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Australia

This article is about the country. For the continent, 1 Name


see Australia (continent). For other uses, see Australia
(disambiguation).
Main article: Name of Australia
Coordinates: 27S 133E / 27S 133E

The name Australia (pronounced [stlj, -li] in


Australian English,[22] ) is derived from the Latin Terra
Australis (southern land) a name used for putative lands
in the southern hemisphere since ancient times.[23] The
earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was
in 1625 in A note of Australia del Espritu Santo, written
by Sir Richard Hakluyt, published by Samuel Purchas in
Hakluytus Posthumus, a corruption of the original Spanish
name Austrialia del Espritu Santo (Southern Land of
the Holy Spirit)[24][25][26] for an island in Vanuatu.[27] The
Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch
book in Batavia (Jakarta) in 1638, to refer to the newly
discovered lands to the south.[28] The rst time that the
name Australia appears to have been ocially used was
in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which
Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt
of Capt. Flinders charts of Australia.[29] On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Ofce that it be formally adopted.[30] In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known ocially
as Australia.[31]

Australia (/streli/, /-/, colloquially /-j/),[10][11] ofcially known as the Commonwealth of Australia,[12]
is an Oceanian country comprising the mainland of the
Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Papua
New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north; the
Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east; and New
Zealand to the south-east.

For about 50,000 years[13] before the rst British settlement in the late 18th century,[14][15] Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians,[16] who spoke languages
grouped into roughly 250 language groups.[17][18] After
the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australias eastern half was claimed by Great
Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent
decades; the continent was explored and an additional
ve self-governing crown colonies were established. On
1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the
Commonwealth of Australia. Since federation, Australia
has maintained a stable liberal democratic political sys- 2 History
tem that functions as a federal parliamentary democracy
and constitutional monarchy comprising six states and Main article: History of Australia
several territories. The population of 23.6 million[5] is
highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern
states and on the coast.[19]

2.1 Prehistory

Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the worlds 12th-largest economy. In 2014 Australia had the worlds fth-highest
per capita income.[20] Australias military expenditure is
the worlds 13th-largest. With the second-highest human
development index globally, Australia ranks highly in
many international comparisons of national performance,
such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political
rights.[21] Australia is a member of the United Nations,
G20, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD),
World Trade Organization, Asia-Pacic Economic Cooperation, and the Pacic Islands Forum.

Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region of Western Australia

Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years
ago,[32][33] possibly with the migration of people by
land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now
Southeast Asia. These rst inhabitants may have been
ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians.[34] At the
time of European settlement in the late 18th century,
most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers, with
a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. The
Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturalists and hunter-gatherers.[35] The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by shermen from Maritime Southeast Asia.[36]

2.2

HISTORY

and mapped the east coast, which he named New South


Wales and claimed for Great Britain.[39] With the loss of
its American colonies in 1783, the British Government
sent a eet of ships, the "First Fleet", under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal
colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the
ag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January
1788,[15] a date which became Australias national day,
Australia Day, although the British Crown Colony of New
South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788. The rst settlement led to the foundation of
Sydney, and the exploration and settlement of other regions.

European arrival

See also: European exploration of Australia


The rst recorded European sighting of the Australian

Tasmanias Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.

Portrait of Captain James Cook, the rst European to map the


eastern coastline of Australia in 1770

mainland, and the rst recorded European landfall on the


Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York
Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of
Weipa on Cape York.[37] The Dutch charted the whole
of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century,
but made no attempt at settlement.[37] William Dampier,
an English explorer and privateer, landed on the northwest coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699
on a return trip.[38] In 1770, James Cook sailed along

A British settlement was established in Van Diemens


Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825.[40] The United Kingdom
formally claimed the western part of Western Australia
(the Swan River Colony) in 1828.[41] Separate colonies
were carved from parts of New South Wales: South
Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in
1859.[42] The Northern Territory was founded in 1911
when it was excised from South Australia.[43] South Australia was founded as a free provinceit was never
a penal colony.[44] Victoria and Western Australia were
also founded free, but later accepted transported convicts.[45][46] A campaign by the settlers of New South
Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that
colony; the last convict ship arrived in 1848.[47]
The indigenous population, estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788,[48] declined for
150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious
disease.[49] Thousands more died as a result of frontier
conict with settlers.[50] A government policy of assimilation beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869
resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from
their families and communitiesoften referred to as the
Stolen Generationsa practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population.[51]
The Federal government gained the power to make laws
with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum.[52] Traditional ownership of landaboriginal ti-

3
tlewas not recognised until 1992, when the High Court
case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius (land belonging to no one) before the European occupation.[53]

Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New


Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth
of the nationits rst major military action.[67][68] The
Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-dening event during World War II.[69]

2.3

Britains Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended


most of the constitutional links between Australia and the
UK. Australia adopted it in 1942,[70] but it was backdated
to 1939 to conrm the validity of legislation passed by the
Australian Parliament during World War II.[71][72] The
shock of the United Kingdoms defeat in Asia in 1942
and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to
turn to the United States as a new ally and protector.[73]
Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of
the US, under the ANZUS treaty.[74] After World War
II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe. Since
the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was
also promoted.[75] As a result, Australias demography,
culture, and self-image were transformed.[76] The nal
constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were
severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian
States, and closing the option of judicial appeals to the
Privy Council in London.[77] In a 1999 referendum, 55%
of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by
a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government
in 1972,[78] there has been an increasing focus in foreign
policy on ties with other Pacic Rim nations, while maintaining close ties with Australias traditional allies and
trading partners.[79]

Colonial expansion

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s[54] and


the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854
was an early expression of civil disobedience.[55] Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained
responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.[56] The
Colonial Oce in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign aairs[57] defence,[58] and international shipping.

2.4

Nationhood

3 Government
The Last Post is played at an Anzac Day ceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in most suburbs
and towns.

Main articles: Government of Australia, Politics of Australia and Monarchy of Australia


Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a federal

On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was


achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and
voting.[59] This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire.[60] The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for
the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was
the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927
while Canberra was being constructed.[61] The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the
South Australian government to the federal parliament
in 1911.[62] In 1914, Australia joined Britain in ghting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party.[63][64] Australians took part Parliament House was opened in Canberra in 1988, replacing
in many of the major battles fought on the Western the provisional Parliament House building, opened in 1927.
Front.[65] Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000
were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[66] Many division of powers. It uses a parliamentary system of

3 GOVERNMENT

government[80] with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen


of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as
monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen
resides in the United Kingdom and is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by
the Governors at the state level, who by convention act on
the advice of her ministers.[81][82] The most notable exercise to date of the Governor-Generals reserve powers
outside the Prime Ministers request was the dismissal of
the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of
1975.[83]

