecting the galvanometer from the bridge circuit, as shown

in Fig. 11.2, and determining the open- Fig.ll.2 Unbalanced wheatstone's bridge
circuit voltage between terminals a and b.
Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be determined
as follows

R1 +R3

. b,
and at pomt

ExR4
6 = ---"R2 +R4

Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the di.fference between Eu and Eb,
which represents Thevenin's equivalent voltage.

ExR
R, + R3

3
tit = Eub = E - Eb = - -"-

Therefore

=E (

R1 + R~

R3 _ R4 )
R, +Rl Rz +R.a

Thevenin's eq uivalent resistance can be deterrnillled by replacing the voltage

R
R
source E with its internal impedance
1
2
or otherwise short-circuited and calr - -"'11,..flr.....,.--vw v----,
culating the resistance looking into
R, =Internal
terminals a and b. Since the internal
of
Rs = 0 n
Resistance
b
resistance is assumed to be very low, 8
the Source
we treat it as 0 n. Thevenin's equivaR3
~
lent resistance circuit is shown in Fig.

11 .3.

FIQ. Il3 Thevenin's resistance

Bridges 325

The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with R2//R4 i.e.

R 111R3 + R/IR4

Therefore, Thevenin 's equivalcni circuit is given in Fig. 11.4. Thevcnin's

equivalent circuit for the bridge, as seen looking back at terminals a and b in Fig.
11.2, is shown in Fig. 11.4.
If a galvanometer is connected across the
Rill
terminals a and b of Fig. L1.2, or its Thevenin
equivalent Fig. 11.4 it will experience the
same deflection at the output of the bridge.
The magnitude of current is limited by both Etll

TL--------------4ob

Tbevenin 's equivalent resistance and any Fig..ll.4 Thevenin's equivalent

resistance connected between a and b. The
resistance between a and b consists only of the galvanometer resistance R8 . The
deflection current in the galvanometer is therefore given by
I =
8

E,~
R,~ + Rg

( 11.5)

Example11.2

An rmbafm,ced
Whearstone bridge is given in Fig.
/l.5. Calculme the current through

the ga/vanomete1:
Solution The Thevenin's equivalent
voltage between a and b is the difference of voltages at these points i.e.

,1, = 0
..

Eh=

E _ 6(
th -

Eb = Eh- ,..

R4

Rz + R4

R3 )
Rr + R3

10 k
2.5 k + 10 k

Fig.II.S

3.5 k )
I k + 3.5 k

E,h = 6 (0.800- 0. 778}

,h=O.I32V
Thevenio 's equivalent resistance is
Rr R3
Rz R4

R,,, =

R,h =

R1 + R3

+ --''-''R2 + R4

I k X 3.5 k

2.5 k

10 k

+ -------1 k + 3.5 k 2.5 k + 10 k

l26 Electronic lnsuumentotion

= 0.778k+2k
= 2.778 k
The equivalent circuit connected along
with the galvanometer is as shown in Fig.

R,h=2.n8k

-=-

Ech
o.132 v

Rg =3000

11.6.
The current through the galvanometer is
given by

Fig.ll.6

Equivalent circuit

E,h
0.132 V
=
.
A
42 88
g = R," + Rg - 2.778 k + 0.3 k
~

11.23 Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone's Bridge

If three of the four resistor in a bridge are equal toR and the fourth differs by 5%
or less, we can develop an approximate but accurate expression for Thevenin's
equivalent voltage and resistance.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7.
The voltage at point a is
E =
n

ExR

ExR
=-R +R
2R

E
2

The voltage at point b is

E _ R + D.r x E
I> -

E(R + D.r)

R + R + D.r

2R + D.r

Thevenin 's equivalent voltage

between a and b is the difference
between these voltages.
Therefore

ch

E - E
a

Fig.ll.7 Slighdy unbalanced Wheatstone's

bridge

.!.)

E (<R + D.r) 2R + D.r 2

= E (2(R + D.r)- (2R + M))

2(2R +
=

D.r)

E (2R+2D.r-2R-M J
4R + 2D.r

- E ( 4R

~;D.r)

If D. r is 5% of R or less, D. r in the denominator can be neglected without

introducing appreciable error. Therefore, Thevenin 's voltage is
E = ExD.r =E(D.r )
th
4R
4R

Ccpyr gl>red marer

l'

Bridges

.-- - -a

The equivalent resistance can be calculated

by replacing the voltage source with its
internal impedance (for all practical purpose
short-circuit). The Thevenin 's equivalent
resistance is gi ven by

Rtlr =

317

R X R _R...!..(R_+_D.J
~
)
+
R+R R+R + t.r

= R

+ _R-'(R_+
_ D.J....:..
)
2R + 6.r

Again, if 61- is small compared to R, il r

can be neglected. Therefore,

Ag.II.B Thevenin's equivalent of a

slightly unbalanced Wheatstone's

bridge

R = -+- =R
th

Using these approx.imatioms, the Thevenin 's equivalent circuit is as shown in

Fig. 11.8. These approxjmate equations arc about 98% accurate if 6.r S 0.05 R.

Example 11.3

Given a centre zero

200- 0 - 200 J.LA movement having an
internal resistance of 125 !2 Calculate
the current through the galvonomerer
given in Fig. 11.9 by zhe approximarion
method.

10V

Solution The Thevenin's equivalent

voltage is
E (M )

Etlr =

4R

Ag.ll.9
10x35
= 4 X 700 = 0.125 V
Thevenin 's equivalent resistance is

R,, = R = 700 n
The current through the galvanometer is

E,h

O.l25V
0.125
lg= Rr~,+Rg =700 + 125= 825 = !Sl. 5 J.IA
If the detector is a 200 - 0 - 200 J.lA galvanometer, we sec that the pointer is
full scale for a 5% change in resistance.

11.2.4 Application of Wheatstone's Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the de resistance of various types
of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some
opyr

ted "'1 a

328

Electronic Instrumentation

assembly in which it is used. For example, the resistance of motor windings,

transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can be measured.
Wheatstone's bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and
others to locate cable faults. The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a
single Iine shorted to ground.

11.2.5 Limitat ions of Wheatstone's Bridge

For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes
significant and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by Kelvin's Double
bridge.
For higfu resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge
becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance. Therefore, a
power supply has to replace the battery andl adc VTVM replaces the galvanometer.
In the case of high resistance measurement~ in mega ohms, the Wheatstones
bridge cannot be used.
Another difficulty in Wheatstone's bridge is the change in resistance of the
bridge arms due to the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in
temperature causes a change in the value of the resistance, and excessive current
may cause a permanent change in value.

