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Improving durability of adobe

A case study for Cuenca, Ecuador
Lies Haesebrouck
Tim Michiels

Thesis submitted to
obtain the degree of Master
in Engineering:
Civil Engineering
Promoters:
Prof. dr. ir. arch. Koen Van Balen
Prof. dr. arch. Fausto Cardoso Martnez
Assessors:
Prof. dr. ir. Luc Schueremans
Prof. dr. Mario Santana Quintero

Academic Year 2010 - 2011

 Copyright by K.U.Leuven
Zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van zowel de promoter(en) als de auteur(s) is overnemen, kopiren,
gebruiken of realiseren van deze uitgave of gedeelten ervan verboden. Voor aanvragen tot of informatie i.v.m. het
overnemen en/of gebruik en/of realisatie van gedeelten uit deze publicatie, wend u tot de K.U.Leuven, Faculteit
Ingenieurswetenschappen - Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (Belgi). Telefoon +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +3216-32 19 88.
Voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de promoter(en) is eveneens vereist voor het aanwenden van de in dit
afstudeerwerk beschreven (originele) methoden, producten, schakelingen en programmas voor industrieel of
commercieel nut en voor de inzending van deze publicatie ter deelname aan wetenschappelijke prijzen of
wedstrijden.

Copyright by K.U.Leuven
Without written permission of the promoters and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by
any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this
publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering - Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee
(Belgium). Telephone +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.
A written permission of the promoter is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs
described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

ii

Acknowledgements
Together we broadened our horizons, but this was only possible thanks to the commitment of
many.
First of all we would like to express our gratitude to our promoters, Prof. Koen Van Balen and
Prof. Fausto Cardoso, for giving us the opportunity to participate in this challenging project, for
the freedom to refine our subject and for the support and feedback we received throughout
our research.
Next we would like to thank the entire staff of the VLIR-CPM project for the warm reception
and their help throughout our stay. It was a pleasure to be able to work with and learn from all
of you. Muchsimas gracias a Fausto, Marcelo, Sebastian, Vernica, Mara-Soledad, MaraCecilia, Claudia, Fernanda, Alexandra, Nelson, Gabriela, Caty, Paola, ... Special thanks to Arch.
Vernica Heras and Paola Jaramillo. To Vernica for helping us getting started, helping us out
with all kind of problems, big and small during our stay and correcting the Spanish text. To
Paola for her numerous phone calls to all cargo companies. Without them it would have been
impossible to ship the adobes to Belgium!
Furthermore we would like to thank all people that helped us out during our field research in
Cuenca: all architects and maestros of the restoration site of Escuela Central for teaching us the
tricks of adobe construction in practice, Alfredo Ugalde, Arch. Itturalde and Arch. Abad for
sharing their insights on adobe construction with us. We would like to thank Stalin Cabrera
and Atanasio Jara from the laboratory of civil engineering in Cuenca as well.
Without help in Leuven, we wouldnt have been able to test one single adobe. Therefore we
would like to thank Stephan, Mustapha, Gerda, Iris and Luc from the Reyntjens Laboratory for
their technical assistance and Prof. Lucie Vandewalle and Prof. Luc Schueremans for sharing
their experience.
We would like to thank Sam and Matthias as well for giving us tips and tricks and providing us
all data they had collected in Cuenca during their stay in 2008.
A final word of appreciation goes out to our friends and family for supporting us, and to Roos
for correcting our English text.
Last but not least we would like to express our gratitude for the financial support we have
received from the VLIR, the community of Herent and the community of Puurs. Without their
support it would have been impossible to visit Ecuador.
Lies and Tim

iii

iv

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................................... v
Resumen .................................................................................................................................................................................x
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................ xi
List of figures and tables............................................................................................................................................... xii
List of figures ................................................................................................................................................................ xii
List of tables .................................................................................................................................................................. xv
List of abbreviations and symbols ........................................................................................................................... xvi
Chapter 1.

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1.

Background....................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2.

Objectives .......................................................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.

Methodology..................................................................................................................................................... 2

1.4.

Cuenca................................................................................................................................................................. 4

1.4.1.

General ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.2.

History....................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.3.

UNESCO World Heritage Trust Site............................................................................................... 5

1.4.4.

VLIR-UOS project .................................................................................................................................. 7

1.4.5.

Climate and geography....................................................................................................................... 8

1.5.

Adobe construction ....................................................................................................................................... 9

1.5.1.

Generalities ............................................................................................................................................. 9

1.5.2.

Typical lay-out .....................................................................................................................................10

1.5.3.

Suitability and sustainability .........................................................................................................11

1.6.

Adobe collection sites .................................................................................................................................13

1.6.1.

Escuela Central (Cuenca).................................................................................................................13

1.6.2.

Casa del Sombrero (Cuenca) ..........................................................................................................14

1.6.3.

Parqueador Calle Mariscal Sucre (Cuenca)..............................................................................15

1.6.4.

Susudel ....................................................................................................................................................15

1.6.5.

Girn ........................................................................................................................................................16

1.7.

Conclusions .....................................................................................................................................................17

Chapter 2.
2.1.

Adobe .......................................................................................................................................................19

Loam ..................................................................................................................................................................20
v

2.1.1.

Clay ...........................................................................................................................................................20

2.1.2.

Silt, sand and gravel ...........................................................................................................................21

2.1.3.

Grain size distribution ......................................................................................................................21

2.2.

Components and their function..............................................................................................................22

2.2.1.

Loam ........................................................................................................................................................22

2.2.2.

Water .......................................................................................................................................................23

2.2.3.

Natural fibers .......................................................................................................................................23

2.2.4.

Other additives ....................................................................................................................................24

2.3.

Fabrication process .....................................................................................................................................25

2.3.1.

Collecting material .............................................................................................................................25

2.3.2.

Mixing ......................................................................................................................................................26

2.3.3.

Moulding ................................................................................................................................................27

2.3.4.

Drying ......................................................................................................................................................28

2.4.

Characteristics of adobe as a building material...............................................................................29

2.4.1.

General characteristics.....................................................................................................................29

2.4.2.

Mechanical characteristics .............................................................................................................29

2.4.3.

Influence of water and vapor.........................................................................................................30

2.4.4.

Thermal properties............................................................................................................................30

2.5.

Adobe Masonry .............................................................................................................................................31

2.5.1.

Structure ................................................................................................................................................31

2.5.2.

Mortar .....................................................................................................................................................31

2.6.

Damages ...........................................................................................................................................................33

2.6.1.

Damage processes ..............................................................................................................................33

2.6.2.

Sources of water..................................................................................................................................34

2.7.

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................37

Chapter 3.
3.1.

Base course .....................................................................................................................................................39

3.2.

Roof ....................................................................................................................................................................41

3.2.1.

Traditional roof composition.........................................................................................................42

3.2.1.

Overhang ................................................................................................................................................43

3.3.

Renderings ......................................................................................................................................................43

3.3.1.

Base course protection .....................................................................................................................45

3.3.2.

Rendering damage patterns ...........................................................................................................45

3.4.

Revoque............................................................................................................................................................47

3.4.1.
vi

Adobe protection: roof, renderings and base course ..........................................................39

Production and application in Escuela Central ......................................................................48

3.5.

Empaete .........................................................................................................................................................50

3.5.1.

Components and production .........................................................................................................50

3.5.2.

Water repellent characteristics ....................................................................................................52

3.6.

Non-traditional renderings in Cuenca .................................................................................................53

3.6.1.

Cement renderings.............................................................................................................................53

3.6.2.

Lime plaster and lime wash ...........................................................................................................56

3.7.

Earth renderings in Belgium ...................................................................................................................57

3.7.1.

Traditional loam construction in Belgium ...............................................................................58

3.7.2.

New construction with earthen renderings ............................................................................59

3.8.

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................60

Chapter 4.
4.1.

Testing original adobes ....................................................................................................................63

Test samples ...................................................................................................................................................63

4.1.1.

Collection ...............................................................................................................................................63

4.1.2.

Resizing test samples ........................................................................................................................64

4.1.3.

Visual inspection .................................................................................................................................65

4.2.

Soil characterization ...................................................................................................................................66

4.2.1.

Sieving .....................................................................................................................................................66

4.2.2.

Hydrometer test (or areometer test) .........................................................................................66

4.2.3.

Atterberg limits ...................................................................................................................................67

4.2.4.

Grain size distribution ......................................................................................................................68

4.2.5.

USCS soil classification .....................................................................................................................70

4.2.6.

XRD analysis .........................................................................................................................................72

4.2.7.

Fibers .......................................................................................................................................................73

4.3.

Mechanical characteristics .......................................................................................................................74

4.3.1.

Bulk Density ..........................................................................................................................................74

4.3.2.

Capillary absorption ..........................................................................................................................75

4.3.3.

Dynamic E-modulus ..........................................................................................................................76

4.3.4.

Four-point bending strength .........................................................................................................76

4.3.5.

Unconfined compression strength ..............................................................................................79

4.4.

Adobe quality analysis ...............................................................................................................................82

4.5.

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................85

Chapter 5.
5.1.

Recycling and improving adobe ...................................................................................................87

Determining new mixture compositions............................................................................................87

5.1.1.

Fuller, Boemans and approximation of Susudel ....................................................................87

5.1.2.

Addition of sand ..................................................................................................................................88

vii

5.1.3.

Natural fibers .......................................................................................................................................89

5.1.4.

Escuela Central ....................................................................................................................................90

5.1.5.

Museo Sombrero .................................................................................................................................91

5.1.6.

Susudel ....................................................................................................................................................92

5.1.7.

Girn ........................................................................................................................................................92

5.2.

Producing adobe in Leuven......................................................................................................................92

5.2.1.

Production process ............................................................................................................................92

5.2.2.

Effectively obtained mixtures .......................................................................................................94

5.2.3.

Moulding and drying .........................................................................................................................95

5.3.

Results ..............................................................................................................................................................96

5.3.1.

Visual observation..............................................................................................................................96

5.3.2.

Test program ........................................................................................................................................97

5.3.3.

Summary of test results ...................................................................................................................98

5.3.1.

Bulk density ..........................................................................................................................................98

5.3.2.

Compressive strength .......................................................................................................................99

5.3.3.

Four-point bending strength. ..................................................................................................... 101

5.3.4.

Shrinkage ............................................................................................................................................ 102

5.4.

Discussion .................................................................................................................................................... 103

5.4.1.

Influence of components on adobe structure ...................................................................... 103

5.4.2.

Influence of adobe structure on durability ........................................................................... 105

5.5.

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 106

General conclusion....................................................................................................................................................... 109

Practical applications.................................................................................................................................................. 111
Improving adobe blocks ....................................................................................................................................... 111
Composition of the mixtures .......................................................................................................................... 112
Production process ............................................................................................................................................ 112
Maintenance of roof, base course and renderings ..................................................................................... 113
Lab requirements .................................................................................................................................................... 113
Material for soil investigation........................................................................................................................ 114
Material for mechanical testing .................................................................................................................... 114
Suggestions............................................................................................................................................................ 114
Recommendations ....................................................................................................................................................... 115
Conclusin general....................................................................................................................................................... 117
Aplicaciones prcticas ................................................................................................................................................ 119
Mejorar los bloques de adobe ............................................................................................................................ 119
viii

Composiciones aconsejadas de las mezclas ............................................................................................. 120

Proceso de produccin ..................................................................................................................................... 121
Mantenimiento de techo, cimientos y revestimientos ............................................................................. 121
Adaptaciones al laboratorio ................................................................................................................................ 122
Material para la investigacin de los suelos ............................................................................................ 122
Material para pruebas mecnicas ................................................................................................................ 122
Sugerencias............................................................................................................................................................ 123
Recomendaciones......................................................................................................................................................... 125
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Appendices ......................................................................................................................................................................129
Appendix A - Maps ..............................................................................................................................................131
Appendix B - USCS Classification ..................................................................................................................139
Appendix C - XRD-analysis ..............................................................................................................................141
Appendix D - Detailed results ........................................................................................................................145
Appendix E - Grain-size distribution s recycled adobes .....................................................................153
Appendix F - Results in-situ test recycled blocks ..................................................................................159
Appendix G - Detailed results recycled blocks ........................................................................................161
Appendix H - Documentation file .................................................................................................................171
Appendix I - Test procedures ........................................................................................................................181
Appendix J - Photographs ................................................................................................................................197

ix

Resumen
El centro histrico de la ciudad de Cuenca Ecuador fue declarado por la UNESCO como
Patrimonio Cultural de la humanidad en 1999. Desde entonces, muchos proyectos se han
llevado a cabo en su centro histrico; siendo uno de los ms importantes el emprendido desde
el ao 2007 entre la Universidad de Cuenca y la Universidad Catlica de Lovaina. El proyecto
tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de herramientas de gestin y manejo para la conservacin
del centro histrico de la ciudad; a travs de diferentes investigaciones. Una de ellas est
relacionada con el estudio de los materiales y las tcnicas constructivas de sus monumentos.
El adobe es uno de los materiales predominantes en el acervo patrimonial de la ciudad. La
mampostera de abode est compuesta de bloques de tierra cocida (adobes) unidos por medio
de un mortero de barro. La conservacin de los monumentos patrimoniales requiere un
profundo conocimiento tcnico de las caractersticas de diferentes elementos como la
mampostera de adobe. Esta tesis de mster, pretende analizar las caractersticas de esa
mampostera con la finalidad de obtener una mejor comprensin de la durabilidad del mismo.
Adems presenta anlisis de laboratorio y recomendaciones para mejorar nuevas estructuras
en adobe y asegurar el mantenimiento de las estructuras actuales.
La investigacin tuvo lugar en las ciudades de Cuenca y Leuven. Durante tres meses se ejecut
investigacin de campo. Treinta y seis bloques de adobe, de diferentes periodos fueron
recogidos en cinco sitios diferentes para posteriormente ser enviados a Blgica para anlisis
de laboratorio. Este material fue utilizado para caracterizar y comparar las particularidades de
los distintos bloques. Al final de la presente investigacin, la tierra de estos bloques fue
reciclada para producir nuevos bloques de adobe en los laboratorios de la Universidad en
Loviana; todo esto con la intencin de mejorar sus caractersticas.
Pruebas mostraron que bloques de adobe son materiales de baja resistencia vulnerables a
daos a causados por el agua. Sus propiedades dependen principalmente de la cohesin
interna, que es determinada por el contenido de arcilla, agua y paja. Mejorando las
proporciones de estos componentes durante el reciclaje, se hicieron bloques
significativamente ms resistentes y homogneos. La resistencia en traccin aument al menos
con un factor de cuatro, hasta un mximo de un factor de diez. Generalmente los problemas en
la produccin de adobe es por un lado necesidad de baja cantidades de agua para obtener una
porosidad baja y una densidad larga; pero por otro, esa cantidad de agua tiene que ser
suficiente para garantizar la hidratacin de la arcilla y un trabajo ms fcil. Este problema fue
resuelto mediante la mezcla de la arcilla con una cantidad excesiva de agua en primer lugar;
posteriormente arena seca fue aadado a la mezcla para reducir el contenido de agua de nuevo
y asegurar la cohesin. Esta solucin result ser muy eficaz.
Mejorar la durabilidad de adobe tiene otros aspectos vitales. Pruebas indicaron que adobes de
aproximadamente 130 aos de edad tenan la misma cohesin como nuevos adobes reciclados
en Cuenca en el mismo sitio (Escuela Central). Esto acenta la necesidad de proteger adobe
por elementos como: cubiertas con aleros, buenos cimientos y revestimientos. Adems el
mantenimiento de estas estructuras es crucial.

La tesis est escrito en ingls, pero las conclusiones traducidas estn disponibles en las
pginas a color.
x

Abstract
The city centre of Cuenca in Ecuador is a UNESCO World Heritage Trust Site. A collaboration
project between the University of Cuenca and the K.U. Leuven is ongoing to manage the
preservation of the historical centre of the city. A large number of monuments in this city
center is built using adobe construction techniques. Adobe masonry is composed of large,
unfired mud bricks named adobes, bonded together with earth mortar. To be able to conserve
these monuments, a profound technical know-how of the properties of adobe masonry is
required. This master thesis analyses these properties in order to come to a better
understanding of the durability of adobe. In addition it provides guidelines for the
improvement of new adobe structures and the maintenance of the existing ones.
The traditional adobe techniques were examined in Cuenca during three months of field
research. 36 adobe blocks, both ancient and new ones, were collected on five different sites
and were sent to Belgium for further research. This material was used to characterize and
compare the properties of the different blocks. In a final step the earth of these blocks was
recycled and new adobe blocks were made in Leuven, trying to improve their characteristics.
Tests and observations showed that adobe blocks are low strength materials vulnerable to
water damage. Its properties are mainly dependent on the inner cohesion, which is determined
by the clay content, the water content and the amount of hay. By improving the ratios of these
components during recycling, significantly more homogeneous and stronger blocks were
made. Tensile strength increased at least with a factor four, up to a maximum of a factor ten. A
problem when making adobe is that on the one hand a low water content is desired to obtain a
low porosity and a higher density, but that on the other hand enough water is needed to ensure
workability and hydration of the clay. This was solved by mixing the loam with an excessive
amount of water first, followed by the addition of fibers. Then dry sand was added to the
mixture to reduce the water content again and ensure cohesion. This solution proved very
effective.
Improving durability of adobe has other vital aspects as well. Tests pointed out that well
protected adobes of approximately 130 year old still had the same cohesion as new blocks,
recycled in Cuenca on the same construction site (Escuela Central). This emphasizes the need
of decent adobe protection by of a roof, base course and renderings. Moreover the
maintenance of these structures is crucial as well.

The conclusions of the thesis have been translated in Spanish and are provided on the colored
pages.

xi

List of figures and tables

List of figures
Figure 1. 1 - Outline of the thesis ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 1. 2 - Location of Ecuador ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1. 3 - (left) Street plan of Cuenca with indication of heritage value - (right) Street plan of the city in
1920, it has still the same lay-out............................................................................................................................ 6
Figure 1. 4 - Old Cathedral, Antiguo Seminario and view on Barranco ................................................................... 7
Figure 1. 5 - Plan of Cuenca of 1729 from the national Archive of Ecuador ........................................................... 7
Figure 1. 6 - Weather conditions in Cuenca .................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 1. 7 - (left) Risk zones according to Ecuadorian Building Code- (right) Location of earthquake of
12/08/2010 of 6.9M ................................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 1. 8 - (left) Patio of two storey building with many wooden elements - (right) Schematic lay out ...10
Figure 1. 9 - Key...................................................................................................................................................................11
Figure 1. 10 - Bahareque in Cuenca ................................................................................................................................11
Figure 1. 11 - Escuela Central before the restoration project .................................................................................14
Figure 1. 12 - (left & middle) Views on restoration project in Escuela Central -(right) Maestros of adobe
production with leading Arch. ...............................................................................................................................14
Figure 1. 13 - (left) Facade - (middle) Patio - (right) Collapsed wall of Museo Del Sombrero.........................15
Figure 1. 14 - One of the traditional brick production plants of Susudel ..............................................................16
Figure 1. 15 - (left) Susudel: laying out adobes - (middle) Collecting adobes - (right) Wall kindergarten
finished ........................................................................................................................................................................16
Figure 1. 16 - Adobe production site in Girn ..............................................................................................................16
Figure 2. 1 - Structure of chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................19
Figure 2. 2- Fuller with grading coefficient 0.25 and Boemans curve ...................................................................22
Figure 2. 3 - (left) Picking out big adobe particles - (middle) Hay from Cajas - (right) Pramo in Cajas ......25
Figure 2. 4 - (left) Basin filled with earth - (right) Adding water ............................................................................26
Figure 2. 5 - Mixing the loam ............................................................................................................................................26
Figure 2. 6 - (left) Adding fibers - (right) Mixing fibers by walking through .......................................................27
Figure 2. 7 - (left) Sieving - (right) Adding sieved loam to mixture........................................................................27
Figure 2. 8 - (left) Adobe mould 50 x 25 x 15 cm - (middle) Barrow with mixed soil and hay - (right)
Filling mould ..............................................................................................................................................................28
Figure 2. 9 - (left) Compressing - (middle) Flattening by hand - (right) Removal of the mould .....................28
Figure 2. 10 - (left) Drying of adobes in Escuela Central under good protection - (right) In Susudel, exposed
to direct sunlight .......................................................................................................................................................28
Figure 2. 11 - Cross section of adobe wall (dimensions in mm) ..............................................................................31
Figure 2. 12 - (left) Adobe wall in Museo Del Sombrero; failure has occurred in the adobemortar
connection, causing the step-like pattern (right) Dismantling an adobe wall; tearing of adobes is
easy, nearly no bond between them. Gaps are visible in mortar of adobe wall behind ...........................33
Figure 2. 13 - Processes of deterioration due to water .............................................................................................35
Figure 2. 14 - Water sources that might cause problems..........................................................................................36

xii

Figure 3. 1 - House protected by roof and foundation, which is clearly insufficient ..........................................39
Figure 3. 2 - Examples of deterioration due to splashing, no protection from base course .............................40
Figure 3. 3 (left) Foundation of river cobles visible - (right) Foundation is too low.......................................40
Figure 3. 4 - Foundation construction ...........................................................................................................................41
Figure 3. 5 - (left) Excavating foundation - (right) Finished base course .............................................................41
Figure 3. 6 - (left) Villa Rosita: base of adobe wall covered with cement rendering, but no base course of
stone present - (right) Example of a well executed, visible base course .....................................................41
Figure 3. 7 - Roof structure ...............................................................................................................................................42
Figure 3. 8 - Roof structure with reed and sealing. Tiles are attached with steel wire ......................................43
Figure 3. 9 - (left) Damaged roof of Casa Barrial Blanco - (right) Structure with reed and wooden covering
visible ...........................................................................................................................................................................43
Figure 3. 10 - Cross section of adobe wall with renderings ......................................................................................44
Figure 3. 11 - Overall structure of a well protected house .......................................................................................45
Figure 3. 12 - (left) Pieces of tile used to protect zone above base course, cement rendering will be applied
- (right) Protection with bricks covered with a cement rendering ...............................................................46
Figure 3. 13 - (left) Damaged renderings of Villa Rosita. White = empastado, ochre = empaete, brown =
revoque and adobe - (upper right) Returning damage pattern on sidewall. Not enough roof overhang,
fixing with cement plaster doesn't work (lower right) Peeling off of empastado, fist stadium of
deterioration ..............................................................................................................................................................47
Figure 3. 14 - Left wall is in good condition, enough roof overhang is provided and a good base course
offers protection against capillary rise. Upper walls are damaged due to insufficient protection and
maintenance of the renderings ..............................................................................................................................47
Figure 3. 15 - Wall preparations: removing loose particles and wetting ..............................................................48
Figure 3. 16 - Applying first earth layer, pressing in tiles and using plumb line .................................................49
Figure 3. 17 - Adding a first layer of hay: horizontally ..............................................................................................49
Figure 3. 18 - Flattening the surface using a wooden bar, gaps filled with earth and tiles ...............................49
Figure 3. 19 - Adding a second layer of hay: vertically ..............................................................................................50
Figure 3. 20 - (left and middle) Finished revoque - (right) Dry result ...................................................................50
Figure 3. 21 - (left) Dried horse dung - (right) Kaolinite...........................................................................................51
Figure 3. 22 - (left) Kaolinite mixed with water - (right) Resting and stirring pit ..............................................52
Figure 3. 23 - Workplace for preparing horse dung ...................................................................................................52
Figure 3. 24 - (left) Empaete ready for application - (right) Applying the empaete......................................52
Figure 3. 25- Cement incompatible with adobe in Antiguo Seminario. White lime finish is applied on the
faade, right wall is the adobe wall. Upper right: damaged roof. Lower right: inner patio Antiguo
Seminario ....................................................................................................................................................................55
Figure 3. 26 - (left) Cement rendering at base course, cracked at connection with adobe - (middle and
right) Restored house wit base course protection with a well detailed finish ...........................................56
Figure 3. 27 - Foam production after application of HCl. Lime has been used ....................................................57
Figure 3. 28 - ( left) Traditional earthen house (right) Layers of earth covered with lime in Bokrijk .......59
Figure 4. 1 - (left) Sawing of blocks wrapped in foil - (middle) Wet cutting plane - (right) Drying ...............64
Figure 4. 2 - (left) Stirring machine - (2nd) Cylinder with fine particles - (3rd) Apparatus to stir - (right)
Hydrometer ................................................................................................................................................................67
Figure 4. 3 - Atterberg limits 26 ........................................................................................................................................67
Figure 4. 4 - (left) Mixture particles and water - (middle) Filling bowl - (right) Groove ..................................68
Figure 4. 5 - Example of determination of LL (Susudel) ............................................................................................68
Figure 4. 6 - Grain size distribution of original soil adobes ......................................................................................69
Figure 4. 7 - Amount of clay, silt, sand and gravel.......................................................................................................69
Figure 4. 8 - Result XRD-analysis different samples...................................................................................................72

xiii

Figure 4. 9 - (left) Bulk density for each test group - (right) Box plot of relevant test groups [circle in box
plot represents median] ..........................................................................................................................................74
Figure 4. 10 - (left) Capillary absorption test - during 3th cycle - (right) Lost material during this cycle ....75
Figure 4. 11 - Adobes after 3 absorption cycles (purple= first cycle, yellow = second cycle, green= third
cycle) ............................................................................................................................................................................75
Figure 4. 12 - (left and middle) Bending moments in three- and four-point bending test - (right ) Setting up
four-point bending test ............................................................................................................................................77
Figure 4. 13 - (left) Flexural strength by four-point bending in MPa. Average - (right) Boxplots [circle
represents median]...................................................................................................................................................78
Figure 4. 14 - Four point bending strength (MPa) for blocks from Susudel. S1, S5 and S6 had no cracks in
advance ........................................................................................................................................................................78
Figure 4. 15 - S6A: (left) Before test - (right) After test .............................................................................................78
Figure 4. 16 - S4A: (left) Before test - (right) After test .............................................................................................79
Figure 4. 17 - Example of compression test lay out ....................................................................................................80
Figure 4. 18 - (left) Unconfined compression strength: average - (right) Boxplots [circle represents
median] ........................................................................................................................................................................81
Figure 4. 19 - Crack pattern of blocks failed under compression (blocks from Susudel) .................................81
Figure 4. 20 - Stress-strain plots of compression tests on a selection of blocks from Escuela Central..........82
Figure 4. 21 - Boxplot compression strength compared with boxplot bulk density ..........................................83
Figure 4. 22 - Comparison of compression strength and four-point bending strength (in MPa but on
different scales!) ........................................................................................................................................................84
Figure 5. 1 - Plot of the Fuller curve for soil (n =0.25) and Boemans with a 15% clay content ......................88
Figure 5. 2 - Grain size distribution for sand used in Leuven, compared to sand available in Cuenca ..........89
Figure 5. 3 - Original composition E1, theoretic compositions E2 (fit with Susudel) and E3(fit with Fuller)

.......................................................................................................................................................................................91
Figure 5. 4 - (left) Adobe parts after compression (middle) Adding water - (right) Crushing adobes with
shovel ...........................................................................................................................................................................93
Figure 5. 5 - (left) Walking through to obtain homogeneous mixture - (middle) Picking out larger stones by
hand - (right) Mixing hay.........................................................................................................................................93
Figure 5. 6 - (left) Adding sand in separate bin - (middle) Mixing - (right) Overview of different mixtures in
bins ...............................................................................................................................................................................93
Figure 5. 7- Moulding adobes in Leuven .......................................................................................................................96
Figure 5. 8 - Museo Sombrero before (left) and after(right) recycling ..................................................................96
Figure 5. 9 - (left) Susudel before recycling - (right) Susudel after recycling. New block has no shrinkage
cracks. ..........................................................................................................................................................................97
Figure 5. 10 - Water content of original blocks (grey) compared to new blocks (black) ..................................98
Figure 5. 11 - Summary results .................................................................................................................................... 100
Figure 5. 12 - Small beams with hay visible. Beams in the middle contain more hay. This is clearly stripped
off ............................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Figure 5. 13 - Relation between shrinkage and water content when moulding for blocks from Museo,
Escuela Central and Susudel ................................................................................................................................ 103
Figure 5. 14 Diagram of parameters influencing adobe quality and their relation to each other............. 104
Figure 6. 1 - Testing tensile strength in situ with a three-point bending test. Four point bending test can be
done in a similar way ................................................................................................................................ 111
Figura 6. 1 Ensayo de resistencia con una prueba de flexin a tres puntos. Ensayo a cuatro puntos es
similar ........................................................................................................................................................ 119

xiv

List of tables
Table 2. 1 - Influence of increase on fibers and explanation ....................................................................................24
Table 4. 1 - Adobe material sent to Belgium ................................................................................................................64
Table 4. 2 - Summary of visual inspection and description adobe blocks ............................................................65
Table 4. 3 - Amount of particles in each category for the different soil types......................................................70
Table 4. 4 - Data USCS classification ...............................................................................................................................70
Table 4. 5 - Atterberg limits (shrinkage limit not required) ....................................................................................71
Table 4. 6 - Overview soil classification ........................................................................................................................71
Table 4. 7 - Different types of components from XRD-analysis, bold: active clay minerals..............................73
Table 4. 8 - Executed compression test for each group .............................................................................................80
Table 4. 9 - Amount and types of clay for each group of test samples ...................................................................83
Table 4. 10 - Summary of results chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................85
Table 5. 1 - Amount of particles for Sand Cuenca and Rhine sand 0/5 ..................................................................89
Table 5. 2 Mixtures recycling adobe Escuela Central ..............................................................................................90
Table 5. 3 - Amount of particles ......................................................................................................................................91
Table 5. 4 - Mixtures recycling adobe Escuela Central ..............................................................................................91
Table 5. 5 - Mixtures recycling adobe Susudel .............................................................................................................92
Table 5. 6 - Mixtures recycling adobe Girn .................................................................................................................92
Table 5. 7 - Effective mixtures M2 and M3 compared to the desired grain size distributions.........................94
Table 5. 8 - Effective mixtures E2 and E3 compared to the desired grain size distributions ...........................94
Table 5. 9 - Effective mixtures of Shay (more hay) and S3 (good match to Fuller) ...............................................95
Table 5. 10 - Effective mixtures G2 and G3 compared to the desired grain size distributions ........................95
Table 6. 1 - Advised composition for examined adobe production sites............................................................ 112

xv

List of abbreviations and symbols

A.D.
Arch.
CL
CoV
DIN
E1
E2
E3
EN
Et al.
G1
G2
G3
GIS
INPC
LL
M
M1
M2
M3
ML
NE
P
PI
PL
S1
S3
SC
Shay
SL
SM
UCuenca
UNESCO
USCS
VLIR
VLIR-CPM
VLIR-UOS
XRD

xvi

Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord

Architect
Clay of Low plasticity, lean clay
Coefficient of Variation
Deutsches Institut fr Normung
Original mixture Escuela Central
Mixture Escuela Central (75% adobe 25% sand) to obtain Susudel curve
Mixture Escuela Central (60% adobe 40% sand) to obtain Fuller curve
European Standards
Et allii, among others
Original mixture Girn
Mixture Girn (55% Girn 45% Escuela Central) to obtain Susudel curve
Mixture Girn (90% Girn 10% Escuela Central) to obtain Fuller curve
Geographic Information System
Instituto Nacional de Patriomonio Cultural
Liquid Limit
Induced bending moment
Original mixture Museo Sombrero
Mixture Museo Sombrero (65% adobe 35% sand) to obtain Susudel curve
Mixture Museo Sombrero (50% adobe 50% sand) to obtain Fuller curve
Silt of Low plasticity
North-East
Maximum applied force
Plasticity Index
Plastic Limit
Original mixture Susudel
Mixture Susudel (65% adobe 35% sand) to obtain Fuller curve
Clayey Sand
Mixture Susudel with 1.9% hay (instead of 1%)
Shrinkage limit
Silty Sand
Universidad de Cuenca
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
United Soil Classification System
Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad or Flemish Interuniversity council
Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad City Preservation Management
Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad - Universitaire Ontwikkelingssamenwerking
X-Ray diffraction

xvii

Chapter 1.
1.1.