In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators:


twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the
Northern Territory).[85] The House of Representatives
(the lower house) has 150 members elected from singlemember electoral divisions, commonly known as electorates or seats, allocated to states on the basis of
population,[86] with each original state guaranteed a minimum of ve seats.[87] Elections for both chambers are
normally held every three years, simultaneously; senators
have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the
The federal government is separated into three branches: territories, whose terms are not xed but are tied to the
electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the
76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the
The legislature: the bicameral Parliament, dened
cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.[85]
in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the
Queen (represented by the Governor-General), the Australias electoral system uses preferential voting for all
lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and
Senate, and the House of Representatives;
the ACT which, along with the Senate and most state up The executive: the Federal Executive Council, in per houses, combine it with proportional representation
practice the Governor-General as advised by the in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting
Prime Minister and Ministers of State;[84]
is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in
[88]
The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other every jurisdiction, as is enrolment (with the exception
[89]
The party with majority support
federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the of South Australia).
in
the
House
of
Representatives
forms the government
Governor-General on advice of the Council.
and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where
no party has majority support, the Governor-General has
the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister
and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the condence
of Parliament.[90]
There are two major political groups that usually form
government, federally and in the states: the Australian
Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the
National Party.[91][92] Within Australian political culture,
the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor
Party is considered centre-left.[93] Independent members
and several minor parties have achieved representation in
Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses.
Malcolm Turnbull, Prime Minister of Australia

Peter Cosgrove, Governor-General of Australia

Following a partyroom leadership challenge, Julia Gillard


became the rst female Prime Minister in June 2010.[94]
The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for
the Coalition. Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was
sworn into oce as Prime Minister by the GovernorGeneral of Australia on 18 September. In September
2015, Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott
for leadership of the Coalition, and was sworn in as Prime
Minister on the 15th.[95] With ve Prime Ministers in
as many years between 2010 and 2015, with most of
those leadership changes occurring through leadership
spills rather than general elections, Australia has been described as the coup capital of the democratic world.[96]

States and territories

Main article: States and territories of Australia

Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government,


integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a
council.[101]

A clickable map of Australias states and mainland Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania, and Lord
territories
Howe Island by New South Wales.
Australia has six statesNew South Wales (NSW),
Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania 5 Foreign relations and military
(TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA)
and two major mainland territoriesthe Australian Cap- Main articles: Foreign relations of Australia and
ital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). In Australian Defence Force
most respects these two territories function as states, but Over recent decades, Australias foreign relations have
the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation
overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out
in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including
those over schools, state police, the state judiciary, roads,
public transport and local government, since these do not
fall under the provisions listed in Section 51.[97]
Each state and major mainland territory has its own
parliamentunicameral in the Northern Territory, the
ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states.
The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as dened by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the Legislative
Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and
Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative
Council. The head of the government in each state is
the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister.
The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor;
and in the Northern Territory, the Administrator.[98] In
the Commonwealth, the Queens representative is the
Governor-General.[99]

Australian Army soldiers conducting a foot patrol during a joint


training exercise with US forces in Shoalwater Bay (2007).

been driven by a close association with the United States


through the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacic, particularly through
ASEAN and the Pacic Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia
secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
The federal parliament directly administers the following in Southeast Asia, and in 2011 attended the Sixth East
territories:[84]
Asia Summit in Indonesia. Australia is a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth
Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
for co-operation.[102]
Australian Antarctic Territory
Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation.[103] It led the formation of the Cairns Group
Christmas Island
and Asia-Pacic Economic Cooperation.[104][105] Aus Cocos (Keeling) Islands
tralia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development and the World Trade Or Coral Sea Islands
ganization,[106][107] and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
United States Free Trade Agreement[108] and Closer Eco[109]
with another
Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for nomic Relations with New Zealand,
the national capital in land that was formerly part of free trade agreement being negotiated with Chinathe
AustraliaChina Free Trade Agreementand Japan,[110]
New South Wales
South Korea in 2011,[111][112] AustraliaChile Free Trade
The external territory of Norfolk Island previously ex- Agreement, and as of November 2015 has put the Trans[113]
ercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Pacic Partnership before parliament for ratication.
Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia
Administrator to represent the Queen.[100] In 2015, the and Singapore, Australia is party to the Five Power De-

6 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

fence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A


founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism[114] and
maintains an international aid program under which some
60 countries receive assistance. The 200506 budget
provides A$2.5 billion for development assistance.[115]
Australia ranks fteenth overall in the Center for Global
Development's 2012 Commitment to Development Index.[116]
Australias armed forcesthe Australian Defence Force
(ADF)comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN),
the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force
(RAAF), in total numbering 81,214 personnel (including
57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) as of November
2015. The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested
in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice
of the government.[117] Day-to-day force operations are
under the command of the Chief, while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence.
In the 2015-16 budget, defence spending was A$31.9 billion or 1.92% of GDP,[118] representing the 13th largest
defence budget.[119] Australia has been involved in UN
and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief and armed conict, including the 2003 invasion of Iraq; it currently has
deployed about 2,241 personnel in varying capacities to
12 international operations in areas including Iraq and
Afghanistan.[120]

Surrounded by the Indian and Pacic oceans,[N 5] it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with
the Coral Sea lying o the Queensland coast, and the
Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand.
The worlds smallest continent[123] and sixth largest country by total area,[124] Australiaowing to its size and
isolationis often dubbed the island continent,[125] and
is sometimes considered the worlds largest island.[126]
Australia has 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline
(excluding all oshore islands),[127] and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,060 sq mi). This exclusive economic zone
does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.[128]
Apart from Macquarie Island, Australia lies between latitudes 9 and 44S, and longitudes 112 and 154E.
The Great Barrier Reef, the worlds largest coral reef,[129]
lies a short distance o the north-east coast and extends
for over 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi). Mount Augustus,
claimed to be the worlds largest monolith,[130] is located
in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount
Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest
mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are
Mawson Peak (at 2,745 metres or 9,006 feet), on the
remote Australian territory of Heard Island, and, in the
Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and
Mount Menzies, at 3,492 metres (11,457 ft) and 3,355
metres (11,007 ft) respectively.[131]

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia and Geology of Australia


Australias landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometres

Coral of the Great Barrier Reef, the worlds largest coral reef
system.

Climatic zones in Australia.[N 4]

Australias size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with


tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in
the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the
centre.[132] It is the attest continent,[133] with the oldest and least fertile soils;[134][135] desert or semi-arid land
commonly known as the outback makes up by far the
largest portion of land.[136] The driest inhabited continent, its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is
less than 500 mm.[137] The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the
world,[138] although a large proportion of the population
lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline.[139]

(2,941,300 sq mi)[121] is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range,

7
which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New
South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not
strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of
low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than
1,600 metres (5,249 ft) in height.[140] The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the
coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing
range are large areas of grassland.[140][141] These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the
Einasleigh Uplands, Barkly Tableland, and Mulga Lands
of inland Queensland. The northernmost point of the
east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula.[142][143][144][145]

the country has a Mediterranean climate.[158] Much of the


south-east (including Tasmania) is temperate.[137]

7 Environment
Main article: Environment of Australia
See also: Fauna of Australia, Flora of Australia and Fungi
of Australia
Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert,

The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair.


