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EXAMPLE 1
Design of punching shear reinforcement
A flat slab is supported by columns spaced on grid of L=6m. the proposed flexural reinforcement
is shown in the figure below. Find suitable shear reinforcement.
The nominal loads are:

2.1 Elastic and yield line analysis theory of slabs

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Under overload condition in a slab failing in flexure, the reinforcement will yield first in a region
of high moment. When that occurs, this portion of the slab act as plastic hinge, only able to resist
its hinging moment. When the load is increased further, the hinging rotates plastically, and the
moments due to additional loads are redistributed adjacent sections, causing them to yield as
shown in figure 1.9. The band in which yielding has occurred are referred to as yield lines and
divide the slab in to series of elastic plates. Eventually, enough yield lines exist to form a plastic
mechanism in which the slab deform plastically without an increase in applied load.

Figure 1.9: Yield criteria

In general design, moments and shear from an elastic analysis are compared to plastic member
strengths, using approximate load factor and strength-reduction factor. In the yield-line method
for slabs, the loads required to develop a plastic mechanism are compared directly to the plastic
resistance (nominal strength) of the member. Load factor and strength reduction factor can be
incorporated in to the procedure.
A yield-line analysis uses rigid plastic theory to compute the failure load corresponding to
given plastic moment resistance in various parts of the slab. It does not give any information
about deflection or about the loads at which yielding first starts. The yield-line analysis theory is
used widely for slab design in the Scandinavian countries. The yield-line concept is presented
here to aid in understanding of slab behavior between service load and failure.
Yield Criteria
To limit deflection, floor slabs are generally considerably thicker than required for flexure, and
as a result, they seldom have reinforcement ration exceeding 0.3 to 0.4 times the balanced
reinforcement ratio defined in eq. 4.25. In this stage of reinforcement ratios, the momentcurvature response is essentially elastic-plastic with a plastic moment capacity conservatively
assumed to be equal to Mn, the flexural strength of the section.

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If yielding occurs along a line at an angle to the reinforcement, as shown in fig. 1.9, the
bending and twisting moments are assumed to be redistributed uniformly along the yield line and
are the maximum values provided by the flexural capacities of reinforcement layers crossed by
yield line. It is further assumed that there is no kinking of reinforcement as it crossed by the yield
line. In fig.1.9, the reinforcement in x and y directions provide moment capacities of mx and my
per unit width. The bending moment, mb, and the twisting moment, mt, per unit length of the
yield line can be calculated from the moment equilibrium of element. In this calculation, will
be measured counterclockwise from the x axis; the bending moments mx, my and mb will be
positive if they cause tension in the bottom of the slab; and twisting moment, m t, will be positive
if the moment vector points away from the section as shown.
Consider the equilibrium of the elemnt in fig. 1.9 b:
mb L=mx ( L sin ) sin +m y ( L cos ) cos
This equation gives the bending moment mb
2

mb=m x sin + m y cos (1.8)

The twisting moment mt is
mt=

mx m y
sin 2 ..(1.9)
2

These equation apply only for orthogonal reinforcement. If mx = my, these two equation reduce
to mb=mx= my and mt = 0, regardless of the angle of yield. This is referred to as isotropic
reinforcement.
Location of axes and yield lines
When yield lines are formed, all further deformations are concentrated at the yield lines, and the
slab deflects as a series of stiff plates joined together by long hinge, as shown in fig. 1.10. The
pattern of deformation is controlled by axes that pass along line supports and over columns, as
shown in fig. 1.11 and by the yield line. Because the individual plates rotate about the axes and
or yield, these and line must be straight. To satisfy compatibility of deformations at points such
as A and B in fig. 1.10, yield line dividing two plates must intersect the intersection of the axes
about which those plates are rotating. Figure 1.11 shows the location of axes and yield lines in a
number of slabs subjected to uniform loads. The yield mechanism in fig. 1.10 and 1.11 are
referred to as kinematically admissible mechanism because the displacement and rotations of
adjacent plate segments are compatible. If more than one kinematically admissible mechanism

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can be defined for a given slab panel, each mechanism should be investigated to determine which
one results in the minimum panel resistance to a given loading.

