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Step 4
Write down the given data, with units, using the symbols
Hint 3
Hint 4
Hint 5
Materials Science
6.2
(1)
P R
Of the four resistances, if three resistances are known and one is unknown, the unknown
resistance can be calculated.
(2)
Eg = 2k
1
T
5. Again two resistances, which differ by one ohm are found out such that the
deflections in the galvanometer are on the either side of zero. Therefore the actual
R2
R2 1
resistance of thermistor will be between 10 and 10 .
Materials Science
6.3
Temp. of
thermisto
r
T = t+273
1
T
Resistanc
e in P
Resistanc
e in Q
Resistance
in R
K-1
ohm
ohm
Ohm
Resistance of
the thermistor
P
Q
R =
R
2.303 log10 RT
ohm
ohm
T h e rm is to r
2V
2 .3 0 3 lo g R
dy
dx
1 /T
Observation
From graph, slope = (dy / dx) =
Calculation
(K
- 1
Laboratory Skills
Band gap,
6.4
6.
Then the resistance in P is made 1000 ohms keeping same 10 ohms in Q. Again, two
resistances R and (R+1) are found out such that the deflection in galvanometer changes
direction. Then the correct resistance.
RT
its
10
(R)
1000
(or)
6.5
Materials Science
where 0 2 s V ( 0.213 )
f (W / S )
I
I
;
Here, s is distance between probes and W is the thickness of semi-conducting crystal. V
and I are the voltage and current across and through the crystal chip.
Procedure
1. Connect one pair of probes to direct current source through milliammeter and other
pair to millivoltmeter.
2. Switch on the constant current source and adjust current I, to a described value, say 2
mA.
3. Connect the oven power supply and start heating.
4. Measure the inner probe voltage V, for various temperatures.
Graph
10 3
T
and log10 as shown in Fig.6.1(b).2. Find the slope of the curve
Plot a graph in
AB log 10
BC 10 3
T . So the energy band gap of semiconductor (Germanium) is given by
2.3026 log 10
E g 2k
1T
AB
AB
AB
2k 2.3026
1000 2 8.6 10 5 2.3026
1000 eV 0.396
eV
CD
CD
CD
Laboratory Skills
6.6
Table 6.1(b).1 To determine the resistivity of the semi-conductor for various temperatures:
Current (I) = mA
S.No.
Temperature
inC
Voltage (V)
in K
(Volts)
Resistivity
(ohm. cm)
Observations:
Distance between probes(s)
= ..mm
10 3 / T
(K)
Log10
6.7
Materials Science
V
D ire c t C u rre n t
S o u rc e
P ro b e s
O ven Pow er
S u p p ly
S a m p le
G e C ry s ta l
O VEN
lo g
10
1
T
Laboratory Skills
6.8
Result
Energy band gap for semiconductor (Germanium) is Eg =.eV
Source of error and precautions
1.The resistivity of the material should be uniform in the area of measurement.
2.The surface on which the probes rest should be flat with no surface leakage.
3.The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor crystal
chip should be small compared to the distance between the probes.
Materials Science
6.9
i)
ii)
iii)
VH
= Current (ampere)
Carrier density ( n ) =
where
VH .t
IH 10 8 cm3 C 1
RH
RH
Conductivity (C V 1 s 1 cm 1 )
Principle
Hall effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, a
potential difference is developed across the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the
current and the magnetic field.
Laboratory Skills
6.10
Current in the
constant current
power supply (A)
(1)
=t
cm
(2)
V C 1 s cm
(3)
CV 1 s 1 cm 1
(4)
(5)
(6)
VH .t
RH = IH 10 8
-------------
1
n = RH q
------------RH
---------------
Materials Science
6.11
Y
B
G
I
D
O
F
X
V
Z
Ba
Rh
Procedure
1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the hall probe to the terminals marked as voltage
(i.e. potential difference should be measured along the width) and lengthwise contacts
to the terminals marked (i.e. current should be measured along the length) as shown in
fig.
