fI

OI:
esc

HOMER AN

ROIAN wAR

for

hir

for

usi

SttI

UC

Lre

vi(

I
2
3

What archaeo ogica and wr

What conlr blrtion d d He nr ch

What s the egefd of the Trolan War,

ar(

Who was Horner?

to
hl

ev

ttef

dence s there for the Trojan War:'

Sch emann and others anake to

1a'

oLrr

Lrndersland ng of the Trojan War?

What s the egacy of the Trojan War?

F GURE

9.1

'Iht

noiatl Horsc' by TLlt]tds Gnlafitbos

Tu E LEGEN D oF Tnoy
'liojan War have fascinatcd people
thc world over.'l'he main \4'ritten source of these traditional stories is Homer's
famous cpic poem, the lliad. The name 'Iliid' comes frcm Iliotl, anothcr name
for Troy. The word 'epic' cornes from the Greek word cpos meaning'the spoken
word'. lt is believed that the 1/ii.i was written by the poet Hon]er.
For centuries the mythological stol ies of the

There are many stories that make up the cycle of stories called The

lioian

War. Thc main part of the story begins

with the birth of Paris, son of Priam

and Hecuba who were the king and queen of Troy. I'aris is fited to bring death
and destruction to his father's kingdom. He is banished from tlte kingdom
and secretly raised by a shepherd and his wife. Years later when he has grown
to maturit\', the three goddesses Hera, Aphrodite and Athena involve him in
a contest and ask him to choose the most beautiful among them. Each offers
a different prize. Paris chooses Aph.odite who offers him the most beautiful

woman in the world as his wife.

106

Antiquity

Paris is soon reunited with his parents and travels as an ambassador of rroy to the Greek kingdom
of sparta where he meets King Menelaus and his beautiful wife, Helen. Helen and pads fall in love,
escape together and return to Troy. This sets in train the tragic sequence of events that had been

foretold.
Menelaus, enraged by the treachery of Helen and Paris, calls on his fellow Greek chieftains to
ioin
him in a war to regain Helen and punish the Trojans. The fleet is assembled and eventually sets sail
for Troy. What follows is a ten-year-long siege of this fortified city before it finally falls to the creeks
using the stratagem of the wooden horse. This trick was devised by the Greek hero odysseus, who
survives the war but is fated to wander for ten years before retuming to his native Ithaca. The tale of
Odysseus's adventures is told in Homer's sequel to the 1/l ad, known as the Odyssey,
The major part of Homer's lliad descdbes the final stages of the war and features epic battles
between the great wanior heroes of Greece and rroy, including Hector and Achilles. After the Greek
victort Troy is sacked, bumed to the ground and its men are put to the sword. The women of rroy
are taken captive and given as spoils of war to the conquering Greek generals. Helen returns to sparta
to live out her days with Menelaus. one Trolan prince, Aeneas, manages to escape the destruction of
his city with his father and son. After many adventures, he arives on the plain of Latium in Italy to
lay the foundations for the future city of Rome. His tale is told in VitgiI's tamous Aeneid.

FIGURE9.2

One ofthe ea iest rcpresentations of the wooden horse is showfi in this clay rclief vase
the
Greek island of Mykonos. The faces of the Grceks can be seen in the squate openings
ftofi
on tlE side of the wheeled horce. Some solilies have alrcady climbed doun a d are distributinN amour.
(c.

670

BC)

TgT BRoNzE AcE AEcERN woRtD

The Bronze Age was the pedod in world history when bronze began to gradually replace stone
and copper in the making of tools and weapons. The date at which the Bronze Age began varies in
different parts of the world. The Greek Bronze Age, which is the focus of this chapter, spans a period

of almost 2000 years between 3000 and 1100 BC. Archaeologists further divide this period into the
Earlt Middle and Late Bronze Age,
The use of bronze as the main material for tools and weapons gave rise to important political,
economic and social change. Particularly important was the development of extensive trading
networks between the major centres of the Aegean and Meditefianean regions. (See Figure 9.3.)
Homer and the Trojan War

107

Cil

th(

stf

\.,1i

Black Sea

Po

i()

CC

L)

ci
T

A
0_______:!!
FIGURE 9

,_i!9_j00
Tn].lt' ft)utt\ ol tlta

N[rlitcr]tl

eatt

\|atltl tlutittii

tht'AcSCLln

llranzt A:l(

fhc farrous Bronze ,\ge Uluburun shjp\'\'reck discovered in 1982 (sce FiSure 9 3) is an
rat! rraterilLs and
archaeological treasure trove. It reveals not onl,v the lange and qualit) oi
possiblc trading
marufacturcd goods bcing traded cluring the late Bronze Age, but aiso the origin and
bronze) is indicated bv
destinations o1 the cargo. The importance of copper (used with tin to make
in the form of :15'l flat'
coppcr
the main cargo. This consistcd of approxinatel-v 10 tonnes of Cypriot
thcir shape'
fouf-handled rectangular ingots, usually referred to as 'oxhide' inSots bccause of

FGURE9'4C0|)|do^h1|t(ilt|tot.Ttl(jstd]1do|C).|ru\(itsl]L1]11e1]rinJ,.a||cl',)wtlsdnl|qa|\

tir

bn)t17(Dlukitti tlttrittit,lltr A(S6tt lJtonTr A3r.

108

Antlqurty

-7'l'he earliest devclopments in Bronze Age Aegean civilisation can be traced to the islands of the
Cyclades located between Crete and mainland Greece. The

Minoan civilisation on the island of Crete

then became a maior ce[tre of development duIing the Middle Bronze Age. Crete developed a social
structure based on elaborate palaces, fi.st built between 2000 and 1900 B(:. For the next 500 years the

Minoans were the major power in the Aegean, but around 1450 Bc they were eclipsed by the rising
power of the Mycenaeans. 'l'his was a warrior civilisation that took its name from Mycenae, which
was an important centre on the Greek mainland at this time. Mycenaean civilisation flourished
for 500 years during the Late Bronze Age (between 1600 and 1100 tsc), when the Bronze Age world
collapsed for reasons that are still being debated by Bronze Age scholars.
Troy was also an important Aegean centre located at the entrance to the Hellespont (the modern
Dardanelles). Lxcavation at the site suggests that it flourished in the Late Bronze Age at the height

with its Aegean neighbours

civilisation, an important power in the late Near Eastern Bronze Age.
of the Mycenaean period and had contacts

as

well

as

with the Ilittite

TABLE9'1A|1oNe1|ie||ofson1eafthenBindev(lopn1c|
Dates

Bc

Crete

Hittites

Greece

First palaces buit at Knossos and

s tes on Crete

2000

other

c,or.n.l n:lr.F< h, I t:fiFr

1700

eafthquakes destroyed frrst

pa aces

1600

Emergef ce of iVycenaean
Grave C rcles A & B

cvlsation
1550

Possib e date of Theran eruption

1400

Beginning of Mycenaean
occupat on ot Knossos Linear B
n use

r37A

F nal destruction of pa ace of

H ttites a major power. Wl usa

(Troy) and Ahhiyawa (Greece)
referred to in H ttite documents

nnossos

1370 1300

U ulrurun sh pwreck

1300 1200

Linear B tablets at mainland

Greek sites, includ ng Py os

Battle of Kadesh between Hittltes

afd

Egypt

Period of [/]ycenaean

1275 1250
1275

Destruction of Troy Vlh

occu patr0n

rrq]