Figure 1.10: Deformation of a slab with yield lines

Figure 1.11: Yield line pattern examples

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Once the general pattern of yielding and rotation has been established by applying the guidelines,
the specific location and orientation of the axes of rotation and failure load of the slab can be
established.
Basic Assumptions

The structure (slab) is collapsing because of moment.

Reinforced concrete is assumed to be ductile (Linear stress distribution)
Axial (in plane) forces are ignored.
Small deformations as compared with the overall dimensions are assumed.

Methods of Analysis using EBCS-2

i) Elastic method
- Moment distribution, Kani, slope deflection.
ii) Elastic method by allowing plastic moment redistribution.
iii) Plastic method of analysis
YL and strip method of analysis for slabs.
Plastic hinge theory for framed structures.
Behavior of slab loaded failure in flexure
Before cracking, the slab acts as an elastic plate and the deformations, stresses and strains can
be predicted from an elastic analysis.
After cracking elastic solution is still a good approximation provided that the reinforcements
have not yielded.
Yielding of reinforcement eventually starts in one or more regions of high moment and
spreads through the slab as moments are redistributed from yielded regions to areas that are
still elastic. With further load, the regions of yielding, known as yield lines, divide the slab
into a series of trapezoidal or triangular elastic plates. The load corresponding to this stage of
behavior can be estimated using a YL analysis.

Consider a rectangular panel (l/b>1) subjected to uniform load, which is increasing up to failure.
Upper and lower bound theorems
The lower bound theorem and the upper bound theorem, when applied to slabs, can be
stated as follows:

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Lower bound theorem: - If, for a given external load, it is possible to find a distribution of
moments that satisfies equilibrium requirements, with the moment not exceeding the yield
moment at any location, and if the boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is a
lower bound of the true carrying capacity.
Upper bound theorem: - If, for a small increment of displacement, the internal work done by
the slab, assuming that the moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment and that
boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given load for that
same small increment of displacement, then that load is an upper bound of the true carrying
capacity.
The yield line method of analysis for slabs is an upper bound method, and consequently the
failure load calculated for a slab with known flexural resistance may be higher than the true
value. If an incorrect set of yield lines is chosen, the analysis may be on the unsafe side.
Rules for yield lines
Guidelines for establishing axes of rotation and yield lines are summarized as follows:
1. YLs are straight lines b/c they represent the intersection of two planes.
2. YLs represent axes of rotation.
3. The supported edges of the slabs will also establish axes of rotation. If the edge is fixed,
a ve YL may form providing constant resistance to rotation. If the edge is simply
supported the axis of rotation provides zero resistance.
4. A YL between two slab segments must pass through the point of intersection of the axes
of rotation of the adjacent slab segment in order to satisfy compatibility of deformations.
5. The axis of rotation will pass along line supports and over columns.
Method of Solution
After a kinematically admissible yield mechanism has been selected, it is possible to compute the
values of m necessary to support a given set of loads or vice versa. The solution can be carried
out by the equilibrium method, in which the equilibrium equations are written for each plate
segment or by the virtual-work method, in which some parts of the slab is given a virtual
displacement and the resulting work is considered.
When the equilibrum method is used, considerable care must be taken to show all of the forces
acting on each element, including the twisting moments, especialy when several yield lines
intersect or when yield lines intersect free edges. At this location, off-setting vert ical nodal
forces wll be given the wrong sign or location, some building codes require that yield line
calculation be done by the virtual work method.
Method of virtual work

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Once the yield lines have been chosen, some point on the slab is given a virtual displacement, ,
as shown in figure 1.12 c below. The external work done by the loads when displaced this
amount is
q d x d y
=

(W c )

(1.10)

Where: q=uniformly distributed load on the area

=deflection of that element
W=total load on a plate element
c

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The right hand side of equation 1.10 can be expressed as q times the diplaced volume for the slab
yield mechanism. The total external work done by rotating the yield lines is:
Internal work =

(mb l )

. (1.11)

Where: mb=bending moment per unit of yield line

l= length of the yield line

=angle change at yield line corresponding to the virtual displacement,

The total internal work done during the virtual displacement is the sum of the internal work done on each
separate yield line because, the YL are assumed to have formed before the virtual displacement.
The principle of virtual work states that, for conservation of energy,
external work = internal work
or

(W c )= (mb l )

. (1.12)

The virtual work solution is the upper-bound solution; that is, the load W is equal to or higher than the
true failure load. If an incorrect sets of YLs is chosen, W will be too large for a given m, or conversely,
the value of m for a given W will be too small.

