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Electrical Circuits III: Advanced Circuit Analysis
Single Phase Power Systems
Depicted above is a very simple AC circuit. If the load

resistors power dissipation were substantial, it is called a
power circuit or power system instead of regarding it as
just a regular circuit. The distinction between a power
circuit and a regular circuit may seem arbitrary, but the
practical concerns are definitely not.
One such concern is the size and cost of wiring necessary
to deliver power from the AC source to the load. Normally,
it is not given much thought for this type of concern if it is
merely analyzing a circuit for the sake of learning about the
laws of electricity. However, in the real world it can be a
major concern. If the source in the above circuit is given a
voltage value and power dissipation values are also given
to the two load resistors, the wiring needs for this particular
circuit can be attained:
83.33 A for each load resistor in the figure adds up to

166.66 A total circuit current. This is no small amount of
current, and would necessitate copper wire conductors of
at least 1/0 gage. Such wire is well over 1/4 inch (6 mm) in
diameter, weighing over 300 pounds per thousand feet.
Bear in mind that copper is not cheap either! It would be for
the best interest to find ways to minimize such costs for
designing a power system with long conductor lengths.
One way to do this would be to increase the voltage of the
power source and use loads built to dissipate 10 kW each
at this higher voltage. The loads, of course, would have to
have greater resistance values to dissipate the same power
as before (10 kW each) at a greater voltage than before.
The advantage would be less current required, permitting
the use of smaller, lighter, and cheaper wire:
Now the total circuit current is 83.33 A, half of what it was

before. A number 4 gage wire, which weighs less than half
of what 1/0 gage wire does per unit length, can be used.
This is a considerable reduction in system cost with no
degradation in performance. This is why power distribution
system designers elect to transmit electric power using very
high voltages (many thousands of volts) to capitalize on the
savings realized by the use of smaller, lighter, cheaper wire.
However, this solution is not without disadvantages.
Another practical concern with power circuits is the danger
of electric shock from high voltages. Again, this is not
usually the sort of thing pointed out while learning about the
laws of electricity, but it is a very valid concern in the real
world, especially when large amounts of power are being
dealt with. The gain in efficiency realized by stepping up the
circuit voltage presents us with increased danger of electric
shock. Power distribution companies tackle this problem by
stringing their power lines along high poles or towers, and
insulating the lines from the supporting structures with
large, porcelain insulators.
At the point of use (the electric power customer), there is
still the issue of what voltage to use for powering loads.
High voltage gives greater system efficiency by means of
reduced conductor current, but it might not always be
practical to keep power wiring out of reach at the point of
use the way it can be elevated out of reach in distribution
systems. This tradeoff between efficiency and danger is
one that European power system designers have decided
to risk, all their households and appliances operating at a
nominal voltage of 240 V instead of 120 V as it is in North
America. That is why tourists from America visiting Europe
must carry small step down transformers for their portable
appliances, to step the 240 VAC (volts AC) power down to
a more suitable 120 VAC.
Is there any way to realize the advantages of both
increased efficiency and reduced safety hazard at the same
time? One solution would be to install step down
transformers at the endpoint of power use, just as the
American tourist must do while in Europe. However, this
would be expensive and inconvenient for anything but very
small loads (where the transformers can be built cheaply)
or very large loads (where the expense of thick copper
wires would exceed the expense of a transformer).
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario

An alternative solution would be to use a higher voltage
supply to provide power to two lower voltage loads in series.
This approach combines the efficiency of a high voltage
system with the safety of a low voltage system:
The current through each load is the same as it was in the

simple 120 V circuit, but the currents are not additive
because the loads are in series rather than parallel. The
voltage across each load is only 120 V, not 240, so the
safety factor is better. Take note that a full 240 V across the
power system wires is still operating but each load is at a
reduced voltage. If anyone is going to get shocked, the
odds are that it will be from coming into contact with the
conductors of a particular load rather than from contact
across the main wires of a power system.
Theres only one disadvantage to this design: the
consequences of one load failing open, or being turned off
(assuming each load has a series on/off switch to interrupt
current) are not good. Being a series circuit, if either load
were to open, current would stop in the other load as well.
For this reason, the design is modify to:
Instead of a single 240 V power supply, two 120 V supplies

(in phase with each other!) in series is use to produce 240
V, then run a third wire to the connection point between the
loads to handle the eventuality of one load opening. This is
called a split phase power system. Three smaller wires
are still cheaper than the two wires needed with the simple
parallel design, so it is still ahead on efficiency. The astute
observer will note that the neutral wire only has to carry the
difference of current between the two loads back to the
source. In the above case, with perfectly balanced loads
consuming equal amounts of power, the neutral wire carries
zero current.
Notice how the neutral wire is connected to earth ground at

the power supply end. This is a common feature in power
systems containing neutral wires, since grounding the
neutral wire ensures the least possible voltage at any given
time between any hot wire and earth ground.
An essential component to a split phase power system is
the dual AC voltage source. Fortunately, designing and
building one is not difficult. Since most AC systems receive
their power from a step down transformer anyway
(stepping voltage down from high distribution levels to a
user level voltage like 120 or 240), that transformer can
be built with a center tapped secondary winding:
If the AC power comes directly from a generator

(alternator), the coils can be similarly center tapped for
the same effect. The extra expense to include a center
tap connection in a transformer or alternator winding is
minimal.
Here is where the (+) and (-) polarity markings really
become important. This notation is often used to reference
the phasings of multiple AC voltage sources, so it is clear
whether they are aiding (boosting) each other or opposing
(bucking) each other. If not for these polarity markings,
phase relations between multiple AC sources might be very
confusing. Note that the split phase sources in the
schematic (each one 1200 V), with polarity marks (+) to
(-) just like series-aiding batteries can alternatively be
represented as such:
To mathematically calculate voltage between hot wires,

we must subtract voltages, because their polarity marks
show them to be opposed to each other:
1200
120 + 0

120180
2400
(120 + 0)
240 + 0
If the two sources common connection point is marked (the

neutral wire) with the same polarity, their relative phase
shifts will be 180. Otherwise, it is denoted with two voltage
sources in direct opposition with each other, which would
give 0 V between the two hot conductors.
Power systems in American households and light industry
are most often of the split phase variety, providing so
called 120/240 VAC power. The term split phase merely
refers to the split voltage supply in such a system. In a
more general sense, this kind of AC power supply is called
single phase because both voltage waveforms are in
phase, or in step, with each other.
The term single phase is a counterpoint to another kind of
power system called polyphase.
Three Phase Power Systems
Split phase power systems achieve their high conductor
efficiency and low safety risk by splitting up the total voltage
into lesser parts and powering multiple loads at those lesser
voltages, while drawing currents at levels typical of a full
voltage system. This technique, by the way, works just as
well for DC power systems as it does for single phase AC
systems. Such systems are usually referred to as three
wire systems rather than split phase because phase is
a concept restricted to AC.
But from the experience in dealing with vectors and
complex numbers, AC voltages dont always add up as they
would if they are out of phase with each other. This
principle, applied to power systems, can be put to use to
make power systems with even greater conductor
efficiencies and lower shock hazard than with split phase.
Suppose that two sources of AC voltage are connected in
series just like the split phase system, except that each
voltage source was 120 out of phase with the other:
Since each voltage source is 120 V, and each load resistor

is connected directly in parallel with its respective source,
the voltage across each load must be 120 V as well. Given

load currents of 83.33 A, each load must still be dissipating
10 kW of power. However, voltage between the two hot
wires is not 240 V (1200 120120) because the
phase difference between the two sources is not 180.
Instead, the voltage is:
= (1200) (120120) = 207.85 30
Nominally, the voltage between hot conductors is 208

volts (rounding up), and thus the power system voltage is
designated as 120/208.
The current through the neutral conductor will not be zero,
even with balanced load resistances. Kirchhoffs Current
Law tells us that the currents entering and exiting the node
between the two loads must be zero:
1 2 = 0
= 1 + 2
= 1 2
= (83.330) (83.33120) = 83.33240
= 83.33 120
It is found out that the neutral wire is carrying a full 83.33

A, just like each hot wire.
Note that 20 kW of total power are given to the two loads,
with each loads hot wire carrying 83.33 A as before. With
the same amount of current through each hot wire, the
same gage copper conductors is used, so the system cost
over the split phase 120/240 system is reduced. However,
a gain in safety is realized, because the overall voltage
between the two hot conductors is 32 V lower than it was
in the split phase system (208 V instead of 240 V).
The fact that the neutral wire is carrying 83.33 A of current
raises an interesting possibility: since its carrying current
anyway, why not use that third wire as another hot
conductor, powering another load resistor with a third 120
V source having a phase angle of 240? That way, it could

transmit more power (another 10 kW) without having to add
any more conductors. Lets see how this might look:
A full mathematical analysis of all the voltages and currents

in this circuit would necessitate the use of a network
theorem, the easiest being the Superposition Theorem.
Sure enough, there would be 120 V across each load
resistor, with (approximately) 208 V between any two hot
conductors and conductor currents equal to 83.33 A. At that
current and voltage, each load will be dissipating 10 kW of
power. Notice that this circuit has no neutral conductor to
ensure stable voltage to all loads if one should open. This
situation is similar to our split phase power circuit with no
neutral conductor: if one load should happen to fail open,
the voltage drops across the remaining load(s) will change.
To ensure load voltage stability in the event of another load
opening, a neutral wire is added to connect the source node
and load node together.
So long as the loads remain balanced (equal resistance,
equal currents), the neutral wire will not carry any current at
all. It is there just in case one or more load resistors should
fail open (or be shut off through a disconnecting switch).
This circuit with three voltage sources is called a polyphase
circuit. Since the voltage sources are all at different phase
angles (in this case, three different phase angles), this is a
polyphase circuit. More specifically, it is a three phase
circuit, the kind is used predominantly in large power
distribution systems.
A single phase system with three loads connected directly
in parallel would have a very high total current (83.33 times
3, or 250 A).
This would necessitate 3/0 gage copper wire (very large!),

at about 510 pounds per thousand feet, and with a
considerable price tag attached. If the distance from source
to load was 1000 feet, it would need over a half ton of

copper wire to do the job. On the other hand, a split phase
system with two 15 kW, 120 volt loads could be design
The current is half of what it was with the simple parallel