Possible date of Trojan Waf

Co lapse of lvlycenaean c vi sat on
End of H ttite Empife

900 700

Dec ne of lV noan civi isat on

Geometr c Period
Ear iest date for Homer's ///bd

800 500

Archa ic Per od
Fma.oa..a
Craal .it\/.t,ta.
^f
rtr o q^>ri> Aihan<)

500+00

Class cal Age

Aeschy us, Sophoc es, Eurip des

wrote traged es. Thucydrdes wrote
h

s Peloponnesian War
Homer and the Trojan

War

109

THE PEOPLE OF THE TROJAN LEGENDS

Many of the charactels, both gods and humans, who feature in the 1/iarl ale shown in the family tlees
of the two royal houses in Figures 9.5 and 9.6. For the ancient Greeks, the gods were leal and played
important-often decisive roles in their lives. Although the gods were powerful and immortal, they also
experienced the same moods, whims and passions as humans. In the Trojan wal, many gods took sides in
the conflict, hetpinS-or

hindering-in order to influence the outcome of events.

Compile a short profile on the members of the Royal Houses shown in Figures 9.5 and 9.6. The
following websites are useful starting places for your investigation:

.
.

House of Atreusr http://www. ma la. bc.cal-joh nstoi/aeschylus/HouseofAtreus

htm

House of Troy: http://mythology-swicki eurekster.com/Troy/

Zeus
I

Te

ucer
I

Dardanus = Batea

Ericthonius
Tros
I

Laomeoon

Capys

Priam = Hecuba

Anchises = Aphrodite

Hector
F GURE

Ganymede

Assaracus

US

9.5

Deiphobus

Paris
Royal House

Cassandra

Polyxena

ofTroy

Tantalus
PeloPS

Atreus

Thyestes

I
I

lvlenelaus =

Aegisthus

Helen

Agamemnon =
= Clytemnestra

lphigenia
Key = maniage
FIGURE

9.6

110

Antiquity

The Royal House of Atreus

.-Z-

HOTTzIER

AND THE EPIC CYCLF

little is known about Homer. Tradition has it that he

born in Asia Minor (see Figure 9.3) in the 8th century
B.r and that he was blind. Scholars have disputed his
authorship of the 1/ia,7 some believe that the 11idd was
written by several poets, others have suggested that he
wrote the ticd but not the Odyssey, and one theory claims
that Homer was a woman.
The ancient epic of the Troian War as developed by
Homer is based on an oral tradition in which a number of
stories are woven together to form a long narrative-the
epic cycle. The stories are derived from historical and
legendary matedals that originated in the oral traditions
of the poet's country during times of conflict and
expansion. The original epics were not written down
but were composed and sung or chanted to a musical
Very

was

accompanlment.
The epics are structured in a loosely knit form. This
means that different episodes can be recited and enl'oyed as
separate poems or stories. The heroic ideal in the ancient
oral epic is expressed through heroes who strive pdmadly
for personal self-fulfilment while national or patriotic
sentiments are usually less important.
As a poet, or bard, Homer gives written form to the oral
tradition of the epic poets and minstrels who told these
stories as entertainment. The poems that were passed down
over the centuries were learned by heart. The language
of the epic is formulaic. It uses repetitious stock phrases
and descriptions of places, people and events as an aid to

memory and oral recitation. Scholars estimate that the Iliad

contains approximately 25 000 of these repeated phrases.
The following are some famous examples:
. the goddess Athena is usually called 'Athena of the
flashing eyes'

.
.
.

Odysseus is referred to repeatedly as 'Odysseus of the

nimble wits'
the city of Tiryns becomes 'Tiryns of the Great Walls,
a new day beginning is described as 'Dawn lit the east

with rosy fingers'.

Although Homer is believed to have lived in the 8th
his tales were even then of long ago a golden
age/ an age of heroes. Sources 9.1 and 9.2 are examples of
epic poetry taken from the //iad.

century

BC,

The Wrath of Achilles is my theme, that fata wrath which, n

fulfilment of the
of Zeus, brought the Achaeans lHomels
word for the Greeksl so much suffering and sent the galant sou s
of rrany noblernen to Hades, leavifg the r bodies as carnon for
the dogs and pass ng b rds. Let us beg n, goddess of song, with
the angry partlfg that took place between Agamemnon K ng of
I\4en and the great Ach es son of Pe eus. Which of the gods was
t made them quarrel?

Hone\

The

lliad,Baok

1.1

While Hector stood engrossed in this inward debate, Achilles

drew near him, looking like the god of war in his f ashing he met,

girtfor batte. Over his rght shou der he brandished the

iormidable ashen spear of Pelion, and the bronze on h s body
g owed like a blazing fire or the rising sLrn. Hector looked up, saw
him, and began to tremble. He no longer had the head to stand
his ground: he left the gate, and ran away n terror. Buttheson of
Peleus, coLrnting on his speed, was after h m in a flash. Light as a
mouftain hawk, the fastest thing on w ngs, when he swoops in
chase of a tim d dove, and shrieking close behlnd h s qltarry,
dafrsat hertimeand again in hiseagernessto makehs
Ach es Started off in hot pursuit; and like the dove flying before
her enemy, Hector fled before h m !nder the walls of Troy, fast as
his feet wou d go. Pass |g the lookout and the w fdswept fig tree
and keep ng some way frorn the wall, they sped along the cart
track, and so came to the two love y sprlngs that are the sources
ol Scamander's eddying skeam. ln one of these the water comes
up hot: steam r ses from it and hangs about lke smoke above a
blazing fire. But the other, even in sunnmer, gushes up as cold as
hai or freez ng snow or water that has turned to ice. Close beside
them, w de afd beaut ful, stand the troughs of stone where the
wves and lovely daughters of the Trojans used to wash their
g ossy c othes n the peacef!l days before the Achaeans came.
Here the chase went by, Hector ln front and Ach es after h m-a
good man, but w th ofe far better at his hee s. And the pace was
fur ous. This was fo ordinary race, with a sacrificial beast or a
leather shield as prize. They were compet ng for the life of horse
taming Hectort and the pair of them c rcled thr ce round pr am,s
town w th flying feet, like powerfLtl race horses sweeping ro!nd
the turf ng post, a I out for the sp end d prize of a tripod or a
won
offered d o wa','o 5 fL pr" Bare .

k,

"n

From 'The dath of Hector', describ

The iad,

ig Ach

es' pursl.tit ol Nector, Homer,

Boak 22

Saurces 9.1 & 9.2

'
.
'

How does Horner arouse the reader's interest in the events he describes? Choose examples of poetic language to

support your answer.

ls epic poetry a useful source for the historian? What aspects m ght make it unrel able?
lf Homer did not live at the time of the events he describes, how valuable is his work to the historian?

Homer and the Trojan War

'fi1

WHAT CAUSED THE TNOJEN WAR?

