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AMPLIFIER
PHYSICAL
PARAMETER
ACTIVE
FILTER
OTHER
ANALOG
CHANNELS
SAMPLE
HOLD
PROGRAMMER
SEQUENCER
TRANSDUCER
CONTROL
AN002
A/D
CONVERTER
October 1986
ANALOG MULTIPLEXER
Application Note
CAUTION: These devices are sensitive to electrostatic discharge; follow proper IC Handling Procedures.
1-888-INTERSIL or 321-724-7143 | Copyright Intersil Corporation 1986
REGISTER
D/A
CONVERTER
ACTUATOR
PROCESS
PARAMETER
REGISTER
D/A
CONVERTER
ACTUATOR
PROCESS
PARAMETER
DECODER
AND
CONTROL
CONTROL
Quantizing Theory
OUTPUT STATES
111
110
6
5
4
101
100
011
010
001
000
+1.25 2.50 3.75 5.00 6.25 7.50 8.7510.00
INPUT VOLTAGE (+)
QUANTIZER
ERROR
Introduction
OUTPUT CODE
+Q/2
0
-Q/2
V
V(t)
TA
dV ( t )
V = -------------- T A
dt
TA = APERTURE TIME
V = AMPLITUDE UNCERTAINTY
(EQ. 1)
(EQ. 2)
(EQ. 3)
(EQ. 4)
(EQ. 5)
Sampling Theory
Introduction
An analog-to-digital converter requires a small, but
significant, amount of time to perform the quantizing and
coding operations. The time required to make the conversion
depends on several factors; the converter resolution, the
conversion technique, and the speed of the components
employed in the converter. The conversion speed required
for a particular application depends on the time variation of
the signal to be converted and on the accuracy desired.
Aperture Time
Conversion time is frequently referred to as aperture time. In
general, aperture time refers to the time uncertainty (or time
0.001
9
T A = ----- = --------------------------- = 320 10
3
f
3.14 10
(EQ. 6)
100s
10s
(A)
SIGNAL
(B)
SAMPLING
PULSES
(C)
SAMPLED
SIGNAL
1s
(D)
SAMPLED AND
HELD SIGNAL
100ns
10ns
1ns
10
100
1K
10K
SINUSOIDAL FREQUENCY (Hz)
100K
V
SAMPLING
PULSES
CONTINUOUS
SIGNAL
SPECTRUM
ALIAS
FREQUENCY
fC
FREQUENCY FOLDING
SAMPLED
SIGNAL
SPECTRUM
fS - fC
fC
fS
fS + fC
fS/2
+ a2 2
+ a3 2
+ + an 2
(EQ. 7)
(EQ. 8)
NUMBER
OF
STATES
(2n)
LSB WEIGHT
(2-n)
DYNAMIC
RANGE
(dB)
1 1
2 0.5
4 0.25
12
8 0.125
18.1
16 0.0625
24.1
32 0.03125
30.1
64 0.015625
36.1
128 0.0078125
42.1
256 0.00390625
48.2
512 0.001953125
54.2
10
1024 0.0009765625
60.2
11
2048 0.00048828125
66.2
12
4096 0.000244140625
72.2
13
8192 0.0001220703125
78.3
14
16384 0.00006103515625
84.3
15
32768 0.000030517578125
90.3
16
65536 0.0000152587890625
96.3
17
131072 0.00000762939453125
102.3
18
262144 0.000003814697265625
108.4
19
524288 0.0000019073486328125
114.4
20
(EQ. 9)
Several other binary codes are used with A/D and D/A
converters in addition to straight binary. These codes are
offset binary, twos complement, binary coded decimal
(BCD), and their complemented versions. Each code has a
specific advantage in certain applications. BCD coding for
example is used where digital displays must be interfaced
such as in digital panel meters and digital multimeters. Twos
complement coding is used for computer arithmetic logic
operations, and offset binary coding is used with bipolar
analog measurements.