Introduction

Background

The city center of the Ecuadorian city of Cuenca was declared UNESCO
UNESCO World Heritage Trust
Site
Site 1 in 1999. The conservation and restoration of its monuments is an important concern in
the rapidly developing city. To ascertain this conservation, an international collaboration
project was set up to elaborate a program to manage the city preservation. One of the
challenges in this program is to find adequate ways to deal with the numerous earthen
buildings present in the city. These buildings have been constructed with traditional
techniques that have got out of use in the city during the last decades of the 20th century.
Nowadays more attention is paid to protection and renovation of these ancient buildings, but a
lot of information on the used building techniques and materials has been lost. Moreover
theres a lack of detailed technical information and insights about the materials used in these
monuments. This information and insights are vital to set up a management program for the
city.
The main traditional building technique used in Cuenca for masonry is adobeadobe-construction.
construction
Adobe blocks are sun dried, unfired mud bricks. They are produced in situ by mixing the
available soil with water and natural fibers. Once dried, the blocks are laid as bricks, joined
together with earth mortar forming adobe masonry. The main binder in these blocks is clay,
but this makes the material extremely vulnerable to water damage. Therefore decent
protection of the material is an absolute necessity.

More detailed information on the website of UNESCO: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/863

1.2.

Objectives

The main objectives of this thesis are:

1. To provide detailed technical information and insights on adobe blocks and adobe
masonry.
2. To describe the traditional production techniques of adobe blocks.
3. To evaluate, describe and analyze the protection methods for adobe masonry.
4. To analyze and compare the properties of adobe blocks from different monuments and
sites in and around Cuenca.
5. To trigger the mechanisms behind these properties.
6. To make new and stronger adobes in Leuven with the materials sent from Cuenca.
7. To evaluate the necessary test methods for adobe research and the required laboratory
equipment.
8. To give practical advice on the composition and the recycling process of adobe blocks
for the starting renovation of Casa Del Sombrero in Cuenca.

1.3.

Methodology

The thesis project can be divided in three main stages. The first stage consisted of three
months of field research in Cuenca from July 2010 until October 2010. This period was used to
familiarize with the VLIR-CPM project, the architecture in Cuenca and the typical aspects of
adobe construction. During this period most of the time was spent on field research on
restoration projects and on interviews with involved craftsmen and architects. Samples of
adobe were collected and some preliminary test were done in the laboratory of civil
engineering at the University of Cuenca as well. Arranging transport for the collected material
to Belgium was one of the main difficulties during the stay. Eventually the test material arrived
at Leuven in January 2011.
During a second stage from January 2011 until end March 2011 a test program was set up in
the Reyntjens Laboratory of the civil engineering department of the K.U. Leuven. This period
was used to adapt procedures for adobe testing and to analyze and compare the characteristics
of the adobe blocks sent from Cuenca.
During a final stage in April and May new adobe blocks were made in Leuven. This was done
following the recycling process taught by craftsmen in Cuenca. Sand was added to improve the
properties of the new blocks. The characteristics of these blocks were tested and compared to
the characteristics of the original ones.
2

The outline of the thesis is visualized in Figure 1. 1. The first chapter will situate the
background of the thesis. It provides a first sight on the situation in Cuenca and the different
aspects of the master thesis.
During the stay in Ecuador, two main research topics seemed crucial to judge on the durability
of adobe. The first topic is the characterization of the properties of the adobe blocks and the
adobe masonry. This has been described in chapter 2. The second topic concerns the influence
of protecting adobe masonry by a roof, a base course and renderings. (See chapter 3) Input for
these analyses was the field research in Ecuador and literature review.
The choice was made to focus on one specific element of adobe masonry: improving the
properties of adobe blocks. This was done by elaborating a test program for adobes from
different sites of Cuenca and surrounding. This test program and its results have been
discussed in chapter 4. The material of the original adobes was recycled and new adobes were
made, trying to improve their properties. (see chapter 5)
Then general conclusions gathered throughout the thesis are summarized. They form the base
to formulate practical tips for the implementation of the results in Cuenca. Finally
recommendations for further research are given in the last chapter.
A documentation file has been added to the appendices to provide the reader insight in the
entire cycle the adobes have undergone, the correct implementation of the lab tests and the
detailed results of those tests. Additional photographs and sketches have been included.

Figure 1. 1 - Outline of the thesis

1.4.

Cuenca

The investigation carried out in this thesis is applied to the city of Cuenca and surroundings.
The specific location and boundaries involved will be discussed in this section.

1.4.1. General
Cuenca (or officially Santa Ana de los Ros de Cuenca) is situated in Ecuador, a small country in
the North-West of Latin-America
America (see Figure 1. 2).. Ecuador is divided into four regions: the
Amazon-region
region (called Oriente), the Andean mountains (or Sierra), the coast and the
Galapagos Islands. Cuenca is the third largest city of Ecuador after Guayaquil and the capital
Quito. The city is the capital of the province Azuay, situated iin
n the southern part of Ecuador in
the Andean mountains. Cuenca is situated at a height of 2530 m above sea level. Four rivers
pass through the city: the Yanuncay, Machangara, Tomebamba and Tarqui. Cuenca has a total
surface of 15 730 hectares and has appro
approximately 450 000 inhabitants.

Figure 1. 2 - Location of Ecuador2

1.4.2. History
The actual layout of the city of Cuenca was shaped and formed by the influences of mainly
three cultures: Caari, Inca and Spanish. From approximately 500 A.D. until 1480 A.D. Cuenca
was the capital of the land of Caari and was called Guapondlig, a plain
plai as vast as the sky.
2

Source: http://maps.google.be, 8/01/2011

Few records are preserved about Caari architecture, although it is known that they already
used earth to construct their buildings. (Municipalidad de Cuenca, 2007) Their main
settlements were concentrated around the present archaeological site of Pumapungo in the
centre of Cuenca. In 1480, the Caari were defeated by the Incas, who had invaded Ecuador
from Peru. The Inca city Tomebamba was founded on top of the old Caari capital and became
the second largest city of the Inca nation after Cuzco. Only a few years after the arrival of the
Incas, Spanish conquistadores landed in America. They easily defeated the Incas who were
involved in a civil war.
On April 12th of 1557 the city of Santa Ana de los Ros de Cuenca. was founded on the ruins of
the Inca city Tomebamba, left in ruins after the civil war. Buildings were made with locally
available techniques and materials. The city was built with a street plan in checkerboard style,
that predominated the construction and planning. (Figure 1. 3) A central square, the present
Parqu Caldron, formed the center of the city with the administrative and ideological
authorities. This central square was surrounded by parallel city blocks, divided by
perpendicular streets running from north to south and east to west. The layout of this grid
made it possible for the city to enlarge in all four directions. The architecture of this period
was modest, with few ornamentation. The houses were well illuminated and ventilated. They
were looking on an inner courtyard and had only the strict necessary apertures on the exterior
faade. Several of these buildings are still to be found in the city today.
While Ecuador was experiencing a nationwide boom in export around 1860, Cuenca became
the centre of commerce for the Austral zone of Ecuador thanks to production and exportation
of quinine, Panama hats3 and handicraft weaving. This resulted in a period of economic
prosperity and provided resources to the craftsmen to adapt their houses. Single-storey houses
and colonial dwellings were demolished and mansions and villas with several storeys and
Parisian faades were built instead. Typical for these buildings are the balconies and wrought
or cast iron windows, or the brick faades in front of the traditional adobe walls. The interiors
changed as well: metal was imported from France and England to cover walls, ceilings and
plinths. But, the original layout with an interior garden was preserved.
Around 1940, modernism reached Cuenca. Several symbolic and ancient buildings such as the
ancient city hall were demolished and replaced by reinforced concrete uildings. Alongside a
spirit of conservation immerged slowly to conserve the large colonial dwellings and to equip
them for modern use.

1.4.3. UNESCO World Heritage Trust Site

In 1982, the historic centre of Cuenca was awarded the title of Cultural heritage of Ecuador.
This title was given for the archaeological sites, buildings from colonial and republican periods
and the urban space of the historic centre in general. In 1999, UNESCO included the history
3

Panama hats or sombreros de paja toquila are straw hats made of the plaited leaves of the toquilla straw
plant. These hats picked up the name Panama hat because they were shipped to the rest of Americas and
Europe through Panama. Their domestic origin is Ecuador.

city centre of Cuenca on the World Heritage list. UNESCO will protect historical, cultural and
architectural sides of the ancient city.
The declaration of Cuenca as UNESCO World Heritage Trust Site was justified by three main
reasons:
Cuenca illustrates the successful implantation of the principles of Renaissance urban planning
in the Americas. () The successful fusion of different societies and cultures in Latin America
is vividly symbolized by the layout and townscape of Cuenca. () Cuenca is an outstanding
example of a planned inland Spanish colonial city. (UNESCO)
The street plan of the city centre is shown on Figure 1. 3 (left). Cuenca still has its
checkerboard street pattern as it was designed by the Spanish upon their arrival. UNESCO
defined a protected area that includes the majority of buildings with great historic and
archaeological value. They are classified by their heritage value and represented in color
codes. Red has a greater heritage value than yellow and green.

Figure 1. 3 - (left) Street plan of Cuenca with indication of heritage value - (right) Street plan of the
city in 1920, it has still the same lay-out4

The greater part of this protected area is situated north of the river Tomebamba, which forms a
natural border between the ancient and the new part of Cuenca. The Avenida Loja, running to
the south-west and some buildings on the southern river banks of the Tomebamba are
exceptions. Parque Calderon, the citys main square, is the centre of the grid with streets
running from north to south and from east to west. The central square itself is an illustration of
the diverse building types that can be found in the city center (see Figure 1. 4). On the one side
you see the old cathedral, this is the oldest building in the city (1557). Opposite to this old
cathedral stands the architectonic symbol of the city: the new cathedral (1885) with its
impressive blue domes. In between, the new city council represents the phase of modernism
discussed before. The old municipal building, a modest design, based on French Neoclassicism
and adapted by Azuay craftsmen, was replaced by a new concrete town hall (1954),
dramatically changing the square architecture. The other buildings around the central square
4

Source: (Municipalidad de Cuenca, 2007), lithograph of A. Sarmiento, private collection of family Carvallo

are big adobe dwellings, decorated with French faades. An example is the Antiguo Seminario
(1813) next to the new cathedral. This type of buildings is to be found in the entire city centre,
with some very impressive ones on the northern bank of the river Tomebamba, referred to as

El Barranco.

Figure 1. 4 - Old Cathedral, Antiguo Seminario and view on Barranco

Figure 1. 5 shows a sketch made in 1729, that is still relevant for the actual street view in the
protected area: large dwellings with decorated facades and red-tiled roofs are built around big
patios. Together they form an entity of blocks, providing the citys unique charisma.

Figure 1. 5 - Plan of Cuenca of 1729 from the national Archive of Ecuador

1.4.4. VLIR-UOS project

In 1998, the VLIR-UOS project started. The VLIR (in Dutch: Vlaamse Interuniversitaire raad or
Flemish Interuniversity council) founded a secretariat for university cooperation for
development. The aim of the project is to support universities in the South because they
contribute significantly to the development of their country. The interaction in scientific
projects and activities and the exchange of knowledge and expertise from a different viewpoint
make the project very attractive to both developing countries and Flemish universities.
Cooperation projects have been established in 41 countries, including Ecuador. The
partnership with the university of Cuenca started in 2007. The program involves 7 projects.
This master thesis is part of the project World heritage City Preservation management. The
aim is the development of a scientifically supported management tool for the historic part of
the city that has been recognized as World Heritage Trust site. It develops a methodology to
7

describe the state of conservation of the heritage, monitoring tools, a heritage GIS system and
a design of a preventive conservation planning. (VLIR-UOS)

1.4.5. Climate and geography

Boundary conditions due to its surrounding are quite specific in Cuenca. This is to be explained
by the great altitude of the city in the Andean mountains. Therefore it is useful to discuss these
conditions briefly.
CLIMATE
Cuenca has only two seasons due to its position on the equator: a dry and a wet one. Dry
season is from June until September, more rain is expected from October until May.
Temperatures remain constant throughout the year. Day temperatures fluctuate around 20
degree Celsius. At night the temperature drops to about 9 degrees Celsius, but never drops
below zero. The relative humidity of 75% remains quite constant throughout the year. Figure
1. 6 gives temperatures, precipitation and relative humidity for each month.

Figure 1. 6 - Weather conditions in Cuenca5

EARTHQUAKES
Next to the climatic conditions, also the earthquake risk is an important factor in the region,
especially because of the vulnerability of earth architecture. Subduction of the Nazca Plate
beneath the South American Plate causes volcanism and earthquakes in South America. In this
subduction zone, a number of large earthquakes have occurred. In Ecuador earthquakes can be
caused by these tectonic interactions or induced by volcanoes as well. An earthquake with a
magnitude 5 on the Richter scale can be expected each year in Ecuador. The latest big
earthquake in Ecuador took place on the 12th of August 2010 between Ambato and Nueva Loja.
It had a magnitude of 6.9 on the Richter scale but caused little damage because of its big depth
of about 190 km. (Figure 1. 7, right) The tremor caused by the quake, even in Cuenca, was long
and strong as felt by the authors. Thanks to its specific location on a plateau in the Andes, the
risk on earthquake damage is lower in Cuenca. Figure 1. 7 (left) shows the earthquake risk
classification as it is described in Ecuadorian building code. Cuenca is situated in the yellow
(De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele, 2009) - Based on data from ISMCS v4.0, NOAA National Data Centers (US
Department of Commerce) for Cuenca and from Royal Meteorological Institute (KMI) for Belgium

zone, that has a lower risk than red and orange zones. Corresponding design spectra can be
found in the Ecuadorian Building Code (Instituto Ecuatoriano de normalizacin, 2002).
2002)

Figure 1. 7 - (left) Risk zones according to Ecuadorian Building Code

Code- (right) Location of
6
earthquake of 12/08/2010 of 6.9M

GEOLOGY
Maps about the geology around Cuenca are provided in appendix A. They show that plenty of
clay-rich
rich soil is available in the area. There is a dark hard clay, with a slightly alkaline pH and
the presence of calcium carbonate. This availability is a requirement to produce adobe blocks.

1.5.

Adobe construction

This section wants to give a short overview of the possibilities of adobe and its applications in
Cuenca. They will be elaborated further in the rest of the thesis, but already provide the reader
a context and background.

1.5.1. Generalities
Adobe blocks are unfired,, sundried mudstone
mudstones.. The word adobe comes from the Arabian word
al-toubeh
toubeh (stone). Adobe is composed of mud, sand, organic fibers and possible additions.
The mud used for the adobes is the local
locally
ly available earth, usually obtained from the
excavations for the foundation. Hereby, the composition and quality of adobe blocks differ from
place to place,, all over the world.
ize of adobes can vary, in Cuenca and surroundings, adobes are generally 50 cm long, 25
The size
cm with and 15 cm high.
igh. Blocks are laid out perpendicularly,, forming very heavy, thick walls.
Masonry is kept together with earth mortar. This mortar has the same composition as the

(BBC News, 2010)

mixture that is used to make the adobes. The joints are ma

maximum
ximum 2 cm in both horizontal and
vertical direction.
Important to notice is that building with adobe is extremely time consuming.
consuming First of all the
production process for the blocks takes long: digging
igging out earth, mixing and drying procedures
take a lot of time. Then the effective laying out in masonry requires patience as well. Adobe
walls cannot be built in one day, each laid out layer of bricks has to dry for about a day to give
the earth mortar time to consolidat
consolidate.
Because adobes contain unfired clay, they are very vulnerable to water damage and therefore
they should be protected against water. This is why a good base course, a decent roof and
several protection layers are applied. Traditionally
y these protecting layers are made of earth as
well. The primary layer is called revoque,
revoque, the fine finishing layer is called empaete.
empaete
Construction rules or standards for earth or adobe construction are not available in Ecuador
and even rare in the world
world. Therefore a main characteristic of these earth construction
techniques is that they are based on experience. Craftsmen who have a life long experience in
building with earth are the main source of information and provide technical knowledge on
the executive
ive part of the adobe construction. They are referred to as maestros. Each maestro
has his own way of working with specific tips and tricks, making it impossible to define one
way of making adobe or building with earth in Cuenca.
Leading international research
earch centers on earth architecture are CRATerre-EAG
CRATerre
in Grenoble
(France) and the university of Kassel in Germany. They have published two comprehensive
books on earth construction, respectively Earth Construction, A comprehensive guide by
Houben & Guillaud (1989) and Building with earth by Minke(2006).

1.5.2. Typical lay

lay-out
A typical setup for a colonial house in Cuenca is a patio in the middle, with the house built
around this patio. (Figure
Figure 1. 8)

Figure 1. 8 - (left) Patio of two storey building with many wooden elements - (right) Schematic lay
out7

Source: (INCP, 2004)

10

A lot of wooden elements and balconies are typical. Buildings are generally two or sometimes
three stories high and have a decorated faade. These faades are often built in a later stage of
construction during the period of economic prosperity. An ornamented faade made of brick
masonry was then placed in front of the adobe walls. Whil
Whilee faades are very decorated, side
walls are often less maintained and the earthen construction elements can remain visible.
In general, walls on the first floor and structural walls are made of adobe. They are massive
with a width up to 50 to 60 cm. They are placed on a base course of about
half a meter high. To ensure the connection between the
these massive adobe
walls, wooden connection elements are installed, called llaves8 (Figure
Figure 1. 9).
They are executed by placing a wooden beam in both walls that need
connection.. A third beam then connects the two wooden beams. Thee key
ensures the transfer
fer of forces between the two walls and increases the
stiffness of the wall providing vital earthquake resistance.
Figure 1. 9 - Key
connection, 'llave'

Non-structural
structural walls are often carried out using a much lighter earth technique: bahareque
walls. Bahareque (Spanish) or wattle
wattle-and-daub is an old earthen construction technique as
well. Walls are composed of a lightweight material like reed, leaves, palm, etc. A frame is made
of wooden beams and reed by forming a cross structure. This frame is filled with reed and gets
a mud cover. The width of th
these walls runs from 10 to 20 cm. In a newer variation the frame
consists of two diagonal beams to improve the seismic stability. These beams are covered with
mud as well. (Figure 1. 10))

Figure 1. 10 - Bahareque in Cuenca9

1.5.3. Suitability and sustainability

Adobe construction is often considered as an inferior building technique.
technique It is seen as a cheap
building solution, only used because earth is the only available or affordable material. The
benefits of adobe construction were ignored regularly because of assumptions and prejudices:
prejudices
working
orking with earth is dirty and heavy work; adobe would not be able to meet modern
construction demands; adobe would be too vulnerable to water damage;
damage adobe would be unfit
in earthquake zones and so on. These prejudices are mainly due to a lack of interest and
information on correct design.

Llave is Spanish for key. Source figure: (Minke, 2006)

Source: (De Sutter Esquenet, 1985)

11

However it is correct that adobe has some technical problems that need attention: few
standards exist, loam shrinks when it dries causing problems in production and the water
resistance of adobe is low. But these problems can easily be taken as challenges for a better
design.
Thanks to the rising attention for environmental friendly building materials, adobe
construction is slowly getting rid of its bad image. Step by step adobe construction gets more
attention. More and more the attention is drawn to the fact that adobe construction is a
suitable way for sustainable construction. The term sustainable is often used wrong as an
empty ecological sales argument. Judging on the sustainability of a good should always be
based on three important aspects: a social, an environmental and an economical one. A good is
sustainable when the economic impact is positive, the negative impact for the environment is
as low as possible and comes with social profit.
From the environmental point of view, adobe is an excellent building material with an
impressively low impact. The only required resources are earth, water and natural fibers.
Usually the same earth that is excavated to build the foundation is used or otherwise old
blocks are recycled. Therefore only natural fibers (hay for example) should be transported to
the construction site. The in-situ production of adobe does not require extra energy except for
the handling by the craftsmen. This is in huge contrast to the energy needed to burn bricks or
to produce cement. Adobe blocks are simply sundried, therefore the CO2 emissions needed to
built an adobe house are only a fraction of the emissions needed for a house built with cement
or concrete! Moreover there is no waste production at all.
From the economical point of view the choice for adobe could be made because an adobe block
is 3 times cheaper than a fired brick and 11 times cheaper than cement stone. (Santos, 2009)
Especially in a poor country like Ecuador, where 36% of the population lives below the poverty
line (information about 2009), cost can be a decisive factor. (World Bank, 2011) Because adobe
construction is time consuming and labor intensive, it requires manpower and offers job
possibilities. On the other hand the time consuming aspect increases operational costs, but
these cost are easily compensated by the low production costs of the material.
The social aspect is present in the fact that a house should improve life quality of its
inhabitants, ensure their health, safety and comfort and if possible integrate local cultural
aspects within the building. Adobe can satisfy these terms, when it is used correctly. In
addition adobe has the ability to balance air humidity, improving indoor climate. Furthermore
adobe construction is a very accessible building technique. No sophisticated tools or ovens are
needed to produce adobe. This makes it possible for anyone to make his own adobe stones and
built his an adobe house.
Summarizing, it is clear that adobe has great possibilities because of its low ecological impact
and low price. Prejudices are slowly disappearing because technological solutions are available
to counter problems in adobe construction.
Moreover in Cuenca an important shift is noticeable in the motivation to use adobe. While in
the past (and still on the countryside) adobe was used because it was the cheapest and only
available alternative it is clear that in the historical centre of Cuenca low cost arguments are
12

not the main trigger anymore. At the moment the choice to restore and maintain monuments
in adobe is much more a choice to integrate local cultural aspects and preserving the
monumental street view of Cuenca in a sustainable way, than a pure economically based
choice. The tendency that started during the fifties to modernize and replace monuments by
concrete structures is definitely over. During the last decade a lot of renovation works have
been carried out to improve and maintain adobe buildings. These projects show that nowadays
there is a great interest in preserving ancient construction techniques that had almost been
lost. Meanwhile the consciousness is growing that research is needed to combine and improve
these techniques with modern techniques. This thesis aims to deliver a contribution to these
needs.

1.6.

Adobe collection sites

Adobe blocks were collected on five different sites in Cuenca or surroundings. They were used
to examine and compare their characteristics in the laboratory in Cuenca and later on in
Leuven. In Cuenca, two restoration sites were visited. Two more sites were selected outside of
Cuenca, both because their adobes were ascribed better characteristics. One site was in
Susudel, the other one in Girn. Figure A.1 (Appendix A.1) provides a map that shows the
location of these sites. More detailed information about the collection and sending to Leuven of
adobe and renderings can be found in Appendix H.1 and Appendix H.2.

1.6.1. Escuela Central (Cuenca)

The main source of practical information on traditional building techniques was gathered on
the restoration site of Escuela Central La Immaculada (Figure 1. 11). This restoration site is
situated on the crossing of streets Gran Colombia and Benigno Malo. The school was erected
in 1882 and served originally as a girls school. Later on it was used as the city library of
Cuenca for a short period, then it returned to its original use as a school. (Torres Hidalgo,
Magdalena, 2007) Nowadays it is property of the Municipality of Cuenca which carries out a
huge restoration project. During this restoration project human skeletons were found under
the patio. Archaeological research is carried out to determine their origin.
The building is interesting because it has the typical lay-out of most big adobe buildings
present in the city center, but thanks to the restoration all structural elements are visible and
easy to examine. Two storeys are built around a central patio forming a rectangular building.
All structural inner walls were erected with adobe blocks with dimensions 50 x 25 x 15 cm,
that were laid out perpendicularly. These adobe walls were covered with the traditional
renderings. They will be discussed later. The two walls facing the street, are made out of bricks.
Some bahareque is used as well, but in minor amounts.
Different types of structural problems urged an intervention. While most adobe walls were in
fair or average condition with few pathology, the main problem was the lack of connection
between the different walls. Furthermore renderings were deteriorating and the floor and roof
structures that were made of wood-earth structures were in bad condition. One outer adobe
wall had collapsed due to wrongly executed works by the owner of an adjacent building.
Another particular problem was that on top of the brick outer walls, a layer of adobe blocks
13

was present that carried the roof construction. This was definitely badly executed since no
wooden elements were present to distribute the tensile stresses induced by the roof.

Figure 1. 11 - Escuela Central before the restoration project 10

The project was particularly interesting because all restoration action were done using
traditional techniques. (Figure 1. 12) The history and pathology of the building was very well
documented before the intervention started and during the restoration project there was close
contact with researchers from the VLIR-CPM project. Because there was a lack of specific
technical data on the adobes from engineering point of view, all people involved in the
restoration project were glad to help on the research. This gave the authors the opportunity to
work with some of the most experienced maestros (= craftsmen) and architects of Cuenca in
the field of adobe restoration. Both ancient as newly recycled adobes were taken from this site
and sent to Belgium for further research. This site is referred to as Escuela Central.

Figure 1. 12 - (left & middle) Views on restoration project in Escuela Central -(right) Maestros of
adobe production with leading Arch.

1.6.2. Casa del Sombrero (Cuenca)

While the restoration project in Escuela Central is in an advanced stage, the project in Casa del
Sombrero is only starting up. This site is located in the street Rafael M. Arizaga between the
streets Luis Cordero and Presidente Borrero. This site is property of the municipality of
Cuenca as well. It used to be a very important artisanal center for the distribution of Panama
hats or sombreros de paja toquilla. The site was of major importance to develop this
important economic activity in the city. The plans to restore this site are ready, but only few
information was provided on the historical background of the site. The site dates from the
same period as Escuela Central, but is in ruinous state. No burned bricks are used here, all
walls are made of adobe or bahareque, covered with traditional renderings.

10

Source: (Carvajal, Jaramillo, & Zuega)

14

The site has major stability problems at the moment. A roof in the back of the building has
collapsed, leaving some adobe walls exposed to rain and erosion. Other walls show dangerous
structural cracks due to excessive stresses coming from wooden beams inducing point loads
from the roof. Renderings protecting the faade are deteriorating as well, exposing it to further
water damage. (see Figure 1. 13) Thanks to the collapse of certain parts of the building, plenty
of ancient adobes were easily available to use for research.
Since restoration will be executed using the same techniques as in Escuela Central, the method
to improve adobes elaborated in this thesis can be very useful and easily applicable. The site
will be converted in a complex with offices and a museum and is therefore referred to as

Museo Sombrero.

Figure 1. 13 - (left) Facade - (middle) Patio - (right) Collapsed wall of Museo Del Sombrero

1.6.3. Parqueador Calle Mariscal Sucre (Cuenca)

Two adobe blocks were taken from a building site in the street Mariscal Sucre, number 29-40
(near the crossing of Calle Tarqui) in Cuenca. Craftsmen were demolishing the last standing
walls of this site, used as a parking lot. The municipality plans a new building in bricks on this
site. The blocks collected here were tested, but are only used as reference since two blocks is
not enough to do a statistically relevant analysis. This site is referred to as Parking.

1.6.4. Susudel
80 km from Cuenca, on a height of 2300 m above sea level lays the remote village of Susudel. It
is situated next to the Panamericana on the green and fertile slopes of what is claimed to be an
old extinct volcano. Susudel is part of the community of Oa, that runs a collaboration project
with the Belgian community of Bierbeek, close to Leuven. The only manufacturing branch of
this 110 families big village is fired bricks and unfired adobe production. The bricks that are
moulded by hand and fired in huge wood ovens, are exported throughout the region. (Figure 1.
14) Building materials from Susudel have an excellent reputation because their quality would
be outstanding due to a better soil composition. To verify this claim, both production methods
and mixture composition of the adobes were examined.
The site that provided the examined adobes for this thesis is situated in Susudel Vieja11 next to
the church. A playing area is created for the children of the towns kindergarten. (See Figure 1.
15) The adobe production process is very similar to the one used in Cuenca. The only
remarkable difference is that these adobe blocks dry in the blazing sun, causing more
11

Susudel Vieja or old Susudel is the oldest part of the village.

15

shrinkage cracks than desired. Soil is taken from a slope 20 m from the construction site. No
special actions are undertaken to improve it. Six adobes were provided for research by this
site.

Figure 1. 14 - One of the traditional brick production plants of Susudel

As showed in Figure A.4 (Appendix A.3), the geology of the soil is different in Cuenca and in
Susudel. Where the soil of Cuenca is a dark clay with a slightly alkaline pH and the presence of
calcium carbonate; the soil of Susudel is a kaolinite clay and/or montmorillonite clay with a
slightly acidic pH and a reddish brown, red or yellow-brown color.

Figure 1. 15 - (left) Susudel: laying out adobes - (middle) Collecting adobes - (right) Wall
kindergarten finished

1.6.5. Girn
Girn is another small hill town with a good reputation for adobes of good quality. The town is
situated 45 km to the southeast of Cuenca on the highway to Machala. The town is famous for
its magnificent waterfalls dominating the landscape around it. Five adobes were taken from a
adobe production site (see Figure 1. 16) situated near the highway, 100 m in the direction of
Cuenca from the only traffic lights. The smaller dimensions of the adobes: 40 x 20x 15 cm are
remarkable.
According to the soil map of Ecuador (Figure A.4 Appendix A.3), the soil of Girn is a black,
sandy clay with stones and/or gravel. The clay increases in depth. The soil has a slightly acid to
neutral pH.