circuit, which is a great improvement. It could get away with
using number 2 gage copper wire at a total mass of about
600 pounds, figuring about 200 pounds per thousand feet
with three runs of 1000 feet each between source and
loads. However, the increased safety hazard of having 240
volts present in the system, even though each load only
receives 120 volts must be considered. Overall, there is
greater potential for dangerous electric shock to occur.
Contrasting the two examples against the three phase
system, the advantages are quite clear. First, the conductor
currents are quite a bit less (83.33 amps versus 125 or 250
amps), permitting the use of much thinner and lighter wire.
The use of number 4 gage wire at about 125 pounds per
thousand feet, which will total 500 pounds (four runs of
1000 feet each) for the example circuit. This represents a
significant cost savings over the split phase system, with
the additional benefit that the maximum voltage in the
system is lower (208 versus 240).
One question remains to be answered: how in the world do
we get three AC voltage sources whose phase angles are
exactly 120 apart? Obviously you cant center tap a
transformer or alternator winding like in the split phase
system, since that can only give voltage waveforms that are
either in phase or 180 out of phase. Perhaps, the use of
capacitors and inductors to create phase shifts of 120
could be considered, but then those phase shifts would
depend on the phase angles of the load impedances
(substituting a capacitive or inductive load for a resistive
load would change everything!).
The best way to get the phase shifts is to generate it at the
source: construct the AC generator (alternator) providing
the power in such a way that the rotating magnetic field

passes by three sets of wire windings, each set spaced
120 apart around the circumference of the machine:
Together, the six pole windings of a three phase

alternator are connected to comprise three winding pairs,
each pair producing AC voltage with a phase angle 120
shifted from either of the other two winding pairs. The
interconnections between pairs of windings (as shown for
the single phase alternator: the jumper wire between
windings 1a and 1b) have been omitted from the three
phase alternator drawing for simplicity.
In the example circuit, the three voltage sources connected
together in a Y configuration (sometimes called the star
or T configuration), with one lead of each source tied to a
common point (the node where the neutral conductor is
attached). The common way to depict this connection
scheme is to draw the windings in the shape of a Y.
Phase Rotation
The phase angle shift of 120 is a function of the actual
rotational angle shift of the three pairs of windings.
If the magnet is rotating clockwise, winding 3 will generate

its peak instantaneous voltage exactly 120 (of alternator
shaft rotation) after winding 2, which will hits its peak 120
after winding 1. The magnet passes by each pole pair at
different positions in the rotational movement of the shaft.
Where we decide to place the windings will dictate the
amount of phase shift between the windings AC voltage

waveforms. If we make winding 1 our reference voltage
source for phase angle (0), then winding 2 will have a
phase angle of - 120 (120 lagging, or 240 leading) and
winding 3 an angle of - 240 (or 120 leading).
This sequence of phase shifts has a definite order. For
clockwise rotation of the shaft, the order is 1 2 3
(winding 1 peaks first, then winding 2, then winding 3). This
order keeps repeating itself as long as we continue to rotate
the alternators shaft.
However, if we reverse the rotation of the alternators shaft
(turn it counterclockwise), the magnet will pass by the pole
pairs in the opposite sequence. Instead of 1 2 3, well
have 3 2 1. Now, winding 2s waveform will be leading
120 ahead of 1 instead of lagging, and 3 will be another
120 ahead of 2.
The order of voltage waveform sequences in a polyphase

system is called phase rotation, phase sequence or phase
order. If were using a polyphase voltage source to power
resistive loads, phase rotation will make no difference at all.
Whether 1 2 3 or 3 2 1, the voltage and current
magnitudes will all be the same. Since voltmeters and
ammeters would be useless in telling us what the phase
rotation of an operating power system is, we need to have
some other kind of instrument capable of doing the job.
One ingenious circuit design uses a capacitor to introduce
a phase shift between voltage and current, which is then
used to detect the sequence by way of comparison
between the brightness of two indicator lamps.
The two lamps are of equal filament resistance and

wattage. The capacitor is sized to have approximately the

same amount of reactance at system frequency as each
lamps resistance. If the capacitor were to be replaced by a
resistor of equal value to the lamps resistance, the two
lamps would glow at equal brightness, the circuit being
balanced. However, the capacitor introduces a phase shift
between voltage and current in the third leg of the circuit
equal to 90. This phase shift, greater than 0 but less than
120, skews the voltage and current values across the two
lamps according to their phase shifts relative to phase 3.
Starting out with a phase rotation of 3-2-1, we can try all the
possibilities for swapping any two of the wires at a time and
see what happens to the resulting sequence:
No matter which pair of hot wires out of the three we

choose to swap, the phase rotation ends up being reversed
(1 2 3 gets changed to 2 1 3, 1 3 2 or 3 2 1,
all equivalent).
The three phases may be numbered 1, 2, 3 or a, b, c or as
is customary, they may be given three colors. The colors
used commercially are red, yellow (or sometimes white)
and blue.
1. Positive Sequence (ABC Sequence)

120
30
30
2. Negative Sequence (ACB Sequence)
120
30
30
NOTE: If the phase sequence is not given, you can use the
positive phase sequence. Alternators are designed to
operate with positive sequence voltage.
Polyphase Motor Design
Perhaps the most important benefit of polyphase AC power
over single phase is the design and operation of AC
motors.
If the rotating magnet is able to keep up with the frequency

of the alternating current energizing the electromagnet
windings (coils), it will continue to be pulled around
clockwise. However, clockwise is not the only valid direction
for this motors shaft to spin. It could just as easily be
powered in a counter clockwise direction by the same AC
voltage waveform.
Notice that with the exact same sequence of polarity cycles

(voltage, current, and magnetic poles produced by the
coils), the magnetic rotor can spin in either direction. This is
a common trait of all single phase AC induction and
synchronous motors: they have no normal or correct
direction of rotation. The natural question should arise at
this point: how can the motor get started in the intended
direction if it can run either way just as well? The answer is
that these motors need a little help getting started. Once
helped to spin in a particular direction, it will continue to spin
that way as long as AC power is maintained to the windings.

Where that help comes from for a single phase AC
motor to get going in one direction can vary. Usually, it
comes from an additional set of windings positioned
differently from the main set, and energized with an AC
voltage that is out of phase with the main power.
These supplementary coils are typically connected in series

with a capacitor to introduce a phase shift in current
between the two sets of windings.
That phase shift creates magnetic fields from coils 2a and

2b that are equally out of step with the fields from coils 1a
and 1b. The result is a set of magnetic fields with a definite
phase rotation. It is this phase rotation that pulls the rotating
magnet around in a definite direction.
Polyphase AC motors require no such trickery to spin in a
definite direction. Because their supply voltage waveforms
already have a definite rotation sequence, so do the
respective magnetic fields generated by the motors
stationary windings. In fact, the combination of all three
phase winding sets working together creates what is often
called a rotating magnetic field. It was this concept of a
rotating magnetic field that inspired Nikola Tesla to design
the worlds first polyphase electrical systems. The line
current and safety advantages of polyphase power over
single phase power were discovered later.
What can be a confusing concept is made much clearer
through analogy. Have you ever seen a row of blinking light
bulbs such as the kind used in Christmas decorations?
Some strings appear to move in a definite direction as the
bulbs alternately glow and darken in sequence. Other

strings just blink on and off with no apparent motion. What
makes the difference between the two types of bulb
strings? Answer: phase shift!
Examine a string of lights where every other bulb is lit at
any given time
When all of the 1 bulbs are lit, the 2 bulbs are dark, and
vice versa. With this blinking sequence, there is no definite
motion to the bulbs light. Your eyes could follow a
motion from left to right just as easily as from right to left.
Technically, the 1 and 2 bulb blinking sequences are
180 out of phase (exactly opposite each other). This is
analogous to the single phase AC motor, which can run just
as easily in either direction, but which cannot start on its
own because its magnetic field alternation lacks a definite
rotation.
Now lets examine a string of lights where there are three
sets of bulbs to be sequenced instead of just two, and these
three sets are equally out of phase with each other.
If the lighting sequence is 1 2 3, the bulbs will appear to

move from left to right. Now imagine this blinking string of
bulbs arranged into a circle.
Now the lights appear to be moving in a clockwise

direction because they are arranged around a circle instead

of a straight line. It should come as no surprise that the
appearance of motion will reverse if the phase sequence of
the bulbs is reversed.
The blinking pattern will either appear to move clockwise or
counter clockwise depending on the phase sequence.
This is analogous to a three phase AC motor with three
sets of windings energized by voltage sources of three
different phase shifts.
With phase shifts of less than 180 we get true rotation of

the magnetic field. With single phase motors, the rotating
magnetic field necessary for self starting must to be
created by way of capacitive phase shift. With polyphase
motors, the necessary phase shifts are there already. Plus,
the direction of shaft rotation for polyphase motors is very
easily reversed: just swap any two hot wires going to the
motor, and it will run in the opposite direction!
Two phase System
Two phase electrical power was an early 20th century
polyphase alternating current electric power distribution
system.
Two
circuits
were
used, with voltage
phases differing
by one quarter
of a cycle, 90. Usually circuits used four wires, two for each
phase. Less frequently, three wires were used, with a
common wire with a larger-diameter conductor. Some early
two phase generators had two complete rotor and field
assemblies, with windings physically offset to provide two
phase power. The generators at Niagara Falls installed in
1895 were the largest generators in the world at that time
and were two phase electric machines. As of 21st century,
two phase power was superseded with three phases and
is not used in the industry. There remains, however, a two
phase commercial distribution system in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania; many buildings in city center are
permanently wired for two phase and PECO (the local
electric utility company) has continued the service.
Three phase Y and Delta Configuration
Initially, the idea of three phase power systems is by
connecting three voltage sources together in what is
commonly known as the Y (or star) configuration. This
configuration of voltage sources is characterized by a
common connection point joining one side of each source.
If a circuit is drawn showing each voltage source to be a

coil of wire (alternator or transformer winding) and do some
slight rearranging, the Y configuration becomes more
obvious.
The three conductors leading away from the voltage

sources (windings) toward a load are typically called lines,
while the windings themselves are typically called phases.
In a Y connected system, there may or may not be a neutral
wire attached at the junction point in the middle, although it
certainly helps alleviate potential problems should one
element of a three phase load fail open.