Not only are the digital codes standardized with data
converters, but so are the analog voltage ranges. Most
converters use unipolar voltage ranges of 0 to +5V and 0 to
+10V although some devices use the negative ranges 0 to
-5V and 0 to -10V. The standard bipolar voltage ranges are
2.5V, 5V and 10V. Many converters today are pinprogrammable between these various ranges.
TABLE 2. BINARY CODING FOR 8-BIT UNIPOLAR CONVERTERS
+ 10V fS
STRAIGHT
BINARY
COMPLEMENTARY
BINARY
+fS-1 LSB
+9.961
1111 1111
0000 0000
+3/4fS
+7.500
1100 0000
0011 1111
+1/2fS
+5.000
1000 0000
0111 1111
+1/4fS
+2.500
0100 0000
1011 1111
+1/8fS
+1.250
0010 0000
1101 1111
+1 LSB
+0.039
0000 0001
1111 1110
0.000
0000 0000
1111 1111
FRACTION
OF fS
5V fS
FRACTION OF fS
OFFSET BINARY
TWOS
COMPLEMENT
SIGN-MAG BINARY
+fS-1 LSB
+4.9976
1111 1111
0000 0000
0111 1111
1111 1111
+1/4fS
+3.7500
1110 0000
0001 1111
0110 0000
1110 0000
+1/2fS
+2.5000
1100 0000
0011 1111
0100 0000
1100 0000
+3/4fS
+1.2500
1010 0000
0101 1111
0010 0000
1010 0000
0.0000
1000 0000
0111 1111
0000 0000
1000 0000
-1/4fS
-1.2500
0110 0000
1001 1111
1110 0000
0010 0000
-1/2fS
-2.5000
0100 0000
1011 1111
1100 0000
0100 0000
-3/4fS
-3.7500
0010 0000
1101 1111
1010 0000
0110 0000
-fS+1 LSB
-4.9976
0000 0001
1111 1110
1000 0001
0111 1111
-fS
-5.0000
0000 0000
1111 1111
1000 0000
--
OUTPUT CODE
NOTE: Sign Magnitude Binary has two code words for zero as shown here.
111
110
101
100
011
Q
010
BCD Codes
001
000
-5.00
-3.75
-2.50
-1.25
+1.25
+2.50
+3.75
+5.00
INPUT VOLTAGE
+10V
fS
BINARY CODED
DECIMAL
COMPLEMENTARY
BCD
+fS-1 LSB
+9.99
+3/4fS
+7.50
+1/2fS
+5.00
+1/4fS
+2.50
+1/8fS
+1.25
+1 LSB
+0.01
0.00
(EQ. 10)
R1
E1
(EQ. 11)
R2
CURRENT TO VOLTAGE
CONVERSION
E1
+
R2
R 2
E 2 = 1 + ------- E
R 1 1
R1
E2 = E1
UNITY GAIN BUFFER
I1
R2
E 2 = ----------- E 1
R1
E = -IR
E0
E
RO
RG
E 0 2R 0
G = -------- = ----------E R G
I1
I1
-VS
AD
CMRR = 20log 10 -----------A CM
(EQ. 12)
where Ad is differential voltage gain and Acm is commonmode voltage gain. CMRR is a function of frequency and
therefore also a function of the impedance balance between
the two amplifier input terminals. At even moderate
frequencies CMRR can be significantly degraded by small
unbalances in the source series resistance and shunt
capacitance.
Filters
A low pass filter frequently follows the signal processing
amplifier to reduce signal noise. Low pass filters are used for
the following reasons: to reduce man-made electrical
interference noise, to reduce electronic noise, and to limit the
bandwidth of the analog signal to less than half the sampling
frequency in order to eliminate frequency folding. When
used for the last reason, the filter is called a pre-sampling
filter or anti-aliasing filter.
Man-made electrical noise is generally periodic, as for
example in power line interference, and is sometimes
reduced by means of a special filter such as a notch filter.