Figure 1. 16 - Adobe production site in Girn

16

1.7.

Conclusions

Chapter one provides an introduction and background to this master thesis. It defines
boundary conditions that are related to the location and the great height of the Ecuadorian city
of Cuenca. The historical center of this city has been declared world heritage by UNESCO. A lot
of monuments in the historical center are built using adobe blocks. Adobe blocks are unfired,
sundried mud stones. An introduction to adobe building techniques and terminology is
provided. The sites where the examined adobe blocks were collected for this case study
(Escuela Central and Museo Del Sombrero in Cuenca, Girn and Susudel) are described to
provide a background to the reader.
Although adobe and earth construction faced a lot of prejudices in the past and were often only
used because of their low price, the belief in the importance of conserving the monuments of
Cuenca using traditional techniques has grown considerably during the last decades. The
awareness that adobe construction is part of the culture and the unique character of Cuenca is
visible in many restoration projects. Architects, engineers and craftsmen know the application
possibilities of adobe construction, but a profound technical knowhow to come to a better,
durable design is missing.

17

18

Chapter 2.

Adobe

This chapter provides a detailed description of adobe. Both its functioning in masonry, as its
structure and characteristics will be discussed in order to provide an elaborated reference for
the following chapters. To make statements about technical durability of a building material
one should always keep in mind that it is a time-related
related issue. Often durability only gets
attention
tion when first damages occur. Then an analysis is made to find the source of the
problems.. This backward analysis often ends up with the characteristics of the building
material used.
Understanding the functioning of adobe blocks and its components in full detail is crucial to be
able to eliminate causes of damage to earth structures and
nd to obtain a better design. The
following chapter aimss to provide this detailed analysis of adobe. The essential components
will be discussed step by step
step. All these steps,
eps, together with the production process will
unravel the typical characteristics of adobe itself. Characteristics of clay will be discussed first
since clay is the most important active binder in adobe. Then the further composition of the
mixture is explained,
ained, followed by the production process. The
These
se steps provide the necessary
information to understand the properties of the adobe blocks themselves. Then the
functioning of adobe blocks in masonry and its relation to the mortar will be elaborated.
elaborated
Finally damages to adobe construction will be discussed. The analysis is restricted to the
adobe and adobe techniques used in Cuenca and surroundings.
The structure of this chapter is visualized schematically in Figure 2. 1.

Figure 2. 1 - Structure of chapter 2

19

2.1.

Loam

The principal component of adobe is loam. The composition and characteristics of loam
depend on local conditions. Loam is a mixture of clay, silt and sand, and can contain larger
aggregates like gravel and stones. Particles with diameter smaller than 0.002 mm are named
clay, those between 0.002 and 0.06 mm silt and those between 0.06 and 2 mm are named sand.
Bigger particles are termed gravel and stones. The characteristics of these components will be
discussed in this section.

2.1.1. Clay
Clay minerals form the smallest grain size portion of the loam. They are characterized by their
large relative surface area. Clay particles have a number of critical properties in their
interactions in earthen materials, in particular their interaction with water is crucial.
Clay is the principal agent of formation and stabilization of adobe, it acts as a binder for all
larger particles in the loam. The function of clay in loam can be compared to the function of
cement in concrete. Clay minerals have flat surfaces, that attract each other by electrostatic
forces when the absorbed water layers leave the system. It is important to trigger these
mechanisms to understand differences in quality of adobes due to differences in the use of
amounts and types of clay.
The mineral surface of clay attracts the polar water molecules through weak charge forces
(van der Waals-force). In this way several layers of water get weakly bonded to the crystals.
Due to this water, the viscosity of the clay is able to change. The most important factor driving
this mechanism is the great surface area of clay. This surface area is different for each type of
clay, mainly depending on the particle shape and size.
Specifically a certain amount of clay minerals have the important property that allows them to
incorporate water molecules in their structure. This water can move in and out of the structure
easily, causing the minerals to expand or shrink. The higher internal charged surface, which is
open to ionic migration, allows the swelling of clays. Hydrated cations are absorbed by the clay
into these internal crystallographic sites. The strength of attraction of the ions onto the clay
surfaces is dependent on the type and quantity of cations that are interchangeable. (Minke,
2006) Important to notice is that not all types of clay absorb hydrated cations but that some
clays are able to absorb non-hydrated cations as well. The first group of clays that do accept
hydrated cations are called the swelling clays, those that do not are called non-swelling clays.
(Velde, 2008)
The swelling clays are called smectites. These minerals have a 2:1 structure, with two
tetrahedral layers and an octahedral layer. These layers are weakly bond and have a strong
internal attraction to the hydroxyl ion. Therefore they are readily invaded by water and are
extremely expansive. Montmorillonite is a widespread sodium-rich smectite that is powerfully
expansive. It is an aluminous mineral with the two tetrahedral layers almost completely
occupied with silicium. (Warren, 1999)

20

The non-swelling clays are often referred to as kaolinite clays. They have a 1:1 structure,
meaning one tetrahedral layer and one octahedral layer. Thanks to unsatisfied valences on the
surface, they can adsorb other molecules. This surface bonding is possible with both available
ions or with water. These kaolinites are minimally expansive, except for halloysite. There are
different types of kaolinite of which serpentine and kaolinite are the most common. (Warren,
1999) and (Velde, 2008)
A third group of minerals can be classified as clay as well because of their size, but in fact they
dont act like clay since they are not chemically active through ion replacement. Therefore they
are called non-clays or non-swelling clays with high charge. Under this group fall micas,
illites, chlorites and others.
The binding force and compressive strength of the loam is dependent on the type and amount
of clay. Furthermore adding water to a clay powder results in a cohesive but plastic mass. Clay
picks up the water and distributes it around its particles, allowing them to slide over one other.
This way a certain plasticity is given to the mixture. It is obvious that this mechanism will be
dangerous for the stability of adobe blocks that come in contact with water.

2.1.2. Silt, sand and gravel

Silt, sand and gravel are fillers for the loam. They do not provide any binding force but perform
as a strong skeleton for the adobe. Their grain size distribution is an important factor.

2.1.3. Grain size distribution

The amount of clay in relation to the amount of aggregates is an important factor for the
stability of an adobe block. It is important to have enough clay to provide enough binding
force, but on the other hand more clay usually implies more shrinkage. The specific limits of
proportions of clay and non-clay materials allowed in practice are unknown, but literature
advises a minimum of 10% and a maximum of 20%.
According to Houben and Guillaud the desired grain size distribution to obtain the greatest
mechanical strength and resistance to water action, can be obtained by reducing the voids
ratio and increasing the contact between the grains. In concrete technology the Fuller
parabola is used to obtain the ideal grain size distribution or well graded mix. (Houben &
Guillaud, 1989) It is given by the expression:
\ _
Z = 100 [ ^
]
Where
a = the proportion of grains of a given diameter d
D = the largest grain diameter
n = the grading coefficient
When the grains are entirely spherical, n equals 0.5. In soil however, silt, sand and gravel may
perhaps have a shape which approximates the a spherical shape, but for at least clay, this
assumption is not correct. This is why Houben and Guillaud suggest using an n of 0.20 to 0.25.
On the other hand Boemans suggests following formula (Boemans, 1990):
21

\ a.b
Z`a = 100 [ ^ c 10
]
He claims that grains larger than 0.002 mm can be assumed spherical and suggests a base
minimum clay content of 10%. Adobe can nevertheless have quite variable clay content.
content In and
around Cuenca, the loam used is the loam that can be found on the building site or the
production site of adobe. Therefore the grain si
size
ze distribution can vary widely.
widely The grain size
distribution from the Fuller parabola (n = 0.25) and the Boemans parabola are compared in
Figure 2. 2.

Figure 2. 2- Fuller with grading coefficient 0.25 and Boemans curve

There is no scientific agreement on specific limits of proportions of clay and nonclay materials.
A requirement for the composition could be that the adobes dry into a homogeneous,
homogeneous compact
mass without cracks. This principle is simple in theory, but in practice, for the case of Cuenca
and surroundings, the conditions are not fulfilled frequently
frequently.

2.2.

Components
onents and their function

Beside loam, which is the primary component to make adobe, water and natural fibers are
added to the mixture that is used to fill the adobe moulds.

2.2.1. Loam
The components of the loam have been discussed in the previous paragraph.
paragraph In all investigated
cases, new adobes were made with earth that was dug on the fabrication site of the adobe
itself, or with earth from in
in-situ recycled adobes. In this last case, bigger parts were removed
from the mixture. In none of the visited sites attention was paid to the relative amount of clay
or to the grain size distribution of the other particles
particles. In situ tests in Escuela Central in Cuenca
pointed out that the loam contains too much clay. In this case literature suggest the addition of
sand. The samee recommendation was made by De Jongh and Van Wijnendaele,
Wijnendaele who
investigated soil from Sinincay, near Cuenca. (De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele, 2009)
22

2.2.2. Water
The aim of adding water to the loam is to make the loam workable and to activate the clay. The
lamellar structure of the various clay minerals and their internal electrical attraction can only
become active when water is absorbed. By kneading the loam in a plastic state, minerals are
able to come together in a denser, parallel layered packing, achieving greater binding force.
(Minke, 2006) In certain regions the optimal water content is used to determine the required
amount of water to add to the adobe mixture. The optimal water content, is the water content
at which the maximum dry density is achieved after performing a proctor test. In earth
construction, the so-called optimum water content does not necessarily lead to the maximum
compressive strength that could be expected at the maximum density. This is because
workability and binding force are more decisive parameters than optimum water content and
associated density. It is even recommended not to use loam at the optimum water content, but
to use the optimum water content as an absolute minimum amount of water. A water content
of 10% higher than the so called-optimum, gives better results. (Minke, 2006) A surplus of
water on the other hand can cause excessive shrinkage if the adobe block is dried in bad
circumstances. Yet again, in Cuenca and surroundings, composition and amount of water is
based on experience of the maestros. No measurements of water content are made during the
production process.

2.2.3. Natural fibers

On all visited fabrication sites natural fibers12 from Cajas were added to the mixture. The
workers claim that this hay is added to reduce shrinkage cracks and improve tensile strength.
Literature gives quite different explanations for the reasons of using fibers. An analysis will be
made and summarized in Table 2. 1.
The work Earth Construction by Houben and Guillaud, which is considered as the standard
comprehensive guide for earth constructions, ascribe following four effects when adding
fibers: (1) fibers hinder cracking upon drying by distributing the tension induced by the
shrinkage of the clay, (2) fibers accelerate drying because they improve the drainage of
moisture towards the outer surface. The fibers function as channels. On the other hand fibers
increase absorption in the presence of water. (3) Fibers lighten the material. Since the volume
of the used hay is large, this reduces the bulk density and improves the insulating
characteristics. (4) Fibers would increase tensile strength. (Houben & Guillaud, 1989)
Minke (2006) refers to a higher binding force and higher water absorption as well, but speaks
of the reduction of the appearance of cracks. A more elaborated and recent study Yetgin,
Cavdar, & Cavdar (2008) on the effects of fibers on the mechanical characteristics of adobes
reveals some interesting information. First of all one could notice that all 3 authors agree on
the effect on the water absorption by adding fibers. When adding fibers, water content needs
to increase in order to maintain a good workability. Due to this increased amount of water, the
unit weight and so the compressive strength decreases. Green strength13 increases though.
12

the best match for these fibers in Belgium is red fescue (Dutch: roodzwenkgras, Latin: Festuca Rubra)

13 Green strength is a measure to quantify the ability of an incompletely cured material to undergo
removal from the mould and handling without distortion.

23

Further the addition of fibers has a clear influence on shrinkage. Increasing the amount of
fibers, decreases the amount of shrinkage. Increasing the amount of clay and water increases
shrinkage as well. An important other notice could be made from the elaborated tensile tests
of Yetgin, Cavdar, & Cavdar (2008): tensile strength decreases by increasing the fiber content.
In contrast with findings by Houben and Guillaud (1989) this article points out that the tensile
strength in non-fibrous samples is greater than in fibrous samples. This could be explained by
the necessary addition of water and the fact that the fibers were stripped easily when
performing tensile tests. The length of the fibers will have an influence as well: long fibers will
have a longer anchoring length.
Furthermore there is an optimal amount of fibers that can be added. Excessive use of fibers
reduces the density too much, while the number of contact points between fiber and soil
becomes too low. Due to this, stresses cant be transferred anymore. Yetgin et al. advise to
restrict the fiber content for adobe to about 0.5% (by weight), while other authors advise a
maximum of 2% fibers. (Houben & Guillaud, 1989) and (Minke, 2006) The optimal amount of
fibers will depend on the type and amount of clay.
Rotting of the natural fibers is of no danger to the adobe in dry condition. When the hay is wet
for a long time, it might start to rot. To prevent this, it is important to put the adobe in a damp
open environment. As long as proper drying is certain, alternating wetting and drying cycles
are no problem.

Increase of
fibers
Explanation

Shrinkage

Water absorption
& drying speed

Compressive
Tensile strength
strength

Decreases

Increases

Decreases

Tension stresses Fibers function as Increasing

There is no consensus.
are distributed
channels for
fiber content This depends on the
more evenly over water. They
decreases
type of fiber and the
the volume.
accelerate water the unit
bond between fiber
When enough
transport in two
weight and
and clay. Some authors
fibers are added, directions. Due to thereby the speak of a significant
no visible cracks water absorption correlated
decrease, others from
will appear. They during
strength.
an increase in tensile
will be replaced
fabrication, the
strength.
by smaller,
water content
hairline cracks.
needs to increase.
Table 2. 1 - Influence of increase on fibers and explanation

2.2.4. Other additives

In Cuenca and surroundings, no other additives are used. The loam is taken in situ, and only
hay and water are added. It is possible that adding certain materials to the mixture improves
the adobe characteristics. Research has been done to determine the influence of adding
inorganic material such as sand, cement and lime, as well as natural organic products such as
animal dung, plant resins and bitumen. For the specific case of Cuenca sand might be a good
24

stabilizer. It is easy to get, cheap and it might improve certain characteristics. As for the other
stabilizers, a good reference work was made by Warren (1999).

2.3.

Fabrication process

The fabrication process of adobe can be summarized in four steps: (1) First the loam is
collected by digging it out or recycling blocks. (2) This loam is mixed intensively with hay and
water. There are no other additives. (3) After a resting period, the adobe is put into moulds.
(4) After a new drying period, it is ready for use. The exact procedure of fabrication is different
at each production site and depends on the maestro carrying it out. To provide a better insight
in the procedure, a case study of a fabrication process will be explained in detail and analyzed.
This is relevant since the exact procedure to make adobe is not documented in Cuenca. The
reported fabrication process has been observed on the restoration site Escuela Central and
plans are made to use the same process on the site of Museo del Sombrero.

2.3.1. Collecting material

In Escuela Central, loam is collected from old adobe blocks. These blocks are taken from walls
that need restoration. Workers simply cut them loose from the wall and throw them on a big
stack. The majority of the ancient adobes fall into pieces when they are manipulated this way.
If not, they are further demolished by transporting them and walking over the big stack. The
loam is regularly sprayed with a little water to prevent nuisance due to dust.
The loam then contains big parts of the adobe blocks that still stick together. These parts are
broken into smaller pieces. Remaining big particles, such as stones, tiles or pieces of brick are
removed from the mixture. On this site even parts of human bones were found when recycling
adobes. They probably come from the graves found under the patio of the school. Removing
the bigger parts is not done by sieving, but by manually picking out particles with a diameter
bigger than 5 cm. This is done while loading the wheelbarrow to transport the earth.
The fibers are cut with a machete into parts of approximately 20 cm. Fine hay is used,
harvested in Cajas, a national park to the west of Cuenca. The hay is part of the special
vegetation of the park called Pramo, only growing above 3000 m height. (Figure 2. 3) The
water for the mixing is taken from the tap.

Figure 2. 3 - (left) Picking out big adobe particles - (middle) Hay from Cajas - (right) Pramo in
Cajas

25

2.3.2. Mixing
Since the clay needs activation, it is crucial to add enough water and movement to the mixture.
The workers do not use fixed amounts of material, they work relying on their experience: a
basin of about 3.2 m is filled up to a height of 40 to 50 cm with dry loam. More or less 3.5
barrels of water are added to this mixture. This is approximately 250 liters of water on 1 m
loam. (see Figure 2. 4)
Then the water and loam get mixed profoundly. This is intensive labor; in the beginning it is
done using shovels. For about an hour the workers turn, cut and stab into the earth-water
mixture. All earth is tumbled and by doing so, the parts of the adobe blocks stuck together fall
apart. The water is distributed evenly and after mixing for an hour, an homogeneous and more
liquid mud mixture is the result. The loam is now in a plastic state and the clay minerals are
able to come together in a denser, parallel layered packing when more movement is added.
This further mixing is done by walking through the mud. (Figure 2. 5)

Figure 2. 4 - (left) Basin filled with earth - (right) Adding water

Figure 2. 5 - Mixing the loam

It cant be stressed enough that this mixing period is crucial. Bad mixing will lead to less
activated clay and less binding force. After the mixing the cut hay is added. This is done in
three cycles. Each time an entire barrow of hay is spread out over the mud-mixture. (Figure 2.
6 left) Then it is pushed into the mixture by walking over it. Each part of the mixture should
contain a similar amount of fibers. (Figure 2. 6 right) This procedure meets the
recommendations of Houben and Guillaud (1989) i.e. that the stalks should be scattered in all
26

directions in the soil and that excessively long stalks, in parallel, do not give good results.
Concentration of fibers in specific spots or in nests should be avoided.

Figure 2. 6 - (left) Adding fibers - (right) Mixing fibers by walking through

In a final step of the mixing procedure, a 1 cm thick layer of sieved loam is spread out over the
mud-hay mixture. The same loam as used for the mud mixture, is thrown with shovels on a
sieve that allows particles smaller than 1 to 1.5 mm to pass. The earth is mixed with the mud
by walking through it again. (see Figure 2. 7) The maestros explain that this is done because
the mixture is too fluid according to their experience. Finally a fourth barrow of fibers is added
to the mixture. Walking through the mud has become noticeably harder in this stadium.

Figure 2. 7 - (left) Sieving - (right) Adding sieved loam to mixture

The mixture dries for 2 weeks, covered by a plastic sheet. This process is called water curing in
literature. According to Minke (2006) a minimum curing period of 12 to 48 hours is advised.
Experience shows that this curing period enhances the binding force of the loam probably
caused by the electrochemical attraction between the clay minerals, forcing them into a more
compact and ordered pattern.

2.3.3. Moulding
Moulds of 50 x 25 x 15 cm are used in Escuela Central. The moulds are washed, before filling
them with the mixture. To prevent the loam to stick to the mould, it should remain wet. Again
some hay is cut into pieces of about 20 cm long. For each adobe, a handful of hay is put into the
wheelbarrow with the needed earth. The mould is then filled. To make sure the mould is
entirely filled, some pressure is applied. Then the surface is smoothened by hand and the
27

mould is removed. After removing the mould, the adobe should maintain its shape. The next
adobe can be made. (Figure 2. 8 and Figure 2. 9)

Figure 2. 8 - (left) Adobe mould 50 x 25 x 15 cm - (middle) Barrow with mixed soil and hay (right) Filling mould

Figure 2. 9 - (left) Compressing - (middle) Flattening by hand - (right) Removal of the mould

Although it is a common belief of many practitioners, applying pressure on the adobe while
filling the mould will not increase the compressive strength of the final adobe. Compacting the
adobe with a soil block press has even a negative effect on the final strength. (Minke, 2006) As
said, bond strength of adobe results from binding due to dehydration of clay minerals. This is
why mixing and enough water are much more important. A minimum of compression is
necessary though to fill all corners of the mould.

2.3.4. Drying
The adobe needs a certain drying period to reach its final strength. This period depends on the
mixture and weather conditions. During this period the adobes should be protected against
rain and direct sunlight to ensure a homogeneous drying. After 4 to 7 days, the adobe should
be placed upright to ensure the balanced drying process. In Escuela Central a drying period of
14 days is used. Then the adobes are ready for further use. (Figure 2. 10) After this drying
period shrinkage cracks can be evaluated.

Figure 2. 10 - (left) Drying of adobes in Escuela Central under good protection - (right) In Susudel,
exposed to direct sunlight

28

2.4.

Characteristics of adobe as a building material

A brief overview of the general functionality of adobe as a building material is elaborated in

this section. Adobes material characteristics are more varying than the characteristics of most
other building materials because of the different compositions and fabrication processes that
are not standardized. The way the adobe is protected has a major influence as well.
Furthermore earthen building materials are less homogeneous than most other building
materials, so the difference between the characteristics of the blocks on even one single site
can be big.

2.4.1. General characteristics

The most common size of adobes in the region of Cuenca is 50 x 25 x 15 cm. In certain places,
such as Girn smaller blocks are made. Technically there is almost no restriction on the size of
adobe, bigger adobes have been found in Susudel for instance. The main issue with excessively
tall adobes is their workability. Manipulation of blocks with a mass reaching up to 40 kg
becomes problematic.
Bulk density varies as well. It depends on loam composition, water content and compaction in
the production process. De Jongh and Van Wijnendaele (2009) determined the bulk density of
adobe for their seismic model as 1813.8 kg/m. Houben and Guillaud (1989) suggest a range
between 1200 and 1700 kg/m for adobe bulk density. A number of mechanical properties of
the adobe would be directly related to this density. This relation is examined later on in this
thesis.

2.4.2. Mechanical characteristics

The compressive strength of materials is a widely used quality control reference for building
materials. Uniaxial compressive strength is easy to test in concrete cube testing machines or
similar devices. This testing procedure will be further elaborated in chapter 4. Compressive
strength tests executed on adobe cylinders from Cuenca by De Jongh and Van Wijnendaele
(2009) in Leuven determined an unconfined compression strength of 1.79 MPa. Values in the
same order can be found in literature.
The compression strength depends mainly on following factors according to literature:
quantity and type of clay, grain size distribution of silt, sand and gravel and preparation and
compaction.
In practice the value of the compressive strength should be handled with care. It should not be
used as a fundamental need to satisfy in service stress condition, but much rather as a
universally recognized quality control test. Although the compression strength of adobe is low
compared to the compression strength of other building materials14, this strength is in normal
circumstance amply sufficient because the block itself will not fail under compression. Tensile
stress will be decisive. This will be explained further in section 2.5 (Adobe masonry). Anyway,
according to German standards (DIN 18954), the permissible compressive strength of earth
14

30 MPa is a common value compression strength of concrete for example

29

building elements is about 3 to 5 kg/cm. This equals (assuming g = 10 m/s) a strength of 0.3
to 0.5 MPa. This is six times lower than the strength reported by De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele
(2009).
Adobes are typical building elements that are used in compression in masonry. This is why the
direct tensile strength of the dry material is of little relevance in construction calculations.
Inevitably adobe masonry will be subjected to stresses due to bending at certain moments.
This happens during earthquakes for example, but more common by inducing a bending
moment due to an eccentric load. Normally these stresses do not influence the adobe blocks
individually. This can be explained by the fact that adobe blocks function in masonry and that
the connection mortar-adobe is generally weaker when subjected to tension than the inner
bond of the adobe. Still, the bending strength of the adobe has significance as a reference value
to position the quality of different adobes. It gives very valuable information about bond
characteristics, cohesion and the presence of cracks. According to Minke (2006) the bending
strength is mainly depending on the clay content and the type of clay minerals.
Montmorillonite clay would have a much higher bending tensile strength than kaolinite
according to an old investigation carried out in Germany. Hofmann & Schembra (1967) report
that the investigated value for bending strength reached with kaolinite were between 0.17 MPa
and 9.18 MPa. The highest reached with montmorillonite was 22.3 MPa. No recent research
could be found on this topic.

2.4.3. Influence of water and vapor

When adobe becomes wet, the clay will swell and change from a solid to a plastic state. When
the clay dries again, it will shrink, returning to its solid state. This causes certain problems for
the use of adobe. Swelling normally only occurs if loam gets into direct contact with so much
water that it loses its solid state. The absorption of humidity from the air, does not lead to
swelling. Research at the University of Kassel pointed out that even when stored in a climatic
chamber at 95% humidity for a long time, adobes do not lose their stability. (Minke, 2006)
Binding forces do diminish when adobe gets into direct contact with water, this is due to
renewed hydration of the clay minerals. Erosion takes place and mechanical strength reduces
because of a decrease in soil cohesion. However the softening of the fine material is not a
common research topic, in general most authors investigate the characteristics of stabilized
adobe blocks. For instance Walker (2004) mentions a reduction from 40 up to 75% in strength
of stabilized earth blocks, while neglecting the remaining strength for unstabilized blocks.
Water related problems due to frost susceptibility are not relevant for Cuenca. When adobe
masonry is in a permanent humid state, moisture can cause rotting of the fibers.

2.4.4. Thermal properties

Since temperatures in Cuenca stays relatively constant, the thermal properties of adobe are not
of major importance. Thermal conductivity of dry adobe is rather low and the thermal capacity
(heat storage capacity) is big, since this is function of the mass. Because adobe walls are
generally half a meter thick, this makes adobe masonry a great buffer for heat storage that can
regulate differences between day and night temperatures. Precautions are needed before
declaring adobe a great material for insulation since this is unproven. The influence of the pore
structure and the humidity of the blocks are important factors.
30

2.5.

Adobe Masonry

The characteristics of adobe blocks cannott be extrapolated directly to adobe masonry. As

A in
fired brick masonry, the characteristics of one brick are not the same as the characteristics of
the brick-mortar
mortar composite. This section aims to give an insight in the structure of adobe
masonry and its characteristics
characteristics.

2.5.1. Structure
Common practice in Cuenca and surroundings is to construct thick adobe walls. When adobe
masonry is used as a load bearing element, the width of the wall is determined by the length of
the adobe.. This results in walls of more or less 50 cm width. The first layer of adobes is placed
perpendicularly to the longest side of the wall, the second layer is placed along the wall,
wall
creating a crossed-pattern
pattern as can be seen in a cross section on Figure 2. 11.
By using these thick walls, forces can be divided over a larger surface, reducing stresses at
foundation level. It should always be kept in mind that earth structures are designed to work in
compression. Off-centre
centre loads, po
point
int loads and bending should be consequently avoided.

Figure 2. 11 - Cross section of adobe wall (dimensions in mm)

2.5.2. Mortar
Adobe blocks are bonded to one another by mortar layers of 1 to 2 cm. The mortar used is a
very basic earth mortar. In Cuenca they take the same loam that is used for the fabrication of
adobe. The fabrication of the loam for the mortar is very similar to the preparation process of
the adobe mixture. The only d
differences are that the loam is sieved and that no fibers are
added to the mixture. The production process can be summarized as follows: (1) sieving of the
31

earth, (2) adding water, (3) mixing by using shovels and by walking through, (4) resting
period. It is advised to use the same soil as for the adobe blocks to insure a better homogeneity
of the masonry. In a heterogeneous wall the weakest part will erode faster, and will eventually
accelerate the entire degradation process.
On the one hand the mortar should be wet enough to enhance workability and bind with the
adobe. On the other hand the amount of water should be limited. The mortar is wetter than the
block it supports, therefore it loses more water and is more porous and so, tends to be weaker.
Very few research has been done to determine how the bond between adobes and mortar is
established. The few studies that have been executed point out that both adhesion of mortar
and blocks as inner cohesion of the mortar is very low. Vissilia and Villi (2010) investigated a
case in Greece where the tension strength of the mortar came out weaker than the bending
strength of adobe. Walker (1999) analyzed the flexural bond strength of stabilized earthen
masonry in Australia. He concludes that unless confirmed by in-situ testing, it is
recommended that characteristic flexural bond strength is ignored in design. The bond
between adobe and mortar should be assumed zero according to Walker. It is important to
note that Walker made artificial earth mixtures for both mortars and blocks, using stabilizers
such as cement. Mortars stabilized by cement faced problems because the dry adobe blocks
absorbed the water by capillarity. This prevented the cement to hydrate. In general, cement is
not compatible at all with adobe and should be avoided. Although the cement hydration has
little relevance for the situation in Cuenca since stabilization with cement is not used, it is very
likely that the moisture content of the adobe block will influence the bond strength established
with the mortar due to a similar absorption by capillarity.
To activate the binding force provided by aligned clay minerals, water and movement are
needed. Therefore a slightly wet adobe surface might improve the bond strength between
adobe and mortar. It is clear that the mortar needs a sufficient time to dry as well. The clay
minerals will dehydrate when drying, forming a chain of linked minerals on the adobe-mortar
surface. When drying, the mortar will shrink due to dehydration. Since no fibers are used to
spread this shrinkage evenly, cracks will be inevitable. These cracks can be expected in the
mortar itself and in the mortar-adobe connection. Therefore the mortar is the weakest part of
the adobe masonry. This is confirmed by observations on the field in Cuenca. Cracks in adobe
walls follow the pattern of the mortar, adobes that are taken out of a wall remain intact, while
the mortar fails.
A damaged wall in Museo del Sombrero is an illustration of this. (Figure 2. 12 left) The roof
covering of this wall has collapsed. This way the structural connection keeping the wall
straight up was lost and the wall became unprotected. This caused the wall to hang over,
causing eccentric load and bending moments. The upper part has already fallen down.
Remaining adobes are relatively intact (not taking into account recent water erosion), but the
adobemortar connection has failed, causing a step-like pattern. The adobe blocks itself show
little damage!
Figure 2. 12 (right) shows another example: demolishing an adobe wall and extracting single
blocks for research is easy on the site Parking in Calle Mariscal Sucre because the blocks come
off easily since the mortar is weak.
32

Figure 2. 12 - (left) Adobe wall in Museo Del Sombrero; failure has occurred in the adobemortar
connection, causing the step-like pattern (right) Dismantling an adobe wall; tearing of adobes is
easy, nearly no bond between them. Gaps are visible in mortar of adobe wall behind

2.6.