When we measure voltage and current in three-phase
systems, we need to be specific as to where were
measuring. Line voltage refers to the amount of voltage
measured between any two line conductors in a balanced
three phase system. With the above circuit, the line
voltage is roughly 208 volts. Phase voltage refers to the
voltage measured across any one component (source
winding or load impedance) in a balanced three phase
source or load. For the circuit shown above, the phase
voltage is 120 volts. The terms line current and phase
current follow the same logic: the former referring to current
through any one line conductor, and the latter to current
through any one component.
Y connected sources and loads always have line voltages
greater than phase voltages, and line currents equal to
phase currents. If the Y connected source or load is
balanced, the line voltage will be equal to the phase voltage
times the square root of 3:
windings to hold them back. Due to the phase angles of

these three voltage sources, however, this is not the case.
One quick check of this is to use Kirchhoffs Voltage Law to
see if the three voltages around the loop add up to zero. If
they do, then there will be no voltage available to push
current around and around that loop, and consequently
there will be no circulating current. Starting with the top
winding and progressing counter clockwise, our KVL
expression looks something like this:
1200 + 120240 + 120120 = 0
Another way to verify the fact that these three voltage
sources can be connected together in a loop without
resulting in circulating currents is to open up the loop at one
junction point and calculate voltage across the break:
= 3
=
However, the Y configuration is not the only valid one for

connecting three phase voltage source or load elements
together. Another configuration is known as the Delta, for
its geometric resemblance to the Greek letter of the same
name ().
At first glance it seems as though three voltage sources like

this would create a short circuit, electrons flowing around
the triangle with nothing but the internal impedance of the
Starting with the right winding (120 V 120) and

progressing counter clockwise, our KVL equation looks like
this:
120120 + 1200 + 120240 + = 0
0 + = 0
= 0
Having established that a - connected three phase
voltage source will not burn itself to a crisp due to circulating
currents, its practical use as a source of power in three
phase circuits can be defined. Because each pair of line
conductors is connected directly across a single winding in
a circuit, the line voltage will be equal to the phase
voltage. Conversely, because each line conductor attaches
at a node between two windings, the line current will be the
vector sum of the two joining phase currents. Not
surprisingly, the resulting equations for a configuration
are as follows:
= 3
=
One distinct advantage of a - connected system is its lack
of a neutral wire. With a Y connected system, a neutral

wire was needed in case one of the phase loads were to fail
open (or be turned off), in order to keep the phase voltages
at the load from changing. This is not necessary (or even
possible!) in a - connected circuit. With each load phase
element directly connected across a respective source
phase winding, the phase voltage will be constant
regardless of open failures in the load elements.
Perhaps the greatest advantage of the - connected
source is its fault tolerance. It is possible for one of the
windings in a - connected three phase source to fail
open without affecting load voltage or current!
Three phase transformer circuits

Since three phase is used so often for power distribution
systems, it makes sense that a three phase transformers
is needed to be able to step voltages up or down. This is
only partially true, as regular single phase transformers
can be ganged together to transform power between two
three phase systems in a variety of configurations,
eliminating the requirement for a special three phase
transformer. However, special three phase transformers
are built for those tasks, and are able to perform with less
material requirement, less size, and less weight than their
modular counterparts.
A three phase transformer is made of three sets of
primary and secondary windings, each set wound around
one leg of an iron core assembly. Essentially it looks like
three single phase transformers sharing a joined core.
The only consequence of a source winding failing open for

a - connected source is increased phase current in the
remaining windings. Compare this fault tolerance with a Y
connected system suffering an open source winding.
With a - connected load, two of the resistances suffer

reduced voltage while one remains at the original line
voltage, 208. A Y connected load suffers an even worse
fate with the same winding failure in a Y connected
source.
In this case, two load resistances suffer reduced voltage

while the third loses supply voltage completely! For this
reason, - connected sources are preferred for reliability.
However, if dual voltages are needed (e.g. 120/208) or
preferred for lower line currents, Y connected systems are
the configuration of choice.
Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be

connected in either or Y configurations to form a
complete unit.
Whether the winding sets share a common core assembly
or each winding pair is a separate transformer, the winding
connection options are the same:
Primary
Secondary
Y
The reasons for choosing a Y or configuration for

transformer winding connections are the same as for any
other three phase application: Y connections provide the
opportunity for multiple voltages, while connections enjoy
a higher level of reliability (if one winding fails open, the
other two can still maintain full line voltages to the load).
10

Probably the most important aspect of connecting three
sets of primary and secondary windings together to form a
three phase transformer bank is paying attention to
proper winding phasing (the dots used to denote polarity
of windings).
Getting this phasing correct when the windings arent

shown in regular Y or configuration can be tricky. Three
individual transformers are to be connected together to
transform power from one three phase system to another.
First, the wiring connections for a Y Y configuration:
Note how all the winding ends marked with dots are
connected to their respective phases A, B, and C, while the
non dot ends are connected together to form the centers
of each Y. Having both primary and secondary winding
sets connected in Y formations allows for the use of
neutral conductors (N1 and N2) in each power system.
Now for a Y - configuration:
point between pairs of windings, a connection is made to a

line of the second power system (A, B, and C).
Now for a - Y system:
Such a configuration would allow for the provision of

multiple voltages (line to line or line to neutral) in the
second power system, from a source power system having
no neutral.
And finally, for a - configuration:
When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the

secondary power system, - connection schemes are
preferred because of the inherent reliability of the
configuration.
Considering that a configuration can operate
satisfactorily missing one winding, some power system
designers choose to create a three phase transformer
bank with only two transformers, representing a -
configuration with a missing winding in both the primary and
secondary sides:
Note how the secondary windings are connected in a chain,

the dot side of one winding connected to the non dot
side of the next, forming the loop. At every connection
11

This configuration is called V or Open . Of course, each
of the two transformers have to be oversized to handle the
same amount of power as three in a standard
configuration, but the overall size, weight, and cost
advantages are often worth it. Bear in mind, however, that
with one winding set missing from the shape, this system
no longer provides the fault tolerance of a normal -
system. If one of the two transformers were to fail, the load
voltage and current would definitely be affected.
Advantages of Polyphase Systems
1. A polyphase transmission line requires less conductor
material than a single phase line for transmitting the
same amount of power at the same voltage.
2. For a given frame size a polyphase machine gives a
higher input than a single phase machine. For
example, output of a 3 phase motor is 1.5 times the
output of a single phase motor of the same size.
3. Polyphase motors have a uniform torque where most
of the single phase motor have a pulsating torque.
4. Polyphase induction motors are self starting and are
more efficient. On the other hand, single phase
induction motors are not self starting and are less
efficient.
5. Per unit of output, the polyphase machine is very much
cheaper.
6. Power factor of a single phase motor is lower than
that of polyphase motor of the same rating.
7. Rotating field can be set up by passing polyphase
current through stationary coils.
8. Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is simple as
compared to that of single phase alternators because
of pulsating reaction in single phase alternator.
Advantages of Three Phase AC Power Systems to Single
Phase AC Power Systems
1. It is possible to get more power per kilogram of metal
from a three phase machine
2. The power delivered to a three phase load is constant
all the times
3. Three phase systems can use the service of induction
motors easier by allowing them to start without
auxiliary starting windings
4. Two voltages are available
5. Three phase motors are very robust, relatively cheap,
and generally smaller, have self starting properties,
provide a steadier output and require little maintenance

compared with single phase motors.
Multiphase Systems
Three phase system is universally used. However,
attention has been given in recent years to the use of more
than three phases for power transmission purposes. In
particular, six and twelve phase systems have been
studied. Advantage of six and twelve phase systems
relative to three phase systems are as follows:
1. Thermal loading capacity of lines is more.
2. Corona effects is less because for a given conductor
size and tower configuration the stress on the
conductor surface decreases with the number of
phases.
3. The higher the numner of phases, the smaller the line
to line voltage becomes relative to the phase
voltage, resulting in increased utilization of rights of
way because of less phase to phase insulation
requirement.
4. Exisitng double circuit lines (two three phase
circuits on each tower) could be converted to single
circuit six phase lines. It is always advantageous to
describe multiphase systems in terms of the phase
voltage rather than line to line, as in the case for
three phase systems. The transmission efficiency is
higher.
A six phase supply can be obtained by suitable
arrangement of the secondary windings of a three phase
transformer. The figure shows the transformer connections
and phasor diagram.
Balanced Three Phase Circuit

The magnitude of the line currents are the same and they
have 120 phase difference.
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are
out of phase with each other by 120.
A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are
equal in magnitude and in phase.
A balanced Y Y system is a three phase system with a
balanced Y connected source and a balanced Y
connected load.
= 0
= + + = 0
= 120
= 120
=
+ + = 0
12

=
=
=
= 3
A balanced - system is one in which both the balanced
source and balanced load are - connected.
= 0
=
= 120
= 3
= 120
=
+ + = 0
=
=
NOTE: To Analyze Delta Connected system using one
line equivalent circuits, it is first transformed into an
equivalent wye connected load making used off:
1
=
3
Comparison of Star and Delta Connections
1. Loads connected in delta dissipate three times more
power than when connected in star to the same supply.
2. For the same power, the phase currents must be the
same for both delta and star connections
(since = 32 ), hence the line current in the
delta connected system is greater than the line current
in the corresponding star connected system. To
achieve the same phase current in a star connected
system as in a delta connected system, the line
voltage in the star system is
3 times the line voltage in the delta system. Thus for
a given power transfer, a delta system is associated
with larger line currents (and thus larger conductor
cross sectional area) and a star system is associated
with a larger line voltage (and thus greater insulation).
A balanced - Y system consist of a balanced connected source feeding a balanced Y connected load.
A balanced Y - system consist of a balanced Y
connected source feeding a balanced - connected load.
Connection
Phase
voltage/Currents
Line voltage/currents
YY
= 0
= 3 0
= 120
= 120
Same as line
currents
= 0
= 120
= 120
=
= 3 30
=
= 120
= /
=
= 120
= /
= 3 30
= /
= 120
= 120
= 0
Same as phase
voltages
= 120
= 120
= /
= /
= /
-Y
= 0
= 3 30
= 120
= 120
Same as phase
voltages
= 120
= 120
Same as line
currents
30
3
= 120
= 120
= 120
= 120
Y-
= /
= 120
= 120
BALANCED 3 phase EQUATIONS

= 3 cos = 3 cos = 3 2
= 3 sin = 3 sin = 3 2
= 3 = 3 = 3 2 = 2 + 2
where:

=
=

sin =
=
=

cos =
13

angle between VP & IP
Power Factor Improvement
The power factor of different loads are as follows:
Types of load
Power factor (range)
Heating and Lighting
0.95 to unity
Motor loads
0.5 to 0.9
Single phase motors
as low as 0.4
Electric welding units
0.2 to 0.3
The higher current due to poor power factor affects the

system and lead to the following undesirable results:
1. Rating of alternators and transformers are proportional
to their output current hence inversely proportional to
power factor, therefore large generators and
transformers are required to deliver same load but at a
low power factor.
2. When a load having a low lagging power is switched
on, there is a large voltage drop in the supply voltage
because of the increased voltage drop in the supply
lines and transformers. This drop in voltage adversely
affects the starting torque of motors and necessitates
expensive voltage stabilizing equipment for keeping
the consumers voltage fluctuations within the statutory
limits.
3. The cross sectional are of the bus bar, and the
contact surface of switch gear is required to be
enlarged for the same power to be deliverd but at a low
power factor.
4. To transmit same power at low power factor, more
current will have to be carried by the transmission line
or the distributor or cable. If the current density in the
line is to be kept constant the size of the conductor will
have to be increased. Thus more copper is required to
deliver the same load but at a low power factor.
5. Copper losess are proportional to the square of the
current hence inversely proportional to the square of
the power factor, more copper losses at low power
factor and hence poor efficiency.
Thus, the capital cost of transformers, alternators,
distributors, transmission lines increase with low power
factor.
Cause of Low Power Factor
1. All AC motors (except overexcoted synchronous
motors and certain types of commutators motors) and
transformers operate at lagging power factor.
2. Due to typical characteristic of the arc, arc lamps
operate at low power factor.
3. When there is increase in supply voltage, which usually

occurs during low load periods (such as lunch hours,
night hours etc.), the magnetizing current of inductive
reactances increases and power factor of the electrical
plant as a whole decreases.
4. Arc and induction furnaces operate at a very low
lagging power factor.
5. Due to improper maintenance and repairs of motor the
power factor at which motors operate fall.
6. Very low lagging power factor of agriculture motor
pump set.
Methods of Improving Power Factor
1. Use of high power factor motors.
2. Use of induction motors with phase advancers.
3. Use of static capacitors.
4. Use of capacitance boosters.
5. Use of synchronous condensers.
EARTHING AND GROUNDING
The process of connecting the neutral point of a supply
system on the non concurrent carrying parts of
electrical apparatus to the general mass of earth in
such a manner that at all times and immediate
discharge of electrical energy takes place without
danger is called earthing. It also means connecting
earth terminals to electrodes installed solidly in the
mass of earth. It is also a wire coming from the ground
2.5 to 3 meters deep from an electrode (plate).
The earths potential is always taken as zero for all
practical purposes. The electrical appliances or
machines when connected with earth attain zero
potential and are said to be earthed.
Good earthing is that earthing which gives very low
resistance to the flow of heavy current (short circuit
current) of a circuit.
Double earth is used to give minimum resistance to
the flow of whole current of the apparatus in case short
circuit to leakage or any other such fault occurs.
Second reason is, if one earth is out of order, second
will do the work.
The earth resistance for coper wire is 1 and for GU
wire it should not be more than 3 .
The earth resistance should be kept as low as
possible.
Objectives of Earthing
1. To save human life from danger or shock or death by
blowing fuse of any apparatus which become leaky.
2. To protect all machines fed from overhead lines from
lightning arrestors.
3. To protect large buildings from atmospheric lightning.
4. To maintain line voltage constant (since neutral of
every alternator, transformer is earthed).
14

Methods of Earthing
1. Strip or wire earthing
2. Earthing through water mains
3. Rod earthing
4. Pipe earthing
5. Plate earthing
Earthing of a Power System
Earthing of neutrals of all industrial power systems is
always preferable. Earthing is necessary as it offers many
advantages:
1. Persistent arcing ground is eliminated.
2. Over voltage due to restriking is minimized.
3. The ground faults can be located an isolated
immediately.
4. Steady state voltage stress to earth is reduced.
5. Sensitive protective apparatus can be used.
6. The maintenance expenditure is reduced.
7. Better safety is ensured.
8. Service reliability is improved.
9. Earthing provides improved lightning protection.
The earthing of systems should be done at the neutral of
the supply transformers and generators. If the supply
transformers and generators are delta connected, separate
earthing transformers may be used.
Examples:
1. If Vab = 400 V in a balanced Y connected three
phase generator, find the phase voltages, assuming
the phase sequence is:
a. abc
b. acb
2. Given that the line voltages of a three phase circuit
are
= 4200
= 420 120
= 420120
Find the phase voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn.
3. A balanced Y connected load with a phase
impedance of 16+j9 is connected to a balanced three
phase source with a line voltage of 220 V. Calculate
the line current IL.
4. A balanced Y Y four wire system has phase voltages
= 1200
= 120 120
= 120120
The load impedance per phase is 19+j13 and the line
impedance per phase is 1+j2 . Solve for the line
currents and neutral current.
5. In a wye delta three phase circuit, the source is a
balanced, positive phase sequence with =
1200 . It feeds a balanced load with = 9 +
12 per phase through a balanced line with =
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
1 + 0.5 per phase. Calculate the phase voltages

and currents in the load.
A balanced delta connected load has a phase current
= 1030 A.
a. Determine the three line currents assuming that
the circuit operates in the positive phase
sequence.
b. Calculate the load impedance if the line voltage is
= 1100 V.
A balanced delta connected source has phase
voltage = 41630 V and a positive phase
sequence. If this is connected to a balanced delta
connected load, find the line and phase currents. Take
the load impedance per phase as 6030 and line
impedance per phase as 1+j1 .
Three loads, each of resistance 50 are connected in
star to a 400V, 3 phase supply. Determine (a) the
phase voltage, (b) the phase current and (c) the line
current.
A star connected load consists of three identical
coils, each of inductance 159.2mH and resistance 50
. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz and the line current
is 3A determine (a) the phase voltage and (b) the line
voltage.
Three identical capacitors are connected in star to a
400V, 50 Hz 3 phase supply. If the line current is 12
A determine the capacitance of each of the capacitors.
Three coils each having resistance 6 and inductance
LH are connected in star to a 415V, 50 Hz, 3 phase
supply. If the line current is 30A, find the value of L.
A 400V, 3 phase, 4 wire, star connected system
supplies three resistive loads of 15kW, 20kW and
25kW in the red, yellow and blue phases respectively.
Determine the current flowing in each of the four
conductors.
In a balanced three phase - Y circuit, the source is
connected in the positive sequence, with =
22020 V and = 20 + 15 . Find the line
currents.
Three 24 F capacitors are connected in star across a
400V, 50 Hz, 3 phase supply. What value of
capacitance must be connected in delta in order to take
the same line current?
A 3 phase, star connected alternator delivers a line
current of 65 A to a balanced delta connected load at
a line voltage of 380V. Calculate (a) the phase voltage
of the alternator, (b) the alternator phase current and
(c) the load phase current.
Three inductive loads each of resistance 75 and
inductance 318.4mH are connected in delta to a 415V,
15
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
50 Hz, 3 phase supply. Determine (a) the phase

voltage, (b) the phase current, and (c) the line current.
A delta connected generator supplies a balanced
wye connected load with and impedance 30
60 . If the line voltages of the generator have a
magnitude of 400 V and are in the positive phase
sequence, find the line currents IL and phase voltage
Vp at the load.
A balanced wye connected load absorbs a total
power of 5 kW at a leading power factor of 0.6 when
connected to a line voltage of 240 V. find the
impedance of each phase and total complex power of
the load.
A balanced delta connected load is supplied by a 60
Hz three phase source with a line voltage of 240 V.
Each load phase draws 6 kW at a lagging power factor
of 0.8. Find:
a. The load impedance per phase
b. The line current
c. The value of capacitor needed to be connected in
parallel with each load to minimize the current
from the source
A 4200 V, three phase transmission line has an
impedance of 4+j1 per phase. If it is supplies a load
of 1 MVA at 0.75 power factor lagging. Find:
a. The complex power
b. The power loss in the line
c. The voltage at the sending end
The following three parallel connected three phase
loads are fed by a balanced three phase source.
Load 1: 250 kVA, 0.8 pf lagging
Load 2: 300 kVA, 0.95 pf leading
Load 3: 450 kVA, unity pf
If the line voltage is 13.8 kV, calculate the line current
and the power factor of the source. Assume that the
line impedance is zero.
A three phase generator supplied 3.6 kVA at a power
factor of 0.85 lagging. If 2500 W are delivered to the
load and line losses are 80 W per phase, what are the
losses in the generator?
Determine the total power dissipated by three 20
resistors when connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to
a 440V, 3 phase supply.
A balanced delta connected load has a line voltage
of 400V, a line current of 8 A and a lagging power factor
of 0.94. Draw a complete phasor diagram of the load.
What is the total power dissipated by the load?
Three inductive loads, each of resistance 4 and
reactance 9 are connected in delta. When connected
to a 3 phase supply the loads consume 1.2kW.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Calculate (a) the power factor of the load, (b) the phase
current, (c) the line current and (d) the supply voltage.
The input voltage, current and power to a motor is
measured as 415 V, 16.4 A and 6k W respectively.
Determine the power factor of the system.
A 440V, 3 phase ac motor has a power output of
11.25kW and operates at a power factor of 0.8 lagging
and with an efficiency of 84 percent. If the motor is
delta connected determine (a) the power input, (b) the
line current and (c) the phase current.
A three phase 440 V, 51 kW, 60 kVA inductive load
operates at 60 Hz and is wye connected. It is desired
to correct the power factor to 0.95 lagging. What value
of capacitor should be placed in parallel with each load
impedance?
A 3 phase, star connected alternator supplies a
delta connected load, each phase of which has a
resistance of 15 and inductive reactance 20 . If the
line voltage is 400V, calculate (a) the current supplied
by the alternator and (b) the output power and kVA
rating of the alternator, neglecting any losses in the line
between the alternator and the load.
Each phase of a delta connected load comprises a
resistance of 40 and a 40F capacitor in series.
Determine, when connected to a 415V, 50 Hz, 3
phase supply (a) the phase current, (b) the line current,
(c) the total power dissipated, and (d) the kVA rating of
the load.
A professional center is supplied by a balanced three
phase source. The center has four balanced three
phase loads as follows:
Load 1: 150 kVA at 0.8 pf leading
Load 2: 100 kW at unity pf
Load 3: 200 kVA at 0.6 pf lagging
Load 4: 80 kW and 95 kVAR (inductive)
If the line impedance is 0.02+j0.05 per phase and
the line voltage at the loads is 480 V, find the
magnitude of the line voltage at the source.
A commercially available three phase inductive
motor operates at full load of 120 hp (1 hp = 746 W) at
95 percent efficiency at a lagging power factor of
0.707. The motor is connected in parallel to a 80 kW
balanced three phase heater at unity power factor. If
the magnitude of the line voltage is 480 V rms,
calculate the line current.
Calculate the total power when three identical
resistances each of 10 are connected wye when
connected across 220 V, 3 phase, 60 Hz source.
Three identical resistances in star consume 2000 W. If
the resistances are connected in delta across the same
supply, what is the power consumed.
16

35. Three 50 resistance are connected in wye across
220 V, 3 phase supply. What is the equivalent delta
connected resistance?
36. Three identical resistance connected in wye carry a
line current of 18 A. If the same resistances are
connected in delta across the same supply, what is the
line current?
37. The apparent power input to a balanced wye
connected load is 30 kVA and the corresponding true
power is 15 kW at 45.45 A. What is the phase voltage?
38. Three star connected impedances, Z1 = 12 + j16
/phase are connected in parallel with 3 delta
connected impedances, Z2 = 30 j45 /phase. The
line voltage is 480 V. What is the line current?
39. The phase b line voltage and phase a line current of a
balanced three phase system are V = 220 sin (wt +
210) V and I = 10 sin (wt 30) A respectively. What
is the power of the system?
40. The three phase line has an impedance of 2 + j4 .
The line feeds two balanced three phase loads that are
connected in parallel. The first load is Y connected
and has an impedance of 30 + j40 /phase. The
second load is delta connected and has an impedance
of 60 j45 /phase. The line is energized at the
sending end from a balanced 3 phase supply of line
voltage 207.85 V. Taking the voltage Van as reference
determine:
a. The current, real power and reactive power drawn
from the supply
b. The line voltage at combined loads
c. The current per phase in each load
d. The real and reactive powers in each load and the
line
UNBALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage
sources or an unbalanced load.
NOTE: Unbalanced three phase systems are solved by
direct application of mesh and nodal analysis.
Unbalanced Three Phase Systems
Y Y System
Case 1: If Zneutral is considered zero, each individual phase

current can be independently determined from the supply
voltage in that phase and the impedance of that phase.
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
= , = , =
= + +
Case 2: If there is a neutral impedance, then using
Millmanns theorem, we will first have to determine the
voltage of the star point of the load with respect to the
supply neutral.
=
+
+
+ + + + + +
=
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+ + + + + +

+ +

=
+ +

=
+ +
= , = , =
= + +
=
Another way of solving this case is by Nodal Analysis. Using

the neutral as a node. The nodal equation would be:

+
+ + + +

+
+ +
Case 3: If the system is a 3 wire system, rather than a 4

wire system, the analysis is the same as if Zneutral were
(i.e. 1/Zneutral = 0). Thus again Millmanns theorem is used
to determine VSN and the load currents are then
determined.