KELVIN'S BRIDGE

11.3

When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact

and lead resistance, a modified form of Wheatstone's bridge, the Kelvin bridge
is employed.
Kelvin's: bridge is a modification ofWheatstone's bridge and is used to measure
values of resistance below I n. In low resistance measurement, the resistance of
the leads connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal of the bridge circuit
may affect the measurement.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.1 0, where R.v represents the resistance of the
connecting leads from R3 to Rx (unknown
resistance).. The galvanometer can be
connected either to point cor to point a. When
it is connected to point a, the resistance R..., of
the connecting lead is added to the unknown
resistance R.,, resulting in too high indication
for R.,. When the connection is made to point c,
Ry is added! to the bridge arm R 3 and resulting
measurement of Rx is lower than the actual

value, because now the actual value of R 3 is

higher than its nominal value by the resistance
R...- lftbe galvanometer is connected to point b,
in between points c and a, in such a way that
the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that
from a to b equals the ratio of resistances R 1
andR2, then

Rg.II.ID Kelvin's bridge

_.op

ooma!E.na

Bridges 319

Rd) R
-= - 1
R.b R2

(11.6)

and the usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship
Rt
(Rx + R,b) = ~ (R3 +Rub)

( 11.7)

R,b Rt
R.b + R,b = Ryand -R =R

but

ob

Reb
R
+ } = -+}
Rob
R1

Rt +R2
= __,__.._
R2
Rl +R2

i.e.

Therefore

.-----tilt - - - - .
Ek

Hence

R = RI R3
x

R2

(J 1.8)

Equation (11.8) is the usual Wheatstone's

balance equation and it indicates that the
effect of the resistance of the connecting
leads from point a to point c has been
eliminated by connecting the galvanometer
to an iotennediate position, b.
The above principle fonns the basis of
. ,
.
the construction of Kelvin's Double Bridge,
fig.ll.ll Kelvl,ns double bridge
popularly known as Kelvin's Bridge. It is a Double bridge because it incorporates
a second set of ratio arms. Figure 11.11 shows a schematic diagram of Kelvin's

double bridge.

llO Bectronic Instrumentation

The second set of arms, a and b, connects the galvanometer to a point c at

the appropriate potential between m and 11 connection, i.e. Rr The ratio of the
resistances of anns a and b is the same as the ratio of R1 and R2 The galvanometer
indication is zero when the potentials at k and c are equal.

Elk= /me
R2
xE
( I 1.9)
But

E=

and

Substituting forE in Eq.(J 1.9),

we get

R2

11, = R

R
2

xI R3 + Rx +

(a+ b)R,.

a+b+ RY

(11.10)

b - [(a+b)Ry]J
Similarly, Etmc= I R3 + (
a +b a +b+Ry

(11.11)

But

1.e.

Rx+

(a+b)R>.
a+b+R>.

+R3 =

RR
1 1

- -

R2

+R3 +

hR1 R,,

bR>,

R2 (a+b+Ry)

+--..__a+b+Ry

R = R1 R3 +
bR1 R-"
+ bRY
x
R2
R2 (a+b+R>.) a+b+RF
R =
'

R R

bR1 R,.

R2

R2 (a+b+Ry)

1 3
--+

But

R1

bR>. -aR,. -bRv

a+b+R,.

R = R1 R3 +
bR1 Ry
x
R2
R2 (a+b+Ry)
R = R1 R3
bR_,,
"
R2 + (a+h+R,.)

(a+b)R_v
a+b+R>'

aRY
a+b+R>,

(RR

a)
b

Copyr ti!d ma r G

Bridges 331

Therefore,
This is the usual equation for Kelvin' s bridge. lt indicates that the resistance of
the connecting lead RY' has no effect on the measurement, provided that the ratios

of the resistances of the two sets of ratio arms are equal. In a typical Kelvin 's
bridge the range of a resistance covered is I - 0.00001 Q (10 J..lohm) with an
accuracy of 0.05% to 0.2%.

Example 11.4 If in

Fig. 11.12
the ratio ofRa 10 R h i.dOOO Q, Rt is
5 Q and R 1 = 0.5 R 2. What is the

vol11e ofRx.

-=-

Solution Resistance R" can be calculated as foUows.

F'1!1.11.12 Kelvin's bridge

Therefore,

Since

Rb = _1_
R0
1000
R 1 = 0.5 R2, R2 = 5/0.5 = 10 Q.

Therefore

R/ 10= 1/ 1000= lOx l/1000 = 11100 = 0.01

PRACTICAL KELVIN'S DOUBLE BRIDGE

n.
11.4

Figure 11.13 shows a commercial Kelvin's bridge capable of measuring

resistances from I 0 - 0.0000 I Q.
Contact potential drops in the circuit may cause large errors. This effect is
reduced by varying a standard resistance consisting of nine steps of 0.00 I Q
each, plus a calibrated manganin bar ofO.OOII Q with a sliding contact. When
both contacts are switched to select the suitable value of standard resistance, the
voltage drop between the ratio arm connection points is changed, but tl1e total
resistance around the battery circuit is unchanged.
This arrangement places any contact resistance in series with the relatively
higb resistance value of the ratio arms, rendering the contact resistance effect
negligible. The ratio R 11R2 is selected (as given in Fig. 11. 13) such that a relatively
large part of the standard resistance is used and hence R, is determined to the
largest possible number of significant figures. Therefore, measurement accuracy
improves.

pyr rted mala

3 32 Elearonic lnstromentotion

.-------111

_____,..__ __.__~8~-----~-:-~

--------,

f-'

Standard
Resistors
9 Steps
of 0.001 0 each

Manganin Bar
with Sliding
Contact. 0.0011

fig.11.13

Practical kelvin's bridge

BRIDGE CONTROLLED CIRCUITS

11.5

Whenever a bridge is unbalanced, a potential difference exists _at its output

tenninal. The potential difference causes current to flow through the detector
(say, a galvanometer) when the bridge is used as part of a measuring instrument.
When the bridge is used as an error detector in a control circuit, the potential
difference at the output of the bridge is called an error signal, as in Fig. 11.14.
Passi.ve circuit elements such as strain gauges, tempemture sensitive resistors
(thermistors) and photo resistors, produce no output voltage. However, when
used as one arrn of Wheatstones bridge, a change in their sensitive pammeter
(heat, li:ght, pressure) produces a change in their resistances. This causes the
bridge to be unbalanced, thereby producing an output voltage or an error'signal.
Resistor R,. in Fig. 11.14 may be sensitive to one of many different physical
pammeters, such as heat or light. Jfthe particular parameter to which the resistor
is sensitive, is of a magnitude such that the ratio RiRv equals R 11R3, then the error
signal is zero. If the physical parameters changes, R,. also changes. The bridge
then becomes unbalanced and an error signal occurs. In most control applications
the measured and controlled pammeter is corrected, restoring Rv to the value that
creates a mill condition at the output of the bridge.
vapynghtoo ma!E.na

II

Bridges 333

Error
Signal

1
Fig. 11.14

Wheatstone's bridge error detector with resistance R, sensitive

to some physical parameters

Since R, varies by only a small amount, the amplitude of the error signal
is normally quite low. It is therefore amplified before being used for control
purposes.