Damages

General pathologies of earthen architecture typically tend to manifest at the top and at the
bottom of the wall when it has not been sufficiently protected. These parts are the most
vulnerable to water penetration or infiltration and rising damp that can migrate into the wall
from below. In a revision of pathology to earth buildings Rainer(2008) states that one of the
most deleterious elements for earthen materials is considered water.
A field study in Cuenca confirmed that the majority of damages were somehow related to
water. A list of 30 buildings was provided by the municipality containing 10 adobe buildings in
good condition, 10 in regular and 10 in bad condition. (see Appendix A.2 Figure A.2 and Figure
A.3) These building together with other interesting cases were inspected to evaluate their
damages. Very often water appeared to be a primary driver in the deterioration process.
Recent studies have been executed in Cuenca to catalogue damages to the earthen monuments.
Previous researchers in the VLIR-CPM project elaborated damage atlases describing pathology
of monuments in Cuenca into detail. (De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele, 2009) and (Achig, 2010).
These atlases cover common symptoms, the identification and analysis of deterioration factors,
and the causes of these deteriorations. Successful treatment of these damages relies
fundamentally on characterizing and thoroughly understanding the processes that generate
deterioration and structural deformation.

2.6.1. Damage processes

Cornerstones Community Partnerships (1998) outlines the main water-related processes of
deterioration in adobe architecture.
First of all the wet-dry cycle that can be summarized in three stages.
(a) Saturation of wall through rain or another source of water (see next section).
(b) Evaporation of this water and migration of soluble salts in the outer surface.
33

(c) Crystallization of these salts leading to surface erosion. The more cyclical wetting and
drying, the more swelling can be expected, this because each water penetration causes
expansion and inhibits further rapid penetration. Warren (1999) further explains this
mechanism: the first time water penetrates through the topmost 15-30 mm, the wetted clays
on the surface expand and produce a sufficiently dense layer to inhibit the rate of moisture
movement into the lower layers. These layers remain dry for several days, even while the
outermost surface passes the liquid limit and washes away. However, this phenomenon does
not remain effective after the first time because the swelling reduces the penetrable voids.
According to Poiseuilles law15 water transport is then reduced and this way the swelling is not
returned. The expanded layer has no mechanism to return to its original density, this means
that on the next occasion the voids are more open and the capillarity is greater. The surface is
then softer, the penetration is deeper and the liquid limit is achieved more quickly.
A second cycle described is the freeze-thaw cycle. This is not relevant for Cuenca.
Capillary rise and splashing water on the base of the wall resulting in deterioration by erosion
is the third process. This deterioration can be accelerated or moved to higher up the wall by
using impermeable renderings or fillings for instance based on Portland cement. This
mechanism is explained in section 3.6.1. An overview of the three processes is shown in Figure
2. 13.

2.6.1. Sources of water

Water can get into walls and constructive elements by different means. Figure 2. 14 provides
an overview of the main water sources that influence adobe structures in Cuenca. It is based on
field observation in Cuenca with Arch. Edmundo Iturralde (2010) from the Instituto Nacional
de Patrimonio Cultural.

15

Poiseuilles law states that laminar flow rate of an incompressible fluid along a pipe is proportional to
the fourth power of the pipe's radius.

34

Figure 2. 13 - Processes of deterioration due to water 16

16

Author A. Crosby - source - (Uvia Contreras, 1998)

35

Figure 2. 14 - Water sources that might cause problems

36

2.7.

Conclusion

Chapter two provides an overview of the relevant properties of adobe blocks and adobe
masonry. The mechanisms behind these properties are explained as well.
Clay is the principal agent in the formation and stabilization of adobe, it acts as a binder for all
larger particles in the loam. Since clay hydrates when it gets in contact with water, a good
mixing with sufficient water is crucial when producing adobes. Because clay shrinks when it
dries, shrinkage cracks are formed in finished adobes. These cracks have a negative influence
on adobe characteristics and therefore should be avoided.
Different types of clay have different shrinking characteristics, changing the properties of the
adobe. Because the soil, and thus amount and type of clay, is different for each adobe
production site, there is not one standard mixture or production method for adobe. There are
no exact limits for amounts of clay or for the grain size distribution of the loam. Fibers are the
only additives to the loam mixture in Cuenca to change the properties of the adobe. These
fibers distribute the few big shrinkage cracks in multiple smaller ones. There is no consensus
about the effect of fibers on the mechanical characteristics, such as tensile strength and
compression strength.
Compressive and tensile strength for adobe can be used as quality indicators, but should not
be taken as absolute values for calculation. They are mainly influenced by the cohesion due to
clay binding (and thus connected to shrinkage) and to the density (connected with grain size
distribution). A well divided skeleton of grains with the right amount of clay, can theoretically
optimize density and reduce shrinkage. In chapter 4 and 5, this theory will be verified and
influencing parameters will be investigated.
Besides this detailed analysis of the adobe block and its composition, adobe masonry has been
examined. Properties of adobe cannot be extrapolated to adobe masonry, because this is a
composite of adobe blocks and earth mortar. Mortar and the mortar-adobe connection are the
weakest parts in this composite.
Damages atlases for the city of Cuenca have been elaborated by other researchers in the VLIRCPM project. This thesis focuses more on the mechanisms behind these damages to adobe. The
main damaging mechanism is the dry-shrinkage cycle of clay caused by contact of adobe with
water, causing softening and loss of bond.
Keeping water away from adobe masonry is crucial, therefore the protective measures taken in
Cuenca will be discussed in Chapter 3. Moreover it is clear that adobes could be made less
vulnerable to this water damage if their properties could be improved, for instance by reducing
shrinkage and improving bond. Therefore a more detailed study of influencing parameters is
needed. This is provided in chapter 4 and chapter 5.

37

38

Chapter 3. Adobe protection: roof,

renderings and base course
The previous chapter pointed out that adobe masonry is very vulnerable to damages caused by
water. This is why many protective measurements should be taken to keep the water away
from adobe. It is a common saying in adobe construction that when adobe is well protected
with a roof and a good foundation17, it is resistant for ages. Although this saying might be
correct in regions with few rain periods, only a roof and a base course are certainly not
sufficient in Cuenca where successive periods of rain are no exception. Especially when
buildings are two storeys high or higher, field research provided clear evidence that only an
overhanging roof and a good foundation are absolutely not enough to protect the adobe wall. A
sufficiently thick and carefully maintained rendering is crucial. One could say that besides a
good roof and foundation, a well maintained building skin is vital. Numerous examples are
present in Cuenca. Figure 3. 1 shows a house that has a decent roof and good foundation, but
with very damaged renderings.

Figure 3. 1 - House protected by roof and foundation, which is clearly insufficient

These protection measures are highly underestimated and often wrongly applied or wrongly
repaired in Cuenca, causing serious problems. That is why they are analyzed in this chapter.
First roof and base course protection will be discussed, followed by the rendering techniques.
Next, problems with cement-based renderings will be considered. Finally the traditional
renderings of Cuenca will be compared to the earthen renderings used in Belgium.

3.1.

Base course

The base of an adobe wall is highly vulnerable to water erosion. In Cuenca main problems
occur because of water splash, capillary rise and standing water. Especially damage due to
splashing water, falling from the roof or due to passing cars is very visible in the streets.
17

Adobe necesita un buen sombrero y buenos zapatos. - Adobe needs a good hat and good shoes

39

(Figure 3. 2 and Figure 3. 3) The design and construction of a decent base course is in fact
fairly easy, but it is crucial that enough attention is paid to the base course both during
construction. Once built, it requires little maintenance.

Figure 3. 2 - Examples of deterioration due to splashing, no protection from base course

Figure 3. 3 (left) Foundation of river cobles visible - (right) Foundation is too low

In Cuenca most base courses are made of river cobles combined with smaller stones of
different grain size that serve as filler. Bond can be assured with all kinds of mortar. This
technique has proven its functionality against capillary rise. In Ecuadorian literature it is called
arriscado18. The base course should be sufficiently high. Houben and Guillaud (1989) advise a
height from 40 to 60 cm or greater above street level, depending on the roof overhang of the
building. Some other recommendations should be kept in mind when constructing the
foundation: draining of surface water should be assured, as well as draining of water in the
surrounding. Infiltration near foundations should be prevented. Earth foundations, even if
stabilized should be avoided at all times. Figure 3. 4 and Figure 3. 5 show how the base courses
are executed in Cuenca schematically and in practice.
Often foundations get an (adapted) covering to protect them. (see Figure 3. 6) This is not
always necessary but can provide extra protection. This makes it difficult to examine the
condition of the foundations or height of the base course. Moreover it is common practice to
cover up the lower part of the wall with an adapted rendering to protect the wall against
18

Arriscado can be translated as rocky.

40

splashing water. This adapted rendering is often higher than the base course, making it
difficult to judge on the height of the base course.

Figure 3. 4 - Foundation construction19

Figure 3. 5 - (left) Excavating foundation - (right) Finished base course20

Figure 3. 6 - (left) Villa Rosita: base of adobe wall covered with cement rendering, but no base
course of stone present - (right) Example of a well executed, visible base course

3.2.

Roof

It cannot be stressed enough that a decent roof covering of adobe walls is vital for the
durability of these walls. Every building that was inspected with a damaged roof, had serious
other problems of erosion or showed a loss of bond of renderings. Observations in Cuenca
19

(Sotomayor & Coello)

20

(Alfredo Ugalde,2010)

41

learn that a well designed and maintained roof can prevent lots of troubles. In general the type
of roof is not that important, but the provided overhang and condition of the roof is. Since the
majority of monuments in Cuenca has a traditional roof, its composition is discussed briefly.

3.2.1. Traditional roof composition

On top of the adobe wall, a solid horizontal beam is applied to divide the point loads coming
from the roof over the upper section of the adobe wall. This is needed to avoid critical stresses.
Usually a wooden beam is used. To avoid bending moments, it is advised to place the beam in
the middle of the wall. It is important to provide a horizontal connection between the outer
walls with wooden beams to properly take up the horizontal thrusts. De Jongh and Van
Wijnendaele (2009) showed that these horizontal connections are crucial to reduce
vulnerability to earthquakes as well. Figure 3. 7 shows an example of a traditional roof
structure.

Figure 3. 7 - Roof structure21

Rafters are tied onto the horizontal beams. Then a layer of reed (carrizo), which is strong and
flexible, is tied onto these rafters horizontally. Often the roof tiles are attached with an earth
layer to the roof. In more recent restoration projects, a sealing is applied upon the reed to
prevent water intrusion. The tiles are attached with steel wire. (Figure 3. 8) Thin wooden
sheets are applied to overhanging structures to keep the reed out of view. (Figure 3. 9 left)

21

Figure adapted from (Sotomayor & Coello)

42

Figure 3. 8 - Roof structure with reed and sealing. Tiles are attached with steel wire22

3.2.1. Overhang
Overhang of the roof is essential to protect both the upper as the lower parts of the wall.
Sufficient overhang prevents direct impact of rain on the upper part. On the other hand,
sufficient overhang is needed as well to keep the water as far as possible from the base course.
Water that falls off the roof should not splash back up on the wall. (Figure 3. 9 right)

Figure 3. 9 - (left) Damaged roof of Casa Barrial Blanco - (right) Structure with reed and wooden
covering visible

3.3.

Renderings

Renderings are indispensible to protect adobe masonry. More than in any other earth
construction technique, earth masonry protection by renderings is crucial because the water
can penetrate by the adobe-mortar interface if unprotected. (Houben & Guillaud, 1989) The
requirements of these renderings are complicated and might seem contradictory. Adobe
masonry should be protected against water, thus the renderings should be impermeable to
water coming from the outside. On the other hand, they should remain permeable to vapor to
prevent moisture accumulation in the wall itself. Furthermore these renderings should be able
to resist stresses due to thermal expansion, shrinkage and swelling and therefore be flexible.
22

(photos Arch. Fausto Cardoso Martinez)

43

They should also be able to withstand to impact damage. Another important factor is that a
rendering should adhere well to the masonry, but if the rendering peels off,
off this should not
irreversibly damage the adobe masonry itself. F
Finally
inally it is desired that color and texture of the
rendering are compatible with the surrounding.
It goes without saying that these
hese requirements are not easy to meet. The following sections
will provide
rovide an overview of the renderings used in Cuenca and provide insight in the way they
meet the mentioned requirements.
The traditional renderings are called revoque and empaete. Revoque is the first layer applied
to the wall and is a 3 to 5 cm thick earthen
rthen rendering. Empaete on the other hand, is a very
thin ochre layer with an adapted mixture. These two layers can be covered with a fine lime
wash layer (called empastado) and can then be painted with an earth--based paint. (Figure 3.
10)

Figure 3. 10 - Cross section of adobe wall with renderings

This structure is the usual, traditional one and is used to protect the majority of the ancient
adobe masonry wallss in the historical center of Cuenca
Cuenca.. As field research pointed out, it
i is
doomed to fail within time when water gets into direct contact with these layers.
layers The solution
is to maintain them on regular
egular basis
basis, but maintenance is often neglected.
neglected This is one of the
reasons why other renderings have appeared in the streets of Cuenca as well, sometimes
s
with
good results, but unfortunately more often without providing any improvement. Because the
empaete
ete and revoque renderings are used very much, but little written information is
available,, they will be discussed in detail in a separate section later on.
Figure 3. 11 shows a typical house protected and maintained as it should be. The figure gives
the structure of a well protected facade. First of all, the
he roof provides overhang to protect the
44

second floor. The balcony again provides some protection for the first floor.
f
Both first and
second floor are covered with the traditional revoque
revoque-empaete-empastado
empastado renderings. The
base course usually has an extra protecting layer.

Figure 3. 11 - Overall structure of a well protected house

3.3.1. Base course

ourse protection
A lot of buildings have an extra protection layer of the base course of the outer walls.
walls Often this
special rendering is extended to a height of approximately 1 meter to protect the bottom of the
wall. The most frequently used type of ren
rendering here, is a cement-sand
sand mixture. Pieces of tile
are pressed horizontally into a layer of revoque to provide bond. On this rough surface, the
cement-sand
sand mixture is applied. (Figure 3. 12) This is needed since cement and adobe are not
compatible and do not adhere. Another method used to ensure the bond between the adobe
and the cement is to put steel netting onto the adobe. The use of cement causes problems in
the long run, these damages will be discussed in section 3.6.1. Another technique is to use
bricks instead of tiles.. They are placed upright and are covered with a cement rendering as
well.

3.3.1. Rendering damage patterns

Damages to renderings are very common, nearly all ancient buildings have at least some minor
problems concerning their renderings. They go from graffiti to small cracks or a loss of color, to
renderings that have entirely lost their bond with the wall and have nearly disappeared. This
section wants to provide some images from these damages, to make it possible for the reader
to understand the situation.
45

Figure 3. 12 - (left) Pieces of tile used to protect zone above base course23, cement rendering will
be applied - (right) Protection with bricks covered with a cement rendering

Inspections on renderings have been carried out in the entire city center but to provide an
overview examples were chosen from the Avenida Loja. This choice has been made because
this street has a wide range of adobe buildings, in all kind of states of deterioration: ancient
building with a lot of damage or with few damage and recently restored building.
Villa Rosita is one of these ancient buildings. Its NE-wall shows a typical damage pattern.
(Figure 3. 13 left) The structure of the wall is classical: revoque (brown)-empaete (ochre)
empastado (white). At the top of the wall, the white empastado layer is protected against
washing away thanks to the overhanging roof. Lower, the empaete is visible because the
empastado is damaged and washed away. The revoque and at certain spots even the adobe is
visibly damaged. The further away from the roof, the more water gets in contact with the wall
and the more damage can be observed. The damage right above the base course protection is
bigger than in other parts of the wall. Multiple other examples can be found where a similar
loss of bond between the protective layers is caused by contact with water. (Figure 3. 13 right
and Figure 3. 14)
Most damages to renderings return on three vulnerable spots of the walls: first of all right
above the base course. The zone above the base course gets in contact with water running of
the wall. Moreover the connection between the traditional renderings and base course
protected by cement rendering is not compatible, this results in cracking and faster
deterioration. The other two most vulnerable zones are the corners of walls and the zone
under the roof that is unprotected by the roof overhang. Their vulnerability is due to their
contact with a lot of water. To understand the mechanisms behind these damages, more
information is needed about these rendering techniques. Therefore production and application
process are described in following sections.

23

Adapted photo from Alfredo Ugalde; 1999

46

Figure 3. 13 - (left) Damaged renderings of Villa Rosita. White = empastado, ochre = empaete,
brown = revoque and adobe - (upper right) Returning damage pattern on sidewall. Not enough
roof overhang, fixing with cement plaster doesn't work (lower right) Peeling off of empastado,
fist stadium of deterioration

Figure 3. 14 - Left wall is in good condition, enough roof overhang is provided and a good base
course offers protection against capillary rise. Upper walls are damaged due to insufficient
protection and maintenance of the renderings

3.4.

Revoque

Revoque is the first layer that is applied directly onto the adobe masonry to cover adobe and
mortar. It is 3 to 5 cm thick and made from the same earth mixture as the adobe itself. Because
the active component, clay, is exactly the same as in the adobe itself, damage mechanisms are
47

identical for revoque as for adobe. See section 2.6.1 (Damage Processes). Hay is used to
reinforce the revoque layer, it is pushed into the earth layer on the wall. A specific production
process is described in the following section. Yet again, there is no consensus on the
production process for revoque in Cuenca. Certain maestros advise to use long hay to speed up
drying and reduce cracking, others argue that this long hay sucks up water causing damage.
Long hay does accelerate drying and can suck up water later on. Fast drying might seem like an
advantage, reducing working time, but in order to limit shrinkage cracks, slow drying is
advised. Damage will evolve much faster when longer hay is used as well: if one piece of
revoque peels off, the damage will develop rapidly.
Next, one could wonder how it is possible that the revoque adheres to the masonry and doesnt
fall off when dry; why isnt the shrinkage a problem for the bond? The answer can be derived
from a theory developed by Warren (1999): the adobe draws moisture from the shrinking
revoque by capillary action and this way the adobe-revoque interface reaches a compatible
state so that an adequate bond is formed. In fact this mechanism is similar to the adobe-mortar
bond that has been discussed previously.

3.4.1. Production and application in Escuela Central

The application of revoque was documented in Escuela Central. First of all this application is a
time consuming work. Leaving the preparation time of the loam out of consideration, more or
less two hours are needed for one worker to apply revoque to 1 m of wall surface.
In a first step, measures are taken to improve the bond of the revoque to the adobe wall. The
wall is roughened with a brush to remove loose particles. Then little water is poured on the
wall in order to improve bond. The wall is not entirely wet, only humid. (Figure 3. 15)
Then earth, mixed with hay is thrown onto the wall and spread out with a trowel. This mixture
is exactly the same as used for adobe bricks. Bigger particles such as stones are picked out of
the mixture when applying it. To ascertain a flat surface, tiles are broken and pressed into the
first layer. A small rock attached to a cord is connected to these tiles, this way it serves as a
plumb line. (Figure 3. 16)

Figure 3. 15 - Wall preparations: removing loose particles and wetting

48

Figure 3. 16 - Applying first earth layer, pressing in tiles and using plumb line

After this first layer of loam, a first layer of hay is added. This is the same hay as used in the
adobe. The maestro pushes the fibers into the revoque and makes sure that they are not too
concentrated in one spot. In this stadium, all hay is aligned in horizontal direction. Long hay is
added, the argument of the maestro to use long hay is to ensure fast drying. As said, this might
not be the best decision in the long run. The hay is pushed further into the earth manually.
(Figure 3. 17)

Figure 3. 17 - Adding a first layer of hay: horizontally

A second layer of earth is applied. The surface is flattened with a wooden bar. Parts of roof tile
are used to fill gaps. A layer of revoque that is too thick will shrink too much, therefore it is
desirable to have equal thickness of earth everywhere to have equal shrinkage. Remaining gaps
are filled with earth once more, and the surface is flattened again. (Figure 3. 18)

Figure 3. 18 - Flattening the surface using a wooden bar, gaps filled with earth and tiles

A second layer of hay is applied perpendicularly to the first layer. This way a net against
shrinkage is formed. Again long hay is used. (Figure 3. 19)

49

Figure 3. 19 - Adding a second layer of hay: vertically

One last time the surface is smoothened. The result is a flat surface, with the hay still visible.
The revoque needs to dry for about a month, then empaete can be applied according to the
maestro. (Figure 3. 20)

Figure 3. 20 - (left and middle) Finished revoque - (right) Dry result

3.5.

Empaete

Empaete is the next, thin layer applied onto the revoque. This layer is approximately 3 mm
thick and has a yellow-ochre color. Not much is known about the properties nor the
composition of this layer and very few people in Cuenca know how to make it, or what its
specific function is. Certain maestros believe that an empaete layer, in combination with a
revoque layer provides enough protection for the adobe wall, thereby assuming that empaete
is more resistant to water. As for revoque, little is known about the mechanical properties and
resistance to impact loads. Inspections showed that most damage to empaete was due to
exposure to water though.

3.5.1. Components and production

Since nearly all knowledge about producing empaete was lost in Cuenca, Alfredo Ugalde, a
self thought expert in ancient techniques of earth construction contacted maestros from
Saraguro24 to start up a production site in Cuenca. They experimented with compositions on
his own house, determining the most suitable one. He now produces empaete for the major
renovation sites in Cuenca. His empaete has been used to restore for instance the old
cathedral and casa de Las Palomas. (Ugalde, 2010)
24

Saraguro is a small agricultural town south of Cuenca on the road to Loja. It is famous for its indigenous
population and its well-conserved Andean traditions.

50

The empaete mixture contains three elements. Dried horse dung (guano de caballo) is the
first component (Figure 3. 21 left). The horse dung provides fibers in the mixture. According to
Ugalde (2010) it is important that the used dung comes from horses that have only been fed
hay to obtain the correct fibers. The function of the dung can be compared to the function of
hay in revoque but on much smaller scale: reducing and spreading out shrinkage evenly. The
humidity of the dung is variable and influences the composition of the mixture.
The second component is called tierra amarilla or translated, yellow earth. (Figure 3. 21
right) The name yellow earth is an everyday name for kaolinite. Ugalde imports this kaolinite
form outside Cuenca because of its empirically determined better properties. Because
shrinkage cracks in the outer layer should be avoided at all times, a non-swelling clay is
desirable theoretically. Kaolinite has these minimally expansive properties. However, analysis
in the laboratory in Leuven (section 4.2.6 XRD Analysis) on the used yellow earth pointed out
that the clay minerals present in the mixture are both kaolinite and montmorillonite. The
presence of this montmorillonite is very surprising, because montmorillonite is a very
expansive clay that is not present in Cuencas underground. This means that empaete made
with this soil will shrink more than empaete made with soil from Cuenca. Since only one soil
sample was available, further research on this topic is advised.
The last component of the mixture is water. It is necessary to hydrate the clay. The ratio of
mixing components can vary. Usually empaete has a composition 2 or 3 volume units of horse
dung for 1 unit of kaolinite. The exact ratio varies according to the humidity of the horse dung.

Figure 3. 21 - (left) Dried horse dung - (right) Kaolinite

The production process can be divided in following steps. First kaolinite is put into a barrel
with water. This way the kaolinite absorbs the water and hydrates. Impurities are removed by
sieving. The waterkaolinite mixture has to rest for some days in order to make sure the water
is absorbed well. This mixture is stirred regularly since clay absorbs water better when energy
is added. By first hydrating the kaolinite, the entire production process can be fastened since
horse dung will absorb some water. (Figure 3. 22)
Next the horse dung has to be processes, this is done by hand. By rubbing dung over a roof tile
it falls apart. When it is dry, it is a fibrous organic material. The fibers are extremely fine and
approximately 0.5 mm to 10 mm long. (Figure 3. 23)
51

Figure 3. 22 - (left) Kaolinite mixed with water - (right) Resting and stirring pit

Figure 3. 23 - Workplace for preparing horse dung

Then the hydrated kaolinite is mixed with the horse dung and rests in a big pit. Every other day
the mixture is stirred. The entire production process takes 15 days. After this period the
mixture is transported in barrels to the construction site where the empaete can be applied.
The mixture should be spread out evenly over the revoque. Thickness of the layer should be
about 3 mm. (see Figure 3. 24) Cracks are absolutely not acceptable. Some maestros advise to
work on revoque that is still a little humid to improve bond, others say the revoque should be
entirely dry.

Figure 3. 24 - (left) Empaete ready for application - (right) Applying the empaete

3.5.2. Water repellent characteristics

Empaete on top of a revoque layer is considered as a sufficient protection for the adobe wall
on the inside of buildings. In Cuenca some maestros claim that this is sufficient on the outside
as well. Examples in Cuenca show that for certain buildings this can be true on the condition
that they are only a single storey high and well protected by roof and foundation. In practice
this means that empaete will be sufficient if no water gets into direct contact with the wall.
Two storey buildings are far more common and there can be found various examples that only
52

an empaete and revoque covering is not sufficient as a long term protecting measure. After a
period of some years, the rendering will crack and peel off.
The exact reasons why empaete offers extra protection have never been subject to scientific
investigation. However assumptions can be made analyzing its components and structure.
First of all the application of a thin and finishing protecting layer is commonly advised
regarding earth renderings. A thin layer will resist cracking better. Moreover it is easily
maintained: by dampening the surface, it can regain its plasticity and can easily be refloated to
obtain a new smooth finish. Most important is the interaction between the minimally
expansive kaolinite and the very fine fibers provided by the horse dung. These very fine fibers
make it possible to spread out the small amount of shrinkage evenly. This way a flat and
smooth surface without cracks can be obtained.
This smooth and uncracked finish is crucial. As long as the empaete layer is flat and
uncracked, water can run off more easily and is less likely to penetrate the wall. This is because
rain water will run off faster if the surface is a dense and fine porous system. Furthermore the
revoque has larger pores and thus a smaller capillary potential, therefore the amount of water
absorbed by the revoque is smaller. This speeds up drying of empaete from the outside as
well. Observations show that faster deterioration can be expected when water can get through
damaged empaete taking on to the revoque. At the moment the water reaches the revoque,
water transport might be accelerated through the hay of the revoque causing swelling and
shrinkage, eventually leading to erosion and loss of bond.
The horse dung might improve water repellent properties as well because it contains urea.
This dissolves when it gets in contact with water, forming ammonia. This might provide an
ultrathin grease layer on the surface. However this is only an assumption based on empirical
knowledge in Belgium, and is not scientifically proved. (See section 3.7.1: Traditional loam
construction in Belgium)

3.6.

Non-traditional renderings in Cuenca

Revoque and empaete provide some protection, but require regular maintenance to keep the
building in excellent condition. Therefore different other techniques have been used for
renderings. Two alternatives are regularly used in Cuenca because they are assumed to require
less maintenance. Cement renderings and lime plaster. Both are applied on top of the revoque
or empaete.

3.6.1. Cement renderings

Since the rise of popularity of cement during the previous century, cement has made its way
into adobe construction as well. Often the use of cement is considered as a modern way of
building and sometimes people ascribe miraculous characteristics to cement, but remain blind
for its disadvantages regarding their use in earth construction.
The most important properties of cement renderings are their stability when they get in
contact with water, their resistance to shocks and their impermeability. While these properties
53

are advantages in a lot of construction techniques, they cannot be extrapolated to earth

buildings. Moreover, they will turn out to be disadvantages due to the incompatibility of
cement renderings, adobe and revoque! The disadvantages of cement plasters in combination
with earth masonry are numerous. First of all the cement does not adhere naturally to the
adobe surface. In Cuenca it is applied against pieces of tiles or against wired netting that is
pushed into the revoque. Second cement plaster is a rigid material, while adobe and revoque
are soft. The plaster and the earthen materials contract and expand differently in reaction to
temperature changes. Because adobe and revoque will adapt more easily to these temperature
changes, the cement rendering will crack. These cracks allow water to infiltrate into the adobe
walls and the water tends to rise up by capillary action. The water can enter the wall as well
from other sources, as described before (i.e. a damaged roof, capillarity,).
When water has been able to enter the adobe wall, major problems are inevitable in the long
run. The water vapor transfer resistance of cement plaster is high, causing accumulation of
trapped moisture in the wall. Once the wall is saturated with moisture, the mechanical
resistance of the adobe masonry will decrease significantly. This can result in settling, bulging
and slumping of the upper part. (Cornerstones Community Partnerships) While most
architects are aware of the fact that adobe should be able to breathe, often this moisture
accumulation caused by impermeability to water vapor is forgotten in practice. Another
problem is salt deposit on the adobe surface. Salts are present in the cement products and they
can crystallize after contact with water. The volume of salts that crystallize increases.
Therefore these deposits can cause delaminating of the cement rendering and revoque. This
eventually leads to renderings falling apart.
A clear example of this type of damage is visible on Figure 3. 25, showing a wall of the Antiguo
Seminario (situated next to the new cathedral on the citys central square). The facade of this
building is made of brick and was constructed at a later stage than the adobe wall. To ensure
the bond between the two walls, bricks are placed in the corner. A cement rendering was
applied. This cement rendering shows huge cracks and peels off on the inside of the building.
Water can enter through the damaged roof. Both rendering and underlying adobes are
damaged.
Another major issue concerning cement renderings is the fact that the damage behind a
cement plaster is not always visible. The plaster itself is often of good quality and very rigid,
this is why major damage can remain unnoticed until the moment that the plaster is removed
or that severe structural damage occurs due to failure of the wall behind the plaster.
Adding lime to the cement-sand mixture improves its permeability and could offer solutions to
certain problems. (Straube, 2000) However it has not been investigated whether this
improvement is sufficient to ensure enough vapor transport to prevent moisture accumulation
in the wall.

54

Figure 3. 25- Cement incompatible with adobe in Antiguo Seminario. White lime finish is applied
on the faade, right wall is the adobe wall. Upper right: damaged roof. Lower right: inner patio
Antiguo Seminario

In the section, the requirements of suitable renderings for adobe masonry were discussed. A
good rendering should be flexible, impermeable to rain and permeable to vapor. Furthermore
it should adhere to the earth masonry and should not damage the adobe irreversibly when it
fails. None of these requirements are met in the long run for cement renderings. Therefore the
conclusion is clear that cement plaster is completely unsuitable to protect adobe masonry.
Instead of protecting it, this type of rendering can even accelerate deterioration due to the
accumulation of moisture.
Cement renderings protecting the base course could be an exception. These cement renderings
are not applied directly on the revoque, but usually on tiles pressed into the wall or on bricks
placed upright. In this execution the rendering will not damage the adobe directly, nor will it
crack because of differences in thermal expansion since direct contact with the more flexible
revoque is avoided. It is important to provide a good finish at the connection of the cement
base course rendering and the traditional renderings higher up. (Figure 3. 26 middle and
right) This is to avoid cracking (Figure 3. 26 left) due the different thermal expansion of the
rigid cement and flexible earthen rendering at this point.