Topographic map of Australia. Dark green represents the lowest
elevation and dark brown the highest

The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country


with their tropical climateinclude forest, woodland,
wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert.[146][147][148] At
the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone clis and gorges of The Kimberley, and below
that the Pilbara. To the south of these and inland, lie
more areas of grassland: the Ord Victoria Plain and
the Western Australian Mulga shrublands.[149][150][151] At
the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia. Prominent features of the centre and south include
Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt
Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria
deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern
coast.[152][153][154][155]
The climate of Australia is signicantly inuenced
by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole
and the El NioSouthern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical
low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern
Australia.[156][157] These factors cause rainfall to vary
markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part
of the country has a tropical, predominantly summerrainfall (monsoon) climate.[137] The south-west corner of

it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine


heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a
megadiverse country. Fungi typify that diversity; an estimated 250,000 speciesof which only 5% have been
describedoccur in Australia.[159] Because of the continents great age, extremely variable weather patterns,
and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australias
biota is unique. About 85% of owering plants, 84%
of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of inshore, temperate-zone sh are endemic.[160] Australia has
the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755
species.[161]
Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen
species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid
regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species
in drier regions and deserts.[162] Among well-known
Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and
echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo,
koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the
kookaburra.[162] Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in
the world.[163] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian
people who traded with Indigenous Australians around
3000 BCE.[164] Many animal and plant species became
extinct soon after rst human settlement,[165] including
the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since

8
European settlement, among them the thylacine.[166][167]
Many of Australias ecoregions, and the species within
those regions, are threatened by human activities
and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant
species.[168] All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world.[169] The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal
framework for the protection of threatened species.[170]
Numerous protected areas have been created under the
National Strategy for the Conservation of Australias
Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique
ecosystems;[171][172] 65 wetlands are listed under the
Ramsar Convention,[173] and 16 natural World Heritage
Sites have been established.[174] Australia was ranked
3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014
Environmental Performance Index.[175]

8 ECONOMY
restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and
cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to
urban population increases and localised drought.[183][184]
Throughout much of the continent, major ooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, ushing out inland river systems, overowing dams and inundating large
inland ood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010, 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian
drought.
A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australias emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government.[185] Since the carbon tax was
repealed, emissions have again continued to rise.[186]

Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes


occurring since European settlement began in 1788,[187]
with more than 10% of mammal species lost in the past
225 years.[188] There have also been 23 bird species or
subspecies,[189] 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant
species known to be lost during this period.[187] The
7.1 Environmental issues
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation
Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further imSee also: Climate change in Australia, Greenhouse gas
pacts on ecological communities in Australia and its
emissions in Australia and Pollution in Australia
territories.[190]
Protection of the environment is a major political is-

8 Economy
Main article: Economy of Australia
See also: Economic history of Australia, Median
household income in Australia and New Zealand and
Transport in Australia
Australia is a wealthy country; it generates its

Drought aecting Lake Hume on the Upper Murray River

sue in Australia.[176][177] In 2007, the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratication of the Kyoto
Protocol. Nevertheless, Australias carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world, lower
than those of only a few other industrialised nations.[178]
Rainfall in Australia has slightly increased over the past
century, both nationwide and for two quadrants of the
nation.[179]
According to the Bureau of Meteorology's 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La
Nia weather pattern; however, the countrys 10-year
average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 20022011 likely to rank in the top two
warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at 0.52
C above the long-term average.[180] Furthermore, 2014
was Australias third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910.[181][182] Water

The Super Pit gold mine in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, is the


nations largest open cut mine.[191]

income from various sources including miningrelated exports, telecommunications, banking and
manufacturing.[192][193][194] It has a market economy, a
relatively high GDP per capita, and a relatively low rate
of poverty. In terms of average wealth, Australia ranked
second in the world after Switzerland in 2013, although
the nations poverty rate increased from 10.2% to

9
11.8%, from 2000/01 to 2013.[195][196] It was identied
by the Credit Suisse Research Institute as the nation
with the highest median wealth in the world and the
second-highest average wealth per adult in 2013.[195]

The Hawke Government oated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the nancial
system.[213] The Howard Government followed with a
partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably
in the telecommunications industry.[214] The indirect tax
system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% Goods and Services Tax (GST).[215]
In Australias tax system, personal and company income
tax are the main sources of government revenue.[216]

The Australian dollar is the currency for the nation, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and
Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacic Island
states of Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu. With the 2006
merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney
Futures Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange
became the ninth largest in the world.[197]
In May 2012, there were 11,537,900 people employed
or part-time), with an unemployment rate
Ranked third in the Index of Economic Freedom (either full[217]
of
5.1%.
Youth unemployment (1524) stood at
[198]
(2010),
Australia is the worlds twelfth largest econ[217]
11.2%.
Data
released in mid-November 2013 showed
omy and has the fth highest per capita GDP (nomithat
the
number
of
welfare recipients had grown by 55%.
nal) at $66,984. The country was ranked second in the
In
2007
228,621
Newstart
unemployment allowance reUnited Nations 2011 Human Development Index and
cipients
were
registered,
a
total
that increased to 646,414
[199]
All of Ausrst in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index.
[218]
in
March
2013.
According
to the Graduate Careers
tralias major cities fare well in global comparative livSurvey,
full-time
employment
for
newly qualied pro[200]
ability surveys;
Melbourne reached top spot for the
fessionals
from
various
occupations
has declined since
fourth year in a row on The Economist's 2014 list of the
2011
but
it
increases
for
graduates
three years after
worlds most liveable cities, followed by Adelaide, Syd[219][220]
graduation.
ney, and Perth in the fth, seventh, and ninth places
respectively.[201] Total government debt in Australia is
about $190 billion[202] 20% of GDP in 2010.[203] Australia has among the highest house prices and some of the
highest household-debt levels in the world.[204]

100 Australian exports in 2006 shown


as a percentage of the top market
10
(Japan - A$32,425,000,000)
1

Since 2008, ination has typically been 23% and the


base interest rate 56%. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and nancial services,
accounts for about 70% of GDP.[221] Rich in natural
resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural
products, particularly wheat and wool, minerals such as
iron-ore and gold, and energy in the forms of liquied
natural gas and coal. Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3% and 5% of GDP respectively, they contribute substantially to export performance. Australias largest export markets are Japan,
China, the US, South Korea, and New Zealand.[222] Australia is the worlds fourth largest exporter of wine, and
the wine industry contributes $5.5 billion per year to the
nations economy.[223]

Destination and value of Australian exports in 2006[205]

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactured goods has underpinned a signicant increase in
Australias terms of trade since the start of the 21st century, due to rising commodity prices. Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7% of GDP negative,
and has had persistently large current account decits for
more than 50 years.[206] Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6% for over 15 years, in comparison
to the OECD annual average of 2.5%.[206] Australia was
the only advanced economy not to experience a recession
due to the global nancial downturn in 20082009.[207]
However, the economies of six of Australias major trading partners have been in recession, which in turn has
aected Australia, signicantly hampering its economic
growth in recent years.[208][209] From 2012 to early 2013,
Australias national economy grew, but some non-mining
states and Australias non-mining economy experienced
a recession.[210][211][212]

9 Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Australia, Immigration
to Australia and List of cities in Australia by population
For generations, the vast majority of immigrants came
from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are
still mainly of British or Irish ethnic origin. In the
2011 Australian census, the most commonly nominated
ancestry was English (36.1%), followed by Australian
(35.4%),[224] Irish (10.4%), Scottish (8.9%), Italian
(4.6%), German (4.5%), Chinese (4.3%), Indian (2.0%),
Greek (1.9%), and Dutch (1.7%).[225]
Australias population has quadrupled since the end
of World War I,[226] much of this increase from
immigration. Following World War II and through to
2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled
in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly

10

9 DEMOGRAPHICS
(759,849 for the period 200203;[243] 1 million or 5% of
the total population in 2005[244] ) live outside their home
country.