Example 11.5

Resistor R. in Fig. JJ.l5(a) is temperature sensirive, with a

relation between resistance and temperat11re as shown in Fig.11.15(b}.
Calculate (i) at what temperature the bridge is balanced, and (ii) The amplitude
the et:ror signal at 60C.

of

.
5

4
Resistance
in
3

6V

Signal

e,

'

1 - l . . .

---~----

.'

'

'

'
'

--~~---r---~----
I

--- ~- ---:----1--r---:----

(a)

I
I

I
1

I
I

40

60 80 100

Ag.II.IS
Solution
(i) The value of R, when the bridge is balance is calculated as
5 k.Q

Temperature c
(b)

5k

---1---~--------~---1---
I
I
I
I

R1

I
I

(0,0) 20

R,. = R2 RJ = 5 k X 5 k

, ,
I

I
I

- ' 1 - - - L. . . . . . . . ---~ - - -'l - - - -

kn

Error

'

, L ~- --

E/eCIJ'Onic Instrumentation

334

(ii)

The bridge is balanced when the temperature is 80C. This is read

directly from the graph of Fig. I I. I 5(b).
We can also determine the resistance of R. at 60C directly from the
graph. This values of 4. 5 kil. Therefore the error signal is given by

e, = E ( R

= 6 (
=

=
=

5k
5 k + 5k

~ R..)

4.5 k )
5 k + 4.5 k

6 (0.5 - 0.4736)
6 (0.0263)

0.158 v
The error signal can also be determined by usmg the foJiowing
equation.

500 )
(tlr) 6 (4x5k

es = Erh=E 4R

es = 0.150 v
DIGITAL READOUT BRIDGES

11.6

The tremendous increase in the use of digital circuitry has had a marked effect
on electronic test instruments. The early use of digital ci.rcuits in bridges was to
provide a digital readout. The actual measuring circuitry of the bridge remained
the same, but operator error in observing the reading was eliminated. The block
diagram for a Wheatstone bridge with digital readout is shown in Fig. 11.16.
t\ote that a logic circuit is used to provide a signal to R3, sense the nuJI, and
provide a digital readout representing the value of Rx.

r----e--llll - - - - - - ,

R3
Programmable

Resistors

Fig. II.IG

Block diagram of wheatstone's bridge with digital readout

Ccpyr gl'red marer al

Bridges 335

MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED BRIDGES

11.7

Digital computers have been used in conjunction with tes.t systems, bridges,
and process controllers for several years. In these applications, computers were
used to give instructions and perform OJ?Crations on the data measured. When
microprocessors were first developed they were used in much the same way as
digital computers. However, real improvements in performance occurred when the
microprocessor was truly integrated into the instrument. With this accomplished,
microprocessors cannot only give instructions about measurement, but also they
can change the way the measurements are taken. This innovation has given rise
to a whole new class of instruments, called Intelligent Instruments.
The complexity and cost of making analog measurements can be reduced
using a microprocessor. This reduction of analog circuitry is important, even if
additional digital circuitry must be added, !because precision analog components
are expensive. Also, adjusting, testing and troubleshooting analog circuits is time
consuming and often expensive. Digital circuits can often replace analog circuits
because various functions can be done either way.
The following are some of the ways in which microprocessors are reducing
the cost and complexity of analog measurements.
I. Replacing sequential control logic with stored control programs.
2. Eliminating some auxiliary equipment by handling interfacing,
programming and other system functions.
3. Providing greater flexibility in the selection of measurement circuits,
thereby making it possible to measure one parameter and calculate
another parameter of interest.
4. Reducing accuracy requirements by storing and applying correction
factors.
Instruments in which microprocessors arc an integral part can take the results
of a measurement that is easiest to make in a given circuit. then calculate and
display the value of some other desired parameter, which may be much more
difficult to measure directly.
For example, conventional counters can measure the period of a low
frequency waveform. This is then converted to frequency either manually, or
using extensive circuitry. On the other hand, such calculations are done very
easily by a microprocessor. Measurements of resistance and conductance,
which are reciprocals of each other offer another example. Some hybrid digital/
analog bridges are designed to measure conductance by measuring current. This
measurement is then converted to a resistance value by rather elaborate circuitry.
With a microprocessor based instrument, a resistance value is easily obtained
from the conductance measurement.
Many other similar examples could be presented. However, the important
thing to remember is that the microprocessor is an integral part of the measuring
instrument. This results in an inte'lligent instrument that allows us to choose the
easiest method of measurement and requires only one measurement circuit to
obtain various results. Specifically, one quantity can be measured in tenns of
Copyr!Qtllec. Male~ul

336 Electronic Instrumentation

another, or several others with completely different dimensions, and the desired
results calculated with the microprocessor.
(One such microprocessor-based instrument is the General Radio model
I658RLC digibridge.)
Such intelligent instruments represent a new era in impedance measuring
instruments. The following are some features of these instruments.
I. Automatically measures R, inductance L, capacitance C, dissipation
factor D and storage factors for inductors Q.
2. 0 .1% basic accuracy
3. Series or parallel measurement mode
4. Autoranging
5. No calibration required
6. Ten bins for component sorting/binning (equivalent, binary number)
7. Three test speeds
8. Three types of display-programmed bin limits, measured values or bin
number.
Most of these features are available because of the use of a microprocessor,
e.g. the component sorting/binning feature is achieved by programming the
microprocessor.
When using the instrument in this mode, bins are assigned a tolerance range.
When a component is measured, a digital readout (bin number) indicating the
proper bin for that component is displayed on the keyboard control panel.
ACBRIDGES

11.8

Impedances at AF or RF are commonly determined by means ofan ac Wheat~tone

bridge. The diagram of an ac bridge is given in Fig. 11.17. This bridge is similar to
a de bridge, except that the bridge arms are
impedances. The bridge is excited by an ac
source rather than de and the galvanometer
is replaced by a detector, such as a pair of
headphones, for detecting ac. When the
bridge is balanced,

zt

Zz

23

z4

-=Head
Phone

where Z 1, 2 2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of

the arms, and are vector complex quantities
that possess phase angles. It is thus necessary

to adj u:st both the magnitude and phase angles

of the impedance arms to achieve balance,
i.e. the bridge must be balanced for both the
reactan.ce and the resistive component.