There are many suggested causes for the Trojan War. (It should be noted that scholals continue to
argue about whether the war actually took place.)
According to Homer's lliid, the Troian War stafed because of a woman. The myth of the
Judgement of Pads lays the blame for the Trojan war on the abduction of Helen and the subsequent
naval expedition to Troy, led by Agamemnon, to retdeve her and punish the Trojans. This explains
the famous phrase that refers to Helen as'the face that launched a thousand ships.' Source 9.3 is a
well-known modern re-telling of the ancient Greek mlth, which provides the backSlound fol the wal
Note that Bulfinch has used the Roman names for Hera, Aphrodite and Athena who, in this velsion,
become Juno, Venus and Minelva

l\/ nerva was the goddess of wisdom, but on one

occasion she dld a very foolish thing: she entered into
a competition with Juno and Venus for the prize ol
beauty. lt happened thus: At the nuptials of Peleus
and Thetis a the gods were invited with the exceptlon
of Eris, or D scord. Enraged at her exc usion, the
goddess threw a golden app e among the guests, with
the inscription, 'For the fairest'. Thereupon Jun0,
Ver rs ald I\,4 ierva ea. h LLdrred Ihe app e. JLpiter.
not willing to decide in so de lcate a matter, sent the
goddesses to l\4ount lda, where the beautiful
shepherd Paris was tending his flocks, and to h m
was comm tted the decision. The goddesses
accordingly appeared before him. Juno promised him
power a1d 'iches. MirFrva. glory ard reno\,v1 ir wa'.
and Venus the fairest of women for hls wfe, each
attempting to bias his decision in her own favour.
Paris dec ded in favour of Venus and gave her the

go den app e, thus making the two other goddesses

h s enemies. Under the protection of Venus, Paris

sa ed to Greece, and was hospltably received by

l\4enelaus, Klfg of Sparta. Now He en, the wife of
I\,4enelaus, was the very woman whom Venus has
destlned for Paris, the falrest of her sex. She had
been sought as a bride by numerous su tors, and
, at'te
betore her dec s ol wd. Tdde I rown. lhey
suggestion of U ysses, one of their number, took an
njury and
oath that they would defend her from
avenge her cause if necessary. She chose lvlenelaus,
and was living with hlm happiy when Paris became
thelr guest. Parls, aided by Venus, persuaded her to
elope with him and carried her to Troy, whence arose
the famous Tro.lan war, the theme of the greatest
poems of ant qulty, those of Homer and V rgil.

"

Thomas Eulfinch, ilt)4rs o/ 6/eece and R1ne. p.244

Thucydides, the Greek histodan writing hundreds of years later in the 5th century BC, reiects
the mythological story that Helen's father had made all her suitols promise to bring her back if she
should ever be stolen. Thucydides' main interest lay in tracing the development of Athens' naval
empire in the Aegean (in his own day) and he argued that the Troian wal may have been the lesult of
a desire by Mycenae, the most important city of its time, to extend its power'

Agamemnon t seems to ne, mLtst have been ihe most powerful of ru ers of his dayi and t was for th s reason that he
raised the force aga nst Troy, not because the su tors of Helen were bound to fo ow hlm by the oaths which they had
swoTn to Tyndareus-..at the same time he had a stronger navy than any other ruler; thus in my op nion, fear p ayed a
greater part than Joyalty in the ra s ng of the expeditlon aga nst Troy
Ihrc\dides.

The

Pela\\nneslan Wat. Book

LI

The Troian War may well have had an economic cause based perhaps on competition for trade.
Greek trading interests in the north-eastern Aegean may have been thleatened by TIojan intelests.
The strategic position of Troy may have enabled the Trojans to control sea tlaffic flom the Aegean to
the Black Sea. Were the Greeks trying to destroy a trade rival?

112

Antiquity

F 5h has a so been put forward as a source of Troy's wealth...

later tirnes
ihe seasona migrat ons of mackerel and tunny through the Dardanelles
brought fishing fleets from al over the Aegean, and th s has even been put
foMard as a posslble mot ve for the Trolan Warr the mo esting of a

having ed to a soft of Bronze Age cod warl The

archaeology of Hissar ik could support the idea: Sch ernann found deep
l\,4ycenaean f shing fleet

strata

offsh bones...'

Sources 9.3-9.5

.
.
.

What do the sources suggest are the main

reasons for the outbreak of the Trojan War?

Whlch reason/s do you consider the most

plausib e and why?
Which reason do you think is the ieast ikely?
whv?

M.Waod,ln Search 0f the Trajar l4ai Penguin, 1985, p. 152

DTScovERY AND EXCAVATIoN oF TRoY

in myths, legends and literature but
the location of the city remained unknown. Many people did not believe in its existence at all. A
complicating factor was that 3000 years would have changed the topography and coastline of the area
The name of Troy has been kept alive since ancient times

dramatically. A number of men, including Frank Calvert, Heinrich Schliemann, Wilhelm Ddrpfeld, Carl
Blegen and Manfued Korfmann, have contdbuted to the discovery and excavation of Troy.

lrank Calvert
until the 18th century that any serious scholarly attempt was made to find the actual site. In
1865, Frank Calvert, a British archaeologist, sank trial trenches into a mound known as Hissarlik or'the
place of the port'. This was situated in the Troad area in north-western Asia Minor. Calvert realised that
It was not

the mound at Hissarlik promised much for the excavator who had the resources to carry out such an
investigation. He was convinced that Hissarlik was the site of the ancient city of Troy.

Heinrich Schliemann
alive on the scene was the German amateur archaeologist and self-made millionaire, Dr
Heindch Schliemann. Schliemann was fulfilling a childhood dream by jouneying to Asia Minor in an
attempt to discover the ancient city of Troy. With an unshakeable faith in the literal truth of Homer's
account of the war in tl\e llicld, Schliemann set out with Homer in one hand and a stop-watch in the
other, pacing out distances in the Troad. He recognised some scenes from descriptions in Homer, and
dismissed other sites that did not agree exactly with the text. That the topography and coastline had
altered greatly in 3000 years did not matter. On the advice of Frank Calvert, and because it agreed in
many regards with Homer's descdption, Schliemann began to dig at Hissarlik.
The next to

Schllemann 'found' Troy by an energet c comb nat on of loglc, intuition, self conf dence, and the who esa e borrowing
of ideas from prev ous researchers who had been scouring the area ooking for the elusive c ty. He succeeded where
much rnore earned men before him hadfailed, notjustbecause he believed nTroybutbecauseheboldyludgedthe
clues n Homer taken all together rather than re y ng on one sing e factor. The clue that had been mislead ng most of
his predecessors was the most arrest ng topograph cal feature about the Troy that Homer descrlbed-the presence of
hot and cold spr ngs...Schlieman n, w th his unshakeab e conviction that Troy wou d conform to the whole scenar o of
Homefs //la4 disregarded the single false c ue of the hot and co d springs and looked elsewhere. Thus he succeeded
n finding what others had m ssed.
Tin Sewtft, fhe Ulysses

Vayage,

Afiow Books, 1987,

pp.43

Homer anc

Troja n

'Ihe task of excavating the rnound prQved to be extraordinarily difficult. cJver a period of three
years, Schliemann excavated the mound using tlle labour ol as lnany as l aro rv\orklllen lJc dro\'e a
great tfench floLe than 230 feet $,idc and 45 feet dccp into the hill5ide and removed an estil]rated
325 (X)0 cubic yards of earth.