Electronic noise, on the other hand, is random noise with
noise power proportional to bandwidth and is present in
transducer resistances, circuit resistances, and in amplifiers
themselves. It is reduced by limiting the bandwidth of the
system to the minimum required to pass desired signal
components.
0
ATTENUATION (dB)
-3dB
5
4-POLE
BESSEL
10
4-POLE
BUTTERWORTH
15
4-POLE
CHEBYCHEV
20
25
0.1
0.2
NORMALIZED FREQUENCY
Settling Time
Definition
A parameter that is specified frequently in data acquisition
and distribution systems is settling time. The term settling
time originates in control theory but is now commonly
applied to amplifiers, multiplexers, and D/A converters.
FINAL VALUE
ERROR BAND
A0
AMPLIFIER OPEN LOOP
RESPONSE (6dB/OCTAVE ROLLOFF)
+f S
FULL
SCALE
INPUT
STEP
SLEWING
DELAY TIME
SETTLING TIME
Amplifier Characteristics
Settling time, unfortunately, is not readily predictable from
other amplifier parameters such as bandwidth, slew rate, or
overload recovery time, although it depends on all of these.
It is also dependent on the shape of the amplifier open loop
gain characteristics, its input and output capacitance, and
the dielectric absorption of any internal capacitances. An
amplifier must be specifically designed for optimized settling
time, and settling time is a parameter that must be
determined by testing.
10
1
c = -----c
(EQ. 13)
36.8%
30
PERCENT ERROR
1
1 = -----1
20
13.5%
0.25%
10
5.0%
0.67%
1.8%
10
11
12
Digital-to-Analog Converters
Introduction
Digital-to-analog converters are the devices by which
computers communicate with the outside world. They are
employed in a variety of applications from CRT display
systems and voice synthesizers to automatic test systems,
digitally controlled attenuators, and process control
actuators. In addition, they are key components inside most
A/D converters. D/A converters are also referred to as DACs
and are termed decoders by communications engineers.
The transfer function of an ideal 3-bit D/A converter is shown
in Figure 16. Each input code word produces a single,
discrete analog output value, generally a voltage. Over the
output range of the converter 2n different values are
produced including zero; and the output has a one-to-one
correspondence with input, which is not true for A/D
converters.
ANALOG OUTPUT
2R
4R
2nR
R2
IOUT
R3
RF
+
+
VOUT
RR
-VREF
fS
3/ f
4 S
1/ f
2 S
1/ f
4 S
000
R1
+1.2V
001
010
011
100
101
INPUT CODE
110
111
11
CURRENT
SOURCE
GROUP 3
CURRENT
SOURCE
GROUP 2
R2
RF
R3
R1
CURRENT
SOURCE
GROUP 1
R4
VOUT
R0
-VREF
V REF
n
I OUT = --------------- ( 1 2 )
R
+
VREF
2R
V REF
1
I OUT = --------------- 1 2 + 1 4 + 1 8 -----n
R
2
(EQ. 14)
IN
2R
2R
2R
2R
12
RF
(EQ. 15)
VOUT
2R
2R
R
2R
RF
R
2R
R
2R
+
VOUT
The compensated zener reference diode with a bufferstabilizer circuit is commonly used in most data converters
today. Although the compensated zener may be one of
several types, the compensated subsurface, or buried, zener
is probably the best choice. These new devices produce an
avalanche breakdown which occurs beneath the surface of
the silicon, resulting in better long-term stability and noise
characteristics than with earlier surface breakdown zeners.
These reference devices have reverse breakdown voltages
of about 6.4V and consist of a forward biased diode in series
with the reversed biased zener. Because the diodes have
approximately equal and opposite voltage changes with
temperature, the result is a temperature stable voltage.
Available devices have temperature coefficients from
100ppm/oC to less than 1ppm/oC.