Fig.ll.17

ac Wheatstone's bridge

vopynghloo ma!E.na

Bridges 337

CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE

Figure 11.18 shows the circuit of
a capacitance comparison bridge.
The ratio arms R 1, R2 are resistive.
The known standard capacitor c3
is in series with R3. R3 may also
include an added variable resistance
needed to balance the bridge. c"
is the unknown capacitor and R, is
the small leakage resistance of t he
capacitor. In this case an unknO\"'ll
capacitor is compared with a standard
capacitor and the value of the former,
along with its leakage resistance, is
obtained. Hence.

11.9

Detector

Ca

fig..II.IB Capacitance comparison bridge

z, =R,

Z:z = R2
Z3 = R3 in series with C3 = R3 - j!OJC3
Zx = Rx in series with Cx = Rx- j!OJC,
The condition for balance of the bridge is

z, ~,= z2 z3
I.e.

R1

(R. -__l_C.)

{))

R, R- }R,
' (/) Cx

R1

(R, - ~ )
J'

{))

'"'J

R2 R3- jR2
(/) C3

Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary
terms are equal. Therefore,
i.e.

R1 Rx = R2R3

and

--~--

R1
roCx

R2

ro C3

:.Rx =

c
X

R2RJ
R
I

~ C3RI

[ 11 .12(a)]
[11.12(b)]

Since R3 does not appear in the expression for C", as a variabie element it is an
obvious choice to eliminate any i11teraction between the two balance controls.

Example II.S (a)

A capaciwnce comparison bridge (similar angle bridge) is

used to measure a capacitive impedance at afi"equency o/2 kHz. The bridge
cons lmlls a1 balance are C3 = JOOpF, R 1 = 10 kil, R 1 = 50 kil, R3 = 100 ill
Find tbe equivalem series circuit .ofthe tm.!.:nown impedance.

-~I' r1edf"1

338

Electronic Instrumentation

Solution Finding R" using the equation

R = R2 R3
"
R
I 00 k X 50 k = SOO kQ
IOk
Then finding C., using the equation
=

llc
R 3
2

I Ok

WO X I 0-6 = 20 ~

50 k
The equivalent series circuit is sb:own in Fig. ll.l9.
500 kQ

201!f

. _ _b
Fig. 11.19

Example II.G {b)

In the measurement of capacitance using capacitance

bridge comparison bridge.
R1 in branch BC = 2000 !2
R1 in branch CD= 2850 !2
R4 in bra11ch DA = 52 !2 in series with C4 = 0.5pF
Rx in series with Cx in branch AB (unknowns)
f= 400Hz.

Solution
Step 1:

Step 2:

2850
2000

c" = -2 x C4 =--xo.s~F=0.7 1 25~F

.

R1

Step 3: Loss angle of the capacitor (a series RC circuit) is defined as the angle by
which current departs an exact quadrature from the applied voltage. 8' is the loss
angle of the capacitor and is given by tan 8.
tan 8

= XRx

roC:c"Dx = 2-'C
D
"J x"x

,r

2 X 3.14 X 400 X 36.5 X 0.7 125

8 = 3" 74'
=

Hence

~If= 0.06533

vC

r ghtcd 'T1 '

Bridges 339

INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE

11.10

Figure 11.20 gives a schematic diagram of an inductance comparison bridge. In

this, values of the unknown inductance Lx and its internal resistance Rx are obtained by comparison with the standard inductor and resistance, i.e. L3 and R3.
The equation for balance condition
is
2 1 Zx= Z2 23
The inductive balance equation
yields
Detector
L = ~ R2
(ll.l3(a)]

RI

and resistive balance equations

yields

R
x

R2R3

({11.13(b)]

R1

Fig. li.2D Inductance comparison bridge

ln this bridge R 2 is chosen as the inductive balance control and R3 as the

re.sistance balance control. (lt is advisable to usc a fixed resistance ratio and
variable standards). Balance is obtained by alternately varying L3 or R3 . If the Q
of the unknown reactance is greater than the standard Q, it is necessary to place a
variable resistance in series with the unknown reactance to obtain balance.
lf the unknown inductance bas a high Q, it is permissible to vary the
resistance ratio when a variable standard inductor is not available.

Example 11.7

An inductance comparison bridge is used to measure intluclive impedance at a freq uency of 5 KHz. The bridge constwJIS at balance
are L 3 = 10 mH, R 1 = 10 kQ, R1 = 40 Kfl, RJ = 100 KI2 Find the equiva/ew
series circuit ofthe unknown impedaJ1ce.
Solution Gi ven L3 = l 0 mH, R 1= I 0 kQ, R 2 = 40 kQ, R3 = 100 kQ. To find R,
andL,.
From balance equation,
Step I:

Rx =

R2 R3

R,

40 K x I 00 K

l OK

400 kQ

IOmH x 40 K
=40mH
lOK

Step 2:

The equivalent series circuit is shown in Fig. 11.21 .

400kn
B

--......JWVV---'

40mH

L..._-b

Fig.l1.21

_op r rte-1 rna c

140 Electro11ic lnstrumentotion

MAXWELL'S BRIDGE

11.11

MaxweiE's bridge, shown in Fig. 11 .22,

measures an unknown inductance in
tenns of a known capacitor. The use
of standard ann offers the advantage
of compactness and easy shielding.
The capacitor is almost a loss-less
component. One ann has a resistance
R 1 in parallel with C1, and hence it is
easier to write the balance equation
using the admittance of arm I instead
of the impedance.
The general equation for bridge
balance is
Z 1 Zx= Z2 Z3

1.e.

Zx=

zz2z3

Detector

Ag.11.22

Maxwell's bridge

=~Z3 Y1

Where

rv

(11.14)

Z1 = R1 in parallel with C 1 i.e. Y1 =

1
Y1 = R +jwC1

z1
I

22 = R2
23= R3
Zx = Rx in series with Lx = Rx + jwL_,
From Eq. (11.14) we have

R.r + Jwlx = R2 R3

+ jOJC1

R2R3
+ jw C 1 R2 R3
R,
Equating real terms and imaginary tenms we have
Rx + jOJLx =

--

,
R, R
Rx = - -- 3 andL_. = C 1 R2 R3
R,

Also

Q= wLX

=we; Rz R3 X R,

(11.15)

=we, RJ

Rx
R2 R3
Maxwell's bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (I - 10).
The measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the
resistance can be calibrated to read inductance directly.
The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is
an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided
by varyimg the capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance balance.
However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q.
vopynghloo mal!m~
I

Bridges

341

The bridge is particularly suited for i11ductances measurements, since

comparison with a capacitor is more idea'! than with another inductance.

Commercial bridges measure fr om I - I000 ~. with 2% error. (If the Q is very
large, R1 becomes excessively large and it is impractical to obtain a satisfactory
variable standard resistance in the range of ~alues required).