EXAMPLE 1.2 (EX-14.2 pp 761)

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Chapter 2
Plastic Moment Redistribution
2.1 Introduction
Some methods of elastic analysis are generally used to calculate the forces in concrete structures,
despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load. The
assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably true for low levels; but as a section approaches its
ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will occur.
Reinforced concrete behave in a manner midway between that of steel and concrete. The stressstrain curves for the two materials (figure 2.1 a and b) shows elastoplasic behavior of steel and
concrete. The latter will fail at relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour of a
reinforced concrete section depends on the relative quantities and individual properties of the
two materials. However, such a section may be considered virtually elastic until the steel yields;
and then plastic until the concrete fail in compression. Thus plastic behaviour is limited by the
concrete failure; or more specifically, the concrete failure limits rotation that may take place at a
section under bending. A typical moment curvature diagram for reinforced concrete member is
shown in figure 2.2.

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Stress-strain diagram for RC in compression
Figure 2.1: Stress-strain behavior
Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment of
esistance, Mu, it then behaves as a plastic hinge resisting a constant moment of that value. Further
loading must be must be taken by other parts of the structure, with the change in moments
elsewhere being the same as if a real hinge existed. Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause
crushing of the concrete, further hinges will be formed until a mechanism is produced.

Figure 2.2: Typical moment-curvitue diagram

Reinforced concrete members with bending are designed to have certain ductility which ensures
that the member is capable of undergoing a certain amount of rotation after yielding of the
tension steel reinforcement and before crushing of the concrete in compression.
To ensure that designs remain under-reinforced (ductile), EBCS-2 recommends that the ratio x/d,
at sections of largest moment, does not exceed the values given by the following equations as
functions of percent plastic moment redistribution.
EBCS-2 section 3.7.9 states that moments obtained from a linear analysis may be reduced by
multiplying the following reduction coefficient provided that the moments are increased in
other sections in order to maintain equilibrium.
x
0.44
x
, for f ck 35mpa.
d
d
1.25
x
0.56
0.56 1.25 x d
, for f ck 35Mpa.
d
1.25

0.44 1.25

Re distributed Moment
Moment before redistrbut ion

Where,

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For example, for 20% redistribution

0.80

x 0.8 0.44

0.288 ( for f ck 35MPa)

d
1.25
x 0.8 0.56

0.192 ( for f ck 35MPa )

d
1.25

In moment redistribution usually it is the maximum support moments which are (adjusted)
reduced so that economizing in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion of bars at the
columns.
Requirements for applying moment redistribution are: Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained, hence it is
necessary to recalculate the span moments.
( min 0.70)
Maximum redistribution is 30%...
2.2 Design procedure using table No. 1a & 1b (with moment redistribution)
Steps
Md
b
d

1. Calculate Km=
a) If Km<km*, where Km* is the value of Km shown shaded in general design table 1a,
corresponding to %age moment redistribution, section is singly reinforced.
Enter the general design table 1a using Km and concrete grade.
Read Ks from general design table No. 1a corresponding to steel grade.
KsM d
d
Evaluate As=
b) If Km>Km*, the section has to be doubly reinforced.
Km
Km *
- Calculate
- Read Ks and Ks corresponding to Km/Km* and steel grade from table No. 1b and
No. 1a, respectively

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- Assume d2=d and read

d2/d.

(correction factor) from table No. 1a. using Km/Km* and

- Read

corresponding to d2/d and %age moment redistribution from table No. 1b.