9.1 Language
Main article: Languages of Australia

Australia has one of the worlds most highly urbanised populations with the majority living in metropolitan cities on the coast.
(Pictured: Gold Coast beach and skyline, Queensland).

two out of every seven Australians were born in another


country.[227] Most immigrants are skilled,[228] but the immigration quota includes categories for family members
and refugees.[228] By 2050, Australias population is currently projected to reach around 42 million.[229] Nevertheless, its population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square
kilometre, remains among the lowest in the world.[138] As
such, Australians have more living space per person than
the inhabitants of any other nation.[230]
In 2011, 24.6% of Australians were born elsewhere
and 43.1% of people had at least one overseas-born
parent;[231] the ve largest immigrant groups were those
from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, China, India,
and Vietnam.[232] Following the abolition of the White
Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote
racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism.[233]
In 200506, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania.[234] The migration
target for 201213 is 190,000,[235] compared to 67,900
in 199899.[236]
The Indigenous populationAborigines and Torres Strait
Islanderswas counted at 548,370 (2.5% of the total population) in 2011,[237] a signicant increase from
115,953 in the 1976 census.[238] The increase is partly
due to many people with Indigenous heritage previously
having been overlooked by the census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status had not
been recorded on the form. Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and
unemployment, lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are, respectively,
11 and 17 years lower than those of non-indigenous
Australians.[222][239][240] Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having "failed state"-like
conditions.[241]

Although Australia has no ocial language, English


has always been entrenched as the de facto national
language.[2] Australian English is a major variety of the
language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,[246] and
diers slightly from other varieties of English in grammar
and spelling.[247] General Australian serves as the standard dialect. According to the 2011 census, English is
the only language spoken in the home for close to 81%
of the population. The next most common languages
spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%),
Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese (1.3%), Greek (1.3%), and
Vietnamese (1.2%);[232] a considerable proportion of
rst- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. A
20102011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic, followed by Vietnamese,
Greek, Chinese, and Hindi.[248][249]
Over 250 Indigenous Australian languages are thought
to have existed at the time of rst European contact,
of which less than 20 are still in daily use by all age
groups.[250][251] About 110 others are spoken exclusively
by older people.[251] At the time of the 2006 census,
52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12% of the
Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home.[252] Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of
about 5,500 deaf people.[253]

9.2 Religion
Main article: Religion in Australia

Australia has no state religion; Section 116 of the


Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government
from making any law to establish any religion, impose
any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise
of any religion.[254] In the 2011 census, 61.1% of Australians were counted as Christian, including 25.3% as
Roman Catholic and 17.1% as Anglican; 22.3% of the
population reported having "no religion"; 7.2% identify
with non-Christian religions, the largest of these being
Buddhism (2.5%), followed by Islam (2.2%), Hinduism
of the
In common with many other developed countries, Aus- (1.3%) and Judaism (0.5%). The remaining 9.4%
[232]
population
did
not
provide
an
adequate
answer.
tralia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an
older population, with more retirees and fewer people of Before European settlement, the animist beliefs of Ausworking age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian pop- tralias indigenous people had been practised for many
ulation was 38.8 years.[242] A large number of Australians thousands of years. Mainland Aboriginal Australians'

9.4

Health

11

spirituality is known as the Dreamtime and it places a


heavy emphasis on belonging to the land. The collection
of stories that it contains shaped Aboriginal law and customs. Aboriginal art, story and dance continue to draw
on these spiritual traditions. The spirituality and customs
of Torres Strait Islanders, who inhabit the islands between
Australia and New Guinea, reected their Melanesian origins and dependence on the sea. The 1996 Australian
census counted more than 7000 respondents as followers
of a traditional Aboriginal religion.[255]

Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated


to be 99% in 2003.[268] However, a 201112 report for
the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50%.[269]
In the Programme for International Student Assessment,
Australia regularly scores among the top ve of thirty
major developed countries (member countries of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Catholic education accounts for the largest nongovernment sector.

Since the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788,


Christianity has grown to be the major religion practised
in Australia. Christian churches have played an integral
role in the development of education, health and welfare services in Australia. For much of Australian history the Church of England (now known as the Anglican
Church of Australia) was the largest religious denomination. However, multicultural immigration has contributed to a decline in its relative position, and the Roman Catholic Church has benetted from recent immigration to become the largest group. Similarly, Islam,
Buddhism, Hinduism and Judaism have all grown in Australia over the past half-century.[256]

Australia has 37 government-funded universities and two


private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher
education level.[270] The OECD places Australia among
the most expensive nations to attend university.[271] There
is a state-based system of vocational training, known
as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships
for training new tradespeople.[272] About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary
qualications,[222] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49%
is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia
is the highest in the OECD countries.[273] In addition, 38
Australia has one of the lowest levels of religious adher- percent of Australias population has a university or colwhich is among the highest percentages in
ence in the world.[257] It was reported in 2001 that only lege degree,
[274][275]
the
world.
[258]
7% of Australians attended church on a weekly basis.

9.3

Education

Main article: Education in Australia


School attendance, or registration

for

home

9.4 Health
See also: Health care in Australia

The University of Sydney is the oldest university in Australia,


having been founded in 1850.

schooling,[259][260] is compulsory throughout Australia.


Education is the responsibility of the individual states
and territories[261] so the rules vary between states, but
in general children are required to attend school from the
age of about 5 up until about 16.[262][263] In some states
(e.g., Western Australia,[264] the Northern Territory[265]
and New South Wales[266][267] ), children aged 1617
are required to either attend school or participate in
vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.