Example 11.8 (a) A Maxwell bridge is use~ to mf:asure w r inductive impedance. The bridge constrmis at balance are \
C, =0.01 pP. R1 = 470 kt2. 'R2 = 5.1 kQ an<( R1 = 100 ktl
Find the series equivalent ofthe rmlmown iml(edance.
Solution We need to find Rx and L .
R2 R3
I00 k x 5.1 k
R = -- =
=
470 k

Rl

I.O~kn

Lx= R2 R3 C 1
= 5.1 kx JOOkxO.O I !lf
= 5.1 H

The equivalent series circui t is shown in Fig. 11.23.

R,.

=1.09 k

L, = 5.1 H

a - -JVWL---__J

fig. ll.23

Example 11.8 (b) The amrs of an ac J\llaxwe/1 's bridge are arranged as follows:
AB and BC are non-reac1ive resist01:~ of 100 Q each. DA a standard variable
reactor L 1ofresistance 32. 7 Q and CD consists ofa standard variable resistor
R in serie.~ with n coil ofun/..?ro,vn impedance Z. balance wasjound with Lt =
50 mH and Z = 1.36R- Find the Rand L of coil.
Solution Given: R 1 = 32.7 n, L 1= 50 mH
R2 = 1.36 Q , R3= 100 Q , R4 = 100 Q
Step 1: To find 'r' and L2 where r is the resistance of the coil
Given that
R4R1 = R3(R2 + r )
..
32.7 x 100 = 100 ( 1.36 + r)

100(32.7 - 1.36) = I 00 r
r = 32.7 - 1.36
r = 31.34 n
Step 2: To find L2 ,

L2

= L,

R4
100
=50 mH X R3
100

X -

L2 = 50 mH

342

Elearonic Instrumentation

HAY'S BRIDGE

11.12

The Hay bridge, shown in Fig. 11.24, differs from Maxwell's bridge by having a
resistance R 1 in series with a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For large
phase angles, R 1 needs to be low; therefore, this bridge is more convenient for
measuring high-Q coils. For Q = l 0, the error is I%, and for Q = 30, the error is
0.1%. Hence Hay's bridge is preferred for coils with a high Q, and Maxwell's
bridge for coils with a low Q.

Detector

fig. 11.24 Hay's Bridge

2 1 2, = 22 23, where

At balance

2 1 = R 1 - j l wC1
22 = Rz

23 = R3
z.= Rx + jmL,
Substituting these values in the balance equation we get

(Rx + jmLx) = Rz R3
( R1 - _)_)
mc1
R , Rx+

LX me
jR, +jml..x
. ' R
zI

I=

R2 R3

Equating the real and imaginary terms we have

R 1 R., +

R2 R3

(11.16)

mL R

(1 1.17)

and

.t
I
m,
C
Solving tor L, and Rx we have, Rx'"' ol L, C1 R1

Substituting for Rx in Eq. ( 11.16)

2

R1 (m R 1 C1 L,) +

LX
G;'
=

R2 R3

vopynghloo ma!E.nal

Bridges 343

. .1
(ff

RI

cl

L.. +

cLX : R2 R3
I

Multiplying both sides by C 1 we get

at R~ q Lx+Lx = R2R3 c,
There 1iore,

C1
LX = I R2 2R3R2
c
+W

(11.18)

2
I

Substituting for Lx in Eq. ( 11.17)

R
.

w C1 R1 R2 R3
1+W 2 R2
c 2
I
I

(11.19)

The term w appears in the expression for both L. and Rx This indicates that
the bridge is frequency sensitive.
The Hay bridge is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance.
The inductance balance equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and
also on the operating frequency.
An inconvenient feature of this bridge is that the equation giving the balance
condition for inductance, contains the multiplier 1./( I + !/~). The inductance
balance thus depends on its Q and frequency.
'
Therefore,

R R C

2 3 1
= --''--''---'":.t
I+ (I/ Q)2

For a value of Q greaterthan I 0, the tem1 1 /~ will be smaller than 1/ 100 and
can be therefore neglected.
Therefore Lx = R2 R3 C 1, which is the same as Maxwell's equation. But for
inductors with a Q less than 10, the 1 /~ term cannot be neglected. Hence tbis
-bridge is not suited for measurements of coils having Q less than I0.
A commercial bridge measure from I )l H - I00 H with 2% error.

Example 11.9 (a)

Find the series

eguivalem inductance and 1-esisra nce of the network that causes a11

opposite ang le (Hay bridge) to 11ull

with the Ja!fowing bridges arms.
(See Fig. 11.25.}
10 = 3000 rad/s, R2 "' 10 kil.,
R1 = 2 k!l, C 1 = 1 JLF
R; = 1 kil.

Detecto

Solution We need to find Rx and Lx.

From Eq. (11.19) we have

Fig.11.25
~

p r

ted ma

344

E.lectronic Instrumentation

. =

(J) z Rl R l R 3 Cl2

I+

(1)2 R2 Cl
I

(3000)2

10 k X 2 k X I k X (I X 10- 6 ) 2

I+ (3000) 2

(2

kl

(I X I0- 6 ) 2

180 X 103

1+36
= 4.86kQ
and from Eq. ( 11.18) we have,
L =

R 2 R3 C I

I + (1)2 R l2 e

x
=

ll

10 k X I k X (I X 10- 6 )

--~~:....:.;___.!.;,........;...;;_..:._...,.....,..
2
2
2

I + (3000)

(2 k)

(I X I 0~)

I0
10
= - = 0.27 = 270 mH
I +36
37

Therefore R. = 4.86 k and Lx = 270 mH

Example 11.9 (b)

Four arms of a Hay Bridge are arranged as follows:

AD is coil ofunknown impedance Z, DC is a non-inductive resistimce ofI kn,
CB is a non-inductive resistance of800 in series .with a standard capacitor
of2 JlF. BA is a non-ilrductive resistan ce of 16500 !1, ifthe supply frequen cy
is 50 Hz. Calculate the value ofLand R ofcoil When the bridge is balanced.

