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ABSTRACT
Ultrasonic contrapropagation methods have been used
to measure the flow of natural gas since the 1970s, flare
gases since the 1980s, and smokestack gases in cem
(continuous emissions monitoring) since the 1990s. Since
the early 2000s, ultrasonic clamp-on flow measurements,
previously restricted mainly to liquids, were found
effective in measuring in standard steel pipes, the flow
of steam, natural gas and other gases and vapors,
including air, as long as the flow velocity was not so high
as to cause excessive beam drift or excessive turbulence
(in other words, below about Mach 0.1), and provided
the acoustic impedance of the gas was equivalent to air
above about six bar and no important molecular
absorption or scattering mechanisms were present.
Although the flow of gases by ultrasonics has long been
thought to be more difficult to measure than liquids, in
fact the measurement is easier in two important respects.
One is, for the contrapropagation method, the upstream
- downstream time difference is generally much greater
for gases, as a consequence of the much lower sound
speeds in gases compared to liquids. The other
significant factor that becomes important in mass flow
metering (including scfm output) is the existence of
theoretical and/or empirical relationships between
ultrasonic propagation and density, where either of such
relationships is easier to exploit for gases than for liquids.
To provide an idea of the scope of applications
addressable with ultrasonic technology that is
commercially available now or likely to be available in
the near future, this paper starts with an analysis from
the point of view of acoustic impedance; considers
designs as a function of the number of nozzles, from
zero to a dozen; and lists factors conducive to high
accuracy versus factors detrimental to high accuracy,
i.e., conducive to uncertainty.
INTRODUCTION
Ultrasonic contrapropagation methods have been used
to measure the flow of natural gas since the 1970s, flare
gases since the 1980s, and smokestack gases in cem
(continuous emissions monitoring) since the 1990s.
Contrapropagation means sound waves are timed in a
direction with the flow and later or simultaneously, against
the flow. At low Mach number, <<1, the time difference
is directly proportional to the flow velocity VPATH along
the path. Even at Mach 0.1 the time difference is very
nearly proportional to the velocity along the path. In any
event, by timing upstream and downstream, the correct
velocity can be computed along the path.
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t =
2LV / c2
= (2LV / c2) (1 + MN2 + MN4 + ...)
1 MN
(5)
(6 & 6a)
2. Profile Considerations
As is well known [2], flow of any fluid in a pipe is lower
near the wall and higher near the center. Disturbances
upstream or downstream perturb the profile and most
real profiles are not symmetrical about the axis. Gas flow
profiles can be more complicated than simple liquid
profiles for various reasons including: (a) gases are
compressible; (b) at high Mach number, MN 0.3, the
flow itself becomes compressible flow; (c) condensate
perturbs the boundary conditions and can materially
affect the duct area A available for gas flow. See Table 2.
DISCUSSION
Theory
1. Equations for a Contrapropagation Flowmeter
In the contrapropagation method, ultrasonic (or
sometimes audible) waves are transmitted upstream and
downstream. From the transit times t1 and t2 in each
direction, and knowledge of the path and flow profile,
the average flow velocity VA is determined. A rather
simple derivation of the basic flow-sensing equation is
possible if one imagines a fluid of sound speed c flowing
at a uniform velocity V < c in a duct of cross-sectional
area A, interrogated by two point sensors on the axis
and spaced a distance L apart. The transit times in the
upstream and downstream directions, respectively, are
t1 = L/(c V) and t2 = L/(c + V).
(1 & 1a)
(2 & 2a)
Accordingly,
t
t1t2
] [ ]
(3)
] [ ]
(4)
V=
L
2
1
t2
1 = L
t1
2
c=
L
2
1
t2
1 = L
t1
2
and
t
t1t2
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TABLE 1.
Factors Conducive to High Accuracy Versus Factors Detrimental to
High Accuracy, i.e., Conducive to Uncertainty
High accuracy if:
FIGURE 1. Some basic acoustic ideas and facts for gases. (a) Impedance nomogram for gases, liquids and solids. (b) In
this c plot for gases, the cs range from ~100 to 1300 ms-1, the MWs from 2 to 240, but , the ratio of specific heats, lies
between 1 and 1.67. The effect of gas absolute temperature T is shown on cAr when argon is heated at constant density,
drawn assuming cAr increases in proportion to T1/2. (c) Flare gas: empirical relation between c at 38C and average molecular
weight (MW) for 2 MW 58. (d) Air density vs temperature T. Sound speed c vs T. vs c.