Australia has the third and seventh highest life expectancy


of males and females respectively in the world.[276] Life
expectancy in Australia in 2010 was 79.5 years for males
and 84.0 years for females.[277] Australia has the highest rates of skin cancer in the world,[278] while cigarette
smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and
disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality
and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is
hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.[279][280]
Australia ranks 35th in the world[281] and near the top of
developed nations for its proportion of obese adults [282]
and nearly two thirds (63%) of its adult population is either overweight or obese.[283]
Total expenditure on health (including private sector
spending) is around 9.8% of GDP.[284] Australia introduced universal health care in 1975.[285] Known as
Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an income
tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently set
at 1.5%.[286] The states manage hospitals and attached
outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the
Pharmaceutical Benets Scheme (subsidising the costs of
medicines) and general practice.[285]

12

10

10

CULTURE

Culture

tic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the


gurative and the abstract.[297][298] The National Gallery
of Australia and state galleries maintain collections of
Main article: Culture of Australia
[299]
Australia has one of
Since 1788, the basis of Australian culture has Australian and international art.
the worlds highest attendances of art galleries and museums per head of population.[300]

The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne was the rst building


in Australia to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
2004.[287]

been strongly inuenced by Anglo-Celtic Western culture.[288][289] Distinctive cultural features have also arisen
from Australias natural environment and Indigenous
cultures.[290][291] Since the mid-20th century, American
popular culture has strongly inuenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema.[292] Other cultural inuences come from neighbouring Asian countries,
and through large-scale immigration from non-Englishspeaking nations.[292][293]

Sidney Nolan's Snake mural (1970), held at the Museum of Old


and New Art in Hobart, Tasmania, is inspired by the Aboriginal
creation myth of the Rainbow Serpent, as well as desert owers
in bloom after a drought.[301]

Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older.[302] Writers of the 19th-century
Bulletin School, such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson, captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary. Their works are still
very popular; Patersons bush poem "Waltzing Matilda"
(1895) is regarded as Australias unocial national
anthem.[303] Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australias most prestigious literary prize, awarded to the
10.1 Arts
best novel about Australian life.[304] Its rst recipient,
Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in LiteraMain articles: Australian art, Australian literature, ture in 1973.[305] Australian winners of the Man Booker
Theatre of Australia and Dance in Australia
Prize include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard
Flanagan.[306] Author David Malouf, playwright David
The rock art of Australias Indigenous peoples is the Williamson and poet Les Murray are also renowned lit[307][308]
oldest and richest in the world, dating as far back as erary gures.
60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands Many of Australias performing arts companies reof sites.[294] Traditional designs, patterns and stories in- ceive funding through the federal governments Australia
fuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, the last Council.[309] There is a symphony orchestra in each
great art movement of the 20th century";[295] its ex- state,[310] and a national opera company, Opera Ausponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye.[296] During tralia,[311] well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherthe rst century of European settlement, colonial artists, land.[312] At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie
trained in Europe, showed a fascination with the unfamil- Melba was one of the worlds leading opera singers.[313]
iar land.[297] The naturalistic, sun-lled works of Arthur Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian BalStreeton, Tom Roberts and others associated with the let and various state companies. Each state has a publicly
19th-century Heidelberg Schoolthe rst distinctively funded theatre company.[314]
Australian movement in Western artgave expression
to a burgeoning Australian nationalism in the lead-up
to Federation.[297] While the school remained inuen- 10.2 Media
tial into the new century, modernists such as Margaret
Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan and Arthur Boyd, ex- Main articles: Cinema of Australia, Television in Ausplored new artistic trends.[297] The landscape remained a tralia, Media of Australia and Music of Australia
central subject matter for Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the worlds rst
and other post-World War II artists whose works, eclec- feature length lm, spurred a boom in Australian cin-

10.4

Sport and recreation

13
migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to
build a thriving Australian coee culture, and the inuence of Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of
their staple foods, such as the Chinese-inspired dim sim
and Chiko Roll.[331] Vegemite, pavlova, lamingtons and
meat pies are regarded as iconic Australian foods.[332]
Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern,
cooler parts of the country.

10.4 Sport and recreation

Actor playing the bushranger Ned Kelly in The Story of the Kelly
Gang (1906), the worlds rst feature lm

Main article: Sport in Australia


About 24% of Australians over the age of 15 regu-

ema during the silent lm era.[315] After World War


I, Hollywood monopolised the industry,[316] and by
the 1960s Australian lm production had eectively
ceased.[317] With the benet of government support, the
Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative
and successful lms, many exploring the nations colonial past, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock and Breaker
Morant,[318] while the so-called Ozploitation genre produced international blockbusters, including the Mad Max
series.[319] More recent successes included Shine and
Rabbit-Proof Fence.[320][321] Notable Australian actors
The Melbourne Cricket Ground is strongly associated with the
include Errol Flynn, Judith Anderson, Georey Rush,
history and development of cricket and Australian rules football,
[322]
Nicole Kidman, Heath Ledger and Cate Blanchett.
Australias two most popular spectator sports.[333]
Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian
Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special
Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,[323] and numerous public, non-prot television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,[323] and there
are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and
The Australian Financial Review.[323] In 2010, Reporters
Without Borders placed Australia 18th on a list of 178
countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand
(8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (19th) and United
States (20th).[324] This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media
ownership in Australia;[325] most print media are under
the control of News Corporation and Fairfax Media.[326]

10.3

Cuisine

Main article: Australian cuisine


Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a
simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and ora, otherwise called bush tucker.[327][328] The rst settlers introduced British food to the continent, much of which
is now considered typical Australian food, such as the
Sunday roast.[329][330] Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European

larly participate in organised sporting activities.[222] At


an international level, Australia has excelled at cricket,
eld hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union.[334]
The majority of Australians live within the coastal zone,
making the beach a popular recreation spot and an integral part of the nations identity.[335] Australia is a powerhouse in water-based sports, such as swimming and
surng.[336] The surf lifesaving movement originated in
Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the countrys icons.[337] Nationally, other popular sports include
Australian rules football, horse racing, basketball, surfing, soccer, and motor racing. The annual Melbourne
Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race attract intense interest.[338]
Australia is one of ve nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era,[339] and has
hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000
in Sydney.[340] Australia has also participated in every
Commonwealth Games,[341] hosting the event in 1938,
1962, 1982, 2006 and will host the 2018 Commonwealth
Games.[342] Australia made its inaugural appearance at
the Pacic Games in 2015. As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant, Australia has won the
OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup
once the only country to have won championships in
two dierent FIFA confederations.[343] The country regularly competes among the world elite basketball teams

14

13

as it is among the global top three teams in terms of qualications to the Basketball Tournament at the Summer
Olympics. Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament, international cricket matches, and the Australian
Formula One Grand Prix. The highest-rating television
programs include sports telecasts such as the Summer
Olympics, FIFA World Cup, The Ashes, Rugby League
State of Origin, and the grand nals of the National Rugby
League and Australian Football League.[344] Skiing in
Australia began in the 1860s and snow sports take place
in the Australian Alps and parts of Tasmania.