2. Switch on the Hall Effect setup and adjust the current say 0.2 mA.
3. Switch over the display in the Hall Effect setup to the voltage side.
4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig and switch on the
electromagnetic power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the
Hall probe until it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be
maximum in this adjustment.
5. Measure the hall voltage and tabulate the readings.
Laboratory Skills
6.12
6. Measure the Hall voltage for different magnetic fields and tabulate the readings.
7. Measure the magnetic field using Gauss meter
8. From the data, calculate the Hall coefficient, carrier mobility and current density.
Result
IR
I ohm
By ohms law,
(or)
where R is the resistance of the LDR (i.e) the resistance when the LDR is closed. V and I
represents the corresponding voltage and current respectively.
Principle
The photoconductive device is based on the decrease in the resistance of certain
semiconductor materials when they are exposed to both infrared and visible radiation.
The photoconductivity is the result of carrier excitation due to light absorption and the
figure of merit depends on the light absorption efficiency. The increase in conductivity is due to an
increase in the number of mobile charge carriers in the material.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
Result
1.
The characteristics of LDR were studied and plotted.
Materials Science
6.13
2.
1 k
( 0 - 10 m A )
_
+
A
R R
(k )
10 V
+
_
L ig h t
+
V
LDR
_
X
D is t a n c e ( c m )
Observation
Voltmeter reading when the LDR is closed = V
Ammeter reading when the LDR is closed = . A
Dark resistance =
V
I = . ohm
Distance
Voltmeter reading
Ammeter reading
RR
(cm)
(V) volt
(I) mA
Laboratory Skills
6.14
To trace the B-H loop (hysteresis) of a ferrite specimen (transformer core) and
(ii)
Apparatus Required
Magnetizing coil, CRO, given sample of ferrite etc.,
Principle
The primary winding on the specimen, when fed to low a.c. voltage (50 Hz), produces a
magnetic field H of the specimen. The a.c. magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
The voltage across the resistance R 1, connected in series with the primary is proportional to the
magnetic field and is given to the horizontal input of CRO. The induced voltage in the secondary
coil, which is proportional to dB/dt (flux density), is applied to the passive integrating circuit. The
output of the integrator is now fed to the vertical input of the CRO. Because of application of a
voltage proportional to H to the horizontal axis and a voltage proportional to B to the vertical axis,
the loop is formed as shown in figure.
Formula
N1
R
C
2 2 SV S H
R1 AL
Energy loss = N 2
Area of loop
where N1 = number of turns in the Primary
N2 = number of turns in the Secondary
R1 = Resistance between D to A or D to B or D to C
Materials Science
6.15
R2 = Resistance between upper S and V (to be measured by the student on B-H unit)
C2 = Capacitance
A = Area of cross section = w t (m)
L
S.No.
Unit
MSR
(cm)
VSC
(div)
TR = MSR + VSC LC
(cm)
Mean (w) = 10 2 m
Laboratory Skills
S.No.
Unit
MSR
(cm)
TR = MSR + VSC LC
(cm)
VSC
(div)
Mean (t) = 10 2 m
Observations
N1 =
= 200 turns
N2 =
= 400 turns
R2 =
= 4.7 kilo-ohm
C2 =
Capacitance
= 4.7F
= 2(length + breadth) = m
= m
R1 =
Resistance between D to A or D to B or D to C =
Sv
SH =
m2
6.16
Materials Science
6.17
MSR
(cm)
VSC
(div)
TR = MSR + VSC X LC
(cm)
Mean (b) = 10 2 m
MSR
(cm)
VSC
(div)
TR = MSR + VSC LC
(cm)
Mean (l) = 10 2 m
Procedure
1.
2.
Connect the primary terminals of the specimen to P,P and secondary to S, S terminals.
3.
4.