55

Figure 3. 26 - (left) Cement rendering at base course, cracked at connection with adobe - (middle
and right) Restored house wit base course protection with a well detailed finish

In a situation where the wall is well drained and the foundation prevents capillary rise, this
cement rendering can be an acceptable solution. However the cement rendering remains an
impermeable barrier for vapor, but vapor transport remains possible through higher parts of
the wall but it is not clear whether this vapor transport is sufficient.

3.6.2. Lime plaster and lime wash

Applying a lime plaster on top of the revoque-empaete renderings is a far better alternative to
reduce maintenance to traditional renderings. Lime is compatible with adobe. It adheres
without the necessity of wired netting. Moreover lime is breathable and will let air and
moisture pass through, thereby avoiding accumulation of moisture in the wall. Furthermore
lime renderings are self-healing up to a certain level.
In Cuenca, very little is known about protection with lime and only few architects and
maestros refer to it as extra protection. Ugalde (2010) pointed out that casting lime onto the
wet empaete surface provides a better protection. Arch. Abad (2010) on the other hand
advised the use of empastado. This is a thin layer on top of the empaete that consists of lime
mixed with water and casein. The empastado layer is similar to lime wash. The lime covering is
usually extremely thin, less than a millimeter.
Lime is produced by heating limestone up to 700-900C. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) then
decomposes, forming quicklime (CaO) and CO2. Lime ( Ca(OH)2 ) is then formed by hydrating
quicklime (CaO). When the lime paste is applied to the surface, it reacts with CO2 in the air,
forming calcium carbonate (CaCO3) again. This carbonatation is a slow process.
Reactions:
CaCO3 (Limestone) burning CaO (quicklime)
CaO c H2O hydration/slaking Ca(OH)2 (lime)
Ca(OH)2 c CO2 carbonation CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
The presence of CaCO3 in the uppermost rendering layer was tested in Cuenca by dropping tiny
amounts of hydrochloric acid (HCl) onto the wall. When a heavy reaction is visible and foam is
formed (Figure 3. 27), the layer contains a high amount of lime.
Reaction: CaCO3 c 2 HCl CaCl2 c CO2 c H2O

56

Nearly all renderings showed traces of a lime wash surface that once covered the empaete
layer. However sometimes big parts of this white layer had been washed away or showed
various cracks.
Straube (2000) executed tests on earthen renderings combined with lime plasters and on
cement renderings. First of all he concluded that cement-sand stuccos are vapor impermeable.
Addition of lime increases this permeability according to his research. Earth plasters are more
vapor permeable than lime plasters. Moreover the addition of straw and fibers increases the
permeability.

Figure 3. 27 - Foam production after application of HCl. Lime has been used

Tests on lime wash show that lime wash appears to be useful for reducing water absorption
while not reducing vapor permeance. Lime wash on top of earth plaster does not dramatically
lower water absorption but increases the mechanical strength of the plaster after wetting, i.e.,
they will increase the resistance to rain erosion. (Straube, 2000) Lime wash protects fairly
against the harmful effects of rain, but is not particularly durable since it is washed off easily.
Therefore a periodic refreshment is advised, but this refreshment is often disregarded in
Cuenca.
The properties of lime plaster meet the postulated requirements: they provide extra resistance
to erosion by water but remain permeable to vapor. They adhere to the revoque but are less
flexible than mud plasters. Therefore they crack more easily. To improve the renderings
strength casein glue in powder is used as a fixative. Maintenance in comparison to only an
empaete layer is reduced, but remains necessary.

3.7.

Earth renderings in Belgium

The connection to traditional earthen renderings in Belgium might provide other techniques
that are applicable in Cuenca. Therefore the Belgian renderings and earth techniques are
discussed briefly throughout this section.
Although at this moment traces to ancient earth construction are rare in Western Europe,
earth construction had an important role since prehistory in construction. Until the second
57

half of the 18th century it was one of the most important construction methods on the
countryside. (Het Domein Bokrijk vzw, 2006) From then on, building with bricks started to
replace earth construction. After the second world war and during the first energy crisis in
1970, there was lack of building materials and the interest in earth construction relived for a
short period, but faded out. Nevertheless some traditional techniques have been conserved, in
Belgium more specifically in the open air museum called Bokrijk.
On the other hand recent earth construction has come under the attention of architects and
engineers because of ecological inspired reasons. The low production energy and the favorable
indoor climate that can be obtained, offer possibilities. This is why earthen renderings are
slowly making their way back into European houses and research centers. Earthen masonry is
rare in Belgium, earthen renderings on the other hand were common and might provide ideas
on how to improve renderings in Cuenca.

3.7.1. Traditional loam construction in Belgium

Wattle and daub is the earthen technique that was mainly used in Belgium. It is still visibly
used in for instance the open air museum Bokrijk. This technique is very similar to the
bahareque-technique of Cuenca. On the museum site the traditional building technique has
been documented and is explained in a manual for earth restoration named Lemen en Vitsen
(Het Domein Bokrijk vzw, 2006). Loam is put against a woven net of branches. The preparation
of this loam is nearly identical to the fabrication process for the adobe loam in Cuenca. Hay is
used as well to reduce shrinkage and enhance binding, cut hay of 5 to 30 cm is advised. As for
adobe loam, there is no ideal loam recipe for wattle and daub, but again the main criterion to
judge on the suitability of the loam is the amount of cracks when dried. The loam is applied in
two layers on the woven branches and is then covered with a thin layer of lime. (Figure 3. 28)
To obtain a good bond the second layer of loam needs to be applied when the first layer is
slightly humid. This is similar to the adobe masonry-revoque and the revoque-empaete
connection. The finishing layer needs to be as smooth as possible to prevent water intrusion.
Afterwards when the second earthen layer has dried, but is still slightly wet lime wash is
applied. The lime wash used is a mixture of 1 part of hydrated lime, 1 part of casein and water.
Important to notice is that it was common practice to have a yearly maintenance of the outer
walls in spring. This way the damage that had occurred during winter was restored. A new
lime wash cover was often sufficient. If needed cracks, could be repaired easily by making the
earth rendering slightly wet and leveling the loam again.

58

Figure 3. 28 - ( left) Traditional earthen house (right) Layers of earth covered with lime in
Bokrijk 25

An interesting evolution was that horse urine was added sometimes to the mixture, often even
in big amounts, replacing water to activate the clay. Different theories are available to explain
the use of this urine, but none of them is scientifically proven. The most probable is the
following: urine contains urea ((NH2)2CO), when it gets in contact with water or water vapor,
this dissolves forming ammonia (NH3). This ammonia would result in a film of grease on the
wall surface. This film repels the water and ensures an equal drying rate. This theory might
explain the function of horse dung in empaete as well, though further research should be
carried out. A problem regarding horse urine is the strong odor of the ammonia that can be
unpleasant while processing the loam. This is why in Bokrijk potassium methyl sulfate
(CH3KO4S) is used instead.

3.7.2. New construction with earthen renderings

Nowadays earthen renderings in Europe thank their revival to the great interest for building
with compressed straw bales. These walls are predominantly protected by earthen renderings.
This straw bale technique is relatively new and although there is a lot of empirical evidence
that these straw bales together with the earthen renderings form durable constructions, the
scientific justification and explanation is lacking. A method that is used to protect these walls
in Belgium is to mix lime with loam. The first rendering contains loam with little lime, the
outer layer is entirely made up of lime, while layers in between have an increasing loam-lime
ratio. This way the bond between the lime and loam is ensured. The outer lime layer needs
little maintenance and is even frost- and waterproof. (Arch. De Leeuw, 2011)
This technique is one of the many not yet researched new methods to deal with earthen
renderings. They look promising and might offer useful information that is applicable in
Cuenca. However, they do not fall under the scope of this master thesis.

25

Source: (Het Domein Bokrijk vzw, 2006)

59

3.8.

Conclusion

A lot of damage to adobe buildings is due to bad protection of the adobe masonry. This
protection is vital and includes three parts: a decent base course, a waterproof roof with
sufficient overhang and well maintained renderings.
First of all a good roof should keep the top of the wall dry. Sufficient overhang is needed to
keep the upper part of the wall dry and to prevent water coming down the roof to splash up
the base course. Traditional roof construction techniques using reed and earth provide good
protection. The durability of the roof can be improved by adding a synthetic sealing.
Secondly, a good base course is crucial. The base course should offer protection against water
splash, capillary rise and standing water. Most base courses in Cuenca are made of river cobles
combined with smaller stones of different grain size that serve as filler. This technique has
proven its functionality against capillary rise, but attention should be paid to the fact that the
base course should be high enough to offer protection against splashing water. It is advised to
make the foundation 40 to 60 cm higher than street level.
Finally, renderings are vital to protect the wall. While the attention to roof and base course
protection is generally high in Cuenca, the attention to well maintained renderings is
underrated. Moreover there is very little knowledge on how these renderings adhere and what
the function of the different layers is. Therefore the composition, fabrication and functioning of
the applied renderings in Cuenca are discussed in detail in this chapter.
The first layer attached directly to the adobe masonry is revoque. This is a 3 to 5 cm thick layer,
made up of the same mixture as the adobe blocks. Therefore it has the same properties,
including the same vulnerability to water.
On top of this revoque layer, an empaete layer is applied. This 3 mm thin layer is a mixture of
dried horse dung and kaolinite. If applied correctly, this layer shows no cracks thanks to the
fibers of the dung and the non swelling characteristics of the clay. Therefore it is better
resistant to water than revoque.
On top on this empaete layer, a finishing layer similar to lime wash is applied. This layer is
called empastado and consists of water, lime and some casein to improve the strength. This
lime rendering provides extra resistance to erosion but remains permeable to vapor transport
from the inside, avoiding the accumulation of water in the wall hereby. While this combination
revoque-empaete-empastado offers good protection, maintenance is required since the
empastado can wash off.
Cement renderings are not a suitable rendering for adobe masonry. Cement is too rigid and
will not adhere to adobe. It will crack too easily when it is applied on the softer revoque.
Moreover it is impermeable to vapor. This reduced vapor transport causes water accumulation
in the wall, provoking serious damage.
However, cement renderings might be acceptable when applied on a limited area of the wall to
protect the base course. The cement is then applied on a special interface of bricks or tiles.
60

Precaution and a well detailed finishing is needed to avoid incompatibilities with the other
renderings higher up the wall.
While this chapter provides a detailed overview of the used renderings and the techniques to
make them in Cuenca, more detailed research is definitely needed to trigger the mechanisms
behind several aspects such as the bond between the layers, the function of horse dung in
empaete, the effect of cement renderings in the base course and much more.
Another important conclusion of this chapter is that maintenance to both roof, base course and
renderings is very important for the durability of adobe structures. However rules to
determine the frequency of this maintenance are not easy to establish and would require a
long term investigation. A practical guideline is to repair roof and base course as soon as they
show traces of leaking water. Renderings should be repaired when cracks appear, for instance
by applying a new layer of empastado or empaete on a regular basis.
This master thesis will not focus further on these last aspects, but aims at improving the
composition itself of the adobe blocks.

61

62

Chapter 4.

Testing original adobes

A test program was set up in order to determine the specific properties of the adobe blocks
from Cuenca. In a first stadium mechanical characteristics of the available blocks were tested
in a destructive way, afterwards the soil characteristics were examined. Then mechanical and
soil characteristics were coupled to analyze these results.
Since few standards exist that prescribe the testing procedures of adobe, the carried out tests
have been executed by adapting tests described in concrete and mortar standards. The results
of these tests are described in these chapter as well. Finally an analysis has been made of the
properties of the adobe blocks in Cuenca which helps to understand the different parameters
influencing these properties.

4.1.

Test samples

4.1.1. Collection
To obtain a well-balanced idea of the adobe and soil characteristics in Cuenca and
surroundings, multiple blocks from various sites were sent to the laboratory in Leuven. Both
old and new blocks were collected. Table 4. 1 gives an overview.
Section 1.6 (Adobe collection sites) provides a background of the origin of the blocks. Ancient
blocks were only collected in Cuenca itself, from the sites of Escuela Central, Museo Sombrero
and Parking. Dating these blocks back to the moment they were first used was impossible.
Most likely blocks from Escuela Central and Museo Sombrero were made when constructing
these buildings, approximately 100 to 130 years ago. Blocks from Escuela Central were taken
from right beneath the roof on the eastern side of the building next to the faade and from a
wall on the west site of the building, at the floor level of the second floor. All adobes were
protected and have not been exposed to water. In Museo Sombrero on the other hand, blocks
were taken from the collapsed wall in the outer yard. They had been lying there for an
indefinite period without protection. (Figure 1. 13 right p.14) Blocks from Parking were taken
from the middle of a wall, no indications of water damage was present, but only two blocks
could be extracted.
Newly made blocks were taken from three sites. One group of samples was provided on the site
of Escuela Central in Cuenca itself. The production process of these blocks was described in
section 2.3. A second group was provided by the community of Susudel. Documentation and
photos about their fabrication were provided as well. This was similar to production in Cuenca.
A final group of test samples was obtained in Girn. No specific information about this group
was available. A total of 36 adobes were sent to Belgium.

63

Sent blocks
Escuela Central New
Escuela Central Old
Parking
Museo Sombrero
Susudel
Girn
Sum
Total weight

Amount
8
5
2
10
6
5
36
960 kg

Table 4. 1 - Adobe material sent to Belgium

4.1.2. Resizing test samples

Testing mechanical characteristics of adobe such as bending strength and compression
strength is difficult on the adobes in their original size. Moreover, ratio of the width and length
should be approximately . Entire adobes are difficult to handle as well, since one block has a
weight of approximately 30 kg, making it very difficult to manipulate. To execute a detailed
testing program, more test samples than 36 were needed. Therefore all adobes were cut in two
along the longest side, using a concrete diamond saw.
Sawing had to be executed using water to minimize dust production. To protect the material an
absolute minimum of water was used and all blocks were wrapped in water proof foil. This
way only the cutting plane was exposed to water. All tests were executed after a drying period.
(Figure 4. 1)

Figure 4. 1 - (left) Sawing of blocks wrapped in foil - (middle) Wet cutting plane - (right) Drying

64

4.1.3. Visual inspection

SUSUDEL
11 entire half blocks
1 broken half block
Shrinkage cracks
No big grains
Undamaged edges, flat surfaces
Straw: small amount
ESCUELA CENTRAL NEW
11 entire half blocks
3 broken half blocks
Very small shrinkage cracks
Few big grains
Undamaged edges, flat surfaces
Straw: moderate amount
Darker color
Green deposits on borders
ESCUELA CENTRAL OLD
3 entire half blocks
5 broken half blocks
No shrinkage cracks
A lot of big grains, parts of brick
Damaged edges
Straw: moderate amount
Darker color
MUSEO SOMBRERO
3 entire half blocks
5 broken half blocks
No shrinkage cracks
A lot of big grains
Damaged edges
Visible straw: big amount, nested
Yellow shine
GIRN
11 entire half blocks
1 broken half block
Shrinkage cracks
Grains up to 2 cm
Undamaged edges, flat surfaces
Straw: moderate amount, nested
Smaller size
PARKING
2 entire half blocks
2 broken half blocks
No shrinkage cracks
Few big grains
Damaged edges
Straw: moderate amount

Table 4. 2 - Summary of visual inspection and description adobe blocks

65

4.2.

Soil characterization

4.2.1. Sieving
Before the actual dry sieving can start, the soil needs to be prepared by performing a wet
sieving. A certain amount of earth is moistened, binding forces of the clay are lost due to
hydration and particles will fall apart. This mixture of earth and water is poured out on a sieve
of 63 m. The small particles go through this sieve together with the water and are collected in
a cylinder. This process is repeated several times to make sure all small particles have passed
the sieve. Remaining big particles are put in a oven at 110C until they are completely dry and
can be used in a sieving test. The fine particles (< 63 m) sink in the cylinder for one day, then
the water is removed and this fraction is dried in the oven as well. After drying the weight is
determined and a small part is used to carry out a hydrometer test. Another part is used for
the Casagrande test and a last part to make the XRD samples.
Actual dry sieving is carried out following standard EN 933-1. The amount of particles larger
than 63 m are weighted. The column of sieves is made. The sieves that are used are: 10.0mm
5.0mm 2.5mm 1.80mm 1.25mm 900m 630m 450m 315m 224m 160m
112m 80m 63m. The column is put in a stirring apparatus for 20 minutes. First the
amount of particles on top of each sieve is determined. Then a sieving curve is made by
calculating the cumulative weight.

4.2.2. Hydrometer test (or areometer test)

The hydrometer test (ASTM D422-63 (1972)) determines the grain size distribution of
particles smaller than 63 m by a sedimentation process. This is a common technique used for
the characterization of earth in geo-mechanical studies. A small amount of air-dry soil
(between 25 and 50 g) is put into a cylinder. The sample is diluted with distilled water and
42ml dispersion agent (Na4P207). The total volume of 600 ml is placed in a stirring machine for
two times 4 hours (with a resting period in between). (Figure 4. 2 left) After the dispersion,
the cylinder is filled with distilled water up to a volume of 1000 ml and placed in a large water
bath on a constant temperature of 20C. The fine particles are stirred up again right before
starting the test. (Figure 4. 2: 2nd and 3rd)
The hydrometer (Figure 4. 2 right) is placed in the cylinder. According to Archimedes
principle a solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced. The lower the density of the substance, the deeper the hydrometer will sink.
Calculation of the grain size distribution is possible by determining the depth of the
hydrometer at different time steps. After 30seconds 1minute 2minutes 5minutes
15minutes 30minutes 60minutes 24 hours a hydrometer reading is carried out. The
second part of the sieving curve can be completed.

66

Figure 4. 2 - (left) Stirring machine - (2nd) Cylinder with fine particles - (3

3rd) Apparatus to stir 26
(right) Hydrometer

4.2.3. Atterberg limits

The Atterberg limits are the liquid limit (LL), the plastic limit (PL), the shrinkage limit (SL)
and the plasticity index (PI). The liquid limit is the water content (in %) at which the soil
changes from a plastic to a liquid state. The plastic limit is the water content
conten on the boundary
between plastic and semisolid state and the shrinkage limit is the water content on the limit of
the semisolid and the solid state. (Figure 4. 3)

Figure 4. 3 - Atterberg limits 26

The liquid limit can be determined with the Casagrande apparatus. The test is performed on
particles
es smaller than 0,425mm, following ASTM D 4318 (200). The test was carried out in
Cuenca. The particles are mixed with some water and the bowl of the apparatus is filled up to
1cm. The surface is smoothed and a groove is made in the centre of the bowl with a calibrated
device. (Figure 4. 4) The bowl is lifted and dropped by turning the handle. When the groove is
closed over a length of 1cm, the number of drops is regis
registered
tered and the water content of the soil
is calculated using the weight of the wet sample and the dry weight after oven drying. Four
samples with a different water content (a different amount of blows) are plotted on a semisemi
logarithmic graph. By drawing a lline through these points, the water content at 25 blows can
be interpolated. (Figure
Figure 4. 5)

26

Source: (Budhu, 2007)

67

Figure 4. 4 - (left) Mixture particles and water - (middle) Filling bowl - (right) Groove

Figure 4. 5 - Example of determination of LL (Museo

Museo Sombrero)
Sombrero

The plastic limit can be determined by making threads of 3 mm diameter from the same
mixture. If the thread starts to crumble, more water is needed. If the tread cannot be made,
there is too much water and the mixture needs to be moulded until the thread can be made.
The water content (%) can be determined as described before.
The plasticity index (in %) can be calculated by a subtraction of the plastic limit
l
from the
liquid limit.. Therefore it describes how much a soil expands aand
nd shrinks.
PI = LL PL
The shrinkage limit is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any
more volume reduction. This limit is not relevant for the soil classification and is therefore not
calculated.

4.2.4. Grain size distribution

Grain size distribution of the samples was determined by selecting a sample of about 500 g of each
group of adobe. Combining results from sieving and aerometer tests provide Table 4. 3,

Figure 4. 6 and Figure 4. 7.. The clay content of all four samples is different. Blocks from
Cuenca: Museo Sombrero
o (27%) and Escuela Central (21%) contain more clay than those from
Susudel (16%) and Girn (11%). These values correspond to the boundaries advised in
literature. While 11% of Girn is about the lower limit (10%), 27% clay in Museo Sombrero
exceeds the advised
vised maximum of 20%. Both samples from Cuenca itself, Escuela Central and
68

Museo Sombrero have a similar grain size distribution, but the difference in clay content of 6%
and amount of sand particles of 7% is significant. The amount of gravel is low for Susudel
Su
(7%)
and high for Girn (33%). The blocks from Susudel contain a lot more sand (48%), while those
from Museo Sombrero have the lowest amount (26%). The loam from Escuela Central (33%)
and Girn (35%) have approximately the same amount of sand.

Figure 4. 6 - Grain size distribution of original soil adobes

Figure 4. 7 - Amount of clay, silt, sand and gravel

69

clay < 2m

Museo
Sombrero [%]
26,8

Escuela
Central [%]
21,0

Susudel [%]

Girn [%]

15,5

10,5

2m < silt < 60m

22,9

27,0

29,4

21,2

60m < sand < 2000m

26,3

32,9

48,4

35,3

gravel > 2000m

24,0

19,2

6,7

32,9

Table 4. 3 - Amount of particles in each category for the different soil types

COMMENT
Only one soil characterization test has been done on each test group of adobe. The soil for each
test was taken from one adobe block, thereby assuming that all adobes had more or less the
same composition. Because adobe is a heterogeneous material, this assumption can have had
influences. Larger stones can be encountered randomly spread in the adobe and can influence
the grain size distribution because of their relatively large weight. However, an identical
analysis with all grains larger than 1 cm removed from the grain size distribution, provided
similar results.

4.2.5. USCS soil classification

Soil classification is done by using the USCS27 classification. This system was developed by
professor Casagrande in 1948. Nomenclature for grain sizes is different than used in the
context of this master thesis. Particles smaller than 75 m are called fine particles. Particles
between 75 m and 4.75 mm are sand particles and parts bigger than 4.75 mm are called
gravel. Table 4. 4 gives an overview of the amount of particles in each category defined by the
sieving test. Table 4. 5 shows the values for the liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of
each sample. They were determined following the Casagrande test, described in section 4.2.3.
Procedure to determine the type of soil is as follows: in a first step a distinction is made
between coarse-grained or fine-grained soil. If 50% of the particles is smaller than 75 m, the
soil is fine-grained (Escuela central and Museo Sombrero). Otherwise, it is a coarse-grained
soil (Susudel and Girn). Then the classification is done by using the diagram in Figure B.1
(Appendix B) for coarse-grained soils and the diagram in Figure B.3 (Appendix B) for finegrained soils.

clay < 2m
2m < silt < 75m
% fines: < 75m
75m < sand < 4750m
gravel > 4750m

27

Susudel [%]

Escuela
Central [%]

16
32
48
coarse-grained
48
4

21
31
52
fine-grained
32
15

Table 4. 4 - Data USCS classification

Unified Soil Classification System

70

Museo
Sombrero
[%]
27
25
52
fine-grained
29
19

Girn [%]
11
25
35
coarse-grained
36
29

Susudel [%]
LL
PL
PI

22
18
4

Escuela
Central [%]
40
25
15

Museo
Sombrero [%]
46
27
19

Table 4. 5 - Atterberg limits (shrinkage limit not required)

RESULTS
The soils of Susudel and Girn are both coarse-grained. In both cases there is more sand than
gravel and the percentage fine particles is larger than 15%. To determine the group symbol,
the classification diagram of Casagrande (Figure B.2 Appendix B) is used. Susudel has a liquid
limit of (LL) 22% and a plasticity index (PI) of 4%. The type of soil is CL-ML, thus the group
name is SM or SC. There is less than 15% gravel. The soil of Susudel is silty
silty sand or clayey sand.
sand
The Atterberg limits were determined in the laboratory of Civil Engineering in Cuenca.
Because blocks from Girn were collected at the end of the stay, no results are available for this
group.
The soils of Escuela Central and Museo Sombrero are both fine-grained soil. The soil of Escuela
Central has a LL of 40% and a PI of 15%. This results according to Figure B.2 (Appendix B), in
a classification in the group CL. 48% of the particles is larger than 75m (=No.200) and the
amount of sand is larger than the amount of gravel. The monster contains more than 15%
gravel. The soil of Escuela Central is a sandy lean clay with gravel.
The soil of Museo Sombrero has a LL of 46% and a PI of 27%, the group symbol is CL. 48% of
the particles are larger than 75m and the amount of sand is larger than the amount of gravel.
There is 19% gravel thus the soil of Museo Sombrero is sandy lean clay with gravel as well.
Table 4. 6 gives an overview of the soils and their matching soil group. According to the USCS
soil classification soil from Escuela Central and soil from Museo Sombrero are part of the same
group. This is not surprising since both sites are close to each other.
Susudel
Escuela Central
Group symbol SM-SC
CL
Silty sand or Sandy lean clay
Group name
clayey sand
with gravel

Museo Sombrero
CL
Sandy lean clay
with gravel

Table 4. 6 - Overview soil classification

A normative review by Jimnez Delgado (2007) on the selection of soils for unstabilised earth
building states that not many recommendations are given for plasticity in literature. However
the few references that are available for adobe advise limits for PI between 16-28% and
between 32-46% for LL. Soil from Escuela Central (LL=40%, PI=15%) and Museo Sombrero
(LL=46%, PI=19%), seems to have acceptable PI and LL for adobe construction. Soil of
Susudel on the other hand (LL=22%, PI=4%) does not meet these requirements at all. Soil of
Susudel would be only slightly plastic, meaning that the soil would break when deforming. It is
highly doubtful whether these Atterberg limits can be extrapolated to the composition of
adobe blocks itself. Since Atterberg limits are determined on the fraction smaller than 415 m,
71

the relative amount of clay on the entire composition is not taken into account. However
according to Dekoning & Gyssels (2010) the higher the amount of clay, the more water that is
needed to assure that a mud mixture behaves as a liquid. Therefore it is advised to use these
Atterberg limits only as indications for the soil classification and not to judge on suitability of
the soil for adobe construction.

4.2.6. XRD analysis

METHODOLOGY
XRD or X-ray diffraction is used to determine the different types of clay. X-rays are
electromagnetic waves with a wavelength smaller than the wavelength of visible light. A dried
sample of earth particles smaller than 63 m is ground until a fine powder remains. The
characterization of the crystallographic structure of this sample is based on the elastic
scattering of X-rays from the electron clouds of the individual atoms in the system. When an Xray reflects on a mineral, the angle of incidence of the reflected ray, the polarization, and
wavelength or energy is changed. Then data are recorded and used to determine a
corresponding d-value. Each mineral is characterized by the structure of its grid and unity cell
and fits in a specific range of d-values.
The goal of the XRD-analysis is to determine which types of clay are present in the different
types of soil. X-ray diffraction indicates which minerals are present in the small fraction, but
does not provide information on the amount of minerals. If a certain mineral is present in a
smaller amount than four percent, it is possible that it is not found in the analysis. To obtain a
quantitative analysis of the portion of each mineral in the composition, a Rietveld refinement
could be done.
RESULTS
Figure 4. 8 shows an example of the result from an XRD-analysis. The different peaks in the
graph indicate a different type of mineral. Detailed data gathered with the XRD-analysis are
presented in Appendix C. Table 4. 7 shows a summary of the presented minerals in each test
group. Results for an empaete test sample are shown as well.

Figure 4. 8 - Result XRD-analysis different samples

72

Susudel

Escuela Central

Museo Sombrero

albite

albite

albite

quartz

kaolinite

anorthite

montmorillonite
muscovite
clinochlore

quartz

kaolinite

anorthite
calcite

Gir
Girn

Empa
Empaete

albite

albite

quartz

quartz

kaolinite

kaolinite

anorthite

quartz

kaolinite

anorthite

anorthite

montmorillonite

montmorillonite
muscovite

calcite

clinochlore

microcline
Table 4. 7 - Different types of components from XRD-analysis, bold: active clay minerals

All mixtures contain a certain amount of active clay minerals and non-active minerals that
account as filler. Quartz, albite, anorthite, calcite, clinochlore and microcline have little
importance in this context. Albite, anorthite and microcline are feldspar minerals. Calcite,
clinochlore and muscovite are part of the non-clay group described in section 2.1.1. Muscovite
is a fine grained mica and whether this mineral acts as filler or as an expansive clay depends
on its microstructure.
Most important are kaolinite and montmorillonite. These are the active clay components.
Kaolinite is a minimally expansive clay, while montmorillonite is powerfully expansive as
described in section 2.1.1.

4.2.7. Fibers
The fiber content was estimated based on the recycling process in Escuela Central.
Afterwards, the fiber content was determined in the lab in Leuven.
METHODOLOGY
A sample of adobe (2850 g) from Escuela Central was analyzed. This block was crushed and its
components were moistened and sieved. Only particles bigger than 63 m were retained since
smaller particles do not influence the result. Soil particles and fibers that remained on the
sieve were put in glass bowls. Because fibers float on water, a first separation could be done
between the soil particles and fibers. In a next step the bowls were put into an oven at 110C.
After drying, the mixture was sieved again. The large fibers were retained on sieves with larger
openings, while soil particles fell through. However, little fibers could not be separated from
the earth. Therefore another test was carried out. Two of these undivided samples of small
particles (< 500 m) were placed in an oven at 1100C. The fibers burn at this temperature
and only soil particles remain. The loss of mass accounts for the loss due to the burning of the
fibers.
RESULTS
The sample contained 1.43% (by weight) fibers. 1.2% of this 1.43% did not pass the sieve of
500 m.

73

4.3.

Mechanical characteristics

Note: All test results can be found in Appendix D.