Given R2 = 1000 U, R 3 =16500 U, R~ = 800 U , C4 = 2 Vtf,/= 50 Hz

Solution
Step I:

(J) =

2trf= 2 X 3..14 X 50 = 314 and of = (314i = 98596

Step 2:

L = R 2 R 3 C41
I+ (J)2

Ci Ri '

L =
1

Step 3: R =

=
1

Ci R 4 R l R 3
I+ (1) 2
RJ

(J)l

Ci

(1000) X 16500 X 2 X 10-6 = . H

26 4
I+ 98596 X (2~F) 2 X (800) 2
CJ R4 R2 R 3
I+ (J) 2 c ~2 R 42

(1)2

(314) x(2~F/ x16500x800~1000 = . kQ

4 18
2
1+ (314t x(2~F) x (800t
2

Bridges 345

Example 11.9 (c)

Find the unknown resiswnce and inducrance having tlze.fo/-

lowing bridge arms

C4 = I J.lF. R1 = RJ = R4 =1000 Q,

(tJ

= 314 radls

Solution To find R 1 and L1

Step 1: Given
R2 R3C4
R _ w2C] R4 R2 R3
1
I + w2 CJ R] ' - 1 + w2 CJ RJ
lOOOx IOOOx I x 10-6
=0. l H
9
2
2
2
I+ (314} X (I )lf} X (I 000)
2

Step 2:

CJ R4 R2 R3
I + w2 CJ RJ

R = W
x

R, = (3 14) X (1~ X 100~ X 1000 X 1000 "' . Q

89 79
1+ (314)- :<(I J.lft x (I 000) 2
2

SCHERING'S BRIDGE
A very important bridge used for tl1c
precision measurement of capacitors
and their insulating properties is. the
Schcring bridge. Its basic circuit
arrangement is given in Fig. I L.26.
The standard capacitor C3 is a bigh
quality mica capacitor (low-l.oss)
for general measurements, or an air
capacitor (having a very stable value
and a very small electric field} for
insulation measurement.
For balance, the general equation
is

11.13

Detector

c.

where

as

Copyr

ted r'1a

346 Electronic Instrumentation

R X

_j_)
me,

R2 (- j} +

~ C,

R, (mCJ)

CJ

Equating the real and imaginary tenns, we get

R2 C1
R =-

(11.20(a)]

CX = -R, C)
R2

[ 11.20(b))

_.

and

CJ

The dial of capacitor C 1 can be calibrated directly to give the dissipation factor
at a particular frequency.
The dissipation factor D of a series RC circuit is defined as the cotangent of
the phase angle.

D = -X' = mCX RX
X:

Also, Dis the reciprocal of the quality factor Q, i.e. D = 1/Q. D indicates the
quality of the capacitor.
Commercial units measure from I 00 pf- I J,lf, with 2% accuracy. The dial
of C3 is graduated in terms of direct readings for C.., if the resistance ratio is
maintained at a fixed value.
This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with
very high precision.
The lower junction of the bridge is grounded. At the frequency nonnally used
on this bridge, the reactances of capacitor C3 and c;:, are much higher than the
resistances of R 1 and R2 Hence, most ofthe voltage drops across C3 and Cx> and
very little across R1 and R2 Hence if the junction of R1 and R2 is grounded, the
detector is effectively at ground potential. This reduces any stray-capacitance
effect, and makes the bridge more stable.

Example 11.10 {a) An

ac .bridge
has the following constants (refer
Fig. /J.27).
AnnAB- capacitor of0.5 J.lF' in
parallel with 1 k!2 resislance
A;m AD - resistance of2 k!2
Arm BC - capacitor of 0.5 J.lF'
Arm CD- unknown capacitor C,
and Rx in series
Frequency- I kHz
Determine the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.

~-----1~o~et~e~ct~ot-----~ D
c.

Fig.lt.27

Bridges 347

Solution

From Eqs 1l.20(a) and 11.20(b), we have

c,

R = x

c3

R2 =

0.51.J.F
o.s f.LF x 2 k = 2 kQ

C = !i_ xC3 =
X

R2

~
x0.5"F
= 0.25"~<
2k
...
t-"'

The dissipation factor is given by

D = mCx Rx
= 2 X 3.142 X I 000 X 2 k X 0.25 ).LF
= 4 X 3. 142 X 0.25
= 3.1416

Example 11.10 {b) A sample ofinsulation was placed in C/1'111 A 8 ofa Schering
bridge, when the bridge was balanced at a frequency of 50 Hz. the other arms
of the bridge were as follows
Arm BC- a non-inductive R of 100 Q
Arm CD- n noll-inductive R of300 Q i11 parallel with a capacitor of0.5 pF
Arm DA -a loss ji"ee capacitor of 100 pf
Determine the capacitance, egui1alent series resista11ce a11d PF of the
iusulation in test arm AB
Solution Given R3 = 100 Q
R4 = 300 Q, C4 = 0.5 I.J.F
C2 = 100 pf ,f= 50 Hz
Step I:
a>=2l!f= 2 X 3.14 X 50 = 314

Step 2 : From the balance condition, we have

R
300Q
C 1 = - 4 X C2 =
X I 00 pf = 300 pf
R3
100 Q
Step 3:

R =

c4

' c2

x R3 = 0 5 I.J.F x 1oo
100 pr

= O.Sxlo- xl00 = 0.5x106 !l=0.5MQ

100 X 100- 12
Step 4: Power factor

= mR4C4
= 314 X 300 X 0.5 X ( 0-6
5
= 314 X 309 X I-& X (Q-6
=4710x 10-6= 0.0471

'

. dma-

348

Jectronic lns[IUmentalion

Example 11.1[] (c) .4 condenser bushi11g forms

arm BC of a Schering Bridge

and a standard carJacitor of500 pfand negligible loss.forms m1 arm .A B. Ann
CD consists of a non-inductive resistance of 300 Q. When this bridge is
balanced. arm AD has a resistance and capacitor in parallel of I 00 Q and
0. 1pF respeclive!y. The supply freq uency is 50 Hz. Calculate the capacirance
and dielectric loss ofangle of!he bushing.

Solution

Given R4 = I 00 Q, C 4 = 0.1 IJ-F

C 2 = 500 pF, R3 = 30() .Q
/ = 50Hz

Step I:
(I)= 2;rf= 2 X 3.14 X 50 =314
Step 2:

c, =

R:R

x C2 =

100

soo x w-'- =

300
Step 3: Dielectric loss angle is given by
tan o= toC4R4
. = 3.14 X 0.1 x I0-6 x LOO
= 3.l4 X lOX 10- 6
tan 6 = 0.03140
Hence
1.8

166.6 pF

o=

Example 1[10 (d) A sheet of4.5-mm thick Bakelite is tested at 50 Hz between

12 em in diameter. The Sclrering bridge uses a standard air capacitor C2 of
105 pF capacit01: a non-reactive, R~ of IOOOht in parallel with a variable
capacitor and is obtained with C4 = 0.5 J1F and RJ = 260 Q. Calculate the
capacitance, PF and relative pem1ittivity oftire sheet.
Solution

It is given that
d = th.ickness of sheet in metre= 4.5 x 10-3
.f= 50 Hz,
w =2'!(=2x3. 14x50=314
A =area of the electrodes in m2 = n-(6 x I0-2
- 1'
1000
C2 = LOS x 10 -, R4 = - - , C4 = 0.5~-tF, R3 = 260 Q
n-