F GURE

9.7

ll-r/(,r.r,,rl

Hi\\r7l/ik

In sealching for Homer's city of lro-v, Schliemann found not one but scven cities supcrimPosed on
one another. Ihe second cit), from the bottom, Tfoy II, revealed evidence of btll llillg and destruction
and Schlienann concluded that this was the Troy of Homer that the Gteeks had sacked and bulned.
unwittinglv, however, in his searcil for tlle lro]' of Llomer, Schliemann llad actually dug through and
destroyed the lemains of other cities that werc more iikely contenders for IJQIner's Tlov.

The'Treasure of Priam'
'lieasure of Prian. The
Schliemann u'cnt on to crown Ilis achievemcnt by unearthing the so-ca llcd
tleasurc consisted of golden pendants, ea[ings, bfacelets, rings and diadems, as well as cults, salvers,
cauldrons and vases-more than 8700 pieces in all. source 9.7 is schliemann's o\\rn accoLrnt of the

discovcry during his final season at Ilissarlik in 1873.

cameupona argecopperadcleofthe most rernarkab

e forrn, which attracted my attention

themoreandl

thoLrghtlsawgoldbehndrt..lc!toutthetreasurewilha argeknfe,whch twasimpossbetodowthoutthevery

greatest exert on and the rnost fearf! r sk ol my life, for the great fod fical on-wa beneath whlch had to d g'
threatenecl every raoanent to la ciown on me. But the s ght of so many objects, every one of wh ch is of nest mab e
va ue to archaeo ogy, made me foolhardy. and I never thought of any danger' t wou d however have been mposs
for rne to have removed the treasure w thoLrt the he p of rny dear w fe who stood by me ready to pack the thLngs
whlch cut oLrt in her shaw and lo carry tfrean away.
M.Waad tn Search of the haja, ,1/at BBC Books, 1987, p 58

114

Aftiqulty

b e

Unfortunately, Schiiemann's account of linding the treasure is ttelieved to be untrue. Subsequent

of dates and events do not support Schliemann's claims. His wife was actually in Athcns at the
tinre of the discovery. Sonrc of the items are bclieved to have becn planted by Schlicmann hinself to
be then so dramatically discovered. This is called 'saiting'the evidence.
checks

Sources 9.6 & 9.7

.
.
.
.
.

Reread the sect on in Chapter 1 about the methodo ogy of archaeo og

scient f c in h s approach to the location of the site?

excavat on. Was Schliemann

What was the major reason for Sch emann's dectsion to d g at Hissarl k?
Shou d Sch iemann get a I the cred t for the red scovery of Troy?
Comment on the following aspects of Schliemanf's methods as an archaeo og st: locat on of the srte,
metfrods of excavat o|, ethics invo ved n the'd scovery'and remova of the treasure.
Today Troy is described

methods does

Sch

ca

this

as'a ruin of a ru n'. What does th s mean? What criticism of Sch iemann's

mp y?

liema n n and l\4ycenae

lired with enthusiasm after his Troian triumph, ancl this tinle follo$'ing Pausanias, an ancient Creek
travel writer of the 1st ccntLlry AD, Schliemann now decided to excavate at Mycenae. Mycenae,
famously described by Homer as 'rich in gold', was thc home of Agamcmnon, the leader of the
Grecks at the time of the Troian War. Within the walls of thc Mycenaean citadel, Schliemann
discovered a circle of shaft gravcs. The graves contained 15 skeletons covered in golcl. Schlieinanr.r
immediately announccd,'l do not for a moment hesitate to proclaim tl-tat I have found here thc
sepulchres which...tradition attributes to the king of men, Agamemnon.' rOnce again, Schliemann

wrong

the bodies belonged to a much carlier period of Cireek history. 'l'lte authenticity of the
golden firneral mask which Schliemann discovered and claimed was a likeness of Agamemnon, has
also been challenged by both archaeological and scientihc eviclence.
was

The importance of Schliemann's finds

Altl.tough Schliemann had made mistakes, he had found evidencc of J
previousl)' unknown Bronze Age civilisation that had cxisted c. 1600 to
1100 st:. Some of the info.mation in Homer had been authenticated by
Schliemann's archaeological finds. Homel had describcd bronze swords,
chariots, boals'tusk helmcts and great shields and Schliemann had actually

found these things

as either artefacts of depicted in frcscoes.

However, there are very many discrepancies, inaccuracies and
anachronisrns in Homer's accounts. Historians todav genetally agree that
Homer's account is a 'confused amalgan' of a period of tine dating fi.orn c.

I600

uc:

down to his own tirne, c. 800 !c.

Wilhelm Oiirpfeld
Controversy has plagued Schliemann's discovery of'froy. Ile had identificcl
seven citics and believed that Troy II was the Troy described by Homer

in

the l/ldrl. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, the next archaeologist aftcr Schliemann to

work at Trot identified t\'\'o more cities, one superimposed on anothel.
Since that

tine, archaeological excavation has revealed apploxilnately 40

different levels of occupation at the site. Ditrpteld identified froy VI as the

Troy of the lioian Waq for he found wide streets, largc houses, defensivr
wails and watch towers.

F GURE

A haub tusk ltdtn?t,

dtsLribal b), Hoiner itt

B. lagan, Thc Adra hlte al Alhd@lo{y,

National Geographic Societ)', 1985, p I26

Lh?

Ilia(l.lt

1,"|' ut.1,, tttu', l.,tll\1,.t!'

populttI Mycenaeatt sport.

is

ti1tilo

^,r,r,rr,/ill\

Homer and the Trojan

otir

to tl1(

inltle 4, s(vi

il

u,r,,/

War

'l '15

!a;t
'l

i,lrag;;

hf Dc\t inrllortrllt afcllaeolollisl to cacavatc thc site

He dug

in

1\'as

Carl llleSen

fiorr thc ljnivcrsitv of Ciltcinnati.

areas Llnk)uchcd Lr\'Schlienrann antl Dorpfelcl iincl samplccl all phases of the site's histor\'.

IIc 1ra5 ablc t.l cstablish a lllore scientihc scclLlcncc of buildirgs and artefacts. Hc' idcntihcd Trov VIIa as
tlle 'ieal' lioy oI Homcf. Scholars continue to clisagree. lroy VI fits thc clescription of Honrer bLlt Blcgclt
l)fr)\/ccl thiit its r'\,alls \,\:ere destro),ed llot bv r\'arfarc Ilut bv an earthquake. lio) Vlla on thc other haltd,
does lrot ht Hornel's descril)tion. Its houses \'\'ere poorl)'built ancl cranpccl but its \,\,alls lvere strong.'fhc

cit\

al)l)cars k) ha|c llcen destroyed b)' hre aftL.r

[14*rrf

onl\'30 vcafs of habitation.

red Kr:rfmanrl

|r'orn 1!lfJlJ, thc (;crnran archaeologist l)rofessor \lanlred l(orfnrann ot the Universit)'of ILibingcn led the
cxcavations at Tro),. Worliing With a largc tcam of intelnational experts, Korlmann \,\, as able to use solne
of tlle ver) lalcsl tcchnolog)'to reveal lle$ areas of the:iitc lof cxcavatioll and studv.