11

See also

Transport in Australia
Tourism in Australia
Visa policy of Australia
Outline of Australia
Book:Australia

12

Notes

[1] Australias royal anthem is "God Save the Queen", played


in the presence of a member of the Royal family when
they are in Australia. In all other appropriate contexts, the
national anthem of Australia, "Advance Australia Fair", is
played.[1]
[2] English does not have de jure status.[2] </ref> National
language English[N 2] Demonym
Australian
Aussie (colloquial)[3][4]
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy Monarch Elizabeth II Governor-General Sir Peter Cosgrove Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull Chief
Justice Robert French Legislature Parliament Upper
house Senate Lower house House of Representatives
Independence from the United Kingdom Federation,
Constitution 1 January 1901 Statute of Westminster
Adoption Act 9 October 1942 (with eect
from 3 September 1939) Australia Act 3 March 1986
Area Total 7,692,024 km2 (6th)
2,969,907 sq mi Population 2016 estimate 24,019,500[5]
(51st) 2011 census 21,507,717[6] Density 2.8/km2
(236th)
7.3/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate Total $1.137
trillion[7] (19th) Per capita $47,318[7] (17th) GDP
(nominal) 2015 estimate Total $1.241 trillion[7] (12th)
Per capita $51,642[7] (9th) Gini (2012)33.6[8]
medium 19th HDI (2014) 0.935[9]
very high 2nd Currency Australian dollar (AUD) Time

REFERENCES

zone various<ref name='time' group='N'>There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see Time in
Australia.
[3]
[4] Based on the Kppen climate classication.
[5] Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean
as dened by the International Hydrographic Organization
(IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations dened
the term Southern Ocean as applying only to the waters
between Antarctica and 60 degrees south latitude.[122]

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[3] See entry in the Macquarie Dictionary.
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[6] Australian Bureau of Statistics (31 October 2012).
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15

with the advice of the Privy Council, to declare by proclamation that, on and after a day therein appointed, not being later than one year after the passing of this Act, the
people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,
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[26] THE ILLUSTRATED SYDNEY NEWS. Illustrated


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[33] Roberts, Richard G.; Jones, Rhys; Spooner, Nigel A.;


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Match Rock Art. Discovery News. Archived from the
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[36] MacKnight, CC (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne University Press.
[37] Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 233.
[38] Marsh, Lindsay (2010). History of Australia : understanding what makes Australia the place it is today. Greenwood,
W.A.: Ready-Ed Publications. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-86397798-2.
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[24] He named it Austrialia del Espiritu Santo and claimed


it for Spain The Spanish quest for Terra Australis | State
Library of New South Wales Page 1.
[25] A note on 'Austrialia' or 'Australia' Rupert Gerritsen Journal of The Australian and New Zealand Map Society
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[41] Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 678.


[42] Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 464.
[43] Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 470.
[44] Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 598.
[45] Davison, Hirst and Macintyre, p. 679.

16

[46] Convict Records Public Record oce of Victoria; State


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Bibliography

Davison, Graeme; Hirst, John; Macintyre, Stuart


(1999). The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-553597-9.
Jupp, James (2001). The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80789-1.
Smith, Bernard; Smith, Terry (1991). Australian
painting 17881990. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-554901-5.
Teo, Hsu-Ming; White, Richard (2003). Cultural
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Press. ISBN 0-86840-589-2.

15

Further reading

Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacic. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17962-3
Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds) (2011). The
Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture Cambridge
University Press, Port Melbourne, Victoria. ISBN
978-0-521-88857-8
Hughes, Robert (1986). The Fatal Shore: The
Epic of Australias Founding. Knopf. ISBN 0-39450668-5.
Powell JM (1988). An Historical Geography of
Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52125619-4
Robinson GM, Loughran RJ, and Tranter PJ (2000)
Australia and New Zealand: economy, society
and environment. London: Arnold; NY: OUP;
0340720336 paper 0-340720328 hard.

related

to

Australia

Australian Government website


Australian Bureau of Statistics
Community organisations portal
Tourism Australia
Australia entry at The World Factbook
Australia at UCB Libraries GovPubs
Australia at DMOZ

at

25

17
17.1

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Ckatz, Speedboy Salesman, Reid1867, Cwhast, JHunterJ, Randomtime, Andypandy.UK, Slakr, Special-T, Eternal Equinox, Tasc, Apcbg,
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Dhp1080, AdultSwim, Northmeister, Aotearoa, Xxnick 2k5xx, Intranetusa, Ryulong, Lord Football, Moretz, Parcheese, Jose77, Avant
Guard, Digsdirt, SmokeyJoe, Vagary, Tim374, Dl2000, Dcashm, Amitch, Asyndeton, The-Pope, Istanbuljohnm, Ginkgo100, Scotwood72,
Nehrams2020, Seqsea, Sunoco, V6g3h7, Dakart, Akbradford, Penno, Lakers, Qazqazqaz~enwiki, Dorro, Joseph Solis in Australia, Yagnikhiren, Myrtone86, A Person 300, Blueheels, King kong92, J Di, Executive.koala, Amakuru, SweetNeo85, CapitalR, Jackp, Hector
McPherson, Guest0495, Blehfu, Civil Engineer III, Goran.S2, Az1568, Ziusudra, Anger22, Nkayesmith, Chovain, MrBoo, Radiant chains,
Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Cryptic C62, Galati, Fvasconcellos, Xcentaur, JForget, Chappo, Cuneas, DangerousPanda, Phillip J, The stu
is good, Ale jrb, Jimmy cannon, ZICO, Wafulz, Seb162005, Crownjewel82, Scohoust, CBM, Yummylunch, Grimgor79, ThePrankster,
Orderinchaos, Wommy34, Virgule82, Basawala, GHe, Nickm57, Theblackplague, MrZap, THF, TommYGunneR, Skyymangar, Comic
master, Paul limbers, Alandavidson, MarsRover, Shizane, Casper2k3, Zurkhardo, LCpl, Krabby me, IrishJew, Auriong, Oden, Jgrischow1,
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R-41, Plerdsus, Umdunno, ST47, Tomwithanh, J IS ME CONQUERS ALL, J IS ME FEELS NEGLECTED, Randomn DOGS RUN
FREE, Agne27, Pascal.Tesson, Manutd 12345, Zsean, Who but you is popo, Synergy, Amandajm, Acs4b, Q43, Tawkerbot4, Codetiger,
Chrislk02, Bencollins, Enabnit, Brotown3, Donaldtong, Mr nice guy, Lee, Kozuch, Renassault, Blindman shady, Tarkan1st, Daven200520,
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Poomiester, GF89, Swm0793, Kellyowers, Athomas7990, Hector witt, Hector witt 2, Janechra, Osborne, Felix Portier~enwiki, Clowning, Daniel, BenMerill, 23prootie, Jed, Headshot01, PIO, Rcandelori, Marek69, Mazaru, John254, Tjpob, SGGH, SomeStranger, Dbromage, Brodiepearce, Master Spiky, Merbabu, Jameogle, X201, Solidenterprises, Lhurst, Alphonse idiom, Mcgrath50, Ptndan, Vlachul,
Boxyisaturtle, Murraybuckley~enwiki, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Paulbowen, DeusMP, Wikidenizen, Lwllwl2003, Mumby,
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WODUP, Fosscape, Maddylauren, Brevevsky Sovietov2006, Peterenko, SparrowsWing, Avicennasis, Midgrid, Amorette, Bubba hotep,
BrianGV, Sockofpnatt, Culverin, Teterenkos, Titerenkos, Baseballboring, Baseballisveryboring, Stupidreverts, Stopthecrap, Destroyer000,
Dewaargh, Ujalm, David Hylton, Animum, Utezduyar~enwiki, Sourside21, Suisse2007, ArchStanton69, User86654, JJ Harrison, Harrison09, Nyckjoca, Hamiltonstone, - 44, - 42, Jamie999, Thehalfone, Macquarie, Yuhanna kokoc, Matt Adore, Bharathiya, Clementatlee, - 40, Just James, Megalopsychia, Glen, Mitchell man, Simon Peter Hughes, Sprons, Dawooper, Brentx, Andrew Chapman 1975,
Padawan3000, JdeJ, ChazBeckett, Dylbat, Dkriegls, Viyu5, Baristarim, Pax:Vobiscum, TheRanger, Isjongood, Welshleprechaun, Massacrenz, Pinktexta, Richie smartone, Balltsuki, MasterRadius, DancingPenguin, Wikihunter191, Adriaan, Nationalgeo, Misarxist, Extreme
boy, Death 136 7, Stained eyc, SpecialWindler, Hdt83, MartinBot, Bodelafela, SolitaryWolf, STBot, Wpmo, Vreemdst, 52 Pickup, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Dythy, Me4321, P1e, 42croad, Petopali, ARC Gritt, WikiTownsvillian, G-nius, Motley Crue Rocks, Corrosion20, Rettetast, NSKrishnan, Holwil, WTPP, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Ombudswiki, Crazyparadigm, Antoneraga,
Onixz100, Clarence Yung, Abridgetoofar, Ruud64, Paulmcdonald, Moogin, Chaz1dave, Rikklez, Lilac Soul, Mw12310, Anko44, Artaxiad, Ssolbergj, Manticore, Deathby, J.delanoy, Asandwell, DrKay, Lailacm, Qwanqwa, Chris1138, TyrS, SxcJessxxoo, Kolo974, Ciavarella,
Arikaerrington, Maniac redV, Staniel Kohlhardt, The hub, Suiiie, Kellyla, Palmfrond86, G. Campbell, Tdadamemd, Yeti Hunter, Andrew wilson, Death 136 3, Fat kid 3, Ggunit 911, Icseaturtles, MrsPlum, Bruins18, Littleghostboo, Revoranii, UnnamedGent, Natski23,