4.3.1. Bulk Density

METHODOLOGY
The bulk density of a material is the weight per unit volume of a material.
material It is defined
p st
as o = r u v, with
ith m the mass of the sample and V the volume. Because adobe is such a
q

heterogeneous material,
aterial, it was chosen to weigh all adobes on a balance and measure all
dimensions to determine the volume. This is the most representative method because it takes
into account
ccount all available material providing more statistical relevance. Another possibility is
to determine volume by wax immersion as well. However this can only be done on a smaller
samples.. This test method is described in ASTM C914
C914-95:
95: Standard Test Method for Bulk
Density and Volume of Solid Refractories by Wax Immersion.
RESULTS
Measurements were executed on the samples used for the four
four-point
point bending test. ASTM
requires at least five samples to determine a representative bulk density. Because only three
samples of Escuela Central Old were available and only two from Parking, these results were
not taken into account further. Figure 4. 9 (left) shows bulk densities for all test groups. Figure
4. 9 (right) gives bloxplots for the statistically relevant ones. Adobes from Susudel have a
significant higher density
ity (1680 kg/m) th
than
n the other groups. Furthermore the coefficient of
variation is low for all measured densities for these blocks: between 3 % and 10 %. Girn has a
higher density than the blocks from Cuenca as well (1503 kg/m), yet again this density is
i
relatively constant for all blocks.
Then the situation in Cuenca itself: blocks from Escuela Central have a bulk density of 1405
kg/m, those from Museo Sombrero havz a bulk density of 1364 kg/m. While the densities of
other blocks show few variation iin
n density, the density of blocks from Museo Sombrero is less
constant. This can be explained by the fact that these
hese blocks are less homogeneous: some
blocks have nests of hay, reducing their density.

Figure 4. 9 - (left) Bulk density

ensity for each test group - (right) Box plot of relevant test groups [circle
in box plot represents median]

74

4.3.2. Capillary absorption

METHODOLOGY
The way adobe reacts on water is a crucial element to judge on its durability because of
adobes vulnerability to water damage. The amount of capillary absorption gives an indication
of the porosity of the material. Standards for brick testing advise to submerge the lower 3 mm
of a test sample in a water bath for 24 hours. After this period the amount of absorbed water
can be determined by comparing original and new weight. However the fact that adobe loses
its bond and dissolves in water makes it impossible to execute this test. Attempts were made in
Cuenca but a period of 24 hours appeared fatal for the adobes.
Therefore the test was adapted in Leuven in order to understand this behavior. Parts of adobe
were submerged for 20 minutes in 3 mm of water. This can be considered as a short period of
exposure comparable to a rain shower. Of course erosion by impact is not taken into account.
Weight was determined before and after this period, but appeared irrelevant due to the loss of
material. (Figure 4. 10)

Figure 4. 10 - (left) Capillary absorption test - during 3th cycle - (right) Lost material during this
cycle

RESULTS
Porosity could not be determined due to the loss of material. To get an idea of the water
intrusion, the height of capillary absorption was marked on the test samples after each
absorption cycle. This pointed out that after each cycle the wet front had advanced. Small
particles were leached out of the absorbing surface, leaving a rougher area. These tests
affirmed that adobes lose bond rapidly when they get in direct contact with water. Tests
pointed out that after each drying and wetting cycle, the wet front advanced a little further.
(Figure 4. 11) This behavior is consistent with the considerations on damage mechanisms
described in paragraph 2.6.1 on page 33.

Figure 4. 11 - Adobes after 3 absorption cycles (purple= first cycle, yellow = second cycle, green=
third cycle)

75

COMMENT
Determining porosity through mercury intrusion porosimetry was considered by the authors.
However this test is executed on a extremely small sample (length 2 cm and diameter 1 cm).
This scale could never be representative for an adobe block.

4.3.3. Dynamic E-modulus

METHODOLOGY
The dynamic E-modulus can be determined by carrying out a non destructive test. The test is
usually carried out on mortar or concrete and is based on measuring propagation speed of a
signal sent through the material. This propagation speed is then converted according formulas
in the standards to obtain the E-modulus. The propagation speed can also be used as a point of
comparison for the homogeneity of the blocks.

RESULTS
This test turned out to be unfit for large adobe samples. The device was unable, even at the
highest energy level, to send the signal through the adobes. Nor when the waves were sent
over the length, nor over the smallest dimension of the block. This is probably due to the pores
and heterogeneities in the blocks.

4.3.4. Four-point bending strength

METHODOLOGY
The flexural strength of the blocks is determined with a four-point bending test. A half adobe is
placed on two supports and a load is distributed on two loading points symmetric around the
middle of the beam. This causes a uniform maximum bending moment and an area of tension
at the bottom of the specimen. The specimen collapses under a maximum force, this value is
used to calculate maximum flexural strength. This flexural strength provides an indication of
the tensile strength. Since the specimen will fail at the bottom first, the adobe is placed with
the cutting plane upright. This way this irregularity does not influence the testing results.
Even though a three-point bending test is more often referred to in literature, a four-point
bending test will provide a more accurate estimation of the effective tensile strength of the
tested specimen. This is due to the fact that a three-point bending test induces a maximum
moment in the middle of the tested beam and thereby forces the beam to collapse in this
middle section. For a heterogeneous material as adobe this is not desirable, because this
middle section can be weaker or stronger by accident. For instance due to the presence of a
stone. A four-point bending test provides a constant moment over a certain section and does
not have this disadvantage. (Figure 4. 12)

76

Figure 4. 12 - (left and middle) Bending moments in three- and four-point bending test - (right )
Setting up four-point bending test28

The force was applied using a hydraulic pump and a throttle to keep the pressure constant.
Keeping force or displacement constant was not possible using this device, but pressure was
applied very slowly to limit the variations.
RESULTS
The maximum applied force (P) is measured, the resulting tensile stress can be calculated as
x.y
follows. The induced moment (M) by the applied force is: w = , the resulting stress can be
calculated as:

.
.
w. }
.
= 6 2 =
{| =
~
bh/12 .

Where
{| is the stress in the lowest point
} is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber and equals half of the height
is the height of the block
is the distance between the two supports
~ is the moment of inertia for a rectangular beam
equals the breadth of the beam
Results from the four point bending tests point out that the tensile strength of adobe is very
low. (Figure 4. 13 left) New blocks from Escuela Central have the highest flexural strength: 0.1
MPa. The other blocks have tensile strengths between 0.08 and 0.06 MPa. Results for groups
Escuela Central Old and Parking are omitted since only two or three blocks were available for
testing. They do not deliver statistically relevant information.
The results provided by the four-point bending strength are very variable. Large differences
between the values can be found. This is clearly visible in the boxplots shown on Figure 4. 13
(right). The coefficient of variation is lowest for new blocks from Escuela Central (37%) since
these blocks are most homogeneous and show no shrinkage cracks. The coefficient of variation
for Museo Sombrero, Susudel and Girn are more or less 60%, which is huge. These big
differences in strength are due to cracks and heterogeneities in the blocks.
28

(Betontechnologie, 2009)

77

Figure 4. 13 - (left) Flexural strength by four-point bending in MPa. Average - (right) Boxplots
[circle represents median]

Figure 4. 14 shows the different bending strengths for all executed bending tests on blocks
from Susudel. These blocks show clear shrinkage cracks that clearly influence the bending
strength. Blocks without shrinkage cracks show a bending strength of 3 times higher than
blocks with cracks.

Figure 4. 14 - Four point bending strength (MPa) for blocks from Susudel.
Susudel S1, S5 and S6 had no
cracks in advance

Two fracture patterns are observed. One for blocks that weree not cracked before the test. They
show one new crack at nearly the same location each test. (Figure 4. 15 and Figure 4. 16). If
heterogeneities such as cobblestones are present, the crack often appears around this stone.
When blocks break according th
the pattern with one crack, their strength is higher than when
they break according to the second fracture pattern.

Figure 4. 15 - S6A: (left) Before test - (right) After

fter test

78

This second fracture pattern is observed when blocks already show cracks. Then no new
cracks are formed, but these cracks grow more deeply and open further.
further Blocks with this
fracture pattern reach a significantly
gnificantly lower strength th
than others.

Figure 4. 16 - S4A: (left) Before test - (right) After test

COMMENT
Three points should be mentioned when critically reviewing this test procedure. First of all the
geometry of the blocks was not identical for each test group. Blocks from Girn were shorter
than the others. This was set off by changing the distance between the supports,
supports following
concrete standards. Secondly nor deformation speed, nor the applied load could not be kept
exactly constant, however the load was applied as slow as possible. Since the adobe blocks
were very heterogeneous and had fluctuating flexural strength, this possible variation in
deformation speed had probably negligible influence on eventual results. Finally, the effect of
sawing the adobes is not clear. Pr
Probably
obably this had minor influence since the cutting plane was
placed on top, while failure starts at the underside of the block.

4.3.5. Unconfined compression strength

METHODOLOGY
ned compressive strength is de
dened
ned as the maximum load attained during the
The unconned
performance of the compression test. Since no suitable standard
standards for adobe testing are
available, tests were performed using the following methodology based on compression tests
for concrete.. Tests were carried out on parts of the broken sawn adobes used for
f the four-point
bending tests. Load was applied through two stiff and flat steel plates with a square surface of
12 cm on 12 cm. To accommodate surface unevenness, units were capped with a thin layer of
gypsum. Since blocks were generally 12 cm wide, a ssquare
quare compression surface of 12 on 12
cm was obtained. Dimensions of all blocks were determined and for blocks with a smaller
width than
n 12 cm, an adapted smaller load surface was used in calculations.
Blocks were loaded in the same direction in which tthey
hey were compressed in use. Adapting the
height of the blocks to obtain cubic samples was not possible because sawing would have
caused excessive damage. This resulted in compressed volumes with a surface of about 12 x 12
cm and a height of about 15 cm. Geometrical
eometrical effects on individual block compressive strength
are not taken into account since no accurate correction factors are available. In other research
the correction factors for fired clay masonry are sometimes used for adobes,
adobes but extrapolating
79

thesee values to much weaker and non

non-uniform
uniform earth blocks is not recommended. Therefore it
was chosen to do the entire research on monsters with each time nearly identical dimensions.
Thiss makes it possible to compa
compare the results .
Origin
Susudel
Escuela Central (new)
Escuela Central (old)
Museo Sombero
Girn
Parking
Total

Amount of
tests
15
15
10
16
14
5
75

Table 4. 8 - Executed compression test for each

group

Figure 4. 17 - Example of
compression test lay out

Loading was applied using a constant deformation speed of 2 mm/min. All samples were
packed in transparent plastic bags to protect the testing device against dust. (Figure 4. 17)
Displacement and applied load were registered during the compression test, providing data for
stress-strain curves.
A total of 75 compression tests were executed. The amount of tests for each
ea group depended
on the amount of available material. ((Table 4. 8)
RESULTS
The maximum applied force (P) is measured, the resulting compressive strength can be
calculated
ed using following formula:


{ = =
. 120
Where
P is the maximum applied load
{ is the compressive stress
is the area of the compressed surface
is the width of the sample, usually 120
Figure 4. 18 (left) shows the average unconfined compression strength of the six different
types of adobe. Adobes from Susudel are remarkably stronger th
than
n blocks from Cuenca or
Girn.. Blocks from Susudel have an average compression strength of 1.6 MPa. The strength of
the old and new blocks from Escuela Central is lower, respectively 0.59
59 and 0.66
0
MPa. Adobes
from group Parking reach a strength of 0
0.53
53 MPa and adobes from Museo Sombrero have the
weakest compression
ompression strength: 0
0.4 MPa. Boxplots are plotted as well. (Figure 4. 18 right) In
contrast to the CoV for the flexural strength, the CoV for the compression strength is quite
constant, ranging from 18 to 24%.
This can be explained by the fracture pattern of the blocks. This is similar for all executed tests.
Mostly two or three vertical cracks run over the entire height of the block, with in between
zones of crushed material and smaller cracks scattering into all directions.
directions (Figure 4. 19) The
80

blocks without shrinkage cracks, that showed a remarkably higher bending strength, do not
have a higher compression strength.

Figure 4. 18 - (left) Unconfined

ned compression strength
strength: average - (right) Boxplots [circle represents
median]

Figure 4. 19 - Crack pattern of blocks failed under compression (blocks from Susudel)

stress-strain
strain plots for compression tests on blocks from Escuela
Figure 4. 20 shows some stress
Central. The maximal strain varies between 2 and 5 %. Next, the behavior of the material can
be divided in two zones.
s. The first zone is an elastic one where stress and strain increase almost
linearly,, implying that Hooks law hold
holds29. The slope of the stress-strain
strain curve can be expressed
by Youngs modulus which is a quantitative indication for the stiffness of the material. Because
the graphs show that the slope is quite fluctuating for the different samples and because the
actual value of the Youngs modulus is of little relevance for this research, no further analysis
wass made. After this elastic zone, the strain increases while the stress remains rather constant.
In this stadium the material behaves non linear. This is called plastic behavior. In this zone
failure occurs.

29

Hooks Law states that { = . for lineair material, with E the Youngs modulus

81

Figure 4. 20 - Stress-strain
strain plots of compression tests on a selection of blocks from Escuela Central

COMMENTS
The surface of the adobe blocks was not flat. Especially old blocks had a rough surface and
regularly broken borders. A gypsum layer was applied to counter these irregularities as good
as possible, but obtaining a perfectly flat surface was often impossible. Because geometrical
effects might have a major influence on absolute values of the compression strength,
str
prudence
is called when comparing these results to results from other research.

4.4.

Adobe quality analysis

Previously discussed data are now coupled to make a comparison between the different adobe
groups. It goes without saying that adobe should be used
ed in compression, since compression
strength is about ten times higher than bending strength according to our tests.
tests The tensile
strength of adobe is negligible. Minke (2006) found the same relationship between
compressive and tensile strength.
Next, it is striking that the compression stre
strength
ngth of blocks from Susudel is more than double
than the compression strength of other blocks. Compression strength would be mainly
dependent on clay content and density. Figure 4. 21 shows the boxplots of both compression
strength and density. The d
density of blocks from Susudel is significantly higher than the
density of other blocks. On the other hand, the density of blocks
cks from Girn is higher than the
density of blocks from Escuela central, but no higher compression strength is found. This
indicates that other factors might be more important. As discussed in chapter 2, it is very likely
that the amount and type of clay is a more important driver than density.
density

82

Figure 4. 21 - Boxplot compression strength compared with boxplot bulk density

Jongh and Van Wijnendaele (2009) determined a bulk density of

In their master thesis De Jong
1814 kg/m (three tests performed) and a compression strength of 1.79
1
MPa (determined
with five tests). These results were determined on blocks from Oa. Oa is a village next to
Susudel, on a distance of 80 km from Cuenca. Therefore it is not surprising that the data
determined for Oa by De Jong
Jongh & Van Wijnendaele match with the data from Susudel.
Susudel In their
seismic model for Cuenca, calculations are done using the mechanical properties of Oa,
assuming that this extrapolation is acceptable30. The results obtained by previously
pr
discussed
tests show that this assumption is not correct and that adobe from Cuenca is significantly
weaker. However this shouldnt change much to the obtained conclusions of the seismic model.
The amount of clay for the test groups is shown in Table 4. 9. Clay content
conte appears to be very
site specific. Blocks from Escuela Central for instance contain 5% less clay, than the blocks
from Museo Sombrero, while the distance between both sites is about 500 m. Assuming that
blocks from Susudel have
ve a better clay ratio than the other blocks, this table indicates that
blocks from Museo Sombrero and Escuela Central contain too much clay. This hypothesis is
supported by in-situ
situ tests on soil after mixing, and is one of the conclusions of the
investigations of Cuencan soil by De Jongh and Van Wijnendaele as well. Blocks from Girn
seem not to contain enough clay, their density is higher, but the binding between the well
compacted grains is not sufficient.
Susudel

Museo Sombrero Escuela Central

clay < 2m
15.5
5%
26.8%
Types
of Kaolinite
Kaolinite
active clay Montmorillonite

21.0%

Kaolinite

Girn

10.5%
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite

Table 4. 9 - A
Amount and types of clay for each group of test samples

Moreover it is remarkable that the average tensile strength of blocks from Susudel lies in the
same range as thee strength of the blocks from Cuenca and Girn.. Because compression
strength is usually directly correlated to tensile strength (Figure 4. 22)), a much higher tensile
strength would be expected. This can be explained by the large shrinkage cracks that are
present in the blocks from Susudel. Blocks without shrinkage cracks from Susudel attain
30

(De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele, 2009) note Representativeness

ess of the samples on page 51

83

tensile strengths that are three times higher.. These blocks do have a tensile strength of 10 % of
the compression strength. This is similar to other results. The same remark holds for blocks
from Girn where shrinkage cracks are visible as well.

Figure 4. 22 - Comparison of compression strength and four-point

point bending strength (in MPa but on
different scales!)

The amount of shrinkage cracks is dependent on the type and amount of clay. All loam
mixtures contain kaolinite which is a little expansive clay. Montmorillonite is a highly
expansive clay mineral that is present in blocks from Susudel and Girn. These blocks show
clear shrinkage cracks. The longer and bigger shrinkage cracks in blocks from Susudel can be
explained by the higher clay content of these blocks. The impact of the type of clay on
compressive and bending strength is not clear. The theory of Hofmann & Schembra cited in
chapter 2 that clays without montmorillonite have a lower tensile
ile strength could be realistic,
reali
but further research is needed.
The impact of age on adobe strength seems small. Old blocks from Escuela Central do not have
a significant lower compression strength than new ones. The tensile strength of old blocks was
even a little higher, but onl
only three blocks were tested. The conclusion that at least for Escuela
central age has little impact on strength seems to hold. It goes without saying that it is
important that these blocks did not get in contact with water during their life span.
This cannot be said for the ancient blocks from Museo Sombrero. Their lower strength could
be due to the exposure to humidity after the collapse of the wall they were part of. On the other
hand the presence of an excessive amount of clay and nests of hay can be the reason for the
lower compressive strength as well.

84

4.5.

Conclusion

Chapter 4 describes tests to qualify the durability of the blocks. Most important tests were soil
characterization, four-point bending tests and uniaxial compression tests. All tests were done
on different test groups of material that was sent to Belgium from different sites in and around
Cuenca.
The compression strength of new adobe blocks in Cuenca is more or less 0.7 MPa. The
measured tensile strength is only a fraction (about 10 %) of this compression strength. Blocks
of 130 years old that were well protected show little decay in strength (Escuela Central). Old
blocks that were exposed to water, showed a significantly lower compression and tensile
strength. (Museo Sombrero)
Results of the tests show that adobe blocks from Susudel have a much higher compression
strength than blocks from Cuenca. However, the average strength in four-point bending is of
the same order as the blocks from Cuenca.
The results of the most important tests are summarized in Table 4. 10.

Amount of clay
Types of active clay

Bulk density
(kg/m)
Compressive strength
(MP
(MPa)
Bending strength
(MP
(MPa)

Museo
Sombrero

Escuela
Central

Kaolinite

Kaolinite

27%

21%

Average

CoV

Average CoV

1364

10%

1406

0.40

25%

0.07

58%

Susudel

Girn

16%

11%

Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite Montmorillonite
Average

CoV

Average

CoV

5%

1679

4%

1503

2%

0.66

24%

1.56

18%

0.62

21%

0.10

36%

0.08

56%

0.07

60%

Table 4. 10 - Summary of results chapter 4

The strength of the adobe blocks, both compression and bending is dependent on the cohesion
of the blocks. This cohesion seems to be dominated by the amount of clay and clay type.
Shrinkage cracks have negative influence on bending strength and should therefore be
avoided. Moreover a high bulk density is no guarantee for a high compression strength
although this is suggested in literature.
The amount of clay in blocks from Susudel can be considered as the optimum for the test
samples. XRD-analysis pointed out that a part of that clay is montmorillonite, while blocks in
Cuenca contain kaolinite clay. Montmorillonite is a powerfully expansive clay, while kaolinite
swells and shrinks less. Because clay of Susudel shrinks more and these blocks are dried in
85

open air under blazing sunlight, large shrinkage cracks appear. The blocks that show these
shrinkage cracks, have a significantly lower bending strength.
Blocks from Cuenca contain much more clay, have a lower density and are therefore weaker.
Blocks from Girn on the other hand seem to contain too little clay to ensure appropriate
binding. Their strength is rather low, in spite of their high density.
This chapter shows very clearly that the current properties of the adobe blocks in Cuenca can
be improved. A reference to better adobes are the adobes from Susudel. However this chapter
does not provide full insight in to the optimal clay content or the influence of density, nor does
it provide a lot of information on the effect of the added hay and the production process.
These parameters will be examined further in chapter 5.

86

Chapter 5.
adobe

Recycling and improving

The material of the original adobe blocks (see chapter 4) was used to make new adobes in
Leuven. Several methods can be elaborated to improve adobe, but to be of practical use in
Cuenca, the chosen method should be easily applicable. This means that the change in
composition should be inexpensive, and can be executed with material that is easily available
in Cuenca itself. Moreover it is desired that the traditional preparation techniques remain
usable to preserve these traditions. Altogether it might be easier to implement the suggested
measurements if they do not change the current methodology too drastically.
This is why the choice has been made to try to improve adobe composition by adding only one
component: sand. Sand is easily available, cheap and can be mixed together with the loam,
water and hay. This chapter wants to provide more insight into the effects of the different
components on the adobe properties in general as well.

5.1.

Determining new mixture compositions

To examine the influence of sand addition to the soil mixture, other strength influencing
factors such as curing conditions and the amount of water and hay are kept as constant as
possible. Section 2.4 pointed out that the clay ratio combined with grain size distribution are
two of the most import factors influencing adobe composition. By adding the right amount of
sand, both of these two factors can be influenced. Thus theoretically an optimization must be
possible.

5.1.1. Fuller, Boemans and approximation of Susudel

As explained in 2.1.3 the grain size distribution providing the highest density is given by the
Fuller curve. For soil however, this curve is not applicable since the approximation that the
grains would be spherical, does not hold for clay particles. Therefore it is suggested to change
the grading coefficient n to 0.25 for soil. Another approximation is suggested by Boemans
(1990). He suggests that particles bigger than 2 m can be assumed spherical. Therefore he
uses a grading coefficient n of 0.5, but suggests a minimum clay content of 10% defining
a.b

Z`a = 100

c 10. Both suggested theories, the adapted Fuller and the Boemans curve

have advantages and disadvantages. First of all, they are both dependent on the choice of the
biggest grain size D. Next, by using the adapted Fuller curve the approximation that non-clay
particles are spherical is lost, all particles are assumed non-spherical. Furthermore the amount
of clay is dependent on the choice of D and n. Choosing for example D equal to 5 mm and a
grading coefficient n equal to 0.2 would result in an advised clay content of more than 20%. In
literature it is advised not to exceed the 20% clay limit.
87

The Boemans curve on the other hand, has the disadvantage that the clay content needs to be
defined in advance. The assumption that bigger particles remain spherical is retained. How to
define this clay content? 10% is advised as a minimum, 20% as a maximum. Because the
previous tests showed that the strength of blocks from Susudel, with a clay content of about
15% was strikingly higher, this clay percentage will be used for the approximation.
The only factor left to determine the Boemans and Fuller curves is D, the size of the biggest
particles. Since only a small percentage of the grains was retained by a sieve with openings of
10 mm, this is a good approximation of the largest grain size. The assumption is made that
bigger particles are filtered out of the mixture, which is often the case in practice. Now all
parameters for the optimal Fuller and Boemans curve are known. ((Figure
Figure 5. 1). These two
curves are suggestions on how the perfect grain size distribution could look like to provide the
highest density.

Figure 5. 1 - Plot of the Fuller curve for soil (n =0.25) and Boemans with a 15% clay content

5.1.2. Addition
ddition of sand
To make the grain size distribution of the available loam in Cuenca and surroundings
correspond to these curves, sand will be added. Therefore the grain size distribution of sand
used in Cuenca is needed. This distribution was provided by the laboratory of Civil Engineering
of the University of Cuenca. The best available match in Leuven was Rhine sands 0/5. More
than 90% of all grains pass tthrough a 5 mm sieve for both samples. (see
ee Figure 5. 2 and Table
5. 1) The sand from Cuenca is coarser than the one u
used
sed for the recycling in Leuven.
Calculations for the recycling were made using the siev
sieve curve of sand in Leuven.

88

Figure 5. 2 - Grain size distribution for sand used in Leuven, compared to sand available in Cuenca
Sand Cuenca [%] Rhinsand 0/5 [%]
small particles <60m

3.9

0.2

60m < sand < 2000m

76.1

89.8

gravel > 2000m

20.0
10.0
Table 5. 1 - Amount of particles for Sand Cuenca and Rhine sand 0/5

Four main groups have been determined with statistically enough relevance to make new
blocks: Escuela Central, Museo Sombrero, G
Girn
n and Susudel. Out of all four groups, three new
mixtures were made, providing different compositions for twelve different types of adobe.
Each time a test group was
as made, with the same grain size distribution as the original material,
making it possible to compare to the original blocks.
Other parameters such as the amount of water and the amount of hay were kept as constant as
possible. The amount of water was ke
kept
pt as low as possible. This means water was added up to
the point that the loam became processable. This amount varied for the different mixtures. The
used Rhine sand 0/5 contained about 5% water. This extra amount of water was taken into
account in furtherr calculations.

5.1.3. Natural fibers

Fibers are added to the mixture to reduce shrinkage cracks. In Cuenca long hay taken from
Cajas is used. (see section 2.2.3). The bestt match for this hay in Belgium is red fescue
f
(Dutch:
roodzwenkgras, Latin: festuca rubra), but there was not enough red fescue
f
available at the
time of research. Therefore hay was used in all samples. Hay is a dried mixture of cut grass and
other herbaceous
us plants. It has a very fine structure which is desired. Hay should not be
confused with straw, this is composed of the dry stalks of cereals plants. Straw is thicker and
has a more rigid structure.
89

The amount of fibers has been determined based on recommendations in literature and on
observations in Cuenca. The amount of added fibers in the mixture was fixed on 1.2% (by
weight). This is an approximation of the amount of fibers added in the recycling process in
Escuela Central. Loam from recycled blocks still contains fibers from the original adobes.
These amounts were neglected, assuming they were too damaged to function after crushing
adobes and stabbing in the mud mixture. The added fibers were between 3 and 10 cm long,
this is shorter than in Cuenca.

5.1.4. Escuela Central

Soil investigation pointed out that the soil mixture of Escuela Central contained too much clay.
To obtain a better clay/non-clay materials ratio, sand was added in two proportions. (Table 5.
2) To compare to the Boemans curve, the clay ratio from Susudel was used as decisive
parameter. This way an attempt was made to match with the strong blocks from Susudel.
Figure 5. 3 shows the original grain size distribution, the distribution of Escuela Central, the
two theoretical new distributions, the Fuller and the grain size distribution of Susudel. To
compare to the Fuller curve, a best fit to the curve was realized. This resulted in the following
three mixtures:

Parts Sand

E1 - Original

E2 - Susudel

E3 - Fuller

0.25

0.4

Parts Adobe

0.75

0.6

Hay (%weight)

1.2%

1.1%

1.0%

Added water (%weight)

31%

26%

24%

Total amount (kg)

53
71
Table 5. 2 Mixtures recycling adobe Escuela Central

66

Table 5. 3 gives the amount of particles for each group. The goal of adding sand to the mixtures
is to obtain a lower amount of clay and a higher density. Literature advises a maximum of 20%
clay particles. The sieve curve of E2 should fit the curve of Susudel for these clay particles. E2
contains 15.7% of clay while Susudel has 15.5% clay. The amount of sand particles
corresponds as well (47.1% for E2 and 48.4% for Susudel). However the amounts of silt and
gravel are not the same. There is less gravel in the loam of Susudel. However in practice, a lot
of big particles will be removed by hand when working the loam during the recycling process.
The theoretical E3 curve matches the Fuller curve very well for the fine particles. For the larger
particles, there are too many sand particles in the theoretical E3 curve in comparison with the
Fuller curve. This is logical since sand is added.

90

Figure 5. 3 - Original composition E1, theoretic compositions E2 (fit with Susudel) and E3(fit with
Fuller)

15.5

E3 theoretic
[%]
12.6

20.3

29.4

16.3

15.9

47.1

48.4

55.6

39.1

15.5

33.1

clay < 2m

21.0

E2 theoretic
[%]
15.7

2m < silt < 60m

27.0

60m < sand < 2000m

32.9

E1 [%]

gravel > 2000m

Susudel [%]

19.2
16.9
6.7
Table 5. 3 - Amount of particles

Fuller [%]
11.9

5.1.5. Museo Sombrero

The soil
oil of Museo Sombrero contains even more clay than the soil of Escuela Central. Therefore
more sand needs to be added to meet the desired criteria. Because more shrinkage can be
expected in the original sample in relation to the improved ones, some more straw is added to
the original mixture M1. So three mixtures were made (Table 5. 4):

Parts Sand

M1 - Original

M2 - Susudel

M3 - Fuller

0.35

0.5

Parts Adobe

0.65

0.5

Hay (%weight)

1.7%

1.0%

1.1%

Added water (%weight)

32%

23%

24%

Total amount (kg)

52
65
Table 5. 4 - Mixtures recycling
cling adobe Escuela Central

66

91

5.1.6. Susudel
For Susudel one composition was made so that the grain size distribution should approximate
the Fuller curve (S3). Since these blocks already had the desired clay content, the Boemans
curve could not serve. Therefore the choice was made to make two samples keeping the
original grain size distribution, but one with a low and another with a high amount of hay
(Shay). This way more insight could be gathered on the influence of hay on shrinkage, tensile
and compression strength. Following mixtures were made (Table 5. 5):
S1 - Original

Shay - extra hay

S3 - Fuller

Parts Sand

0.35

Parts Adobe

0.65

Hay (%weight)

1.1%

1.9%

1.0%

Added water (%weight)

24%

26%

20%

Total amount (kg)

53
48
Table 5. 5 - Mixtures recycling adobe Susudel

80

5.1.7. Girn
While the other soils contained too much clay, the soil from Girn seemed to contain too little
clay. Adding soil with a higher amount of clay can solve this problem. Soil from Escuela Central
was mixed with the one from Girn to obtain the same amount of clay as used in Susudel in one
mixture. In another mixture the Fuller curve was approximated by adding another amount of
clay. The following mixtures were made (Table 5. 6):
G1- Original

G2 - Susudel

G3 - Fuller

0.45

0.1

Parts Adobe E1
Parts Adobe G1

0.55

0.9

Hay (%weight)

1.2%

1.1%

1.1%

Added water (%weight)

27%

30%

29%

Total amount (kg)

5.2.

29
39
Table 5. 6 - Mixtures recycling adobe Girn

32

Producing adobe in Leuven

5.2.1. Production process

The production of new adobe blocks in Leuven was done using the same techniques as on the
restoration site of Escuela Central in Cuenca. This procedure has been described in section 2.3.
Two big tanks were filled with broken adobe blocks from the compression tests. (Figure 5. 4
left) The weight of the adobe was determined to be able to document water and hay ratios. The
required water to ensure workability was added. (Figure 5. 4 middle) The first hour the adobe
fragments only rested in the water to give them time to absorb water and loose bond. After this
period, the blocks were crushed with shovels and walking through the mud mixture. (Figure 5.
92

4 right and Figure 5. 5 left) Step by step the adobes deteriorated until after two hours a
homogeneous mud mixture was obtained. Meanwhile bigger parts of bricks or cobble stones
were removed by hand. (Figure
Figure 5. 5 middle) The speed of this process as well as the amount of
water needed to hydrate the clay, was different for each soil type. During the recycling, adobes
from Susudell were remarkably more difficult to break down. Almost double the time was
needed to obtain a homogeneous mud mixture than for the other adobes.