A speclaaLr ar tes! t of tha rau/ excavat on5 t;s

been Lhe v-.rifr.at of of the existefce ol a lo[/er
sett cncrt lrorn ihe seventeenth to t re ear y tu/elfth

ccrtur es F. (lroy eve s V /y' al olts de and solth

and east of the c tade . As magfetofireteT survcys
and seven ercaval ons !nde.taken s rce 1993 have
srowf lhis ower c ty was sLrrro!nded at east r tre
Lh rteenth century by ef rnpress ve U shaped
Iofl fiaat .lr d tch, approx mate y eleven and a hall
feeL w dc af.l s x and a ha f feet deep, re\,,/n nto
tho mestone bedrock ConclLrs ons about the
ex stenae and qLa ty of bLr diigs willr r) the
contrfes ol the drtch have been drawn of the bas s
of severa tra lrenahes and cxcavaiions sonre ol
them cover frg a very arge s!rlace area. The a_voLri
cl thr c ty was aonf rrned by an ntens \"'e and
syst.mat c pottery slrvey n 2003 . The most
re.-"ft excavat ons ha!e deierm ned that Tf.ry.
,,i/h ch now colers about seve|ty fve a.res s aboLtt

,t" t

Archaeal1gy ya

rneSl

Nt)nber

,
3 lilay/lIfe

F GLIRE

,)tti\t's k.o]\ttltttit)tl t4 lltr

No/. lrc .\/.rfl/,J dl/!.

.E

2004.

http://w\\1\a.a rchieol0 gy org/040S/etc/troy.html

F,GURE9.10 &hLl nlit sc.tiatt tl)rctttlt tltL't:itttlel Dk\unl of Tt)t- sho',rin! tltr o.cupntiou rtidta ol lhr \it(

116

Ant qulty

St)uth Gdtt

ol li!\'.

-!

9.2 You will note that archaeologists dispute the ctating ofthe levels and the nature ofthe
which may or may not support the clear identification of a level as the lioian War level.

stucly Table
evidence

TA B

tE

This toble is on dttet

ptul

rcconsh

t.tiott of the nain plkt

scs

of oc.rtptltio,t

d tl

Li

.tctivitl at tllc site ol li oy.

Leve I of
occupation

Suggested dates
Bc revealed by
excavation

Evidence of occupation/activity as suggested by excavations

Troy

c, 3000 2600

Sma lgfoup of adjo ning rnud brick holtses surrornded bv stone circuit wall

c.26AA-275A

Wel bu lt citadel with i0 metre high fort ficat ons, approachecl by a paved rar|p ano
well-defended gates. Period of econom c growth. Development of pottery and metal urgy.
Bu ldings inc uded temple, audtence hal , ceremonial gateway. Schlemann roL.tnd
'Priarn's treasure n this evel. Destruciion by fire c. 2350 Bc.

Troy ll

Troy

lll

c.

2i50

2000

Lower town existed, but size still unknowf

Troy lV V

c.2004-1700

Period of qu et development. Few detals Kirowf

Troy Vl

c. 1700 1280

Most highly developed eve of occupat on. Mycenaean pottery founcl.

Troy Vlh

c. 1280-1250

lvlagnifcent fortress, strong stone wails and towers, monumental palace. Lower rown
surrounded by d tch and pa isade extended 400 metfes to south. This Troy be ieved to
be the c ty n coftact with the lvlycenaeans at the height of their power.
(Dorpfeld argr.res this s the eve of the Trojaf War, due to evtclence
of destruclon Dy
lire. According to B egen, however, the ev dence of destruct on could be relaLeq ro
earthquake damage raiher than wadare.)

Troy Vlla

c. 1250-1180

Ev dence of makeshtft dwei ings, commufa kitchen and storage jars set in the lloors of
houses. (Blegen sLtggests this is evidence of the clisturbance calsed by the siege and
destruct on of Troy).

(pl'rases

d-g)

Lirnlted evrdence of N/ycenaean pottery. l\4ost pottery is of Trolan manufacture copytng

lVycenaean des gns.
Troy

Vllb

c. 1200 1000

Appearance of ditferent pottery ca led 'Granary

CIass'.

This couid be the leve associated w th invasions of the Sea-peop es that fo lowed the fal
of Troy and the destruction of the N/lycenaean pa aces on the main and. S te abandoned
at this time.
Troy V

c.730

S/te reocc!pied by Greek colontsts (Honter,s tinte) ancl the c tadel was rebu lt.

Troy lX

c. 85 ac no 400

.
.
'
.

ty was attacked and burned in 85 BC. lviajor reb!i ding carried out dur ng period of
Roman occupation. City destroyed by earthquakes towards end of 5th century Bc.

Which levels have been identified as the Troy of the Trojan War? Why?
Wlrat do you notice about pottery f nds n different levels? What is the significance of this?
What dliferent nterpretations of the evidence re atifg to the destruction of Troy are ofiered by Blegen ancl
Ddrpleldl
Why could fire be evidence of both warfare and earthquake?

Homer and the Trojan

War

117

WHEN DID THE TROIAN WAR TAKE PLACE?

Homer gives no hint as to the date of the events he desc bes. Thucydides, the Greek historian, in his
Histoly of the Peloponficsi.ttt Wor, writes of the Troian War as having happened in the ancient past and
according to tradition. Some historians have suggested a likely date for the war between 1250 and
1200 trc. Others place it a little earlier at round about 1275-60 tsc, but all of these dates are speculative.

.
.

Read for yourself Michael Wood's account of the problems of

ln Search of the Trolan War, Pengu n, 1996, Chapter 7.

estab shing a rel able date for the Trojan War in lvl. Wood,

Us ng the headings given n the table below, summar se what you have learned in th s section by completlng the tab e. Find
out some additional biograph cal deta ls for each of the archaeo ogists. These could inc ude dates of birth/death, country of
origin, early career.

Archaeologisl

Biographical
details

Excavation
dates at Troy

Methods

Contribution to our understanding

of Troy and/or Trojan War

Ca vert

Sch iemann
Dorpfeid
B egen

Korlmann

Written evidence for the Trojan War

There is very little written evidence for the Trojan War. The main source is Homer's lliarl. Some of the
issues of evidence associated with this source include the date when it was supposedly written (some
four hundred years after the events it describes) and the fact that it is an epic poem, not a historical
account. It is clear that the world described by Homel is closer to the Archaic period in which he lived.
The Archaic period followed the collapse of Mycenaean civilisation. However, scholars who have studied
Homer's work have found in it many allusions to the world of the Mycenaean Bronze Age.
Other ancient written sources mention the Trojan War but are even more remote in time from the
war than Homer. For example, Thucydides writinghis HistoO, of the Pelopotlfiesisn Wdr in the late 5th

-lhe Greek plalnvriShts of his time such as

century sc certainly regarded the war as having occurred.
Euripides and Sophocles also used the tales from the Troian war epic cycle as the grand themes of
many of their tragedies. Some of these plays include The 7i'ojcul Wornen, ASqmemnon, Helerr, Andromacltc,
Hecuba, Iphigenii in Aulis, and Ai.Ix
With no evidence apart tiom Homer and the bardic traditions, it seems obvious that by the Classical
Period, the Trojan war had passed into legend and had become part of the Greek cultural tradition. We
couid compare this with the legends of King Arthur and Robin Hood in the Western tradition.
Two written sources that are much more contemporary with the Trojan War are the remains of the
archives from two of the Mediterranean powers of the time: the Mycenaeans and the Hittites. The
lvlycenaean archive is known as Linear B.

