1

Contradiction opposition between propositions that differ in quality and

quantity
Examples:
It is true that all priests are celibate. (A)
Therefore, it is false that some nuns are celibate. (I)
Correct; I is false
It is false that all who take the CELL exam will pass. (A)
Therefore, it is false that some who take the CELL exam will pass. (I)
Wrong; I must be?

Contrariety opposition between universal propositions that differ in quality

Examples:
It is false that no adult is mature. (E)
Therefore, we cannot be sure that every adult is mature. (A)
Correct; A is?
It is true that no man is an island. (E)
Therefore, it is true that every man is an island. (A)
Wrong; A must be false

Subcontrariety opposition between two particular propositions that differ in

quality
Examples:
It is false that not all people are worth living for. (O)
Therefore, it is true that some people are worth living for. (I)
Correct; I must be true
It is false that not all humans are citizens. (O)
Therefore, it is false that some humans are citizens. (I)
Wrong; I must be true

Subalternation the relation between universal and particular propositions

having the same quality of the copula

Examples:
That every mother knows her own child is true. (A)
That some mother know their children must be true. (I)
Correct; I is true
It is true that there are no solutions that cant be solved. (E)
Therefore, it is false that not all solutions cant be solved. (O)
Wrong; O must be true

Obversion the process whereby from a given statement called the

obvertend, we derive another proposition called the obverse whose subject
but whose predicate is the contradictory of the given predicate.
Examples:
No eagle cannot fly.
Every eagle can fly.
Valid. The predicate of the obverse is contradictory to the predicate of the
obvertend.
Some things in life last forever.
Not all things in life last forever.
Invalid. The predicate of the obverse must be contradictory to the predicate
of the obvertend.

Conversion a process whereby from the given proposition called the

convertend, we derive a proposition called the converse whose subject is the
original predicate and whose predicate is the original subject
Examples:
No boy is a girl.
No girl is a boy.
Valid. The subject of the converse is the predicate of the converted and the
predicate of the converse is the subject of the converted.
Some bad women are known women.
Some famous women are not bad women.
Invalid. The predicate of the converse must be the subject of the convertend.

Partial Contrapositive the subject of which is the contradictory of the

original predicate but whose predicate is the same as the original subject.
Examples:
No solid thing is eternal.
Some non-eternal things are solid.
Valid. The subject of the PC is the contradictory of the original predicate and
the predicate is the same as the original subject.

Every appliance needs electricity.

Some things that dont need electricity are appliances.
Invalid. The predicate of the PC must be the same as the original subject.
Full Contrapositive the subject of which is the contradictory of the given
predicate and whose predicate is the contradictory of the given subject.
Examples:
No mature human being is emotionally uncertain.
Some emotionally certain human beings are not immature.

Valid. The subject of the FC is the contradictory of the given predicate and
the predicate is the contradictory of the given subject.
Every religious man is a holy man.
Some holy men are not religious.
Invalid. The predicate of the FC must be the contradictory of the given
subject.
9

Partial Inverse one whose subject is the contradictory of the given subject
but whose predicate is the same as the given predicate
Examples:
Anything venomous is deadly.
Some non-venomous things are not deadly.
Valid. The PI subject is the contradictory of the given subject and the
predicate is the same as the given predicate.
No rational person is mentally disturbed.
Some rational persons are mentally disturbed.
Invalid. The PI subject must be the contradictory of the given subject.

10 Full Inverse an inferred proposition whose subject and predicate are the
contradictories of the given subject and predicate
Examples:
Every living animal has the capability to reproduce.
Some non-living animals have the capability to reproduce.
Valid. The subject and predicate of the FI are the contradictories of the given
subject and predicate.
Every professor knows the subject they teach.
Some professors know the subjects they teach.
Invalid. The subject of the FI must be contradictory to the given subject.
11 Categorical Syllogism an argument which proceeds from statements
concerning the relationship of two terms to a third term, to a conclusion
concerning the relationship of two terms to each other.
Examples:
All mammals are animals.
A Mu + Pp
A tiger is a mammal.
A Su + Mp
Therefore, a tiger is an animal. A Su + Pp
Valid: Rule 6: Affirmative Conclusion
USC's Varsities are good in playing basketball.
A Pu + Mp
Francis is not good in playing basketball.
E Su - Mp
Therefore, Francis is not a USC Varsity.
E Su - Mu
Invalid. There must only be three terms (Rule No. 1)

12 Simple Conditional Argument has a conditional proposition for major

premise and categorical propositions for minor premise and conclusion
concerning the relationship of two terms to each other.
Examples:
If a girl is hungry, she needs to eat.
This girl is hungry.
So, she needs to drink.
Valid: Rule 1: Positing Mood

AC
+A
+C

If pandas were human, then they would be sane.