Figure 5. 4 - (left) Adobe

dobe parts after compression (middle) Adding
dding water - (right) Crushing
adobes with shovel

When a homogeneous and fine mixture was obtained, hay was added. (Figure 5. 5 right) This
was done gradually to prevent nests. In a next step, the content of the tank was divided in 3
parts and put into smaller bins. (Figure 5. 6 left) Dividing the adobe
obe mixture was done by sight
because it was practically impossible to weigh the huge amount of mud separately. The bins
were used to mix missing amounts of hay, and later on the required addition of sand or clayey
soil. Sand was added in the last step bec
because
ause clay hydration is more important and needs more
water. (Figure 5. 6 middle) After the addition of the sand, the bins were covered and stored to
rest for 10 days. The covering improves homogeneous humidification of all particles.

Figure 5. 5 - (left) Walking

alking through to obtain homogeneous mixture - (middle) Picking out larger
stones by hand - (right) Mixing hay

Figure 5. 6 - (left) Adding

dding sand in separate bin - (middle) Mixing - (right) Overview of different
mixtures in bins

93

5.2.2. Effectively obtained mixtures

After a curing period of ten days the mixtures were ready to be put in moulds. Of each mixture
three adobes were made. Samples were taken to compare the obtained grain size distributions
to the theoretically predicted ones. Appendix E provides a full graphical overview of the
achieved grain size distributions and allows to compare them to the theoretical and original
ones. Results are presented briefly for the four groups.
MUSEO SOMBRERO
The fractions of grains of the new mixtures are given in Table 5. 7. M1 is the original mixture,
M2 is the mixture that approximates the clay content of Susudel, M3 is the mixture that
approximates the Fuller curve.
M1 [%]

M2 [%]

Susudel [%]

M3 [%]

Fuller [%]

clay < 2m

26.8

12.0

15.5

10.5

11.9

2m < silt < 60m

22.9

13.2

29.4

12.6

15.9

60m < sand < 2000m

26.3

55.0

48.4

61.1

39.1

gravel > 2000m

24.0
19.9
6.7
15.8
33.1
Table 5. 7 - Effective mixtures M2 and M3 compared to the desired grain size distributions

The predicted grain size distributions were not obtained exactly. Clay content dropped from
26.8% (M1) to 12% (M2) and to 10.5% (M3). The desired new clay contents were 15.5% and
11.9%. The relative amount of sand increased, the gravel content decreased This is because
sand 0/5 contains only 10% gravel particles and 90% sand particles. The silt content
decreased. The main difference between M2 and M3 is a difference in sand particles of 6% and
the difference in clay content of 2%. Too much sand has been added to obtain the clay ratio
from Susudel.
ESCUELA CENTRAL
Table 5. 8 provides the same data for the recycled blocks from Escuela Central. Again too much
sand was added to obtain the desired clay ratios. E2 contains too little clay in comparison with
Susudel as well.
E1 [%]

E2 [%]

Susudel [%]

E3 [%]

Fuller [%]

clay < 2m

21.0

11.2

15.5

7.4

11.9

2m < silt < 60m

27.0

20.1

29.4

15.9

15.9

60m < sand < 2000m

32.9

52.5

48.4

66.6

39.1

19.2
gravel > 2000m
16.3
6.7
10.0
33.1
Table 5. 8 - Effective mixtures E2 and E3 compared to the desired grain size distributions

SUSUDEL
Table 5. 9 provides data for Susudel. Shay (= S2) contains no sand, but only extra hay (1.1%
versus 1.9% (by weight)). The difference in clay content is due to the large amount of parts
with diameter bigger than 1 cm. These particles distort the second curve as can be seen on
Figure E.5 (Appendix E). S3 matches nearly perfectly to the Fuller curve for the smaller
particles.
94

S1 [%]

Shay [%]

S3 [%]

Fuller [%]

clay < 2m

15.5

14.0

11.0

11.0

2m < silt < 60m

29.4

22.7

17.9

16.8

60m < sand < 2000m

48.4

56.3

53.3

39.1

gravel > 2000m

6.7
7.0
17.8
33.1
Table 5. 9 - Effective mixtures of Shay (more hay) and S3 (good match to Fuller)

GIRN
Table 5. 10 shows that trying to enlarge clay content to 16% by adding clay rich soil from
Escuela Central did not work in practice. The composition of G2 remained almost exactly the
same as that of the original G1, while this mixture should have contained 55% original soil of
G1 and 45% clayey soil of E1. This is due to bad mixing of the soil of Girn and Escuela central.
Loam from Escuela Central was hydrated in a separate bin and later the hydrated loam from
Girn was added to this bin. Inspection after moulding pointed out that the loam from Escuela
Central got stuck on the bottom of the bin. The same problem occurred when adding 10%
clayey soil to obtain G3. Therefore, all three mixtures of Girn have nearly exactly the same,
original composition.
G1 [%]

G2 [%]

Susudel [%] G3 [%] Fuller [%]

clay < 2m

10.8

10.4

15.5

9.9

11.9

2m < silt < 60m

21.4

23.3

29.4

23.6

15.9

60m < sand < 2000m

34.8

43.2

48.4

34.3

39.1

gravel > 2000m

32.9
23.1
6.7
32.2
33.1
Table 5. 10 - Effective mixtures G2 and G3 compared to the desired grain size distributions

COMMENTS
Even though not all mixtures match the desired ones, there is enough differentiation between
the different mixtures of Museo Sombrero, Escuela Central and Susudel. Predicting the
composition of new compositions accurately requires more soil characterization tests on the
original soil and the used sand. It is possible that a unrepresentative part of an adobe slips into
the test, influencing results. Furthermore more manpower is needed to crush adobes and
weigh and mix the mud accurately. It is advised to take measures to prevent dust from setting
free when crushing the adobes as well.

5.2.3. Moulding and drying

Wooden moulds with size 50 x 15 x 12.5 cm were used to make the new adobes. (Figure 5. 7)
This way adobes had the same size as the sawn original ones that were tested on the fourpoint bending device. By making half adobes at once, the harmful and time consuming sawing
was avoided. The moulding technique was identical to the one used in Cuenca.

95

Figure 5. 7- Moulding adobes in Leuven

Of each of the twelve test groups, three test specimens were made to measure shrinkage in
standard mortar moulds of size 16 x 4 x 4 cm.. This was done directly after mixing. Since these
small samples dry faster, their density was a goo
good reference point to determine whether the
larger specimens were dry. At the same time of moulding in situ tests were carried out,
following the procedure described by De Jongh & Van Wijnendaele (2009). Appendix F gives
the results of the test; the
he procedure can be found in Appendix I1.
The adobes needed a total period of 3 weeks to dry. The first week the blocks were dried lying
l
on pallets in the laboratory. Temperatures fluctuated around 20 degrees, this is similar as in
Cuenca. After a week, blocks were placed upright to iimprove
mprove ventilation around them. By
determining the weight of the blocks, the drying could be monitored. Because of the fact that
after this second week of slow drying the blocks werent ready for testing yet, the blocks were
placed upright in a warmer cham
chamber
ber (about 28C) with more ventilation. After a total drying
period of 21 days, the decrease in weight was negligible and the density of the big blocks was
identical to the density of the small blocks.

5.3.

Results

5.3.1. Visual observation

Before testing, all blocks were weighed and measured. None of the new blocks showed major
shrinkage cracks. This was in contrast with the original blocks from Susudel and Girn, that
showed major cracks. (Figure
Figure 5. 8 and Figure 5. 9)) Hay seemed to be spread out evenly over
each sample and each adobe looked homogeneous.. Blocks seemed more solid and surfaces
were flat, except for some minor irregularities at the corners. A
Addition
ddition of sand changed the
color of the mixtures a little, but no other influence was visible.

Figure 5. 8 - Museo Sombrero before (left) and after(right) recycling

96

Figure 5. 9 - (left) Susudel before recycling - (right) Susudel after recycling. New block has no
shrinkage cracks.

5.3.2. Test program

The test program for new blocks was set up in a similar way as the test program on the ancient
ones. Tests that have not been described yet, are described below.
Following steps were taken:
In situ tests on the new mixture (see Appendix I1)
Weight measurements and drying when moulding
Determining weight and dimensions of beams and blocks
Four-point bending test (see
see 4.3.4, p.76)
Unconfined compression test (see 4.3.5 p.79)
Sieving and hydrometer test (see 4.2 p.66)
Weight measurements and drying after compressive test
These tests provided information on b
bulk
ulk density, tensile strength (four-point
(four
bending),
compressive strength, shrinkage and water content before and after drying. Four-point
Four
bending, density and shrinkage was determined on 34 large blocks. 72 compression strength
tests were done.31
SHRINKAGE
Shrinkage was determined by measuring dimensions of 36 small beams (4 x 4 x 16 cm)
cm and
calculating their change in volume. This was done m
many times to monitor the evolution of the
shrinkage. As expected, shrinkage reached its final state when the beams were
w
dry. Shrinkage
was determined on the blocks as well, but these dimensions could not be measured as
accurately. This was due to small unevennesss and a rougher finish when working with the big
moulds. Nevertheless, shrinkage results of beams an
and blocks corresponded
correspond very well.
WATER CONTENT
Water content of a sample was determined by determining mass of a specimen before and
after drying the samples in an oven at 105C. This was done twice for the new blocks. First,
samples were taken from the loam mix
mixtures at the moment of moulding.
moulding For each test group
one sample was examined. A second series of samples was collected after the compressive
tests. Each sample was taken from one adobe of each test group, making a total of twelve
samples.
31

There was not enough material to make three blocks of G2 and 3 blocks of G3.
G3 Therefore two blocks of
G2 and two of G3 were made, and four extra (half) blocks for compressive tests.

97

5.3.3. Summary of test results

Since a great amount of data was collected, only the most essential parts will be discussed
throughout this section. Detailed test results can be found in Appendix G. All these results are
summarized in Figure 5. 11 on page 100. This page is a summary of nearly all necessary data
that were collected to understand the mechanisms behind the improvements in strength of the
blocks. The analysis of these results is one of the crucial parts of this thesis.
An important remark is that the coefficient of variation of all properties of the recycled blocks
dropped drastically. The average coefficient of variation on the tensile strength of the recycled
blocks was 16%, while this was 50% on the original blocks. For compressive strength the
average CoV dropped from 22% to 7.5%. Density was almost perfectly constant in each specific
group: the CoV was only 1.2%. This confirms the visual observations that the newly made
blocks were very homogeneous.
To check if the blocks were dry enough at the moment of testing, their water content was
measured after compressive tests. This was done on original and recycled blocks. These water
contents are compared in Figure 5. 10. The water content was situated in the same range:
between 2 and 6%. Because water content for M1 and E1 is a little higher, this might influence
the compressive and tensile strength negatively. Test results for compressive and tensile
strength show no correlation to this water content. M1 even shows a higher compressive and
tensile strength. Therefore we can conclude that water content after testing had no influence
on test results. The adobe blocks were dry enough.

Figure 5. 10 - Water content of original blocks (grey) compared to new blocks (black)

5.3.1. Bulk density

In comparison to the original blocks from Museo Sombrero and Escuela Central, the density of
blocks from E1 and M1 has increased with more than 200 kg/m. However grain size
distribution of the mixtures did not change, only hay was added and big particles were
removed. The change in density is to be explained by a lower water content when moulding.
The water content of the mixture before moulding was 37% in Cuenca. In Leuven only 22%
water was needed for E1 and 28% for M1. The lower the water content, the lower the porosity
that can be expected. Since all blocks were made with the minimal water content that made the
98

loam processable, nearly all densities increased significantly. The high water content used in
Cuenca has the advantage that it makes the mixing easier, reducing manpower for production.
Addition of sand increased the density of blocks from Museo Sombrero, Escuela Central and
Susudel. Adobes from the groups M3, E3 and S3 show the highest densities. The grain size
distribution of these blocks approaches the Fuller curve best. S3, that is nearly identical to this
Fuller curve (for the small particles), has the highest density as theory predicts. Density is no
indicator for cohesion and therefore the highest density did not provide the highest tensile or
compression strength! Addition of hay reduces density slightly as can be seen when comparing
Shay to S1. (reduction of 50 kg/m).

5.3.1. Compressive strength

As literature says, compressive strength would be directly related to density. The compressive
strength of blocks from Cuenca, both from Museo Sombrero as of Escuela Central have
improved enormously. Blocks from E1 reached a compressive strength of 1.1 MPa while the
original blocks had a compressive strength of 0.66 MPa. This increase in strength can be
explained by the increased density. After addition of sand, a compressive strength of 1.27 MPa
was reached (E2 and E3). However, nearly no difference in strength increase was found
between E2 and E3, while density increased significantly. This indicates that density is not the
only important parameter. Other results confirm that cohesion is more important: both M3 and
S3 have a higher density than M1 and S1, but have a lower compressive strength than M1 and
S1. No sand was added to M1 and S1. Probably S3, M2 and M3 contain too much sand and not
enough active clay to form a coherent mass. This means that the amount of sand added to
obtain the fuller curve exceeds the optimum for Museo Sombrero. For Escuela Central this is
not the case, E3 for example has ample cohesion, but rather low clay content. Balance between
water, clay and hay seems to be crucial. Because it is clear that not density, but cohesion is
more important for adobe behavior, tensile strength provides more valuable information than
compressive strength.
Blocks from Susudel did not increase in compression strength. Their initial strength was
already high (1.6 MPa). This strength was the target strength for other blocks. The exact same
strength was reached for new blocks with the same grain size distribution. Addition of extra
hay and sand offered no surplus in compression strength.
Compressive strength of blocks from Girn increased up to an 1.1 MPa after adding clayey soil.
However this strength remained lower than the compressive strength of the other blocks. Yet
again explanation needs to come from tensile strength.

99

100
Figure 5. 11 - Summary results

5.3.2. Four-point bending strength.

The four-point bending provided information on the tensile strength and thus cohesion of the
blocks. The final improvement of this tensile strength was impressive. While the measured
average tensile strength was maximum 0.1 MPa for original blocks, new blocks reached at least
0.33 MPa (S1, S3, G1 and G2). The extremely weak blocks from Museo Sombrero even reached
an average strength of 0.63 MPa (M1), which is ten times stronger than the strength of the
original blocks.
This improvement in tensile strength is due to three factors. No more large shrinkage cracks
were present in the material, the mixture was more homogeneous and the material had a
better cohesion. This better cohesion is crucial and is to be explained by several factors: a
better grain size distribution with a balanced amount of clay, a sufficient amount of hay and an
better water content. For instance the strength of blocks from Escuela Central increased, while
the amount of sand increased and water content when moulding decreased. This strength
increase is connected to the amount of clay as well. While E1 contains a lot more clay and
shrinks a lot more, its tensile strength is less than the tensile strength of E2 and E3 with lower
clay content. It is surprising that the tensile strength of E3 is high, while the clay content is
only 7%. This does not correspond to the advise in literature that the minimum clay content
should be 10%. It shows that even at low clay content, high tensile strength can be achieved as
long as the clay provides sufficient cohesion. This is only possible when no excessive water is
used.
For Escuela Central tensile strength has increased up to 0.57 MPa. This is about 50% of
compression strength, this is enormous for adobe. The same ratio can be found for Museo
Sombrero, where M1 has a tensile strength of 0.62 MPa. This is remarkable because this
mixture contains a very high amount of clay (about 27%). Moreover a lot of water was still
present before moulding, resulting in a great amount of shrinkage. Because M1 contained more
hay (1.7%), this shrinkage did not impose problems. Moreover the better hydration of the clay
probably provided a better cohesion, resulting in a higher strength.
It is remarkable that blocks from Susudel and Girn have lower tensile strengths than the
blocks from Cuenca. The blocks from Cuenca contain kaolinite clay, while the ones from
Susudel and Girn contain montmorillonite clay. This montmorillonite clay would provide
higher tensile strengths according to literature (see section 2.1.1 on page 20), but this test
program did not confirm this. S3, G1, G2 and G3 contain a similar amount of clay and a nearly
constant tensile strength (about 0.34 MPa). Their clay content is equal to that of M3 and E2 ,
but these blocks are about 0.2 MPa (60%) stronger and contain kaolinite! (The difference in
tensile strength between M2 and M3 should be neglected since the strength of M2 is not
representative has only be determined on two blocks. One test failed due to a problem with the
testing device and the following test had a excessive fast loading due to this previous error.
Therefore only one relevant test remained.)
It is also shown that density has a minor influence on the tensile strength; cohesion is much
more important. This is very clear when S3 and G2 are compared for example. These blocks
contain nearly the same amount of clay, but the density of S3 is almost 400 kg/m more. Water
101

content is similar. The bending strength of these two groups is the same in spite of the higher
density of S3. This indicates
tes again that cohesion is a far more important factor.
COMMENT
Four-point
point bending tests were done on the small beams (4 x 4 x 16 cm
cm)) as well using a similar
speed of loading. The general trends discussed above were confirmed, but the encountered
tensile strength for the beams was half of the tensile strength that was found for new adobe
blocks. The reason for the apparent decrease in tensile strength can be found in geometrical
effects. In a big adobe, the relative size of the fibers (hay) is small in co
comparison
mparison to its size in a
very small beam. Because fibers are stripped off easily and do not really function as
reinforcement, their influence will be much bigger in a small beam. ((Figure
Figure 5. 12) Following
the same argumentation, the influence of larger particles will be magnified as well when using
this small scale tests. Some kind of conversion factor should be applied to take these
geometrical effects into considerati
consideration. This shows the necessity of working with bigger test
samples because otherwise compari
comparison between original and recycled blocks would be very
hard.

Figure 5. 12 - Small beams with hay visible. Beams in the middle contain more hay. This is clearly
clear
stripped off

5.3.3. Shrinkage
Shrinkage tests could only be done on the new blocks and therefore it is only possible to
compare the results among the different groups. First of all it is very important that no large
shrinkage cracks occurred.
rred. This indicates that the amount of hay was sufficient to spread out
the shrinkage evenly and that curing conditions were acceptable. Shrinkage is linearly
dependent on the water content of the mixture when moulding. This is shown in Figure 5. 13
for M, E and G. This linear relation probably holds for Susudel as well, hay was added to one
sample, leaving only two samples available for comparison. Addition of hay reduces
re
the
shrinkage: Shay has a higher water content than S1, but its shrinkage is lower. This is because
hay absorbs water and spreads out the shrinkage evenly.

102

Figure 5. 13 - Relation between shrinkage and water content when moulding for blocks from
Museo, Escuela Central and Susudel

5.4.

Discussion

The previous observations show that the properties of adobe are influenced by a lot of factors
that affect each other as well
well. To explain
plain and predict the eventual properties of adobe blocks
starting from the mixing components
components,, an intermediary link is needed. This intermediary link is
the inner structure of the adobe. The four influencing structural aspects are porosity, cohesion,
density
ty and shrinkage. The influence of the different components on the structure and
an later on
the properties are visualized schematically in Figure 5. 14. This diagram will
wil serve as guideline
through this discussion.

5.4.1. Influence of components on adobe structure

WATER CONTENT WHEN M
MOULDING
Water content of the mixture is one of the most important factors influencing the eventual
strength of adobe. The water content when mould
moulding
ing has a crucial impact on porosity,
shrinkage and cohesion. By increasing water content, shrinkage and porosity will increase,
since more water needs to evaporate. Shrinkage will influence cohesion (more cracks) and a
higher porosity means more voids. Th
This
is causes a lower cohesion (less contact) and a lower
density. A low water content is therefore desired. But anyhow water is necessary as well to
hydrate the clay, that is the active component providing cohesion. Water content should
therefore be high enough
gh to hydrate the clay and to ensure cohesion. These requirements seem
contradictory, but result in a practical advice: the amount of water should be just enough to be
able to mix the clay and hydrate it, but should not be any bigger. It can be advantageous
advantageou to
hydrate the clay first with some more water. This improves workability and makes mixing
more easy, reducing the manpower needed for production. Afterwards sand can be added. This
103

reduces the relative amount of water, but good hydration of the clay and better workability are
ensured.

Figure 5. 14 Diagram of parameters influencing adobe quality and their relation to each other

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LOAM

Grain size distribution is directly related to the density. The highest density can be obtained
when the grain size distribution of the loam approaches the Fuller curve. This can be reached
by adding the right amount of sand. However a high density is no guarantee for a high tensile
strength, because cohesion is a much more important factor. The ratio of clay to other particles
seems to have little influence as well. Test results show that it is possible to obtain two
mixtures with both identical tensile and compression strength, while their clay ratio is 27%
and 7%. Important is that the mixture is balanced. It is advised to verify this empirically.
CLAY MINERALS
The type of clay minerals present in the loam had no influence on the test results. The amount
of water when moulding combined with the amount of clay is far more important. Because the
type of clay appeared to be a secondary driver, it could not be proven that montmorillonite clay
shrinks more than kaolinite clay. This test program even indicates the contrary: loam that
contained montmorillonite showed less volumetric shrinkage.
HAY
Flexible fibers such as hay are a very important component of the loam mixture. In
combination with the correct amount of water, hay prevents large shrinkage cracks. Fibers
divide the large shrinkage evenly over the block, avoiding large stress concentrations and
104

thereby large cracks. This is vital for a good cohesion. Hay should not be considered as
reinforcement of the loam because the loam strips off easily when subjected to tensile stresses.
The necessary amount of hay is dependent on the amount of clay and the amount of water.
Length of the fibers is important as well, because longer fibers will probably be harder to strip
off.
CURING CONDITIONS
Curing conditions influence drying rate and thereby shrinkage. If adobes are dried for a
sufficient time in a protected environment, they are not supposed to influence the eventual
strength. No tests were done to verify this during this research.

5.4.2. Influence of adobe structure on durability

Testing durability directly is impossible, therefore a general quality analysis of the adobe
blocks was made. Tensile strength and compressive strength are two indicators for this quality.
Tests show that both tensile and compressive strength are mainly dependent on the inner
cohesion of the blocks. If the cohesion is large, the material will be able to withstand higher
tensile and compressive stresses. Blocks with a high cohesion usually have a large density as
well because a large cohesion is only possible when a limited amount of voids is present. On
the other hand, a large density is no guarantee for a large cohesion and a larger strength.
When the density is large, but when not enough active clay can bind the particles together, a
lower tensile and therefore lower compressive strength is found. The explanation is that
cracking will always be influenced by tensile or shear stresses and an adobe block will thus not
fail directly due to excessive compressive stresses. This indicates that more value should be
attached to the results of the four-point bending tests, because the compression test gives only
an indirect indication of the cohesion.
The effects of porosity on water absorption could not be examined because adobe loses its
cohesion when it gets in direct contact with water. But it remains clear that the higher the
porosity, the deeper water can infiltrate into the block. Therefore a low porosity is advised to
minimize deterioration through swelling and shrinkage. More research is needed, however
measuring porosity is very difficult for a material this vulnerable to water.
Overall, the optimal adobe structure would be an adobe with large cohesion and low porosity.
If these two criteria are met, a high density will follow automatically.

105

5.5.

Conclusion

Loam from original adobe blocks from Ecuador was used to make new adobes in Leuven. This
chapter explains which procedure was followed to improve the characteristics of recycled
adobe and explains the mechanisms behind these improvements.
Two theoretical methods were elaborated to obtain better adobes with improved grain size
distributions. One method aimed at reaching a maximal density approaching the Fuller curve.
The other method aimed at a better clay ratio, based on the clay ratio of Susudel (15%). Test
results showed that a higher density could be achieved when the Fuller curve was approached,
but that this high density had no direct impact on the cohesion of the blocks.
Tests showed that the mechanical properties of adobe are mainly dependent on the cohesion
of the blocks. Therefore four-point bending tests provide more useful information than
compressive strength tests. Thanks to the lower amount of water and an adequate amount of
hay, shrinkage was limited and spread out more evenly, thereby avoiding large shrinkage
cracks. A higher cohesion was established and in consequence of the lower amount of added
water, a lower porosity and thus higher density was obtained. These factors significantly
increased the strength of all recycled blocks.
Tensile strength of the adobe is not only more important because it provides information on
the inner cohesion, it will be crucial in the functioning of adobe masonry as well. Adobe
masonry fails on the mortaradobe connection. Therefore it is important that the tensile
strength of the adobe is bigger than the adhesion between adobe and mortar. This makes a
large compressive strength less relevant.
Tensile strengths from the recycled blocks went up from less than 0.1 MPa for the original
blocks, to strengths of 0.3 and 0.65 MPa for the recycled ones. As a consequence, the
compressive strength increased. Blocks from Cuenca increased in strength from 0.4 to 1.4 MPa
(250%) for Museo Sombrero and from 0.6 to 1.2 MPa (200%) for Escuela Central.
To obtain relevant results, it was important to test adobes with identical size as the ones used
for the original tests (50 x 15 x 12.5 cm). This was necessary to rule out variation due to
geometrical effects. Comparison of tensile strength results of smaller beams (made to measure
shrinkage) showed that these geometrical effects are dominant. This makes it impossible to
compare results of the original big blocks to the small recycled beams, since no geometrical
conversion factors for adobe exist.
An objective of this thesis was to improve the adobe blocks from Museo Sombrero for an
upcoming renovation project. It was shown that when using the correct amount of water
(about 30% by weight) and the addition of 1.7% (by weight) of hay, the tensile strength of
blocks from Museo Sombrero could be increased with a factor ten (from 0.06 MPa to 0.6 MPa).
It is important that the hay is spread out homogeneously. Furthermore it will be crucial to
protect these blocks from water damage, because a high porosity is expected due to the rather
high water content. This porosity can be reduced by first hydrating clay and then adding some
sand afterwards. This sand will reduce relative water content and porosity. Some small test
blocks should then be made in situ to check if the cohesion remains high enough.
106

Furthermore an analysis is made to provide insight on how the components influence the
adobe structure. Cohesion is the most important structural aspect, together with porosity.
Water, clay and hay influence this cohesion, while clay is the active binder. Important for a
good structure is a balanced mix of these components. This means enough water to hydrate the
clay, but just enough to prevent excessive shrinkage and a large porosity. No fixed limitations
to this amount of water can be given because this depends on the amount of clay present in the
soil. If more water is used, it is advised to use more fibers. These fibers spread out shrinkage
evenly over the mixture. Good results were obtained for a fiber content of 1.2% (by weight) in
combination with a water content of 20% (by weight at the moment of moulding) or lower.
In certain cases it can be required to use some extra water to improve workability. Smoother
mixing can reduce the required man power and production time. To compensate the excessive
water, sand can be added in the last step of the production process. This will reduce the
relative amount of water and reduce shrinkage, improving the cohesion. Density will augment
as well, although this a favorable side effect, no goal on itself.

107

108

General conclusion
The historical center of Cuenca is a UNESCO World Heritage Trust Site. This recognition is
amongst others because of the citys lay-out and monuments in Spanish colonial style. A lot of
these monuments are built using traditional techniques of adobe construction. During the last
decades the awareness to conserve the unique character of this heritage has grown. The VLIRCPM project, a collaboration between the UCuenca and the K.U. Leuven wants to develop a
scientific management tool to preserve the city. Therefore profound technical know-how is
required to come to a better, durable design.
This master thesis gives information on this technical know-how and wants to provide both
practical as theoretical guidelines to come to a better durability of adobe structures. It is
crucial to be aware of the fact that adobe blocks themselves are only one part of the entity of
adobe construction. Other crucial durability aspects are the interaction of mortar and adobe
blocks in masonry, and the protection of this masonry by a roof, base course and protecting
renderings. These aspects play a huge role in reducing the vulnerability of adobe structures
against its main enemy: water.
During the field research in Cuenca, it was decided to focus on one specific item of adobe
construction: the properties of the adobe blocks themselves. Therefore several ancient and
newly made adobes were sent to Leuven for further research. To characterize the properties of
the different blocks, a test program was set up consisting of two parts: soil characterization
and mechanical properties testing. Four-point bending tests and unconfined compression tests
were done to obtain tensile strength and compressive strength of the material. These are
widely accepted quality indicators for building materials. These tests revealed that the tensile
strength of the adobe blocks was extremely low (<0.1 MPa) and showed a large variation.
However the compressive strength of one test group, blocks from Susudel, showed a
remarkably higher compressive strength (1.6 MPa) than blocks from Cuenca (0.6 MPa).
Tests on ancient and new blocks from Escuela Central pointed out that blocks of about 130
years old showed little decay in cohesion. They had nearly exactly the same tensile and
compressive strength. The ancient blocks were well protected from water, the new blocks were
made in Cuenca of exactly the same material. Blocks from Museo Sombrero that were
unprotected, showed a significantly bigger decay. Once again this emphasizes the need of
decent adobe protection and maintenance.
In order to improve the low mechanical resistance of the blocks, a recycling program was set
up, using the traditional Ecuadorian production techniques and available materials in Cuenca.
The composition of the mixtures was modified slightly, sand was used as the only additive.
Large size adobe blocks (50 x 15 x 12.5 cm) were made to rule out the influence of
geometrical effects. The test program pointed out that information on tensile strength is much
more valuable because it provides information on the inner cohesion of the blocks. Moreover
failure in the adobe masonry will occur on the mortar-adobe connection. Therefore it is
109

important that the tensile strength of adobe is larger than the adhesion between adobe and
mortar.
Optimizing the compositions while recycling, tensile strength increased considerably. Recycled
blocks were at least three times (0.3 MPa) and up to ten times stronger (0.65 MPa) than the
original ones. Compressive strength is less relevant, but increased as well: all achieved
strengths were higher than 1 MPa.
These tests on recycled material provided insight into how the components influence the
adobe structure. Cohesion is the most important structural aspect, together with porosity.
Water, clay and fibers influence this cohesion, while clay is the active component. The ratios of
water, clay and fibers are linked and are therefore dependent on the type of soil that is used.
Most important to obtain strong adobes is to use just enough water for a good hydration.
Because this limited amount of water can cause problems for workability, it can be
compensated by adding sand to the hydrated mixture. This method proved to be successful
during laboratory tests in Leuven.