118

AntrquLty

\'

Linear B tablets
lnolvn today as Linear B \\hich thcv inscfibcd on clav tal)Lcls
with a shrrp stylus. The tablcts datc to thc lvlvccnacan l)efiod (al)Pro\iDratel) 16i)0- 1200 r(.). 'fllev
\ftre kept in [)isliets in the palace archives and n'hen the palaccs I]ufncci in largc scalc hlcs as a result
of eilfthquakes or invasion, thc lablcts \\'crc bakccl b1'the hres a d so $ele accidentally preseNed.
l he nriijor palaces used Linear B nrostl) to record econonr ic t|ansactions- Somc of thc comnlon
jtenrs lrentiolrcd in thc tablcts inclLrclc r'!ool, shec'p, uheat and barley \'rhich \'\,ere often given to
groups of religious people. 'lhe tablets froDr the lalace ot P)'los locatcd on thc Iar \\'est coast of the
Creeli rlainland .efcr to gfoLlps of 'nrcn r\,atching thc coastlir]e'. lhis rna) indicate the threat of
Thc N[] ccnaciurs Llsed a \'\,litten script

invasion l)) tca.

Thele are sonre nanrcs of caflv Cifcck dcilic5, inventories of 1])ilitar), equiprnent, i cluding chariots,
ilnLl dcl)lovmcnt of troops. l he tilblets also record solne vahrable infornration aboul admini:itfalion,
iDcluding the titles of ofllcials. Ilo\\'c|cr, thc tablcls rcvcal nothing about the histor')', ideas and

frclings of tfre Nl) cerlaean people.

lhe earliest tablets Were dlscovcfcd b)'Sif,\rlhLlf h ans al
thc l)alace ()1 l(nossos on (lrete-a site that the M)'cenaeans
had takt'n ovcr aftcf thc dcclinc ol thc Nlinoan civilisation.
'Ihc \cfil)t rrmainecl undeciP)rerecl ulltil 1952 rlhen a
brilliant )'cltlng afchitcct, l\lichacl Vcntris, crackcd thc code
and i(lentiied it as an earl) fonn of Creek.
The l) los arch ivc rra\' givc 5(]mc clLlcs to cYcnt:i relating
to thL' lioian War. l here is refelence to a large group of slave
!\,ornen and theif chilclrcn at Ir)los. It is gcnc|alll assunrecl
that these slaves wele forei!{ners from different pLaces on thc
coast ol Asia Nfinor, pcfhaps cvcn as far as'lio1 rvho hacl
been captured b) \l]-cenaean raiding parties. Anothcf Lincar
B retercncc to tfoop.lispositions has been conrparecl to
Hoirrc'r''s farnous catalogue of ships in u'hich the Creeks sailed
to Tfo\'. llo\\c|cr, thc cvidcncc is indirect ancl incortclusir e.
lhc tablets do not contaill anV recognisable leference to
Tfo\', or anv ol thc pcrlonalitic\ mentioned in Horner's 1/lrrrl.

F GURE

9.11

l ittt\| ll rlrt|tttl)|rt

Homer and the Trojan

War

19

The Hittite diplomatic archlve

Tht

'fhe Hittites were a warlike and powerful civilisation of Anatolia that existed at the same time (Late
Bronze Age) as the Mycenaean civilisation in mainland Greece. Their scdpt, also preserved on clay
tablets, was called curreiform. Historians and philologists have spent many years trying to identify
Hittite place names and locate them on maps of the region. J.D. Hawkins, professor of ancient
Anatolian languages, sums up what has so far been established about Troy and Mycenae from Hittite
records. The key Hittite terms discussed in Source 9.9 are Arzawa, wilusa and Ahhiyawa. (Refer to

Sch

hisl
9.7

Fisure 9.3.)

The kingdom of Arzawa, located roughly in western Anatola, was a threat to the Hitttes
throughout most of the fourteenth century Bc but toward the end of thai period was decisLVe y
defeated and broken up into provinces. The ireat es concluded w th the vassal ru ers of these
provinces are known among the Hittte iexts.

Recent inscripton readings havea owed schoarsto locate the two ma n Arzawa lands n
the centra -west part of Turkey, extend ng from the nland plateau to the coast...One Arzawa
afd, WilLrsa, is known princ pally from the treaty between its ru er Alaksand! and the Hittte
k ng N,4uwata | (whoruledc. 1295-1272 Bc)...
etter from a Hittite king, probably Hattus lll (who ruled c. 1261-1'237 B.),Io the
W usa was ofce a bone of contention beh{een the two. The
ocation of Ahhiyawa has been controversial since ts earliest recognition in the H ttite texts In
the 1920s. The scattered references to it suggested that t lay across the sea and that its

A ong

Saurce 9.9

.
.
.

k ng of Ahhiyawa ment ons that

The Hittite names, Arzawa,

Wi usa and Ahhiyawa refer to
which ancient p aces?
According to the Hittite records,
what was the status of Wilusa?
How does this source support
the argument that the Trojan War
did occur? What is the nature of

this evidence?

nterests often conf icted with those of the Hittites... Furthermore, the references to the
politica nterestsofAhhiyawaonthewestcoastrneshwe wth ncreasing archaeo og cal
ev dence for Mycenaean Greeks n the area, so that

it

s now w dely accepted that 'Ahhiyawa'

s indeed the H ttite des gnation for this culture.

From what we now can understand frorn the Hittte sources, the Arzawa and W Lrsa,
identified w th the archaeolog cal site of Troy, was a point of conflict between the Hitt tes and
Ahhiyawa. Th s provides a strik ng background for Homerlc scho ars researching the or g n ot
the tradition of the Achaean IHorner's Mycenaean Greeks] attack on I jos lHomer's Troyl.
There s every likelihood that the /ilad and the traditions of the Trolan WaT, howeveT,
in mortalized in epic narrative, do ndeed preserve a memory of actual events of the Late
Bronze Age.
J.D. Hawkiis, 'Was There a TrcianWat?', Archaeol\gy,"!al.57, N0. 3, May/lune 2004

http,//wwwarchae0 0gy.0rg/040s/etc/iloy3.htrnl

TI

If
C

Make notes on the usefulness and rcliability of the main wdtten sources for the Trojan War by
completing the table below. (Check again if needed, the information about evaluating sources in
ChaDter 2, 'The Nature of Sources and Evidence'.)

Information about Trojan Wal

Homer's /ilad
Linear B
Hittite Arch ve

12O

Antlquity

Usefulness

Reliability

ea

pi

The historicity of the Trojan War

Scholars are still arguing about whether the Troian War ever happened-whether it was an actual
historical event. Historians refer to this issue as 'the historicity of the Trojan War,. Sources 9.10 and
9.11 deal with some ofthe issues involved in this controversv.