Step 1:

c1 =
c,

R
- 4 x C, =

R3

1000
1000
x 105 pF=-- x 105 pf
1t X 260
8164

128.7 pf
Step 2: PF is given by
(J)R4C4

= 2 X 3.14 X 50 X 1000 X 0.5 X 10-6

'It

Bridges 349

1000
2 X :1:-1-+ X 50 X-- X 0.5 X I 0-6

w- o.5 = o.o5

J(
1x

Step 3: Given that the capacitance is given by C1 = K, K 0

Relative permittivity is given by

K = Ctd

KA
0

=
=

128.7pF X 4.5 X 10-3

8.854 X 10 lZ X 1t(6 X 10

2 2
)

128.7 X 4.5 X JO- IS

8.854xl0

12

x3.14x36 x l0-4

579.15xto-s
1ooo.8s x 1o- (;
5.786

Example II.ID (e) A capacitor is tested by a Schering bridge which .forms one
arm AB ofthe bridge. The other arms are
AD- a non-inductive resistance of I 00 .Q,
DC - a non-1-eactive resistance of300 Q in parallel with a capacitor of0.5 f.1F,
BC- a stm1dard loss fi"ee capacitor of1Q,OpF.
Tlte supplyfl-equency is 50 Hz. The bridge is balanced.
Calculate the capacitor value and /he power factor ofthe capacitor under test.

Given R3 =I 00 n, R4 = 300 n, C2 = I 00 pF, C4 = 0.5 f.lF

Let the desired capacitance of the capa.citor to be tested be C 1 and r 1 is the
resistance representing the loss.
Step I: From the given equatiolll for C 1 we have
Solution

R.s

300

C1 = - x C2 = x iOOpF
R3
100

c. = 300 pf
Step 2:

,.. = R3 X c4

c2

=100 X o.s J.LF X 500 kn

too pF

Step 3: The power factor can be as follows :

PF = WC4 R4 = 2n;fx C4R4
= 2 X 3.14X 50 X300 X 0.5 X 10- 6
= 0.0471

350 .Electronic lnsi/Umenra!ion

Example IUD (f)

A sample Bakelite was tested by the bridge method

(Schering) at I I kV,50 Hz. Balance was obtained atthe jollowings values
AB - dielectric material under test in tlie form of a capacitor
BC- a siandard air capacitor of I 00 pf
CD -capacitor of0.6 p.F in paralle l with a /lOll-reactive resistance of300 n
DA- no~reactive resistance of100 Q
Ca/c;u/ate the capacitance and equivalent series resistance ofthe sample.

Solution The given bridge is of a Schering bridge. To find Rx and C,

Given R 1 = 300 n, R2 = 100 n, C 1 = 0.6JlF, C3 = 100 pf
Step I : R

= R2 x ~ = 100 x
CJ

0 6 10
x -<i
100 X 10-12

6 MQ

R.
300
-P
Step 2: C, = - x C3 = - x I00 x I0 - = 300 pF

R2
100

Example IUO(g} An ac bridge has the following constants:

Arm AB- capacitor ofO. 1 J.IF' in parallel with 2 kQ resistor
Arm AD- resistance of5 kQ
Arm BC- capacitor of0.25 p.F
Arm AB- unknown capacitor C.. and Rx in series
f=2kHz
Determine the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.

Solution From the balance equation for a Schering bridge, we have

C,
O.IJlF 5 o.n
Step I R = - x R2 =
x ""'

x
C2
0.25 JlF
=

~x5kQ
25

=2ill

R
2ill
Step 2: CX = -R1 x c,, = - x 0.25 "J::
Sill
1-'-'
2

= ~x 25JlF =O. I!!F

5
100
Step 3 : Dissipation factor (D)= m Cx R.r
=2x3.142x2000xO.I!!Fx2kQ
= 2 X 3.142 X 4 X 0.1
=8 x 3.142x0.1
D = 2.5136

~cpyr

1100"'

Bridges 35 I

WIEN'S BRIDGE
The Wien bridge shown in Fig. 11.28
has a series RC combination in one
arm and a parallel combination in the
adjoining ann. Wien 's bridge in its
basic form, is designed to measure
frequency. It can also be used for the
measurement ofan unknown capacitor
with great accuracy.
The impedance of one arm is
Z, = R 1 -j/roC~;
T11e admittance of the parallel arm
is

11. 14

Detector

flg.IL2B W ein's bridge

R _ R C
- 2 - - 1 +- 3

(11.21)

l
- -= wC3 R 1

(11.22)

Therefore
and

R4

R3

C1

we, R3

cJ -;: __1 _
(I)= ---;=:====:=~

Jc,R,C3 R3

as

w=2 7C/

l=

21e Jc, R, c 3 R3

( I 1.23)

Copyr ghlec. Male~ ul

352 Electronic Instrumentation

The two conditi\)ns for bridge balance, (1 1.21) and (11.23), result in an
expression determining the required resistance ratio R21R4 and another expression
determining the frequency of lhe applied voltage. If we satisfy Eq. (11.21) and
also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. ( 11.23}, the bridge will be
balanced.

In most Wien bridge circuits, the components are chosen such that R 1 =
R3 = R and C 1 = C3 = C. Equation ( 11.21) therefore reduces to Ri R4 = 2 and
Eq. (11.23) to/= 112rrRC, which is the general equation for the frequency of the
bridge-circuit.
The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R1
and R3 can be ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C 1 and C3 are
normally of fixed values.
The audio range is normally divided into 20 - 200 - 2 k - 20 kHz ranges.
In this case, the res-istances can be used for range changing and capacitors C 1
and C 3 -for' fine frequency control within the range. The bridge can also be used
for measuring capacitances. In that case, the frequency of operation must be
known.
The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and
in audio frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determining
element.
An accuracy of0:5%- I% can be readily obtained using this bridge. Because
it is frequency sensitive, it is difficult to balance unless the waveform of the
applied voltage is purely sinusoidal.

Example 11.11. A 'wien bridge cirr:uit consists ofthe following:

R 1 = 4.7 kfl., C1 = 5 nf
R1 =20k D, C1 =JOn/
R 1 = I.Ok!2
R4= JOOkD.
Determine thefr;quency ofihe cirr:uit.
Solution The frequency is given by the equation

f=

2rr

f=
2rr

f=
21C

1=

Jc, R R
1

Js
Js
Js

C3

I
x 10-9 x 4. 7 x 103 x 1ox 10-9 x 1ox 1oJ

I
10- 10

105

2TC

4. 7

= 3.283 kHz

4.7

C-opyr

ted male

Bridges

353

Example11.12

Find the equivalent parallel resistance and capacitance

that causes a Wien bridge to null with the following component values.
R1 = 3.1 kil
C 1 = 5.2 J.LF
R2 = 25 kfl
f= 2.5 kHz

R~ =

JOOkil

Solution Given liJ= 2 ref= 2 x 3. 14 x 2500 = 15.7 1 k rad/s.