Adjust the CRO to work on external mode. The time is switched off. Adjust horizontal and
vertical position controls such that the spot is at the centre of the CRO screen.
5.
6.
Laboratory Skills
6.18
7.
8.
Switch ON the power supply of the unit. The hysteresis loop is formed.
9.
Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains such that the loop occupies maximum area on the
screen of the CRO. Once this adjustment is made, do not disturb the gain controls.
10.
Trace the loop on a translucent graph paper. Estimate the area of loop.
11.
Remove the connections from CRO without disturbing the horizontal and vertical gain
controls.
12.
Determine the vertical sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage, say 6V
(peak to peak). If the spot deflects x cm, for 6V the sensitivity = (6/x 10 2 volts / metre.
Let it be Sv.
13.
Determine the horizontal sensitivity of the CRO by applying a known AC voltage, say 6V
(peak to peak). Let the horizontal sensitivity be SH volts / metre.
14.
Result
Energy loss of the transformer core is given as _____________ Joules/cycle/unit vol.
Materials Science
6.19
Aim
To measure the susceptibility of paramagnetic solution by Quinckes tube method.
Apparatus Required
Quinckes tube, Travelling microscope, sample (FeCl 3 solution), electromagnet, Power
supply, Gauss meter.
Principle
Based on molecular currents to explain Para and diamagnetic properties magnetic moment
to the molecule and such substances are attracted in a magnetic filed are called paramagnetics.
The repulsion of diamagnetics is assigned to the induced molecular current and its respective
reverse magnetic moment.
The force acting on a substance, of either repulsion or attraction, can be measured with the
help of an accurate balance in case of solids or with the measurement of rise in level in narrow
capillary in case of liquids.
The force depends on the susceptibility , of the material, i.e., on ratio of intensity of
magnetization to magnetizing field I/H. If the force on the substance and field are measured the
value of susceptibility can be calculated.
Formula
The susceptibility of the given sample is found by the formula
2( )gh
H2
=
kg m 1 s 2 gauss 2
Where
Laboratory Skills
6.20
E le c t r o m a g n e t
E le c t r o m a g n e t
S
Q u in c k e ' s T u b e
B a tte r y
Rh
Table 6.5.1 To find the rise in the capillary tube of the solution:
Microscopic reading without field (h1) = .. cm
LC =
cm
Current (i)
Field (H)
S.No.
Ampere
Gauss
Travelling microscope
reading (h2)
MSR
(cm)
VSC
(div)
TR
(cm)
Mean h/H2 = .
Observation:
= ..kg/m3
Difference
h = h1 ~h2
10 2 m
h / H2
(m 1 )
Materials Science
6.21
= density of air
= kg/ m3
Calculation:
2( ) gh
H2
The magnetic susceptibility of the given solution =
Laboratory Skills
6.22
Procedure
1.
The apparatus consists of U-shaped tube known as Quinckes tube. One of the limbs of
the tube is wide and the other one is narrow.
2.
The experimental liquid or the solution (FeCl 3) is filled in the tube in such a way that
the meniscus of the liquid in the narrow limb is at the centre of the magnetic field as shown in the
figure.
3.
The level of the liquid in the narrow tube is read by a traveling microscope when the
magnetic field is off (h1).
4.
5.
The experiment is repeated by varying the field by changing the current insteps of 0.3
A upto the maximum and each reading is noted.
6.
To determine the magnetic field (H), the hall probe flux meter (Gauss meter) is used.
7.
The flat portion of the hall probe is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e.
between the pole pieces at the center parallel to the poles.
8.
Switch off the electromagnet power supply. By adjusting, the gauss meter knob and
fix the field to be zero.
9.
Switch on the electromagnet and adjust the current to be 0.3A. Note the field value
from the gauss meter. Repeat the same as before till attaining the maximum current and note the
reading in the table.
10.