Agamemnon, then, needed to reward and equ p their war host with loot treasure, raw materials, precious
metas, catteandwornen...ln Homer...the greatest prase stobeca eda'sackerofctes'...Soo| after 1300the
tvediterranean had staded to witness the widespread ra ding and instability wh ch wou d later engulf t. There may have
lleen economrc problems, overpopu ation, crop failures, drought and fam fe...it mav be that Greek interests were
squeezed out of south-western Anato|a, forcing them to ook fudher northwards for their s aves and raw materialstoward Troy...we have to assume that Agamemnon and his fellow kings and citles did what they cou d to remedy the
situation...aId frequent predatory forays must have been the way they susta ned themselves...Seen in thls light, an attack
K ngs I ke

onTroy,arnongotherplaces,seemssoobviousthatifwehadnotaeofTroywewouldhavehadtopostuatet...ThereS

an mmense amount

of c rcumstant al evrdence that suggests that a kernel of the tale of Troy goes back to a rea event
the Bronze Age; how mLtch we cannot yet be sure...
M. Waod, ln Search ol the hajan WaL

Peryuir,

1981

, pp. 246,9

According to the archaeologlcal and historical findings of the past decade

espec a y, it is now more like y than not that there were several armed
conf cts in and around Troy at the end of the Late Bronze Age. At present
we do not know whether all or some of these conflicts were distilled in
later nremory nto the 'Trojan Wal or whether amo|g them there was an
espec ally mernorable, s ng e 'Trojan War'. However, everj,th ng currenty
suggests that Homer shou d be taken ser olrsly, that his story of a m tary
conf ct between Greeks and the inhabitants of Troy is based on a memory
of historical events-whatever these rnay have been. fsomeonecameup
to me at the excavat on one day and expressed his or her belief that the
Trojan War did indeed happen here, my response as an archaeolog st
workrfg at Troy would be: why not?
lvlanfred Xorfmznn, 'Was Therc altajanwat?', Atchaeology,

Vo

Saurces 9.10 & 9.11

.
.

In your own words, explain

each scholar's opinion on the
historicity of the Trojan War.

What p cture oJ the

lvlycenaean Greeks emerges
frorn these two sources?

57, No. 3, May/lune 2004

The Wooden Horse

If the Tlojan War is accepted as a histodcal event, what explanation has been offeled for the so,called
Wooden Horse, the tdck used by Odysseus to get the Greek soldiers inside the fortifications of Troy?
Cline, a Bronze Age scholal has suggested that the Trojan Horse might have been a leference to an
earthquake, since Poseidon-the sea god who is also known as 'Earthshaker,-had the horse as his
particulal animal.

Do some research on the Wooden Horse, using the following as suggestions for research:

.
.
.
.
.

What does Homer say about the Wooden Horse?

Has any evidence of such a horse been found?
Do you

think t

was a 'wooden horse'as is dep cted in Figures 9.1 and 9.2?

What other exp anations are suggested apart from the earthquake theory rnentioned above?
What assessment would you make of these different suggestions?

THE WOMEN OF HOMEK,S ILIAD

The

Women played an important role in Homer's 1/i4d We have aheady seen that,
according to Homer, it was the abduction of Helen that was the cause of the war'
A later quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles over a valuable slave woman
prompted Achilles to withdraw from the fighting and thus provided the major
theme for the lliad. Just as interesting are the stories of prominent Troian women
such as Hecuba and Andromache. However important they miSht have been,

it

must be remembered that they played a subservient role in a man's world.

A maior focus of Greek society in Homer's Heroic Age was the need for
military strength as a defence against attack from one's enemies. As its name
suggests, the Heroic Age was an age of walliors in which men fouSht and
women produced children who would be the warriors of the future. For this
reason, all women were expected to marry, and marriage itself often ioined
powerful families together for economic, political and military advantage.

One ol
Euripi(

of Tro)

The society depicted by Homer...

cLeary reflects a strong system ol
patriarchalva ues.

Althot

ano rrl

In an atmosphere of fierce
competition among men, wornen were
viewed symbolically and terally as
propert es-the prizes of contests and

the spoils of conquest and

dominat on over then increased the

EuriPi,

Athen

War. T

they

n'ra e's prestige.

Sarah B. Pomercy, 60ddesses, Whores, Wives and
Slaves: lllanen in Classical Antiquity,Rardon
House,l975, p.25

LEr

For th

iavoul

ancrel

Helen of Ttoy
Of all the women in Homer's epic, it is Helen who stands out and whose story
has inspired a long and fascinating tradition. As Source 9.13 indicates, Helen is
enigmatic and elusive as any of the characters and events in the Trojan legend.

of the

their l

as

anciel

a80

Th

both
were
HstoryisatoncebothbaffledandenrapturedbyHeen.apursuitofHelefacrossthe
ages throws !p three distinct, yet intetwined guises:-..The most farnlliar Helen is the
br lliant regal beauty from the epics, partlcular y Homer's HeLen. .the queen wno-led on
by the goddess of ove, Aphrodlte-we corred a Trojan prince into her bed whLLe her
hlrsband was overseas...But Helen was also a dem -god, a heroine worsh pped at shr nes
across the Eastern lvlediterranean. Some scholars beleve that a morta Helen never existed,
that she is simp v the hurnan face of an ancient nature-goddess Then there is the
'shame ess whore'. 'the traitorous
beauty and sexuality;

bitch'-a creaiure irresisiible to men ..an ido offemale

both ustedafterand despsed.

BeIIany Hrghes, Helen af froy: C\ddess, Ptincess, Wharc, )o nathor Ca pe,

of th

web hunting and f nd a range of

exarrp es of the d fferent media
ln which she has been presented
through the ages. Which aspects
of Helen are presented in these

Hect(

different medla?
2 0 0 5

'

p 10-1I

The story of He en of Troy has

spawned a wlde range of books,
poetry, films, and other examples
of popular culture. Do some

The stories of the other

women of the Trojan War
provide compel ing reading.
Research some of the following
women and find out what
role they played n tfre war
and what happened to them:

Andromache, Briseis, Cassandra,

Clytemnestra, Hecuba,
lphigen a, Penthes lea, Polyxena.

Homr

emuli

lmpi
The

impa
imPo

mod(

and i
taker
Shak
have

The '

a5m
passl

FIGURE

ctfini.)

9.12

Fragments from a

B, Atheninn

lowercd head gldnci g

uP at Paris

bneath Iong eyeldshes.

122

Antlquity

sth

vd:, ripial Hthtt

\ilh

ftonl

The Trojan Women by Euripides

One of thc most powerful and moving of the Greek tragedies written by
Euripides is 'l'1rc Trojon Woflrr. It is told frolr1 the perspective of tlte women
of lroy and tells what happened to them after the destluction of their city.

Although the play is set in the tine of the liojan War, it gives a universal
and timeless message about the victims of war and the suffering it causes. In
F,uripides' own 5th century, the play was performed in the afternath of thc
Athenian destruction of the island of Melos in 415 ts(. during thc Peloponnesian
War. The Athenians, having conqueled the island, put to death all the men, and
they sold all the women and chilclren into slavery.

llead Iluril)icies'

pl:.1,\t,

The Trcjatl

1,1,'(rller, or' selected exccrpts

tfor'r'l

it. \bu nlight like to shafe

difl'erent rcadings l\'jtlt the class

or teltearse an(l present a Scelte

ffonr the piay.