But pandas are not human.
Ergo, theyre not sane.
Invalid. Rule 3: Fallacy of -A

AC
-A
C

13 Reciprocal Conditional Syllogism has for its major premise an only if

then proposition.
Examples:
Only if a person starts to be at peace with himself will he start to be at peace
with others. CA
Lawrence is at peace with himself.
+C
Therefore, he will be at peace with others.
+A
Invalid: Rule 4: Fallacy of +C
Only if a boy doesnt look back to where he came from would he then not
know where he is going.
CA
Daniel doesnt know where hes going.
+A
Ergo, he doesnt know where he came from.
+C
Valid: Rule 1: Positing Mood
14 Biconditional Syllogism has for its major premise containing the expression
if and only if.
Examples:
If and only if Roy starts understanding Maricel better, he will fall in love with
her.
AC
But Roy started understanding Maricel better.
+A
Therefore, he will fall in love with her.
+C
Valid: Rule 1: Positing Mood
If and only if I take drugs, my problems would be gone.

AC

I didnt take my drugs.

Therefore, my problems would be gone.
Invalid: Conclusion must be negative as it is false.

-A
+C

15 Pure Conditional Syllogism has conditional propositions for premises and

conclusion
Examples:
If love is eternal, it is unending.
If love is forever, it is eternal.
If love stays forever, it is unending.
Valid: CE taken once as A and C

AC
AC
AC

If a human being is sinful, he goes to confession.

If a human being is sinful, he does evil.
Therefore, if a human being goes to confession, he does evil.
Invalid. CE taken as antecedent twice.

AC
AC
AC

16 Conditional Sorites syllogism with three or more simple conditional

propositions for premises
Examples:
If you dont greet me, Ill assume that you despise me.
If Ill assume that you despise me, Ill feel bad.
If Ill assume that you despise me, things would get worse.
Therefore, if you dont greet me, things would get worse.
Invalid: CE taken twice as A.

AC
AC
AC
AC

If you wont rest less than eight hours tonight, youll have a good rest.
AC
If you have a good rest, youll wake up tomorrow feeling amazing.
AC
If you wake up feeling amazing, youll do well in work.
AC
Therefore, if you wont rest less than eight hours tonight, youll do well in
work.
AC
Valid: CE taken once as A and C
17 Perfect Disjunctive Syllogism in this type, the alternative presented in the
major premise are such that they cannot be both affirmed or denied
Examples:
Hes either a boy or a girl.
Hes a boy.
+1
Ergo, hes not a girl.
-2
Valid: Rule 1: Positing Mood
Shes either a valedictorian or salutatorian.
Shes a valedictorian.
Ergo, shes a salutatorian.

+1
+2

Invalid. One alternative must be accepted and the other denied.

18 Imperfect Disjunctive Syllogism the major premise presents alternatives
that cannot be denied but can be affirmed of one and the same subject at the
same time
Examples:
Either you eat, or youll starve to death.
You wont eat.
-1
Therefore, youll starve to death.
+2
Valid: Rule 2: Sublating Mood
Either you dance or you wont pass.
You will dance.
+1
Therefore, you wont pass.
2
Invalid. Rule 1: Positing Mood
19 Conjunctive Syllogism the major premise expresses alternatives that cannot
be true at the same time
Examples:
You cannot eat and talk at the same time.
Youre talking.
+2
Ergo, youre not eating. - 1
Valid: Rule 1: Positing Mood.
He cannot answer in the board and sleep at the same time.
Hes not sleeping.
-2
Ergo, hes answering in the board.
+1
Invalid. Rule 2: Sublating Mood
20 Categorical Enthymemes is an abridged form of the syllogism in which one
of the premises or the conclusion is omitted.
Examples:
First Order: Major premise is omitted.
The ruler is not suspicious.
Ergo, he leans towards being extremely conventional.
Mu
+
Pp
A suspicious person leans toward being extremely conventional. A Mu + Pp
Su
Mu
The ruler is not a suspicious person.
E Su Mu
Su
Pu
Ergo, he does not lean toward being extremely conventional.
E
Su - Pu
(Invalid: Rule 3: Illicit major)

Second Order: Minor premise is omitted.

A mocking person cannot be taken completely.
Ergo, Daniel cannot be taken completely.
Mu
Pu
A mocking person cannot be taken completely.
E
Mu Pu
Su
+
Mu
Daniel is a mocking person.
A
Su + Mu
Su
Pu
Ergo, he cannot be taken completely.
E
Su - Pu
(Valid: Rule 7: With one negative premise, the conclusion itself is
negative.)
21 Hypothetical Enthymemes is when neither minor nor the major term
appears in the conclusion of the enthymemes
Examples:
If the leader dies, then the next in line takes his place.
A
C
If the leader dies, then the next in line takes his place.
-A
But the leader did not die
-A
-C
Ergo, the next in line did not take his place.
(Invalid: Rule 3: Fallacy of -A)
If this member leaves the building, then the area must be closed.
A
C
If this member leaves the building, then the area must be closed.
AC
+A
But this member leaves the building.
+A
+C
Ergo, the area must be closed.
+C
(Valid: Rule 1: Positing Mood)
22 Epichireme a syllogism in which a proof is attached to one of both of the
premises
Examples:
Mu