+
+
+ + + + + +
=
1
1
1
+
+
+ + + + + +

=
+ +

=
+ +

=
+ +
=
17

= , = , =
Another way of solving this problem is by mesh analysis:

1 ( + + + + + )
+ 2 ( + + ) = 0
+ 1 ( + + )
+ 2 ( + + + +
+ ) = 0
= 1 , = 2 1 ; = 2
= , = , =
= + +
NOTE: Converting a Y - and - Y Systems to a Y Y

System is possible. Just remember that it falls as Case 3
for a Y Y system. The same also applies in converting a
Y - and - Y Systems to a system.
Y - System
Using Mesh Analysis:

1 ( + + + + + )
+ 2 ( + + ) = 0
+ 1 ( + + )
+ 2 ( + + + +
+ ) = 0
Phase Currents:
= 1 3
= 2 3
= 3
Line Currents:
=
=
=
Phase Voltages (LOAD): () =
() =
() =
- System
By Using Mesh Analysis:

= 1 ( + 2 + ) 2 ( ) 3 ( )
= 1 ( ) + 2 ( + 2 + ) 3 ( )
0 = 1 ( ) 2 ( ) + 3 ( + + )
Phase Currents: = 1 3 , = 2 3 , = 3
Line Currents:
=
=
=
Phase Voltages (LOAD): () =
() =
() =
- Y System
Using Mesh Analysis:

1 ( + + + + + )
+ 2 ( + + ) = 0
+ 1 ( + + )
+ 2 ( + + + +
+ ) = 0
Phase/Line Currents: = 1 , = 2 1 ; = 2
= + +
Load Voltages:
=
=
=
Unbalanced Wye Loads

Unbalanced four wire Y systems without line impedance
are easily handled using Ohms law. However, for three
wire systems or four wire systems with line and neutral
impedance, you generally have to use mesh equations or
computer methods. One of the problems with unbalanced
three wire Y systems is that you get different voltages
across each phase of the load and a voltage between
neutral points.
Unbalanced Delta Loads
Systems without line impedance are easily handled since
the source voltage is applied directly to the load. However,
for systems with line impedance, use mesh equations.
EXAMPLES:
1. A 3 phase, 3 wire, 240 V, CBA system supplies a

delta connected load in which ZAB = 2590, ZBC =
1530 and ZCA = 200 . Find the line currents and
total power.
2. A 3 phase, 4 wire, 380 V supply is connected to an
unbalanced load having phase impedances of ZR = (8
+ j6) , ZY = (8 j6) and ZB = 5 . Impedance of the
neutral wire is ZN = (0.5 + j1) . Ignoring the
impedances of line wires and internal impedances of
18
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
the emf sources, find the phase currents and voltages

of the load.
A 300 V (line) 3 phase supply feeds a star
connected load consisting of non inductive resistors
of 15, 6 and 10 connected to the R, Y and B lines
respectively. The phase sequence is RYB. Calculate
the voltage across each resistor.
A Y connected load is supplied from a 400 V, 3
phase, 3 wire symmetrical system RYB. The branch
circuit impedances are
= 103 + 10; = 20 + 203
= 0 10
Determine the current in each branch. Phase
sequence is RYB.
Three non inductive resistances of 5, 10 and 15
are connected in star and supplied from a 230 V
symmetrical 3 phase system. Calculate the line
currents (magnitudes).
A 3 phase, 4 wire, 400 V symmetrical system
supplies a Y connected load having the following
branch impedances:
= 100 , = 10 = 10
Compute the values of load phase voltages and
currents and neutral current. Phase sequence is RYB.
How will these values change in the event of an open
in the neutral wire?
A delta connected load whose phase impedances
are
= 50 , = 50 , and =
50 is fed by a balanced wye connected three
phase source with = 100 . Find the phase
currents.
A balanced three phase wye connected generator
with = 220 supplies an unbalanced wye
connected load with = 60 + 80 , =
100 120 , and = 30 + 40 . Find the
total complex power absorbed by the load.
In an unbalanced wye system, the phase voltages are:
= 132 0
= 130 235
= 133 117
What is the voltage at line a, b and c?
For the given circuit, Rab = 60 , Zbc = 80 + j60 .
Compute for (a) Phase and line currents. (b) Power to
each phase and total power.
11. For the given circuit, compute the following: (a) Line
currents, magnitudes and angles. (b) The neutral
current.
12. Three impedances, ZR, ZY and ZB are connected in star

across a 440 V, 3 phase supply. If the voltage of star
point relative to the supply neutral is 200150 V and
Y and B line currents are 10-90 and 2090 A
respectively, all with respect to the voltage between the
supply neutral and the R line, calculate the values of
ZR, ZY and ZB.
Power System Loads
The single phase and
three phase loads must
be connected in the three
phase system as
accurate as possible
(This
is
necessary
because residential and
business
customers
require only single phase
power, while industrial customers sometimes require both
single phase and three phase power.). Two points should
be noted here:
1. In order to approximately balance the system, the utility
tries to connect one third of its single phase loads to
each phase. Three phase loads generally are
balanced.
2. Real loads are seldom expressed in terms of
resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Instead, they
are described in terms of power, power factor, and so
on. This is because most loads consist of electric lights,
motors, and the like which are never described in terms
of impedance. (For example, you purchase light bulbs
as 60 W bulbs, 100 W bulbs, etc., and electric motors
as horsepower, etc. You never ask for a 240 light!)
POWER MEASUREMENTS IN 3 PHASE SYSTEMS
For balanced systems:
1. One wattmeter method used to measure the total
balanced three phase power using one wattmeter only.
If delta connected:
= cos
19

If star connected:
= 3
= cos
= 3
Methods used
Potential lead shift method the current coil of one
wattmeter is inserted in one line, say line a and one of
the other is shifted to line 2 and to line 3 for another
reading.
= +
b. Artificial neutral method if three resistances are
connected in star across the lines of a 3 phase source,
its neutral point will at every instant of time be exactly
the same electrical potential as the point of the load
=
3
c. T method the current coil is inserted in one line say
line a and one of the potential coil terminals is
connected to the same line. The other terminal is
fastened to the junction between a pair of equal
resistances, the line ends of which connected to the
other two lines.
=
2
d. Current transformer (CT) method this scheme
gives direct measurement of the total power. It employs
a pair of current transformers and a single wattmeter.
Two wattmeter method used to measure power drawn by

a 3 phase, 3 wire system and 4 wire system.
Delta Connected Load:
a.
2.
1 = cos(30 )
2 = cos(30 + )
= 1 + 2
= 3(1 2 )
1 2
tan = 3(
)
1 + 2
where: PT total real power of the balanced 3 phase load
- pf angle of the balanced 3 phase load
If line =
If phase =
If 1 + 2 is negative, just carry the negative sign
1. If pf = 1, both watt meters read positive and equal
2. If pf > 0.5, both readings are positive,
= 1 + 2
3. If pf = 0.5, only one wattmeter gives reading and the
other will not read = 1
4. If pf < 0.5, only one wattmeter will read positive and the
other will give reversed reading
Star Connected Load:
For unbalanced systems:

The currents will not be equal nor they will have 120
phase difference as was the case of with balanced
loads
For unbalanced 3 phase systems we consider the first
watt meters current coil in line a, and potential coil
between lines a and c. While the second current coil in
line b and potential coil between lines b and c. The
wattmeter readings are:
1 = cos() the angle will be the
difference of and .
2 = cos() the angle will be the
difference of and .
3. Three wattmeter method used to measure power drawn
by a 3 phase, 4 wire system.
1 = cos
20

2 = cos
3 = cos
= 1 + 2 + 3
Watts Ratio Curve
The power factor for a balanced load can be obtained from the
wattmeter readings using a simple curve called the watts ratio
curve.
where high reading

low reading
=
Blondel's Theorem: Number of Watt meters Required
In general, the Number of Watt meters required = the
Number of Wires 1
EXAMPLES:
1. A three phase balanced system with a line voltage of

202 V rms feeds a delta connected load with =
2560 .
a. Find the line current.
b. Determine the total power supplied to the load
using two watt meters connected to the A and C
lines.
2. A balanced 3 phase load has a line current of 120 A at
230 V line to line and 0.848 pf lagging. If the two watt
meters are used to measure the power being drawn by
the system. What are the wattmeter readings?
3. A factory is being supplied by a 3 phase, 3 wire
system with the following characteristics:
= 110 36.87
= 220 0
= 220 240
= 125 53.13
Determine the total power consumed by the load.
4. A 3 phase, 3 wire feeder has the following line current
and voltages:
= 220 0
= 30 30
= 220 240
= 29 + 39.8
Determine the reactive power supplied by the feeder.
Let line b as your reference.
5. Given an unbalanced three phase system with the
following loads:
= 60
= 230 0
= 230 120
= 30 + 50
= 230 240
= 80
Determine the reading of the two wattmeters properly
connected using line c as the common point.