Materials Science
6.23
C0
where 0 =
=
A =
d
0A
(farad )
d
permittivity of free space
8.854 1012 farad / metre
area of the plates of the capacitor
(A = r2 : r = radius of the sample)
thickness of the sample (or) distance between the plates (m)
Principle
The capacitance of a capacitor increases when it is filled with an insulating medium. The
increase in the capacitance depends on the property of the medium, called dielectric constant ().
It can be measured using either static or alternating electric fields. The static dielectric constant is
measured with static fields or with low frequency ac fields. At higher frequencies, values of
dielectric constant become frequency dependent. The dielectric constant varies with temperature
also.
Procedure
1. The given dielectric sample inside the dielectric cell in its position without forming air
gap between the plates of the sample holder.
2. Connect the thermocouple leads to a digital temperature indicator to measure the
temperature of the dielectric cell
3. Also, connect the capacitance meter to the dielectric cell
4. Connect the heater terminals of the dielectric cell to ac mains through a dimmerstat.
5. At room temperature, measure the capacitance of the sample using capacitances meter.
6.
Now switch on the heater and measure the capacitance of the sample at different
temperature (in steps of 10C starting from room temperature).
Laboratory Skills
6.24
Temperature (C)
Capacitance
(Farad)
Observation
The radius of the sample
(r)
= .m
(d)
=..m
Calculation
The area of the plates of the capacitor = r2 =.. m2
The capacitance of the air capacitor,
C
0 A
........... farad
d
Dielectric constant
C
r
C 0
Materials Science
6.25
C
C0
7. Measure the thickness of the sample (d) using the micrometer screw attached in the
sample cell
8. Measure the diameter of the sample using a vernier caliper and determine the radius of
the sample
9. Calculate the capacitance of the air capacitor using, the relation
C0
10.
0 ( r 2)
d
Calculate the dielectric constant of the sample at different temperatures using the relation.
C
C0
Laboratory Skills
6.26
(h 2 k 2 l 2 )
a2
2
d 2
a2
c
For a orthorhombic crystal
1 h 2 k 2 l 2
d 2 a 2 b 2 c 2
The lattice parameter and interplanar distance are given for a cubic crystal as,
a
d
2 sin
h2 k 2 l 2
a
h2 k 2 l 2
Where, a
= Lattice parameter
d
= Interplanner distance
Each of the Miller indices can take values 0, 1, 2, 3, . Thus, the factor (h2 + k2
+ l ) takes the values given in Table 6.7.1.
2
Materials Science
6.27
h, k, l
h2 + k2 + l2
100
110
111
200
210
211
220
221
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
300
310
311
322
320
321
400
410
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
17
Intensity
h, k, l
2
Fig.6.7.1 XRD pattern
The problem of indexing lies in fixing the correct value of a by inspection of the sin 2 values.
Procedure:
From the 2 values on a powder photograph, the values are obtained. The sin2 values are
1
sin 2
sin min
2
sin 2
sin 2
3
2
sin min
sin 2 min
sin
sin 2 min
2
From the h,k,l values, the lattice parameters are calculated using the relation
a
d
2 sin
h2 k 2 l 2
a
2
h k 2 l2
Laboratory Skills
6.28
S. No
sin2
sin 2
sin 2 min
sin 2
sin 2 min
sin 2
sin 2 min
h2+k2+l2
hkl
Primitive P
None
Body centered I
hkl : h + k + l = 2 n
Face centered F
Depending on the nature of the h,k,l values the lattice type can be determined.
Result:
The lattice parameters are calculated theoretically from the powder x-ray diffraction pattern.
Materials Science
6.29
IR
source
Sample holder
Photodiode
Voltage
Glucose concentration
Fig.6.8.2 Variation of voltage with glucose concentration
Laboratory Skills
6.30
Glucose concentrations
(mg)
Voltage obtained
(V)
Result
The glucose concentrations have been determined and the variations of voltage with glucose
concentration have been plotted.