Pp

AC

All living things perish (Because they age). A Mu + Pp

Su
Mu
Rock is not a living things.
E Su Mu
Su
Pu
Therefore, rocks cannot die.
E Su Pu
Component arguments:
Mu + Pp
What ages dies
Su Mu
Rocks does not age
Su
Pu
Ergo, rocks does not die.
(Invalid: Rule 3: Illicit major)

A Mu + Pp
E Su Mu
E Su Pu

Mu
+
Pp
All dogs are quadrupeds (Because they walk on four legs)
Pp
Su
+
Mp
Poodle is a dog.
+ Mp
Su
+
Pp
Poodle is a quadruped.
+ Pp
Component arguments:
Mu + Pp
What walk on four legs are quadrupeds.
Su
+
Mp
Dogs walk on four legs.
Su
+
Pp
Ergo, dogs are quadrupeds.
Mu
+ Pp
All dogs are quadrupeds
Su
+
Mp
Poodle is a dog
Su
+
Pp
Poodle is a quadruped
(Valid: Rule 6: Affirmative Conclusion)

A Mu +

A Mu + Pp
A Su + Mp
A Su + Pp
A Mu + Pp
A Su + Mp
A Su + Pp

23 Exclusive Syllogism at least one of the propositions is an exclusive

statement
Examples:
The key reason causes all things to exist.
Only God is a key reason.
Therefore, only God causes all things to exist.
In Categorical form:

A Su

A Su

Mu
+
Sp
The key reason causes all things to exist.
Mu +
Pp
The key reason is God.
Ergo, who causes all things to exist is God.
(Invalid: Rule 3: Illicit minor)

A Mu + Sp
A Mu + Pp
A Su + Pp

An alive spirit is a normal being.

Man alone is a normal being.
Ergo, man alone is an alive spirit.
In categorical form:
Su
+
Mp
An alive spirit alone is a normal being.
Mu +
Pp
A normal being is man.
Su
+
Pp
Ergo, main is an alive spirit.
(Valid: Rule 6: Affirmative Conclusion)

A Su + Mp
A Mu + Pp
A Su + Pp

24 Aristotelian Sorites in an argument there are three or more premises linked

in such a way that the predicate of the preceding argument is used as the
subject of the following premise, and a conclusion which is made up of the
subject of the first premise and the predicate of the last premise
Examples:
Being selfish towards someone is a sign of insecurity.
Insecurity is a fruit of immaturity.
Immaturity is not admirable.
Therefore, being selfish towards someone is not admirable.
Valid.
Crying is the revelation of softness.
The revelation of softness is sometimes a worthy act.
Ergo, crying is sometimes a worthy act.
Invalid. Three or more premises needed.
25 Goclenian Sorites in an argument there are three or more premises
connected in such a manner that the subject of the preceding premise is used
as the predicate of the following premise, and a conclusion which is
composed of the subject of the last premise and the predicate of the first
premise
Examples:
An animal is a body.
A quadruped is an animal.
A cat is a quadruped.
A tiger is a cat.

Therefore, a tiger is a body.

Valid.
Giving pity for popularity is narcissism.
Narcissism is not good.
Ergo, giving pity for popularity is not good.
Invalid. Three or more premises needed.

Part II. Fallacies

1

Abusive ad hominem (personal attack) this fallacy consists in

making derogatory remarks about a person and using these grounds for
rejecting the person views.
Example:
How could you except his friends request, when he is not trustworthy

Argumentum ad Baculum consists of the using of force to prove a

certain point.
Example:
You have no right to arrest; I am the president of this country.

Argumentum ad Ignorantiam argues that something is true because

it cant be proven false or vice versa
Example:
Since you cant prove that ghost exist, so they must exist

Peer pressure (the bandwagon) consists in arguing that if your

friends are good at something , you figure out that youre good enough to
give it a try
Example: My classmates drinks alcohol, so I must drink alcohol

Assumptio Non Probata consists in using a false principle as an

unexpressed premise
Example:
No one has ever been to the planet Pluto. Therefore Pluto isn't real.

Appeal to Common Belief is committed when someone tries to

establish a claim by citing that most people believe in it.
Example:
People believe that aliens will soon come and take over the earth. Aliens
must be real and somehow observing us.

Appeal to Common Practice consists of reasoning that an action is

acceptable on the grounds that it is a common practice
Example:
It is okay to break some rules since my friends do it anyway.

The Horse Laugh committed when one tries to refute a claim by

laughing at it.
Example:
Sam likes you back? LMAO. You wish.

False Alternative is committed when the number of alternatives or

possibilities regarding something is erroneously assumed to be less than
what actually exists
Example:
I thought you were a good person but you werent at church today.

10 False Cause consists I assigning a wrong cause to a given effect

Example:
Jake eats chocolate while he study, so eating chocolates is why Jake got
high grades.