LEGACY OF THE TROIAN WAR

For the Greeks of the classical period and beyond, the Trojan War was a

favourite narrative of great men and their dceds. It was also a popular subject for
ancient artists, including vase painters and sculptors. The Athenian tragedians
of the sth century featLrred the exploits and the themes of the lioian War in
their plays. Many of these plays a.e still perforrned today in the remains of the
ancient theatres whcre they wele f,rst performed two and a half tltousand yeals
ago. (See Chapter 14, 'Greek Drama'.)
The Trojan War provided a powerful inspiration for
both personal values and national identity. Creek youths
were reared in the Homeric tradition. An important part
of their education was learning to recite long passages of
Homer by heart. Greek soldiers marched into battle to
emulate the great deeds of warrior heroes such as Achilles,
Hector and Ajax.

lmpact of Trojan War on later ages

The story of the Trojan Wa. has had a powerful and lasting

impact beyond the classical world. It has become an

important part of our cultural heritage and has inspired
modern aftists, sculptors, novelists, poets, lllmmakers
and advertisers. Some of the greats of literature who have
taken up Homer's themes and characters include Chaucer,
Shakespeare and Goethe. The stories of

the-liojan War

have come to mean many things to many different people.

The Troian War can be interprcted as a heroic traged,
as

military histort

as a

lomantic love stolt or even

as

passionate anti-war tale.

A number of popular modern terms and expressions

can be traced back to the Trojan War. Can you find
answers to thc following?

.
.
.

How d d the Achil es tendon get ts name?

What do we mean when we
'Ach lles heel'?

ca

someth

What s a 'Trolan Horse' virus? Why

|g a person's

s t ca led

this?

FIGURE

Ar I il Lrt
1

9.13 /\ Grcek vlse badrs dn illrlstrdtion

i n t Pe nt hesi led

ki

at'

I 1

Homer afd the Trojan War

123

Troy in the movies

Holll-wood has had a long love affair with the ancient world. The genre of hlms inspired by the
stories and people of the biblical or ancient world are called 'swod and sandal' epics. Some of the
best known and most successful of these fllms were nade during the 1950s and 1960s. They include
Ben Hw, Clcopatrq, Spattacus ardThe Ten Cotnm\ndt erf.s. The plots of many of these films are based
only very loosely on the actual events or characters they depict.
'l
he 'sword and sandal' epics havc made a comeback in recent years, with films such as Gladi.tot,
Aleaandff the Graat and, of course, ?"/ sta[ing Brad Pitt as Achilles, and Australian actors F.ric Bana as
Hector and Rose Byrne in the roie of the princess Briseis.

Read a version of Ihe lliad. Try the origina ,

or an adaptation (for exarnple, Sang of Troy, by
Colleen lvlcCullough).

Walch Troy, the 2004 rnovie, and consider some ot

the follow ng questions:
. What was the re at onsh p between Patroc us
and Achilles h Ho.ne('s llia&

.
.
.
.

Why were they portrayed as cous ns instead of

overs in the film?
Look up Briseis and Chrlseis. What was therr
role in Homer's account?
Why have they been merged into one character

the iilm?

In the fiLm, what features ol the clty of Troy and

the war are true to Homer's account?
WnaI aeci5io-rs d d tl-e direclor ma\e .h"' ar"
clearly different from Homer's story, such as the
death of l\4enelaus and the escape of Par s? Can
yo | <LrBgesi wl v ll e dire, lor l^as n-ade the,e
changes and any others you can identify?

FIGURE

9.14

Postel ddtertisins th( 2004

Wanrr

lll-os

The case of the disappearing treasure

The fabled treasure of King Priam was reputed to have included
magnificent gold and silver artefacts of ]'rojan origin. This
treasure has had a fascinating history since its discovery by
Schliemann in 1873. It disappeared at the end of the Second
World War at the time of the Russian invasjon and occupation
of Berlin and in 1994 it surfaced at the Hermitage Museum in St
Petersburg. The map in Figure 9.15 indicates the joumey of the
treasure since its nrst discovery in 11J73.
124

Antiquity

.
.
.

Was there rea ly a treasure?

from its origina

discovery to its present 'home' n Russia.
Trace the story of the treasure

Explain the role of Schl emann in the

disappearance of the treasure-

I
-|:

January 1881
{ @17
: Arrives
in Berlin,

where it remains
until May 1945.
Removed by the

a---*
-_

lt4oscow

@ fi Jury 1945
)5 ) - Taken by air to
l\4oscow where it
is kept secretly in

Red Army.

the Pushkin
lvluseu m.

Berlin
Treasure's hiding
place revealed
when it goes on

31 May 1873

display in Pushkin

Treasure discovered by Schliemann in

lvluseu m

his archaeological excavations at Troy.

I
@l l-6

vd'.]

Germany demands
its return. Russia

June

9Hidd"n

at British Consul's house, so.lth ol Troy.

,:.fr
1"r_'-

6 June

.t

lllicitly collected by a Greek ship Jrom Karanllk

Limani beach, near Troy, and shipped to Athens.

\r

-_

26 June 1873
Arrives in Athens.
Hidden from Greek

police after Turks

take legal action to

recover lt.

{3
FGURE9.15

Map tracing the

ioln

cy

ofthe Treasure ol Pridm

Russia refuses to give up Trolan treasure

Russ a and Germany have long sparred over the fate
of the co ection, as well as thousands of other valuable
objects taken from Gernnany in the waning days of World
War ll. V kov sa d earler this month that Russia holds
aboLrt 249000 aft objects, more than 260000 arch ve
files and 1.25 rnillion books and publications. Germany
and oiher countries have pressed for the return of the

egendary collection of gold objects frorn anc ent Troy that was
seized by Soviet troops in Ber n ln 1945 should becorne Russian
government property, a top cultura off calsaidinan ntervLew
pub shed on Saturday. Anatoly V kov, deputy ch ef ol the
Russ an agency that preserves the nation's cu tural legacy,
stopped shoir of ru ng out the possibility the objects could

return under certa n condLtions.

collect ons, wh ch they argue were

[s c] Sch emann,
wlll be
the a mateur German archaeologst who excavated
made Russian federal property after t is inventoried, Vilkov sald.
The gold

collection narned after Hermann

it

taken

egaly.

A Russ an law of the year 2000 dist ngu shes between

llega trophies-taken wthout a military commander's

sanction and those Moscow sees as restitLltion lor the

The gold then could be exh bited in Germany.

27 million Soviet ves ost, 100 museur.s destroyed and

the utter ruin of entire c ties during the conf ct it ca s the

'ln line with the law on transferred valuables, everyth ng that

the Soviet Un on took as compensation, wh ch ncludes
Schliernann's go d as well, ls not sublect to return,'V kov was
quoted as say ng. 'A these valuab es should becor.e our lederal
property,'though they mlght be returned if 'the Gernnans offer us

Great Patriot c War.

an appropriate exchange...'
Sa0a-Ap http://atheism.about.com/gi/dynamlc/oifsite.htm?sit=http'//wwwiol.co.zal
(published in

/oL,

ndex.php%3Fclick%5Fid=31%26art%5Fid=qw11094307213818262

February, 2005)

Source 9.14

.
.
.

What legal claim does Russia have to the treasure? Do you think
Under what conditions might the treasure return to Germany?

it

s justiiied?

Which other countries m ght also have c a ms on the treasure?

Homer and the Trolan War