connected using line b as the common point.
connected using line a as the common point.
6. The power input to a 50 hp, 480 V, 3 phase motor
running at full load is measured by 2 watt meters which
indicates 25.4 kW and 17.2 kW respectively. What is
the operating power factor and line current?
7. Two watt meters are connected to measure the input
power to a balanced three-phase load. If the wattmeter
readings are 9.3kW and 5.4kW determine (a) the total
output power, and (b) the load power factor.
8. 8kW is found by the two wattmeter method to be the
power input to a 3 phase motor. Determine the
reading of each wattmeter if the power factor of the
system is 0.85.
9. When the two wattmeter method is used to measure
the input power of a balanced load, the readings on the
watt meters are 7.5kW and 2.5kW, the connections to
one of the coils on the meter reading 2.5kW having to
be reversed. Determine (a) the total input power, and
(b) the load power factor.
10. Three similar coils, each having a resistance of 4 and
an inductive reactance of 3.46 are connected (a) in
star and (b) in delta across a 400V, 3 phase supply.
Calculate for each connection the readings on each of
two watt meters connected to measure the power by
the two wattmeter method.
Symmetrical Component Method
Developed by Dr. C.L.
Fortesque,
an
American
scientist
showed that any
unbalanced system of
three phase currents
(or voltages) may be
regarded as being
composed of three
separate sets of
balanced vectors namely:
1. A balanced set of 3 phase vectors having the same
phase sequence as the original unbalanced system of
vectors (positive sequence). These vectors are known
as Positive Sequence System.
2. A balanced set of 3 phase vectors having phase
sequence which is opposite of the original unbalanced
system of vectors (negative sequence). This balanced
system of 3 phase vectors are known as Negative
Sequence System.
3. A set of three (3) single phase vectors which are equal
in magnitude and having zero displacement and which
21

have exactly the same 3 phase position with respect to
any given reference axis. This system of single phase
vector is known as Zero Sequence System.
Hence in mathematical form:
= 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0 + 1 + 2
Zero Sequence Component
= =
= =
Operator A
- is one which when multiplied to a vector, rotates
through a 120 in the counter clockwise direction.
Let:
= 1120
2 = 1240
3 = 1360 = 1
Positive Sequence Component
=
=
=
=
Negative Sequence Component
=
=
=
=
Expressing Symmetrical Components of IB and IC in terms
of IA symmetrical components:
= 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 2 1 + 2
= 0 + 1 + 2 2
Adding them up:
+ + = 30 + 1 (1 + + 2 ) + 2 (1 +
+ 2 )
2
But 1 + + = 0 also 1 + 2 + 4 = 0
Therefore,
= /( + + )
Also, Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0
Multiply Ia by 1, Multiply Ib by A and Multiply Ic by A2

= 0 + 1 + 2
= 0 + 3 1 + 2 2
2 = 2 0 + 3 1 + 4 2
Adding them up,
+ + 2 = 0 (1 + + 2 ) + 31 + 2 (1
+ 2 + 4 )
= /( + + )
Also, Ib1 = A2Ia1 and Ic1 = AIa1
Multiply Ia by 1, Multiply Ib by A2 and Multiply Ic by A
= 0 + 1 + 2
2 = 2 0 + 4 1 + 3 2
= 0 + 2 1 + 3 2
Adding them up,
+ + 2 = 0 (1 + + 2 ) + 31 + 2 (1
+ 2 + 4 )
= /( + + )
Also, Ib2 = AIa2 and Ic2 = A2Ia2
In matrix notation:
1 1 1 0
[ ] = [1 2 ] [1 ]
1 2 2
Some Facts about Sequence Currents
1. A balanced 3 phase system consists of positive
sequence components only; the negative and zero
sequence components being zero.
2. The presence of negative or zero sequence currents in
a 3 phase system introduces unsymmetry and is
indicative of an abnormal condition of the circuit in
which these components are found.
3. The vector sum of the positive and negative sequence
currents of an unbalanced 3 phase system is zero. The
resultant solely consists of three zero sequence
currents.
0 + 0 + 0
4. In a 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced system, the magnitude
of zero sequence components is one third of the
current in the neutral wire
1
0 =
3
In the absence of path through the neutral of a 3 phase
system, the neutral current is zero and the line currents
contain no zero sequence components. A delta connected
load provides no path to the neutral and the line currents
flowing to delta connected load can contain no zero
sequence components.
5. In a 3 phase unbalanced system, the magnitude of
negative sequence components cannot exceed that of
the positive sequence components. If the negative
22

sequence components were the greater, the phase
sequence of the resultant system would be reversed.
6. The current of a single phase load drawn from a 3
phase system comprises equal positive, negative and
zero sequence components.
Unbalanced Impedances and Admittances
Self Impedances Unbalanced impedances can be
resolved into symmetrical components, although the
impedances are vector operators, and not rotating vectors
as are three phase voltages and currents. Consider the
three star impedances of (a), which form an unbalanced
load. Their sequence components are:
1
= ( + + )
3
1
= ( + + 2 )
3
1
= ( + 2 + )
3
The sequence components of current through the

impedances, and the sequence components of the line
voltages impressed across them are interrelated by the
following equations:
1
0 = ( + + ) = 0 + 1 + 2
3
1
1 = ( + + 2 ) = 0 + 1 + 2
3
1
2 = ( + 2 + ) = 0 + 1 + 2
3
The above equation illustrate the fundamental principle that

there is mutual coupling between sequences when the
circuit constants are not symmetrical. As the equations

reveal, both positive and negative sequence current (as
well as zero sequence current) create a zero sequence
voltage drop. If Za = Zb = Zc, the impedances are
symmetrical, Z1 = Z2 = 0, and Z0 = Za. For this condition,
0 = 0
1 = 1
2 = 2
and, as expected, the sequences are independent. If the
neutral point is not grounded in (a) I0 = 0 but E0 = I1Z2 + I2Z1
so that there is a zero sequence voltage, representing a
neutral voltage shift, created by positive and negative
sequence current flowing through the unbalanced load.
The previous equations also hold for unsymmetrical series
line impedances, as shown in (b), where E0, E1 and E2 are
components of Ea, Eb and Ec, the voltage drops across the
impedances in the three phases.
Mutual Impedances between phases can also be resolved
into components. Consider Zmbc of (a), as reference, then
1
= ( + + )
3
1
= ( + + 2 )
3
1
= ( + 2 + )
3
The components of the three phase line currents and the

components of the three phase voltage drops created by
the mutual impedances will be interrelated by the following
equations:
1
0 = ( + + )
3
= 20 1 2
1
1 = ( + + 2 )
3
= 0 1 + 22
23

1
0 = ( + 2 + )
3
= 0 + 21 2
If, as in (b), both self and mutual impedances are present
in a section of a three phase circuit, the symmetrical
components of the three voltage drops across the section
are:
1
0 = ( + + )
3
= 0 ( + 2 ) + 1 ( ) + 2 ( )
1
1 = ( + + 2 )
3
= 0 ( ) + 1 ( ) + 2 ( + 2 )
1
0 = ( + 2 + )
3
and
1
= ( + 2 + )
3
0 = 0 + 1 + 2
1 = 0 + 1 + 2
2 = 0 + 1 + 2
Note, however, that Y0 is not the reciprocal of Z0, Y1 is not
the reciprocal of Z1, and Y2 is not the reciprocal of Z2, unless
Za = Zb = Zc; in other words, the components of admittance
are not reciprocals of the corresponding components of
impedance unless the three impedances (and admittances)
under considerations are equal.
Star Delta Conversion Equations
= 0 ( ) + 1 ( + 2 ) + 2 ( )
Again, if both self and mutual impedances are symmetrical,

in all three phases,
0 = 0 ( + 2 ) = 0 0
1 = 1 ( ) = 1 1
2 = 0 ( ) = 2 2
Where Z0, Z1 and Z2 are, respectively, the impedance to
zero, positive, and negative sequence. For this condition,
positive sequence currents produce only a positive
sequence voltage drop, etc. Z0, Z1 and Z2 are commonly
referred to as the zero sequence, positive sequence and
negative sequence impedances. Note, however, that this is
not strictly correct and that Z1, the impedance to positive
sequence currents, should not be confused with Z1, the
positive sequence component of self impedances. Since
Z0, Z1 and Z2 are used more frequently than Z0, Z1, and Z2
the shorter expression zero sequence impedance is
usually used to refer to Z0 rather than Z. For a circuit that
has only symmetrical impedances, both self and mutual,
the sequences are independent of each other, and positive
sequence current produces only positive sequence voltage
drops, etc. Fortunately, except for unsymmetrical loads,
unsymmetrical transformer connections, etc., the three
phase system usually encountered are symmetrical (or
balanced) and the sequences are independent.
Admittances can be resolved into symmetrical components,
and the components used to find the sequence
components of the currents through a three phase set of
line impedances, or star connected loads, as functions of
the symmetrical components of the voltage drops across
the impedances.
1
= ( + + )
3
1
= ( + + 2 )
3
If a delta arrangement of impedances, is to be converted to

an equivalent star, the following equations are applicable.

1
=
=
+ +
1

= =
+ +
1

= =
+ +
When the delta impedances form a three phase load, no
zero sequence current can flow from the line to the load;
hence, the equivalent star load must be left with neutral
ungrounded.
The reverse transformation, from the star impedances, to
the equivalent delta, is given by

= + +

= + +

= + +
An equivalent delta for a star connected, three phase

load with neutral grounded cannot be found, since zero
sequence current can flow from the line to the star load and
return in the ground, but cannot flow from the line to any
delta arrangement.
24

Power associated with Sequence Components
The total three phase power of a circuit can be expressed
in terms of the symmetrical components of the line currents
and the symmetrical components of the line to neutral
voltages.
= 3(0 0 cos 0 + 1 1 cos 1 + 2 2 cos 2 )
where 0 is the angle between 0 and 0 , 1 is the angle
between 1 and 1 and 2 is the angle between 2 and 2 .
The equation shows that the total power is the sum of the
three components of power; but the power in one phase of
an unbalanced circuit is not one third of the above
expression, since each phase will contain components of
power resulting from zero sequence voltage and positive
sequence current, etc. This power between sequences is
generated in one phase and absorbed by the others, and
does not appear in the expression for total three phase
power.
Only positive sequence power is developed by the
generators. This power is converted to negative sequence
and zero sequence power by a circuit dissymmetry such as
occurs from a single line to ground or a line to line
fault. The unbalanced fault, unbalanced load, or other
dissymmetry in the circuit thus acts as the generator for
negative sequence and zero sequence power.
For reactive power:
= 3(0 0 sin 0 + 1 1 sin 1 + 2 2 sin 2 )
and for Apparent power:
= 3(0 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 )
Examples:
1. In a 3 phase, 4 wire system, the currents in R, Y and B
lines under abnormal conditions of loading are as
under:
= 10030
= 50300
= 30180
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence
currents in the R line and return current in the neutral
wire.
2. The currents in a 3 phase unbalanced system are:
= (12 + 6)
= (12 12)
= (15 + 10)
The phase sequence in RYB. Calculate the zero,
positive and negative sequence components of the
currents.
3. The sequence voltages in the red phase are:
0 = 100
1 = (200 100)
2 = 100
Find the phase voltages.
4. The zero and positive sequence components of red