Substituting the value of C3 from Eq. ( 11.12) in Eq. (11.21) we get,

RJ = R4

R2

(R, + w 2RI C2)

1

= 100 k ( 3 J k +

25 k

(15.7 1 k )2

I
)
3.1 k X {5.2 X I 0- 6 ) 2

= 12.41ill

The value of C3 can also be found out by using equation C 3 =

Example 11.13

liJ2 '1 R1 R3

An ac bridge with terminals ABCD has in

Arm AB n resistance of800 n in parallel with a capacitor o/0.5 JlF'.
Arm BC- a resistance of400 Q in series with a capacitor of I pF.
Ann CD - a resistance of 1000 Q, Al7n DA - a pure resistance R.
(a) Determi11e the value offi'equencyfor which the bridge is balanced
(b) Calculate the value ofR required to produce balance.
Solution The bridge configuratj.on is of Wien Bridge.
Given : c,=0.5 J.lF, R I = 800 n
C2= 1.0 J.lF, R2 = 400 n
R4= I000 !l, R3 = R = ?

354 Electronic Instrumentation

Step I : Frequency calculated by

I=

2n~R1 C1 R2C2

= -=-2n-_J's===o==o=x=o=.5=J.l=:F=x=4==o=='o=x=t=J.L:==F
I

=--r============
12
2nJsoo x 400 x o.s x 10-

106
= -:2n
- -/t:8700:=x=2:=:070

10
= 1000kHz = 1000 _ 0.398 kHz
2nx400 2x3.14x400 314x8

Step 2 : Also given,

C,

4
-2+ - = RI c2 R3

400

800

0.5 J.lF
I J.lF

1000
= -R

0.5+0.5= 1000
R
R = IOOOQ
WAGNER'S EARTH (GROUND) CONNECTION

11.15

When performing measurements at high frequency, stray capacitances between

the various bridge elements and ground, and between the bridge anns themselves,
becomes significant This introduces an error in the measurement, when small
values of capacitanc-e and large values of inductance are measured.
An effective method of controlling these capaciiances, is to enclose the
elements by a shield and to ground the shield. This does not eliminate the
capacitance, but makes it constant in value.
Another effective and popular method of eliminating these stray capacitances
and the capacitances between the bridge arms is to use a Wagner 's ground
connection. Figure 11 .29 shows a circuit of a capacitance bridge. C 1 and c; are
the stray capacitances. In Wagner's ground connection, another arm, consisting
of Rw and C,.. forming a potential divider, is used. The junction of R,., and C,.,
is grounded and is called Wagner's ground connection. The procedure for
adjustment is as follows.

Copyr ti!d ma r ~

Bridges 355

.- Rg_ ll.29 Wagner's earth connection

The detector is connected to point 1 and R 1 is adjusted! for null or minimum

sound in the headphones. The switch S is then connected to point 2, which
connects the detector to the Wagner ground point. Resistor R.., is now adjusted
for minimum sound. When the sw:itch 'S' is connected to point I, again there
will be some imbalance. Resistors R1 and R3 are then adjusted for minimum
sound and this procedure is repeated until a null is obtained on both switch
positions I and 2. This is the ground potential. Stray capacitances C 1 and C2
are then effectively short-circuited and have no effect on the normal bridge
balance.
The capacitances from point C to D to ground are also eliminated by the
addition of Wagner's ground connection, since the current through these
capacitors enters Wagne-r's ground connection.
The addition of the Wagner ground connection does not affect the balance
conditions, since the procedure for measurement remains unaltered.
RESONANCE BRIDGE

11.16

One arm of this bridge, shown in Fig. 11.30, consists of a series resonance circuit.
The series resonance circuit is formed by R11, C11 and L11 in series. All the other

arms consists of resistors only.

Using the equation for balance, we have Z 1 Z4 "' 4 Z3,
where Z 1 "'Rb, 4 = Rc> Z3 = R0 , and Z4 = R11 + jillL11 - j /(J) Ca.
Therefore

Rb (Rd + j(J)Ld-

_1_)
(J)Cd

jRb
RbRd+j (J)LdRb- (J)C =RaRe
d

= R0 Rc

356 Electtonic lnsl/llmenta!ion

Ag.ll.30 Resonance bridge

Equating the real and imaginary terms

we get Rb Rd= R0 Rc andj wLd- - 1- - = 0
w cd
There.r.ore
Therefore

Rd = Ra Rc and w Ld = -l- .t.e. o:r, = - - Rb

wed
LdCd

f=

I
21r ~Ld cd

(1 1.24)

The bridge can be used to measure unknown inductances or capacitances. The

losses Rd can be determined by keeping a fixed ratio Rj Rh and using a standard
variable resistance to obtain balance. If an inductance is being measured, a
standard capacitor is varied until balance is obtained. lf a capacitance is being
measured, a standard inductor is varied until balance is obtained. The operating
frequency of the generator must be known in
order to calculate the unknown quantity. Balance
B
is indicated by the minimisation of sound in the
headphones.

MAXWELL-WIEN BRIDGE

11.17

As seen before, a positive phase angle of

inductive impedance can be compensated by the
D
negative phase angle of capacitive impedance,
which is placed in the opposite arms CD. As
L..,__ -i"--1---..J
shown in Fig. 11.31 , the unknown inductance
Fig 11.31 Maxwell's-Wein bridge
can be determined in terms of capacitance.
Copyr ti!d ma

Bridges 357

Balance condition is obtained when

z,z3 =Z2Z4

But
.

Z1 = R//;Xc1,

I
I
1
.
I+ j(J)C1R1
=- + -.- = - + J{J)C1 = _.::....__,__,_
zt Rt ]XCI Rt
Rl

R,

Therefore,

Z 1= - - - ' - - - -

1+ }ID c, R,

Z2 = R2, Z4 = R4 and Z 3 = R3 + jOJL3

Using balance condition, Z 1Z3 =Z2 Z4

Therefore, (

. R,
) (R3 + j(J)L.; ) =R1 R4
I+ J{J) C1 R1

Therefore,

R 1R3 +j~R 1 = R2R4 (I + jWC1R 1)

R 1R3 + j(J)L3R1= R2R4 +}WC1R, R2R4

Equating the real and imaginary tenns, we have

and

R 1R3 = R2R4 therefore R3 =

j(J)L3R 1= jwC1R 1 R2R4

R2 R~
--

R,

Therefore, L3 = C1R2R4
H ence the unknown resistance R3 and unknown inductance L3 can be
determined

Example 11.11
Prom F ig. 11.3 1'
R2 R~
RIRJ = R2R,j, therefore R, "'

T "'

600 x 400
1000

240 n

LJ = C1 R2R4= 0.5 X I0-6 x 600 X 400 = 12 X 10-2 ff= 0.12 mH.

Hence RJ = 240 Q and L:J = 0. 12 mH

fig. ll.31(a)