1/ f
2 S
1/ f
4 S
TIME
REGISTER
ANALOG OUTPUT
3/ f
4 S
D/A
CONVERTER
SAMPLE
HOLD
VOUT
CONTROL
13
ANALOG
INPUT
R1
VZ
+
-
-2.2mV/oC
D/A
CONVERTER
R 2
V Z 1 + -------
R
1
TRACK/
HOLD
IZ
UP UP/DOWN
COUNTER
DOWN
R2
+2.2mV/oC
DIGITAL
OUTPUT
DATA
COMPARATOR
R3
CLOCK
Analog-to-Digital Converters
Counter Type A/D Converter
Analog-to-digital converters, also called ADCs or encoders,
employ a variety of different circuit techniques to implement
the conversion function. As with D/A converters, however,
relatively few of these circuits are widely used today. Of the
various techniques available, the choice depends on the
resolution and speed required.
One of the simplest A/D converters is the counter, or servo,
type. This circuit employs a digital counter to control the
input of a D/A converter. Clock pulses are applied to the
counter and the output of the D/A is stepped up one LSB at a
time. A comparator compares the D/A output with the analog
input and stops the clock pulses when they are equal. The
counter output is then the converted digital word.
While this converter is simple, it is also relatively slow. An
improvement on this technique is shown in Figure 23 and is
known as a tracking A/D converter, a device commonly used
in control systems. Here an up-down counter controls the
DAC, and the clock pulses are directed to the pertinent
counter input depending on whether the D/A output must
increase or decrease to reach the analog input voltage.
14
REFERENCE
D/A
CONVERTER
REF
INPUT
DIGITAL
OUTPUT
DATA
.
.
.
COMPARATOR
3R/2
2n-1
COMPARATORS
SUCCESSIVE
APPROXIMATION
REGISTER
CLOCK
R
3/ f
4 S
ANALOG
INPUT
1/ f
2 S
1/ f
4 S
R
.
.
.
.
.
.
R/2
CLOCK PERIOD:
BINARY
OUTPUT
DECODER
+
ANALOG
INPUT
4-BIT
D/A
4-BIT
A/D
4-BIT
A/D
8-BIT REGISTER
BIT 1
3
4
5
6
OUTPUT DATA
15
(EQ. 16)
INPUT
SWITCH
+
INTEGRATOR
COMPARATOR
-REF
CLOCK
CONTROL LOGIC
COUNTER
DIGITAL OUTPUT
16
FULL SCALE
CONVERSION
INTEGRATOR OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
HALF SCALE
CONVERSION
QUARTER SCALE
CONVERSION
T1
(FIXED TIME)
T2
(MEASURED TIME)
COMPARATOR
I2
R2
INTEGRATOR
I2
PRECISION
PULSE
GENERATOR
-VREF
COUNTER
COUNTER
TIMER
TIMER
VIN
30
20
10
T = INTEGRATION
PERIOD
Tn = NOISE PERIOD
0
0.5
1.0
DIGITAL OUTPUT
(EQ. 17)
17
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
T/Tn
Analog Multiplexers
Analog Multiplexer Operation
Analog multiplexers are the circuits that time-share an A/D
converter among a number of different analog channels.
Since the A/D converter in many cases is the most
expensive component in a data acquisition system,
multiplexing analog inputs to the A/D is an economical
approach. Usually the analog multiplexer operates into a
sample-hold circuit which holds the required analog voltage
long enough for A/D conversion.
As shown in Figure 32, an analog multiplexer consists of an
array of parallel electronic switches connected to a common
output line. Only one switch is turned on at a time. Popular
switch configurations include 4, 8, and 16 channels which
are connected in single (single-ended) or dual (differential)
configurations.