(P = 760 mm for graphs -.) Note that even if RH (relative humidity) is not known, between 0C and 60C, c yields with
small uncertainty. For details see Matson, J., Mariano, C. F., Khrakovsky, O., and Lynnworth, L. C., Ultrasonic Mass
Flowmeters Using Clamp-On or Wetted Transducers Proc of the 5th International Symposium on Fluid Flow Measurement
(April 7-10, 2002) or refer to the website of the authors firm, where Ultrasonic Report UR-240 may be posted.
2002 Panametrics.
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TABLE 2.
Diameter, midradii, their combination, tomographic and quadrature arrangements.
Complex flow patterns, high-accuracy, motivate multipaths on or off the diameter.
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FIGURE 2. Some transducer fundamentals. (a) T7 air transducer for 100-kHz operation has a flange OD = 19 mm and is
internally impedance-matched [8]. (b) Array of sources as used in cem (continuous emissions monitoring) applications
[4]. (c) Left: BWT bundle waveguide icon represents a fiberacoustic waveguide. Right: Close-up photo of a BWT
transducer. (d) Details of an early BWT transducer from the mid-1990s [6].
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FIGURE 3. (a) Refraction with clamp-on, calculated assuming a refracted angle 2 of 60 for a shear wave in the steel pipe,
depends on sound speed c3 in the fluid. Referring to items (1)-(3) commercial contrapropagation clamp-on flowmeters
available since the early 1990s include the PT868 and 6068 for measuring the flow of liquids. In water, the vee path usually
works, and 3 is about 25 at room temperature. In air, 3.AIR is only about 6 and the transducers usually need to be placed
on opposite sides of the pipe. (5) For liquid clamp-on, the vee path [shown in (1)] tends to cancel crossflow as well as
double the sensitivity to flow compared to a single traverse. For gases, odd numbers of traverses are preferred, to reduce
crosstalk. This means, if crossflow is significant, crossed paths are recommended. The velocities measured along the
legs of the X should be averaged. Best solution: find a long straight run far from disturbances and joints. For gases
[diagrams (4) & (5)] the flowmeter instrument (6) introduced in 2001 is the GC868 (Ao, 1999; Ao, et al. (2002); Lynnworth
2001). Diagram (7), drawn for LOX or LN2, shows the refracted angle 3 16, nearly midway between water (25) and air
(6). (b) Clamp and gas paths, schematic. (c) Clamps and instrument for clamp-on gas flow measurement [1, 12]. (d)
Application on steam.
2001 Panametrics.
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FIGURE 4. (a) Example of a solid PanAdapta precision plug for liquids. This plug is not to be removed when the line is
pressurized as it is a permanent part of the pressure boundary. Its outer surface is prepared to receive a removable
transducer. Frequency range: 0.5 to 5 MHz. (b) Similar to preceding case except the plug for gases consists of a bundle
of thin waveguides welded within a sleeve. The bundle plug can be as short as one inch or as long as several feet (25.4
mm to ~1 m). This sleeved sealed waveguide construction allows the removable piezoelectric transducer assembly to be
separated from the buffer bundle. (c) Schematics show planes of measurement in end view, and the crossed paths in a
three-dimensional SolidWorks rendition. (d) Photos of a spoolpiece manufactured by RMG and corresponding to the
schematics in (c). (e) Example of a T11 transducer. It is Ti-housed, internally quarter-wave matched, and twelve of them
are used in (d). (f) Plugged version of (c). (g) Liquid version of the concept shown in (f).
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FIGURE 5. Plastic pipe, air flow at atmospheric pressure. These measurements, made by our colleague Oleg Khrakovsky,
used ordinary liquid flowmeter clamp-on equipment, which was sufficient because the pipe was plastic, not steel.
Schematic
FIGURE 6.
Short, thick-walled N-path spoolpiece whose OD matches
flange raised face dimensions. The flanged transducer
is the T7 air transducer [ 8(c)] shown in Figure 2(a).
FIGURE 7.
Hybrid example: cow = clamp-on + wetted
transducers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work reported here includes important contributions
from Shirley Ao, Jim Hill, and their and the authors
colleagues. The authors acknowledge Panametrics
permission to reproduce passages, tables and
illustrations from its copyrighted reports including
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