17.1

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27

Funguy06, FrummerThanThou, Andrew Rickert, Skullketon, Wangtastic, Darkchris, Peels 03, Winewine, DarkFalls, LordAnubisBOT,
Pokemonman, Happy8, Sexykeira, The1nonlybenji, Thomas Larsen, Athene cunicularia, Starnestommy, Im eslo, Ryan Postlethwaite,
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Juliancolton, Aaron92chen, RB972, Limetolime, HenryLarsen, Jjhcap99, Aussieaussie, HyDeckar, Shunt110, Potaaatos, Jevansen, Cleverdan204, Treisijs, LewstherinII, Southsydney, Pat Gibson, GingerDemarque, Madmofo69, MartinBotIII, Exhiles, Ganodan, Andy Marchbanks, Inwind, Riverplaterules, JFT96, Ben R. Thomas, Wikipeterproject, WLRoss, Chonners, Xiahou, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, WWGB, Gobblemelonheadnumber1, Eggchaser, Sooner Dave, Aucitypops, Lights, X!, G2bambino, PeaceNT, Greengirae~enwiki,
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Ann Stouter, Muzzamo, Z.E.R.O., Anonymous Dissident, ElinorD, NJOrlando, JUBALCAIN, Simonmetcalf, Someguy1221, Lradrama,
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Kroniic, MitchKliev, Commiessuck, Novadeath69, Cindamuse, Finance agimo, Mattelsen, AlleborgoBot, Nix35, Local yokel, Michael
Frind, Wisamzaqoot, Jordanray123454321, Puremule, Ojoe2000, Gudnirunar, Sauronjim, Signsolid, HybridBoy, MikeZombie777, SWCS,
Demmy, Pdfpdf, Mastronarde, Dale4sail, Armada579, Cha-ching-3939, Botev, WunNation, GoonerDP, SieBot, Arun11, StAnselm, Syriana blood, Forehead2nvy, Nling, Whitehatnetizen, Ethel Aardvark, Calliopejen1, JamesA, Angel2001, Euryalus, Psbsub, Sparrowman980,
Carlson969, BotMultichill, Charlesbuckley, Completely Insane, Mossmen1531, YourEyesOnly, Surlytim, Universe=atom, BlackSlivers,
Spamburgler, Chipsgrill, Adelina and Hannah, Zilla3, Roidhrigh, Albanman, Mynameisnat, Whiteghost.ink, Corrado7mari, Mr Taz,
Kedyz, Saints088, Flower power taiga, Nmeyer92, Sgthenno, Srushe, Takemeon, Mickynsw, Populuspopulus, Arda Xi, Mutinydiants,
BaileyDCampbell, Waygugin, Thefreemarket, Se7en555, Maddiekate, Lpug21, Iealing, Lilschu101, Quest for Truth, Owned Souls, Cablehorn, Ventur, Wilson44691, Wjs13, Bossyaaron, JuanFox, Taddle, Callumski, Dexx05626, H0ttamale2, Adamjfry, Aumpire, Lourakis,
Robertveneziano, Opal07, Lightmouse, Terroristtaz, Polbot, Orderinchaos 2, BenoniBot~enwiki, Ajwitney, BrianBeahr, Retireduser1111,
Johnnywiggle, RandomHumanoid, Upper Lines, Bridgebrain, Supt. of Printing, LonelyMarble, Torchwoodwho, Stevenr123, Gorrrillla5,
Kentynet, Scotia1297, That Guy88, Gallisuchus, Elise95, Folkmann, HighInBC, Casenj, Rasta Master, Nford24, Paulinho28, Kevo-723,
Bowei Huang 2, WikiLaurent, Goodrat, Verdadero, TubularWorld, EchucaCollege, Greal, Finneganw, Kifolga, Mcdom, Jobas, Miyokan,
DTGHYUKLPOQWMNB, Often Shift, BeansNCheese, JCRB, YellowAssessmentMonkey, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Rhyshuw1~enwiki,
ClueBot, TaborL, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, Aussiewikikid, Murchy, Vicpulido~enwiki, Kotniski, Nick.pippin, Sezzaxox, Immortallord,
EoGuy, HollywoodIncfan, B. van der Wee, Ameshavkin, Nnemo, Enthusiast01, Cygnis insignis, Crackerjack12, Englishgirl18, Gregcaletta, Dcradick, AussieDownUnder, Dingiswayo, Tomcbh, Drmies, Kkiillaa, JJboy101, Hihihihiz, Leahcim512, Australiana, Mild Bill
Hiccup, CrazyRepublican, Kathleen.wright5, SuperHamster, Boing! said Zebedee, Steveonz, Jean.Miller, Imperium Europeum, Joyceclintonphillip, Niceguyedc, Klubnick, DaveBurstein, Parkwells, Dylan620, Shannon bohle, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Dengero, Insanely
Beautiful, Lencer, Franksbnetwork, RenamedUser jaskldjslak903, Bhanvad, Qzurr, M.A.Kampman, Critter beach, Pointillist, NuclearVacuum, DragonBot, No such user, Robert Skyhawk, King wiston, Mkativerata, Paulkondratuklovesau, Alexbot, Trist.tlc.123, Taifarious1, Tornadou, Sunil060902, Kooleo799, Ottre, Danausi, John Nevard, Arcot, Mfa fariz, Sherwelbuilding, Rhatsa26X, TheGreenEditor, Poz11, Noobhunter93, Costlab, Sun Creator, Irving17, Holesworth, Cenarium, Ajw522, Roadquick, Jotterbot, Johnsmich, Iohannes
Animosus, AnubisII, Tnxman307, M.O.X, Quelcrime, Nyttend backup, Kacey60, Rabindra Baral, L.Wadsworth, Nickymo101, Mickey
gfss2007, Knowz, Lam3l, IntctExpert, EDITMASTER5, Panwan, Thingg, Lmtlmt, Notthe600, Liberalcynic, Silas Maxeld, Footballfan190, Samantha555, Littleteddy, Versus22, Dana boomer, Kattigara, IJA, MelonBot, Menjus, Cookiehead, TheMarchingMan216, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, HSDR, Yanatello, Stantheman sylvie, DumZiBoT, Australien, Dalvimiogo, John-TorresAUS, XLinkBot, Theanimalmother, AgnosticPreachersKid, Hoptop, Dsvyas, Joseph031164, Harshana123456, BodhisattvaBot, JMLAUS, Stickee, Messiisking,