RS
VS
IN
2
3
AMPLIFIER
RIN
TO
DECODER
OUT
7
8
ENABLE
A1 A2 A3
CHANNEL ADDRESS
A1
A2
A3
EN
ON-CHAN
NONE
18
C3
I3
RS
VS
Operation of Sample-Holds
RON
S1
C1
Sample-Hold Circuits
I1
I2
RL
C2
A1
RG
VCOMMON MODE
19
+1
+1
VS
A2
INPUT
SWITCH
DRIVER
OUTPUT
SAMPLE
CONTROL
S
+1
GAIN GO(f)
INPUT
1
-----fS
0.636
--------------fS
1
---------2f S
0.212
--------------fS
0
fS/2
PHASE ANGLE
OUTPUT
fS
3/2fS
2fS
5/2fS
3fS
0
INPUT
A1
A2
+1
OUTPUT
2
3
FIGURE 37. GAIN AND PHASE COMPONENTS OF ZEROORDER HOLD TRANSFER FUNCTION
(EQ. 18)
20
Sample-Hold Characteristics
A number of parameters are important in characterizing
sample-hold performance. Probably most important of these
is acquisition time. The definition is similar to that of settling
time for an amplifier. It is the time required, after the samplecommand is given, for the hold capacitor to charge to a fullscale voltage change and remain within a specified error
band around final value.
Several hold-mode specifications are also important. Holdmode droop is the output voltage change per unit time when
the sample switch is open. This droop is caused by the
leakage currents of the capacitor and switch, and the output
amplifier bias current. Hold-mode feedthrough is the
percentage of input signal transferred to the output when the
sample switch is open. It is measured with a sinusoidal input
signal and caused by capacitive coupling.
INPUT
SIGNAL
APERTURE
DELAY
SAMPLE
CONTROL
1111
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
1000
OFFSET
ERROR
HOLD
TRACK
0000
1/2f S
fS
GAIN
ERROR
1000
0000
1/2f S
fS
1111
LINEARITY
ERROR
1000
0000
1/2f S
fS
21
OUTPUT
1/2 f S
0
OUTPUT CODE
000
100
1011
111
INPUT
1001
FSR
1LSB = ------------ ( IDEAL )
n
2
1000
LSB
0111
1 LSB
111
LSB = DIFFERENTIAL
LINEARITY ERROR
22
OUTPUT
MISSING
110
CODE
101
100
011
010
001
000
0
1/2 f S
INPUT
fS
OUTPUT
1111
1000
0000
0
1/2 f S
fS
INPUT
OUTPUT
1. Converter Type
2. Resolution
3. Speed
4. Temperature Coefficient
After the choice has been narrowed by these considerations,
a number of other parameters must be considered. Among
these are analog signal range, type of coding, input
impedance, power supply requirements, digital interface
required, linearity error, output current drive, type of start
and status signals for an A/D, power supply rejection, size,
and weight. One should list these parameters in order of
importance to efficiently organize the selection process.
COMMERCIAL
1000
0oC TO 70oC
(32F TO 158F)
INDUSTRIAL
-25oC TO +85oC (-13F TO +185F)
MILITARY
0000
0
1/2 f S
fS
INPUT
CO2
SUBLIMATION
POINT
(DRY ICE)
WATER
FREEZES
WATER
BOILS
Temperature Effects
Ambient temperature change influences the offset, gain, and
linearity errors of a data converter. These changes over
temperature are normally specified in ppm of full scale range
per degree Celsius. When operating a converter over
significant temperature change, the effect on accuracy must
be carefully determined. Of key importance is whether the
device remains monotonic, or has no missing codes, over
the temperatures of concern. In many cases the total error
change must be computed, i.e., the sum of offset, gain, and
linearity errors due to temperature.
The characteristic of monotonicity, or no missing codes, over
a given temperature change can be readily computed from
the differential linearity tempco specified for a data
converter. Assuming the converter initially has 1/2 LSB of
differential linearity error, the change in temperature for an
increase to 1 LSB is therefore
n
2 10
T = -----------------------2DLT
(EQ. 19)
-75
-50
-25
25
50
75
100
125
TEMPERATURE (oC)
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Intersil semiconductor products are sold by description only. Intersil Corporation reserves the right to make changes in circuit design and/or specifications at any time without notice. Accordingly, the reader is cautioned to verify that data sheets are current before placing orders. Information furnished by Intersil is believed to be accurate and
reliable. However, no responsibility is assumed by Intersil or its subsidiaries for its use; nor for any infringements of patents or other rights of third parties which may result
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24
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