110

Practical applications
This chapter provides information on how this thesis can be implemented in practice in
Cuenca. It consists of three main parts. The first part explains how adobe blocks can be
produced to make them more durable. This can be applied directly on renovation sites such as
Museo Sombrero. The second part gives advice on how to maintain the essential protective
measures for adobe. The third part recommends adaptations to the lab in Cuenca to carry out
adobe research in Cuenca itself.

Improving adobe blocks

The test program of chapter 5 shows that a balanced adobe mixture of loam, water and hay can
provide adobes with better properties. This balanced mixture can be obtained with different
compositions as long as three main principles are respected:
The amount of water should be just enough to hydrate the clay,
clay excessive water should be
avoided.
If this reduces workability too much some excessive water can be added though. Afterwards
dry sand can be added to reduce the relative amount of water and thus reduce shrinkage and
porosity again.
The amount of fibers should be big enough to prevent large shrinkage cracks. Adding 1.2%
fibers (by weight) can be a point of departure. If more water and clay are present, more fibers
will be needed.
Curing conditions should allow equal drying.
For large renovation projects, it is advised to make a first series of adobe blocks with different
mixtures and determine their tensile strength by testing. This can be done on the production
site with an improvised press. (see Figure 6. 1, as example) The intention is not to learn the
exact strength but to be able to compare the different mixtures.

Figure 6. 1 - Testing tensile strength in situ with a three-point bending test. Four point bending test
can be done in a similar way32
32

Adapted from Houben & Guillaud (1989)

111

Composition of the mixtures

Since a lot of tests have been carried out more accurately in Leuven, it is possible to give
guidelines for producing adobe blocks in Museo Sombrero, Escuela Central and Susudel. These
guidelines (see Table 6. 1) are not strict and should be verified on the site!
Loam

Museo Sombrero
100 kg

Escuela Central
100 kg

Susudel
100 kg

Water

29 liter

24 liter

20 liter

Fibers

1.7 kg

1.2 kg

1.2 kg

~30 kg
~25-30 kg
none
Sand
Table 6. 1 - Advised composition for examined adobe production sites

General advise:
Large particles and cobblestones should be removed from the loam of the recycled blocks.
Fibers should be added gradually to avoid nests.
Sand can only be added in the last stage to be useful.
The adobes should not be exposed directly to sun or water when drying.
The mixture of Museo Sombrero is determined as follows. The loam contains a lot of clay, thus
a high amount of water is needed for good hydration. The advised water content is 29% (by dry
weight of soil), this amount should be high enough to ensure workability. To counter this high
amount of water and prevent excessive shrinkage, addition of 1.7% hay (by weight) is advised.
Finally some sand should be added to reduce the water content to less than 25%, the optimal
amount of sand should be tested empirically.
The loam of Escuela Central contains a lot of clay as well. The advised water content is 24%,
this should allow a good workability as well. Addition of 1.2% hay (by weight) appeared
sufficient when testing. Sand addition was very successful for blocks from Escuela Central
during testing; the amount of needed sand is estimated between 25 and 30 kg.
For blocks from Susudel the main concern is to avoid large shrinkage cracks. The only effective
measures to improve the adobe composition were the addition of hay.
hay. In this case, 1.2%
appeared sufficient. Adding sand increased density, but reduced cohesion and is therefore
discouraged. In Susudel a lot of improvement is possible by changing curing conditions as well,
since the original blocks dried, exposed to direct sunlight and rain.
Not enough variation was achieved for blocks from Girn.
Girn Therefore no specific advise can be
given on their composition. However it was clear that more hay is required than currently used
and that curing conditions should be improved as well to prevent shrinkage cracks.

Production process
The steps of the advised production process have not changed a lot in comparison to the
original production process. Changes are marked in italics.
Mixing
Step 1: crush the adobes in a basin while adding the water
112

Step 2: remove large particles carefully

Step 3: add water and mix until a homogeneous mud mixture is obtained
Step 4: add the fibers gradually to prevent nests
Step 5: mix the required sand, good mixing remains crucial
Step 6: cover the basin for a curing period (about one to two weeks)
Moulding
Step 7: fill the wet mould with the cured mixture. Make sure that all corners of the mould are
filled.
Drying
Step 8: store adobes away from rain and direct sunlight
Step 9: place adobes upright after a week to speed up drying
After 4 weeks the adobes should be entirely dry and can be used.

Maintenance of roof, base course and renderings

Protecting adobe masonry against water damage is crucial. Water intrusion through the top or
the bottom of the wall has disastrous effects. If the roof and base course have been designed
skillfully, little maintenance should be required. However if water intrusion through roof or
base course occurs, immediate intervention is advised. Reparation of roof and base course
should always be priority because direct water intrusion in adobe masonry should be avoided
at all times.
Renderings are crucial as well to keep rain away from adobe masonry. Even if they are
designed skillfully, regular maintenance to renderings is required. This is often neglected in
Cuenca, causing damage. It is advised to regularly renew the empastado layer on the outer walls
of building; this requires little effort. If the empaete layer shows little damage as well, this
layer can be repaired by slightly moistening it and making it flat again. If the empaete is
seriously damaged it is better to replace it. Replacing a revoque layer is very time consuming,
therefore it is advised to intervene immediately when the empaete layer shows
shows damage.
damage

Lab requirements
Small adaptation to the laboratory in Cuenca would make it perfectly fit for adobe research.
This would make it possible to perform uniform quality control tests on the blocks and
perform research similar to the research of this thesis in Cuenca itself.
At the time of the field research, the laboratory of the civil engineering department of the
University of Cuenca was used to do some preliminary tests. These tests only served as an
introduction to the difficulties and limitations of adobe testing. They were useful to gather
experience, but did not provide relevant data for a qualitative analysis of the material.
113

This was due to a combination of several limitations. First of all the laboratory is equipped for
concrete testing, not for the testing of low strength material. Secondly, some basic tools were
missing. Cutting adobes for instance was only possible with machetes. (See Appendix H.3.1.
Cutting) Third, the used machines were not calibrated. Finally no standards describing test
procedures were available, nor for soil characterization, nor for mechanical testing. This made
the laboratory dependent on the limited knowledge of the laboratory personal.

Material for soil investigation

Calibrated sieves as well as ovens and a hydrometer are available in the laboratory of Cuenca.
Determining grain size distribution is therefore no problem. However the procedure followed
by the laboratory personal was not complete and therefore the gathered information is
incomplete. The only required adaptation is the test procedure.
procedure This procedure is described in
Appendix I.5.
Atterberg limits and thus USCS classification can be done without adaptations to the
laboratory, the test procedure is described in Appendix I.5. An XRD analysis on the clay
minerals is not possible, but this is certainly not crucial because this analysis only gives an idea
about the type of clay in the mixture. This is not vital since test results of this research indicate
that the type of clay has minor importance.

Material for mechanical testing

No suitable tools are available to resize the adobes. Cutting the blocks with a machete causes
too much damage. Therefore the acquisition of a concrete saw with diamond blade is advised.
Adobe surfaces are not completely flat. For representative test results this should be corrected,
which can be done by applying a small layer of gypsum.
gypsum More information can be found in
Appendix I.4 .
A press to load concrete beams is available. This press could be used to perform four point
bending tests and compressive tests. It is crucial that before performing this test, the
characteristics of the testing device are known. At the moment of the research in Cuenca, this
was absolutely not the case. Laboratory personal did not know the accuracy of the machine
and could not tell anything about loading speed. Moreover it is not clear
clear at all if this machine
has been calibrated recently.
recently The machine has a maximal capacity of 1000 kN. The maximal
load applied on the adobe blocks when performing four point bending tests did not exceed 5
kN in Leuven, this means that less than 0.5% of the capacity of this machine would be used. For
compressive tests on cubes of size 12 x 12 x 12 cm, only about 2% of the capacity would be
used. Therefore it is advised to use a more accurate load cell.
cell

Suggestions
Standards should be used to work more scientifically in the lab. The test procedures used for
this thesis are described in Appendix I. They can serve as a guideline. Only little extra
adaptations are needed to accommodate the lab for adobe research:
Acquaintance of a saw to cut adobe blocks
Calibration of the press and detailed technical information on its functioning
An extra load cell for this press to measure small forces more accurately
114

Recommendations
Participation of engineering students in the VLIR-CPM project is valuable for both the
architects working on the program as the engineers visiting it. The engineers provide technical
expertise that is useful for the architects when taking decisions on managing the historical city
of Cuenca. The project offers the opportunity to engineering students to work in a challenging
environment where technical expertise should be coupled with basic field research in unusual
circumstances. This requires special commitments, such as learning Spanish, writing in English
and taking initiative to explore an unknown country. These efforts are returned by the unique
experience to work on a fascinating site in Ecuador, the acquired expertise and the
introduction to South-American culture. This is a surplus value to their training as future
engineers.
The synergy between architects and engineers, together with the demand for more technical
expertise and the newly risen questions in this thesis offer possibilities for further research.
Further improvement of adobe block properties
properties could be elaborated. During this thesis only
one recycling cycle has been done. A larger test program with more samples and a more
controlled production process can probably reveal the influence of the mixed components on
the adobe structure even further. This can lead to more practical advice on the ideal
composition for building in Cuenca. The material available in Leuven could be sufficient to
start this research. But this research is probably not the most urgent. Adobe masonry does not
require extremely strong adobe blocks since the mortar-adobe connection fails first. Moreover
only few monuments in Cuenca require a complete make-over that includes recycling all
adobes.
Therefore it can be more useful to investigate the link between the strength of adobe blocks
and the strength of adobe masonry. This will probably lead to improving the strength of adobe
masonry by improving its weakest link: the mortar itself or the mortarmortar-adobe connection.
connection The
mechanisms in providing strength to adobe mortar are similar to the ones providing strength
to adobe blocks. So this thesis can be a point of departure.
Maybe the protection of adobe masonry by earth renderings is even more important than the
effective strength of this adobe masonry. Adobe masonry appears to be very durable as long as
it is protected against water intrusion. This water intrusion is prevented by the combination of
revoque-empaete-empastado layers. Improving the adhesion and cohesion of these renderings
can make a huge difference in the required maintenance of adobe structures.
Finally it can be useful to make a study on the optimization and standardization of earth
masonry tests procedures. This could include triggering the influence of geometrical effects on
mechanical properties and elaborating tests to quantify erosion resistance of adobe.

115

116

Conclusin general
El centro histrico de la ciudad de Cuenca Ecuador fue declarado por la UNESCO como
Patrimonio Cultural de la humanidad en 1999. Este reconocimiento fue entregado a la ciudad
entre otras caractersticas patrimoniales gracias a los monumentos en la ciudad de estilo
colonial y republicano. Muchos de los cuales han sido construidos con tcnicas tradicionales de
construccin de adobe. Durante las ltimas dcadas ha crecido la conciencia para conservar el
carcter nico de este patrimonio. El proyecto VLIR-CPM World Heritage City Preservation
Management, es una colaboracin entre la Universidad de Cuenca y la Universidad Catlica de
Lovaina. El objetivo primordial de este proyecto, pretende desarrollar una medida de gestin
cientfica para preservar el acervo patrimonial de la ciudad. Por lo que, profundos
conocimientos tcnicos son necesarios para llegar a un mejor diseo durable.
Esta tesis de maestra presenta informacin sobre algunos conocimientos tcnicos sobre la
mampostera de adobe as como desea suministrar tanto medidas prcticas como informacin
terica para obtener una mejor durabilidad de las estructuras de adobe. Es fundamental tener
en cuenta que los propios bloques de adobe son slo una parte de la entidad de construccin
de la mampostera de adobe. Otros aspectos cruciales por la durabilidad son la interaccin de
los bloques y el mortero en la mampostera as como la proteccin de la misma por una
cubierta con aleros, cimientos y revestimientos. Estos aspectos tienen gran importancia en la
reduccin de la vulnerabilidad de las estructuras de adobe contra su enemigo principal: el
agua.
Durante la investigacin de campo en Cuenca, se decidi enfocarse en un aspecto especfico de
la mampostera: las caractersticas de los bloques de adobe. Varios adobes antiguos como
nuevos fueron enviados a Lovaina para una investigacin ms minuciosa en laboratorio. Con la
finalidad de caracterizar las particularidades de los distintos bloques, un programa de prueba
fue establecido; el mismo que consisti de dos partes: i) la caracterizacin de las
particularidades del suelo, y ii) las caractersticas mecnicas de los bloques. Ensayos de flexin
de 4 puntos y ensayos de compresin fueron realizados para obtener la resistencia de traccin
y la resistencia de compresin del material. Estas resistencias son indicadores de calidad
ampliamente aceptadas para materiales de construccin. Estas pruebas revelaron que la
resistencia en traccin de los adobes fue extremamente baja (< 0.1 Mpa), demas tena una
gran variacin. Sin embargo, la resistencia de compresin de un grupo de bloques, originarios
de Susudel, mostr una resistencia en compresin notablemente superior (1.6 MPa) en
comparacin de los bloques de la Cuenca (0.6 MPa).
Ensayos de antiguos y nuevos bloques de Escuela Central indicaron que bloques de unos 130
aos mostraban poco deterioro en la cohesin. Tenan casi exactamente la misma resistencia
en traccin y compresin. Estos bloques antiguos se encontraban bien protegidos al agua,
nuevos adobes fueron producidos en Cuenca con el exactamente el mismo material (reciclaje).
Los adobes del Museo del Sombrero que por el contrario no se encontraban protegidos,
117

mostraron un deterioro significativamente mayor. Esto acenta de nuevo la necesidad de

proteger adobe por una cubierta provista de aleros, buenos cimientos y revestimientos.
A fin de mejorar la baja resistencia mecnica de los adobes, se estableci un programa de
reciclaje, utilizando las tcnicas tradicionales de produccin y nicamente con los materiales
disponibles en Cuenca. Se modific ligeramente la composicin de las mezclas; la arena fue
usada como el nico aditivo. Adobes de gran tamao (50 x 15 x 12.5 cm) fueron realizados
hecho para descartar la influencia de efectos geomtricos. El programa de prueba seal que la
informacin sobre resistencia en traccin es mucho ms valiosa, porque informa sobre la
cohesin interna de los bloques. Adems, se not que el fracaso en la mampostera de adobe se
producir en la conexin entre mortero y adobe. Por lo tanto, es importante que la resistencia
en traccin del adobe sea mayor que la adhesin entre adobe y mortero.
Al optimizar las composiciones al reciclaje, se aument considerablemente la resistencia en
traccin. Los adobes reciclados fueron por lo menos tres veces (0.3 MPa) y hasta diez veces
ms fuertes (0.65 MPa) que los adobes originales. Resistencia en compresin es menos
relevante, pero aument tambin: la resistencia de todos los bloques era superior a 1 Mpa.
Estos ensayos en material reciclado dieron informacin cmo los componentes bsicos
influyen la estructura interna del adobe. La cohesin es el aspecto estructural ms importante,
junto con la porosidad. Agua, tierra y paja influyen esta cohesin, mientras que la arcilla es el
componente activo. Las proporciones de agua, tierra y paja estn vinculadas y por lo tanto,
dependen del tipo tierra utilizada. Con la finalidad de obtener adobes fuertes (resistentes) es
importante utilizar suficiente agua para la hidratacin de la arcilla. Esta cantidad limitada de
agua, puede causar problemas en el proceso de elaboracin, pero esto puede ser compensado
con la adicin de arena seca a la mezcla hidratada. Este mtodo era de mucho xito en las
pruebas de laboratorio en Lovaina.

118

Aplicaciones prcticas
Este captulo explica cmo esta tesis puede ser convertida en un elemento prctica en Cuenca.
La misma contiene tres partes principales. La primera parte explica cmo se pueden producir
bloques de adobe con caractersticas de durabilidad altas. Esto puede ser aplicado
directamente en los sitios de renovacin como Museo Sombrero. La segunda parte da consejos
sobre las medidas esenciales para mantener las estructuras: proteccin de la mampostera de
adobe. La tercera parte recomienda adaptaciones para la ejecucin de pruebas de
investigacin en el laboratorio en Cuenca.

Mejorar los bloques de adobe

Los ensayos del captulo 5 muestran que con una mezcla equilibrada de tierra, agua y paja se
puede fabricar adobes con mejores caractersticas. Esta mezcla equilibrada puede ser obtenida
con diferentes composiciones, pero siempre se respeten tres principios fundamentales:
La cantidad de agua debe ser suficiente para hidratar la arcilla,
arcilla pero agua en cantidades
excesivas no es permitido, si esto reduce demasiado la procedurabilidad,
procedurabilidad sin embargo es
posible aadir agua suplementaria. Despus es necesario de aadir arena seca para reducir la
cantidad de agua de nuevo y reducir as el encogimiento y la porosidad.
La cantidad de paja debe ser suficientemente grande para evitar grandes grietas de
encogimiento. Agregar 1.2% (en peso) de paja puede ser un punto de partida. Si hay ms agua
o arcilla en la mezcla, ms fibras estarn necesarias.
Condiciones de curado deben permitir un secado equilibrado.

Figura 6. 1 Ensayo de resistencia con una prueba de flexin a tres puntos. Ensayo a cuatro puntos
es similar33

Para grandes proyectos de renovacin, es aconsejado hacer ensayos en una primera serie de
adobes con mezclas diferentes para determinar su resistencia en traccin. De ser posible se
recomienda hacerlas en el sitio de produccin con una prensa improvisada. La intencin no es
determinar la resistencia exacta pero obtener datos para comparar las mezclas diferentes.
33

Houben & Guillaud (1989)

119

Composiciones aconsejadas de las mezclas

Con los resultados de los ensayos en Lovaina, es posible formular composiciones aconsejados
para la produccin de adobe en Museo Sombrero, Escuela Central y Susudel. Estas
recomendaciones no son estrictas y se debe verificarlas en cada sitio.
Tierra

Museo Sombrero
100 kg

Escuela Central
100 kg

Susudel
100 kg

Agua

29 litros

24 litros

20 litros

Paja

1.7 kg

1.2 kg

1.2 kg

Arena

~30 kg

~25-30 kg

Tabla 11 - Composiciones recomendados para los sitios examinados

Asesoramiento general:
Agragados (piedras, cisco de tejas,etc.) u otroselementos cuyo tamao sea considerable deben
ser eliminado del barro; cuando este est siendo utilizado en forma de tierra reciclada.
La paja debe ser aadida gradualmente para evitar nidos de paja.
La arena debe ser agregada en la ltima etapa.
Los adobes tienen que secar en un lugar no expuesto directamente al sol o la lluvia.
La mezcla aconsejada por Museo Sombrero ha sido determinada y tiene la siguente
composicin: la tierra contiene una gran cantidad de arcilla, por lo que una gran cantidad de
agua es necesaria para una buena hidratacin. El contenido de agua aconsejado es de 29% (por
peso seco de tierra). Esta cantidad sera suficientemente para garantizar la maleabilidad. Para
contrarrestar esta gran cantidad de agua y evitar encogimiento excesivo, es recomendado
aadir 1.7% (en peso) de paja.
paja Finalmente se debe aadirse arena para reducir el contenido de
agua hasta un nivel inferior de 25%. La cantidad ptima de arena debe ser evaluada
empricamente.
La tierra de Escuela Central contiene tambin una gran cantidad de arcilla. El contenido de
agua aconsejado es de 24%, esto debera permitir una mezcla bastante fcil. Adicin de 1.2%
de paja (en peso) pareca como indican los ensayos. El proceso de adicin de arena fue muy
exitoso en la mejora de los adobes; la cantidad de arena necesaria se estima entre 25 y 30 kg.
En los adobes de Susudel,
Susudel la preocupacin principal es evitar grandes grietas de encogimiento.
Las nicas medidas eficaces para mejorar la composicin de estos adobes fu la adicin de
paja.
paja En el caso de Susudel, 1.2% es suficiente. Adicin de arena no es aconsejado porque
aumenta la densidad, pero reduce la cohesin. Se puede mejorar las caractersticas de adobes
de Susudel tambin por el cambio
cambio de las condiciones de secar,
secar porque los bloques originales
secaron directamente expuestos al sol y a la lluvia.
En tanto que en los Abodes de Girn, no existan variaciones importantes, por lo que no
podemos dar consejos muy precisos para mejorarlos. Sin embargo es claro que el uso de
mayores cantidades de paja que las que actualmente se est utilizando es necesario; as como
condiciones de secado
secado tienen que mejoradas tambin para evitar grietas de encogimiento.

120

Proceso de produccin
Las partes del proceso de produccin aconsejado no han cambiado mucho comparado al
proceso de produccin original. Los cambios se marcan en cursiva.
Mezclar
Parte 1: romper el adobe y aadir el agua
Parte 2: eliminar agregados que presenten granulometras grandes
Parte 3: agregar agua y mezcla hasta se forma una mezcla homognea de barro
Parte 4: aadir la paja gradualmente para evitar nidos
Parte 5: mezclar la arena necesaria, una buena mezcla sigue siendo crucial
Parte 6: cubrir la mezcla durante un perodo de curado (aproximadamente una o dos semanas)
Moldeo
Parte 7: llenar el adobero hmedo con la mezcla curada. Asegrese de que todos los rincones
del adobero estn llenos.
Secar
Parte 8: Guardar los adobes no expuesto al lluvia o sol
Parte 9: despus una semana de secado, levantar los adobes para acelerar el secado
Despus de 4 semanas los adobes estn completamente secos pudiendo ser utilizados.

Mantenimiento de techo, cimientos y revestimientos

La proteccin de la mampostera de adobe contra daos a causa del agua es crucial. En una
edificacin de adobe, el ingreso de de agua a travs de la parte superior o inferior de la pared
tiene efectos desastrosos. Si la cubierta y los cimientos han sido diseados de de forma
coherente (buena calidad), poco mantenimiento sera necesario. Sin embargo, si se produce el
ingreso de agua a travs de la cubierta o los cimientos, una intervencin inmediata es
recomendada. Reparacin de las cubiertas y de los cimientos tiene que ser siempre la prioridad
porque se debe evitar en todo momento la intrusin directa del agua en mampostera de
adobe.
Los revestimientos son cruciales para proteger la mampostera de adobe contra la lluvia.
Incluso cuando estn bien diseados, un mantenimiento regular a los revestimientos es
necesario. Esto es a menudo ignorado en Cuenca, causando daos serios en las mamposteras
de adobe. Es aconsejado renovar peridicamente el empastado de cal en los muros exteriores
del edificio, esto requiere muy poco esfuerzo. Si la capa de empaete muestra pocos daos, se
recomienda repararla humedecindola ligeramente y tratando de fijarla nuevamente. Si el
empaete est seriamente daado, es mejor reponerlo. Reponer una capa de revoque requiere
mucho trabajo, por eso es aconsejado intervenir inmediatamente cuando la capa de empaete
muestre daos severos e irreparables.
irreparables

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Adaptaciones al laboratorio
Con pequeas adaptaciones, el laboratorio en Cuenca podra ser perfectamente apropiado para
investigar adobe. As sera posible realizar en Cuenca ensayos de control de calidad en los
adobes y realizar investigaciones similares a esta tesis.
Algunas pruebas preliminares se realizaron durante la investigacin de campo en el
laboratorio de materiales de la Facultad de Ingeniera de la Universidad de Cuenca. Estas
pruebas slo sirvieron como una introduccin a las dificultades y limitaciones de los ensayos
en laboratorio de los adobes; sin embargo, resultaron ser de gran utilidad para reunir la
experiencia, pero no aportaron datos pertinentes para un anlisis cualitativo del material.
Esto fue debido a una combinacin de varias limitaciones. En primer lugar el laboratorio est
equipado para pruebas de hormign, no para pruebas de material de baja resistencia como
adobe. En segundo lugar, faltaban algunas herramientas bsicas. Cortar adobes por ejemplo,
slo era posible utilizando machetes. En tercer lugar, las mquinas utilizadas no estaban
debidamente calibradas. Finalmente, normativas que describen los procedimientos de ensayos
no estuvieron disponibles, ni para la caracterizacin del suelo, ni para las pruebas mecnicas.
Por lo que el laboratorio depende del conocimiento limitado de los instrumentistas que ah
trabajan.

Material para la investigacin de los suelos

Tamices calibrados, hornos y un densmetro estn disponibles en el laboratorio de la
Universidad de Cuenca. Existiendo entonces todo el material para determinar el distribucin
de los granulomtrica; lamentablelmente el procedimiento seguido por los instrumentistas no
fue completado, resultando en informacin incompleta. nicamente el procedimiento del
ensayo se tuvo que cambiar, el mismo se describe en el Anexo.
Fue posibile invesitgar los lmites de Atterberg y clasificacin USCS tambin sin adaptaciones
al laboratorio, el procedimiento se describe en el Anexo. No es posible hacer un anlisis XRD
de los minerales en la arcilla, pero ciertamente este ensayo no es crucial, porque este anlisis
slo brinda una idea del tipo de arcilla en la mezcla. Esto no es vital, porque los resultados de
esta investigacin indican que el tipo de arcilla tiene menor importancia.

Material para pruebas mecnicas

No hay herramientas adecuadas para cerrar el tamao de los adobes. Cortar los bloques de
adobe con un machete caus demasiado dao. Por lo que, se recomienda la adquisicin de una
sierra con hoja de diamante para cortar hormign. Es importante considerar que las
superficies de los adobes no son completamente planas. Para obtener resultados
representativos esto debe ser corregido, por ejemplo con una capa de yeso.
yeso Ms informacin al
respecto est disponible en el Anexo I.4.

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Una prensa para cargar hormign, se encuentra disponible. Esta prensa podra ser utilizada
para realizar ensayos de flexin a cuatro puntos y pruebas de compresin. Es crucial que antes
de realizar estos ensayos, las caractersticas
caractersticas del prensa sean conocidas.
conocidas En el momento de la
investigacin en Cuenca, este no fue el caso. Los instrumentistas del laboratorio no saban la
precisin de la mquina ni podan dar informacin sobre la velocidad de cargar. Adems no
era claro que la presa haba sido calibrada recientemente o no. La mquina tiene una capacidad
mxima de 1000 kN. La carga mxima aplicada en los adobes no exceda 5 kN, pruebas que
fueron realizadas en Lovaina realizando ensayos de flexin; esto significa que menos de 0.5%
de la capacidad de la mquina sera utilizado. Para pruebas de compresin en cubos de tamao
12 x 12 x 12 cm, se utilizara slo aproximadamente el 2% de la capacidad. Por lo tanto, se
recomienda utilizar una clula de carga ms precisa.
precisa

Sugerencias
Si las normativas fueran efectivamente utilizadas, el laboratorio trabajara de una forma ms
cientfica. Para esto, los procedimientos de las pruebas necesarias para esta tesis han sido
descritas en el Anexo I. Estos procedimientos pueden ser implementados y servir como una
gua; siendo necesarias pocas adaptaciones adicionales para poder tener un laboratorio en la
Universidad de Cuenca en donde puede ser factible la investigacin de adobe:
Adquirir una sierra por reducir el tamao de los adobes
Calibracin de la prensa y ms informacin detallada y tcnica sobre su funcionamiento
Una clula de carga adicional para medir fuerzas pequeas con ms precisin

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124

Recomendaciones
Participacin de estudiantes de ingeniera en el proyecto VLIR-CPM, ha sido una valiosa
experiencia para los arquitectos que trabajan en el proyecto de investigacin tanto como para
los ingenieros quienes han trabajo en su investigacin. Es irrefutable que los ingenieros
pueden contribuir con su conocimiento tcnico sobre los materiales y las tcnicas
constructivas; informacin que es valiosa y til para los arquitectos en la toma de decisiones
sobre la gestin de la conservacin del centro histrico de Cuenca. El proyecto VLIR-CPM,
ofrece la oportunidad a los estudiantes de ingeniera de trabajar en un entorno nuevo donde
experiencia tcnica debe ser acompaado de investigaciones bsicas en campo. Esto requiere
compromisos especiales, como aprender espaol, escribir la tesis en ingls y tomar la iniciativa
de explorar un pas desconocido. Estos esfuerzos son compensados por la experiencia nica de
trabajar en un lugar fascinante en Ecuador, la experiencia adquirida y la introduccin a la
cultura de Amrica del Sur. Se trata de un valor adicional a su formacin como futuros
ingenieros.
La sinergia entre arquitectos e ingenieros, junto con la demanda de ms informacin tcnica
ofrecen posibilidades de continuar y establecer futuras investigaciones.
Continuar a mejorar las caractersticas de adobe es una posibilidad. Durante esta tesis
nicamente un ciclo de reciclaje fue realizado. Un programa de ensayos ms grande con ms
muestras y un proceso de produccin ms controlado probablemente podra revelar la
influencia de los componentes de la mezcla y la estructura de adobe de una forma mucho ms
amplia. Esto podra generar ms recomendaciones prcticas en la composicin ideal de adobes
para la construccin y el mantenimioento de edificaciones patrimoniales en Cuenca. El
material actualmente disponible en Lovaina podra ser suficiente para iniciar esta
investigacin. Pero quiz esta investigacin probablemente no es la ms urgente. Mampostera
de adobe no requiere bloques de adobe extremadamente fuertes, porque la conexin entre
mortero de adobe fracasar primero. Adems slo algunos monumentos de Cuenca requieren
una renovacin completa que podra incluir el reciclaje de todos los adobes.
Por lo tanto, puede ser ms til investigar la relacin entre la fuerza de adobe bloques y la
fuerza de mampostera de adobe. Esto probablemente llevar a mejorar la fuerza de
mampostera de adobe mediante la mejora de su eslabn ms dbil: el mortero propio o la
conexin entre mortero y adobe. Los mecanismos que influyen las fuerzas del mortero de barro
son similares a los que influyen las fuerzas de bloques de adobe. Por lo que los resultados de
esta tesis puede servir como un punto de partida a esta futura investigacin.
Tal vez la proteccin de mampostera de adobe por revestimientos de barro sea ms
importante que la fuerza efectiva de esta mampostera de adobe. La mampostera de adobe
parece muy duradera si se encuentra bien protegida contra el ingreso de agua. Este ingreso de
agua es impedida por la combinacin de revestimientos: revoque-empaete-empastado.
125

Mejorar la cohesin y la adhesin entre estos revestimientos podra reducir el mantenimientoa

las estructuras de adobe sustancialmente.
Finalmente puede ser til hacer un estudio sobre la optimizacin y la normalizacin de
procedimientos de ensayos de mampostera de tierra. Esto podra incluir investigar la
influencia de los efectos geomtricos en las caractersticas mecnicas y elaborar pruebas para
cuantificar la resistencia de erosin de adobe.

126

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