Fercho85, Duckyluver15, Tcustomer, Richyhan, Feyrauth, Rreagan007, Mitch Ames, Facts707, SilvonenBot, Andxtiltone, Keluar94,
Maxwell cottingham, Vegas949, HarlandQPitt, Polibiush, Atomicdor, Asidemes, Good Olfactory, Lemmey, Frog luva96, Atoric, Gggh, Super Cleverly, MoOseY3401, Bonazzi, Pyfan, Yousou, Kangaroosrule, D.bennett08, AUSAlison, Dan56, Agonzalezb, Otisjimmy1, Boorp,
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Shadow23133, Lihaas, Michaelwuzthere, Glass Sword, Tomdaly4321, FiriBot, Debresser, Favonian, Sportsfan92, LinkFA-Bot, Lemonade100, Blaylockjam10, 5 albert square, HAHS 25, Toddles9, Pargy, Klutzulmaniack, Lakshmix, Vicmillsy, Numbo3-bot, Howler200, F
Notebook, Vacekha, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Cesiumfrog, JEN9841, AussieLegend2, SmolderinCorpse, HerculeBot, Cchow2, Waltloc, Genius101, Aaroncrick, Tartarus, Luckas-bot, AadaamS, Ptbotgourou, Mjhgtaitokerau, Cm001, Evans1982, EnochBethany, Gavin Lisburn,
Smk1895x, Millere08, KamikazeBot, Rudykruger, Laserforce, Russo87, TheThomas, AnakngAraw, Svlah2, SoMuchTime, Anonymous
from the 21th century, Matty, AnomieBOT, Puertorico1, Tornado99, Thesmith3r1, Senor Freebie, Noq, 1exec1, Marwanjuma, Lebanonman19, Galoubet, Dwayne, Squoups, JackieBot, Hadrian89, VerseDoorPlace, Nerdluck34, Kingpin13, NickK, Zxabot, Bosonic dressing,
Nazrani, Je Muscato, Materialscientist, J332, Danno uk, Citation bot, Missminidiva, Maxis ftw, SeventhHell, GB fan, Crazyla112, ArthurBot, B. Fairbairn, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Droadnaegel, Osborneap, Daftpunkboy93, GarrieFerron, MauritsBot, Xqbot, ManningBartlett,
TinucherianBot II, Night w, Zargontapel, Conay, Poetaris, 4twenty42o, Miracleworker5263, Jerey Mall, Alexdarkred, Chloesnowie,
BritishWatcher, Gap9551, Aa77zz, Flashash;, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Miesianiacal, Zapacit, Earlypsychosis, Anotherclown, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Justdata4wiki, Joes23b, SCRECROW, Brutaldeluxe, Longest Journey, Freshcelerycj, Siddharatha.tiwari, Kaio-ken x10, GhalyBot,
Moxy, Smallman12q, Shadowjams, Editor182, WebCiteBOT, ASOTMKX, Rehumanist, Erik9bot, Y26de.jknowles, Thehelpfulbot, Spazturtle, Legobot III, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Mooremoore, HJED, George2001hi, Chemical2009, MontseBL, GenericBob, Paine Ellsworth,
Tobby72, Serp3821, Vidboy10, Sky Attacker, LavenhamHistorian, Michael93555, HaireDunya, Csiew88, Ankitchopra, Addicted04, HJ
Mitchell, Eagle4000, Finalius, Bambuway, UltimateG, Jach79, Purpleturple, Politicalpandit, L95slovenia, Coops123, Asjogoaeg, Citation
bot 1, Diwas, Kafajaja, Speedisa, Liampluridon, Toolboks, AstaBOTh15, Kj1996, Ghislain Montvernay, Miss-jessie-gal, JKDw, Stt13,
Pinethicket, Haaqfun, Peroxwhy2gen, Elockid, HRoestBot, Yottie, Alonso de Mendoza, KAPITALIST88, 10metreh, Jonesey95, Rameshngbot, GreenEco, Azips, Mr Smartipants, Gigglmash1234, Georg Hurtig, Mutinus, Billsta1, Deviloper, Spencerwhite18, LagrangeCalvert,
SpringSummerAutumn, Maokart444, MrsGreatMersey57, Forward Unto Dawn, Theguywiththecoolhat, Coolknot, Serp38021, Amongadded2, Powerful999, James4750, Lissajous, Iloveyotummy, Reconsider the static, LALAboys, Ozhistory, Watchover, Flosssock1, Kgrad,
Elekhh, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Karyasuman, Hunarian, DixonDBot, Mono, Silent Billy, DriveMySol, k, Ashokpmeena,
Thinker0000, Saltybut, Simharrison, Lotje, Antemister, SkanterBrazil, RoadTrain, Robbie555, Clarkcj12, Klomin10, Begoon, FerntreeG-

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17.2

Images

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alt='2006Australian
exports.PNG'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/
2006Australian_exports.PNG/45px-2006Australian_exports.PNG' width='45' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
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org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/2006Australian_exports.PNG/90px-2006Australian_exports.PNG
2x'
data-le-width='1425'
data-le-height='625' /></a> File:2006Australian exports.PNG by Anwar saadat(en.wp), released under PD-self. Map derived from
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1.5x,
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File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain


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