phase are:
0 = 0.5 0.866
1 = 20
If the phase voltage = 30 , find the negative
sequence component of red phase and the phase
voltages EY and EB.
5. The current from neutral to ground connection is 12 A.
Calculate the zero phase sequence components in
phases.
6. A balanced star connected load takes 90 A from a
balanced 3 phase, 4 wire supply. If the fuses in the Y
and B phases are removed, find the symmetrical
components of the line currents:
a. before the fuses are removed
b. after the fuses are removed
7. A 3 , 4 wire system supplies loads which are
unequally distributed in the three phases. An analysis
of the current flowing in R, Y and B lines shows that in
R line, positive phase sequence component is 200 0
A and the negative phase sequence component is 100
60 A. The total observed current flowing back to the
supply in the neutral conductor is 300 300 A.
Calculate the currents in the three lines.
8. One conductor of a 3 phase line is open. The current
flowing to the connected load through the line R is
10 A. With the current in line R as reference and
assuming that line B is open, find the symmetrical
components of the line currents.
9. Three resistors of 5, 10 and 20 are connected in

delta across the three phases of a balanced 100 volts
supply. What are the sequence components in the
resistors and in supply lines?
10. A delta connected load is supplied from a 3 phase
supply. The fuse in the B line is removed and current
in the other two lines is 20 A. Find the symmetrical
components of line currents.
11. Three impedances of 5j10, 6 + j 5 and 3 + j15 ohms
are connected in star to red, yellow and blue lines of a
3300 V, 3-phase, 3-wire supply. The phase sequence
is RYB. Calculate the line current IR.
12. A star connected load consists of three equal resistors
of 1 resistance. The load is assumed to be
25
13.
14.
15.
16.
connected to an unsymmetrical 3 phase supply, the

line voltages are 200 V, 346 V and 400 V. Find the
magnitude of current in any phase by the method of
symmetrical components.
The line currents in a 3 phase, 4 wire system are:
= 300 + 400
= 200 + 200
= 400 200
Calculate the positive, negative and zero components
of all the line currents.
The sequence components of phase a currents are:
0 = 0.47 + 1.49
1 = 18.4 31.6
2 = 3.23 168.2
Calculate the following:
a. The line current Ia
b. The line current Ib
c. The line current Ic
If the currents of a wye connected transformer are:
= 10 30
= 12 215
= 15 82
What is the phase b positive sequence component?
Three equal impedances (8+j6) ohms are connected in
wye across a 3 phase, 3 wire supply. The symmetrical
components of the phase A voltage are
0 = 40 + 0
1 = 220 + 28.9
2 = 40 28.9
If there is no connection between the load neutral and
the supply neutral. Calculate the line currents Ia, Ib and
Ic .
Sequence Networks
In unbalanced three phase analysis, each piece of equipment will
have three values of impedance one corresponding to each
sequence current:
i. Positive sequence impedance (Z1)
ii. Negative sequence impedance (Z2)
iii. Zero sequence impedance (Z0)
The following points may be noted:
a. In a 3 phase balanced system, each piece of equipment or
circuit offers only one impedance the one offered to
positive or normal sequence current. This is expected
because of the absence of negative and zero sequence
currents in the 3 phase balanced system.
b. In a 3 phase unbalanced system, each piece of equipment
or circuit will have three values of impedance: positive
sequence impedance, negative sequence impedance and
zero sequence impedance.
c. The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear,
symmetrical and static circuits (e.g. transmission lines,
cables, transformers and static loads) are equal and are the
same as those used in the analysis of balanced conditions.

This is due to the fact that impedance of such circuits is
independent of the phase order, provided the applied
voltages are balanced. It may be noted that positive and
negative sequence impedances of rotating machines (e.g.
synchronous and induction motors) are normally different.
d. The zero sequence impedance depends upon the path
taken by the zero sequence current. As this path is generally
different from the path taken by the positive and negative
sequence currents, therefore, zero sequence impedance is
usually different from positive or negative sequence
impedance.
Sequence Impedances of Power System Elements
The concept of impedances of various elements of power system
(e.g. generators, transformers, transmission lines etc.) to positive,
negative and zero sequence currents is of considerable
importance in determining the fault currents in a 3 phase
unbalanced system.
a. Transmission Lines are static devices and hence the
phase sequence has no effect on the impedance because
currents and voltages encounter the same geometry of the
line. Therefore, positive and negative sequence impedances
of transmission lines are equal.
=
Zero sequence currents are in phase and flow through the
phases (a, b, c conductors) to return through the grounded
neutral. The ground or any shielding wire are in the path of
zero sequence and zero sequence impedance ZTL0, which
includes the effect of the return path through the ground, is
different from Z1 and Z2.
Consider a 1 meter length of a three phase line shown in the
figure. The ground surface is approximated to an equivalent
conductor located at the average distance Dn from each of
the three phases. The phase conductors carry sequence
currents with return paths through a grounded neutral.
0 + 0 + 0 + = 0
Since 0 = 0 = 0 then = 30
0 = 2 107 (0 ln
1
1
1
1
+ 0 ln + 0 ln + ln )
Since 0 = 0 = 0 and = 30
3
0 = 2 107 0 ln
/
2
Since
0
3
0 =
= 0.2 ln
/
0
2
0
0 =
= 0.2 ln + 3 (0.2 ln ) /
0
26

zero sequence current to flow in the primary and
secondary.
Therefore,
b.
c.
= +
Synchronous Machines is designed with symmetrical
windings and it induces emfs of positive sequence only. The
positive sequence generator impedance is the value found
when positive sequence current flows due to an imposed
positive sequence set of voltages. Neglecting armature
resistance, the positive sequence impedance of the machine
is
= " (Sub transient)
= (Transient)
= (Steady state value)
With the flow of negative sequence currents in the stator, the
net flux in the air gap rotates at opposite direction to that of
the rotor. Therefore, the net flux rotates twice the
synchronous speed to the rotor.
In this case, field winding has no influence because field
voltage is associated with positive sequence variables and
only the damper winding produces an effect in the
quadrantal axis. Therefore, the negative sequence
impedance is close to the positive sequence sub transient
impedance.
= "
In a synchronous machine, no zero sequence voltage is
induced. Zero sequence impedance of the machine is due
to the flow of zero sequence current. The flow of zero
sequence currents creates three mmfs which are in time
phase but are distributed in space phase by 120. Therefore,
resultant air gap flux would be zero and there is no reactance
due to armature reaction. Hence, machine offers a very
small reactance due to the leakage flux. Therefore, the rotor
windings present leakage reactance only to the flow of zero
sequence currents
=
It may be worthwhile to mention here that any impedance Ze
in the earth connection of a star connected system has the
effect to introduce an impedance of 3Ze per phase. It is
because the three equal zero sequence currents, being in
phase, do not sum to zero at the star point, but they flow
back along the neutral earth connection.
Two Winding Transformers
In power transformers, core losses and magnetizing current
are on the order of 1 % of rated value and hence
magnetizing branch is neglected. The transformer is
modelled with equivalent series leakage impedance.
Transformer is a static device and if the phase sequence is
changed, leakage impedance will not change. Therefore,
positive, negative and zero sequence impedances are the
same and equal to leakage impedance of the transformer
1 = 2 = 0 =
The equivalent circuit for the zero sequence impedance
depends on the winding connection and also upon whether
or not the neutrals are grounded.
a. Wye (grounded) Wye (grounded) connection:
Both neutrals are grounded and there is a path for the
b.
Wye (grounded) Wye connection: Primary neutral

is grounded and secondary neutral is isolated. Zero
sequence current in the secondary is zero.
Consequently, zero sequence current in the primary
is zero.
c.
Wye Delta connection: In this case neutral is

isolated. As neutral is isolated, zero sequence current
cannot flow.
d.
Wye (grounded) Delta connection: In this case

neutral is grounded. Primary current can flow because
there is zero sequence circulating current in the delta
connected secondary and a ground return path for the
wye connected primary. Also note that no zero
sequence current can leave the delta terminals,
therefore, there is an isolation between primary and
secondary side.
e.
Delta Delta connection: In this case zero sequence

current circulate the delta connected windings, but no
current can leave the delta terminals.
d. Three Winding Transformers

Three phase, three
winding
have
an
additional
tertiary
winding, and may be
represented by a single
line
diagram
corresponding to the
27

ampere turn balance, or power balance.
+ + = 0 or + + = 0
which in per unit quantities would yield the common equation
, + , + , = 0
This may be represented
by three reactances
connected in T, giving the
general
single
line
diagram for fault studies
for the 3 winding transformer, as shown.
The positive sequence and negative sequence diagrams
would have a direct connection to the T connection of
reactances from P, S and T.
The zero sequence network would again be built up from the
single winding arrangements described and would yield the
single line diagrams given:
= 0.5( + )
= 0.5( + )
As in the case of the 2 winding transformer, 3Zn is included
wherever earthing of a neutral point is done through an
impedance Zn.
Sequence Network of Loaded Synchronous Machines
A Positive, B Negative and C Zero Sequence Network

Points to remember:
1. The three sequence networks are independent.
2. The neutral of the system is the reference for positive and
negative sequence networks but ground is the reference for
the zero sequence network.
3. There is no voltage source in the negative or zero
sequence networks. Only the positive sequence network
has a voltage source.
4. The grounding impedance is reflected in the zero sequence
network as 3Zn.
Examples:
1. Draw the three sequence networks for the transmission
network shown.
A particular point to keep in mind is that what is generally

available from measurements for a 3 winding transformer
would be the impedances across a pairs of windings. (ie.
ZPS, ZPT, and ZST), with the third winding on open circuit.
Thus we could relate the values to the effective primary,
secondary and tertiary impedances (ZP, ZS and ZT) as
follows, with reference to the equivalent circuit.
= +
= +
= +
The values of ZP, ZS and ZT can then be determined as
= 0.5( + )
2.
Draw the positive sequence network of the power system.
3.
Draw the zero sequence network of the power system.
4.
Draw the zero sequence network of the sample power

system shown. Data are given as:
G: xg0 = 0.05 pu
28

M: xm0 = 0.03 pu
T1: xt1 = 0.12 pu
T2: xt2 = 0.10 pu
Line 1: xl10 = 0.7 pu
Line 2: xl20 = 0.7 pu
5.
Draw the Zero sequence network. Data is given below:

G1: 100 MVA, 11 kV, Xg10 = 0.05 pu
G2: 100 MVA, 11 kV, Xg20 = 0.05 pu
T1: 100 MVA, 11/220 kV, XT1 = 0.06 pu
T2: 100 MVA, 220/11 kV, XT2 = 0.07 pu
Line 1: XL10 = 0.3 pu
Line 2:XL20 = 0.3 pu
10.8/121 kV, with leakage reactance of 10% each. Assume

zero sequence reactances for the generator and motors of
6% each. Current limiting reactors of 2.5 ohms each are
connected in the neutral of the generator and motor No. 2.
The zero sequence reactance of the transmission line is 300
ohms. The series reactance of the line is 100 . Draw the
positive, negative and zero sequence networks.
10. Draw the zero sequence network of the sample power

network.
Introduction to Power System
6.
Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence component

of the power system.
7.
Draw the zero sequence network of the sample power

system.
8.
Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence networks

of the sample power system shown in the diagram.
9.
A 50 MVA, 11 kV, synchronous generator has a sub

transient reactance of 20%. The generator supplies two
motors over a transmission line with transformers at both
ends as shown below. The motors have rated inputs of 30
and 15 MVA, both 10 kV, with 25% sub transient reactance.
The three phase transformers are both rated 60 MVA,
Generation,
Transmission
and
Distribution systems
are
the
main
components of an
electric power system.
Generating
stations
and
distribution
systems are connected
through transmission
lines.
Normally,
transmission
lines
implies
the
bulk
transfer of power by
high voltage links between main load centers. On the
other hand, distribution system is mainly responsible for the
conveyance of thos power to the consumers by means of
lower voltage networks.
Electric
power
is
generated in the range
of 11 kV to 25 kV, which
is increase by stepped
up transformers ot the
main
transmission
voltage. At sub stations, the connection
between
various
components are made, for example, lines and transformers
and switching of these components is carried out.
Transmission level voltages are in the range of 66 kV to 400
kV (or higher). Large amounts of power are transmitted
from the generating stations to the load centers at 220 kV
or higher.
29

The power supply network can be divided int two parts,
transmission and distribution systems. The transmission
system may be dividided into primary and secondary
distribution system. Most of the distribution networks
operate radially for less short circuit current and better
protective coordination.
Distribution networks are different than transmission

networks in many ways, quite apart from voltage
magnitude. The general structure or topology of the
distribution is different and the number of branches and
sources is much higher. A typical distribution system
consists of a step down transformer at a bulk supply point
feeding a number of lines with varying length from a few
hundred of meters to several kilometers. Several three
phase step down transformes are spaced along these
feeders and from these, three phase four wire networks
of consumers are supplied which gives 230 V, single phase
supply to houses and simular loads.
Power system engineers have devised the per unit

system such that different physical quatities such as
current, voltage, power and impedance are expressed as a
decimal fraction or multiple of base quantities. In this
system, the different voltage levels disapper and a power
network consisting synchronous generators, transformers
and lines reduces to a system of simple impedances.
Power System Representation
Equivalent Circuit and Reactance Diagram

The power system components are: generators,
transformers, transmission lines, and loads. Equivalent
circuits of these components may then be interconnected
to obtain a circuit representation for the entire system. In
other words, the one line diagram may be replaced by an
impedance diagram or a reactance diagram (if resistances
are neglected).
A complete circuit diagram of a power system for all the

three phases is very complicated. It is very much practical
to represent power system using simple symbols for each
component resulting in what is called a single line diagram.
In the equivalent circuit of the components are based on the

following assumptions:
1. A generator can be represented by a voltage source in
series with an inductive reactance. The internal
30

resistance of the generator is negligible compared to
the reactance.
2. The motor load is inductive.
3. The static load has a lagging power factor.
4. A transformer is represented by a series impedance on
a per phase basis.
5. The transmission line is of medium length and can be
represented by a T section.
The reactance diagram is drawn by neglecting all the
resistances, static loads, and capacitances of the
transmission line. Reactance diagrams are generally used
for short circuit calculation, whereas the impedance
diagram is used for powerflow studies.
Single Phase Representation of Balanced Three Phase
System
1. Three phase two winding Y Y transformer bank
2. Three phase two winding Y transformer

bank
The Per Unit System

An interconnected power system typically consists of many
different voltage levels given a system containing several
transformers and/or rotating machines. The per unit
system simplifies the analysis of complex power systems
by choosing a common set of base parameters in terms of
which, all systems quantities are defined. The different
voltage levels disappear and the overall system reduces to
a set of impedances. The primary advantages of the per
unit system are:
1. The per unit values for transformer impedance,
voltage and current are identical when referred to the
primary and secondary (no need to reflect impedances
from one side of the transformer to the other, the
transformer is a single impedance).
2. The per unit values for various components lie within
a narrow range regardless of the equipment rating.
3. The per unit values clearly represent the relative
values of the circuit quantities. Many of the ubiquitous
scaling constants are eliminated.
4. Ideal for computer simulations
The definition of any quantity (voltage, current, power,
impedance) in the per unit system is
( ) =
( )
( )
31

The complete characterization of a per unit system
requires that all four base values be defiend. Given the four
base values, the per unit quantities are defined as
=
=
=
=
Note that the numerator terms in the previous equations are

in general complex while the base values are real valued.
Once any two of the four base values are defined, the
remaining two can be determined according to their
fundamental circuit relationships. Usually the base values
of power and voltage are selected and the base values of
the current and impedance are determined according to

=
=

2

=
=

It can also be assume that:
1. The value of Sbase is constant for all points in the power
system, and
2. The ratio of voltage bases on either side of a
transformer is chosen to equal the ratio of the
transformer voltage ratings,
then the transformer per unit impedance remains
unchanged when referred from one side of a transformer to
the other. This will allow us to eliminate the ideal
transformer from the transformer model.
In three phase per unit anlysis, the per phase base voltage,
current , apparent power of a circuit is related by the
following equations in single phase
1
=
( )2
=
1
3 = 31
= 3
Thus, the final equations for three phase per unit analysis
are:
3
=
3
=
3
( )2
=
3
Change of Base Formula
2
= (
)(
)

Examples:
1. A single phase transformer is rated 20 kVA, 480/120
V, 60 Hz. The equivalent leakage impedance of the
transformer referred to the 120 V winding, denoted by
winding 2, is 2 = 0.052578.13 . Using the
transformer ratings as the base values, determine the
per unit leakage impedance referred to winding 2 and
referred to winding 1.
2. A single phase two winding transformer is rated 25
kVA, 1100/440 volts, 50 Hz. The equivalent leakage
impedance of the transformer referred to the low
voltage side is 0.06 < 78 . Using transformer
rating as base values, determine the per unit leakage
impedance referred to low voltage winding and
referred to high voltage winding.
3. The figure shows single line diagram of a single
phase circuit. Using the base values of 3 kVA and 230
V, draw the per unit circuit diagram and determine
the per unit impedances and per unit source
voltage. Also calculate the load current both in per unit
and in Amperes.
4. The figure shows single line diagram of a power

system. The ratings of the generators and transformers
are given below:
G1: 25 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg1 = 0.2 pu
G2: 15 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg2 = 0.15 pu
G3: 30 MVA, 13.2 kV, xg3 = 0.15 pu
T1: 30 MVA, 6.6 - 115 Y kV, xT1 = 0.1 pu
T2: 15 MVA, 6.6 - 115 Y kV, xT2 = 0.1 pu
T3: Single phase unit each rated 10 MVA, 6.9/69 kV,
xT3 = 0.1 pu
Draw the per unit circuit diagram using base values

of 30 MVA and 6.6 kV in the circuit of generator 1.
5. A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator has a
reactance of 15%. The generator is connected ot the
motors through a transmission line and transformers
as shown. Motors have rated inputs of 40 MVA, 30
32

MVA and 20 MVA at 30 kV with 20% reactance each.
Draw the per unit circuit diagram.
6. Draw the per unit impedance diagram of the system

shown. Assumed base values are 100 MVA and 100
kV.
G1: 50 MVA, 12.2 kV, xg1 = 0.10 pu

G2: 20 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg2 = 0.10 pu
T1: 80 MVA, 12.2/132 kV, xT1 = 0.10 pu
T2: 40 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT2 = 0.10 pu
Load: 50 MVA, 0.8 pf lagging operating at 124 kV.
7. The figure shows a sample power system network.
Find the current supplied by the generator, the
transmission line current, the load current, the load
voltage and the power consumed by the load.
8. The single line diagram of a three phase ower system

is shown. Select a common base of 100 MVA and 13.8
kV on the generator side. Draw per unit impedance
diagram.
G: 90 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg = 18%

T1: 50 MVA, 13.8/220 kV, xT1 = 10%
T2: 50 MVA, 220/11 kV, xT2 = 10%
T3: 50 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT3 = 10%
T4: 50 MVA, 132/11 kV, xT4 = 10%
M: 80 MVA, 10.45 kV, xm = 20%
Load: 57 MVA, 0.8 pf (lagging) at 10.45 kV.
xline1 = 50
xline2 = 70
9. The simple power system contains a 480 V generator

connected to an ideal 1:10 step up transformer, a
transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step down
transformer, and a load. The impedance of the
transmission line is 20 + 60 , and the impedance
of the load is 1030. The base values for this system
are to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the generator. Find the
base voltage, current, impedance and apparent power
at every point in the power system. Convert the power
system to its per unit equivalent circuit and find the
power supplied to the load and power lost in the
transmission line in this system.
10. A 13.8 kV, 100 MVA, 60 Hz, 3 phase synchronous
generator has a nameplate resistance R of 10% or
0.10 pu and a reactance X of 80% or 0.8 pu. These
values are specified on the base of the machines
rating. The base quantities of the power system it is
connected to are VLLbase = 14.4 kV and Sbase = 500
MVA. Find the pu impedance of the generator on the
base of the power system.
REFERENCES:
[1] Alexander, Charles K. and Sadiku, Michael N.O. (2013).

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits pp. 503 554. McGraw
Hill Higher Education.
[2] Bird, John (2007). Electrical and Electronic Principles
and Technology pp. 311 326. Elsevier.
[3] Boylestad, Robert L. (2007). Introductory Circuit
Analysis pp. 1029 1066. Pearson Prentice Hall.
[4] Glover, J. Duncan, Sarma, Mulukutla S. and Overbye,
Thomas (2012). Power System: Analysis & Design pp. 1
158. CENGAGE Learning.
[5] Hobson, J.E. and Whitehead, D.L. Symmetrical
Components [PDF Document]. Retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/doc/63947448/SymmetricalComponents
[6] Lucas, J.R. (2001). Three Phase Theory & Symmetrical
Components [PDF Document]. Retrieved from
http://www.elect.mrt.ac.lk/EE201_3phase_sym_comp.pdf
[7] Nahvi, Mahmood and Edminister, Joseph (2003).
Schaums Outlines: Electric Circuits pp. 248 272. McGraw
Hill Higher Education.
[8] Rajput, R.K. (2006). A Textbook of Electrical Technology
pp. 129 183. Laxmi Publications LTD.
[9] Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. (2003). A Textbook of
Electrical Technology pp. 665 854. S. Chand & Company
LTD.
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