- Calculate

As =

As =

KsM d
d

(tensile reinforcement)

Ks ' M d '
d

(compressive reinforcement)

EXAMPLE 2.1

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Where w is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the beam may carry a load of 1.33w
with redistribution.
From the design point of view, the elastic BMD can be obtained for the required ultimate loading
in the ordinary way. Some of these moments may then be reduced; but this will necessitate
increasing others to maintain the static equilibrium of the structure. Usually it is the maximum
support moments which are reduced, so economizing in reinforcing steel and also congestion at
columns. The requirements for applying moment redistribution are:
1.

Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained, hence it

is necessary to reduce the span BM and SF for the load case involved.
2.
The continuous beam or slabs are predominantly subjected to flexure.
3.
The ratio of adjacent span be in the range of 0.5 to 2.0.
4.
The column design moments must not be reduced.
There are other restrictions on the amount of moment redistribution in order to ensure ductility of
the beams or slabs. This entails limitations on the grades of the reinforcing steel and of the area
of tensile reinforcement and hence the depth of neutral axis.
EXAMPLE 2.2 Doubly reinforced section with moment redistribution

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Assignment No-2
1. The ultimate load to be resisted by a beam is given as 40kN/m (Figure below).
a) Compute elastic moments,
b) Determine the design moment assuming a 20% redistribution of bending moments at the
supports and mid-span,
c) Plot all the elastic BMD, Moment curvature behaviour, free body diagram for
determining redistributed forces, combined plastic and elastic moments, and design
bending moment envelope and extent of reinforcements.

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Figure: Beam and ultimate loading
2. Consider the continuous two span beam shown here in Fig. 2. Apply a 15% redistribution

of bending moments at the internal support and find the design bending moment and
shear force envelopes for the beam. The characterstic loads are self weight Gk=25kN/m
and live load Qk=10kN/m.

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Chapter 3
Columns: Combined Axial Load and Bending
3.1 Introduction
A column is a vertical structural member subjected to axial compressive force, with or without
bending moment and transmitting the load to the ground through the foundation. The crosssectional dimensions of a column are generally considerably less than its height. (h>3lD).
3.2 Tied and Spiral Columns (Classification)
. Tied columns main longitudinal reinforcement are held in position by separate ties spaced at
equal intervals by the ties along its length.
. Spiral columns - Main bars are wrapped by closely spaced spiral
. Composite columns consist of steel or cost iron structural member enclosed in concrete.
Nominal main reinforcement positioned with ties or spirals are placed around the structural
member.
. In filled columns - those having steel pipe filled with plain concrete or lightly
concrete.

spiral

tie

a) Tied columns

reinforced

Pitch

b) Spiral columns

c) Composite column

Infilled column

Figure 3.1 Classification of column cross-sections

Tied and spiral columns are by far the most common than other types of columns.
On the basis of slenderness ratio, columns may be further classified as short or long columns
If the moments induced by slenderness effects weaken a column appreciably it is
referred to as a slender (long) column otherwise it is a short column.

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The slenderness ratio of columns is defined as the ratio of the effective buckling length
Ii
)
Ai
(Lei) to the radius of gyration (ri =
, where i refers to the axes x and y of the cross
section.
Lei
L
= ei
ri
I i . (3.1)
Ai

The effective length (lei) of a column is the distance between two consecutive points of contra
flexure or zero bending moments. In other words it is the height of a theoretical column of
equivalent section but pined at both ends. This depends on the degree of fixity of column ends
which in turn depend on the relative stiffnesses of the columns and beam connected to either
ends of the column under consideration. For this consider the following.

Le = L

Le = 0.5 L

Le = 0.7 L

Le = 2.0 L

Figure 3.2: Behavior of columns

According to EBCS-2, 1995, the effective buckling length, Le, of a column is given by:
Le m 0.4

0.7
L m 0 .8
a) Non-sway mode
(3.1)
Le
7.5 4( 1 2 ) 1.6 1 2

1.15
L
7.5 1 2
b) Sway mode
(3.2)
Le
1 0.8 m 1.15
L
or
For theoretical model shown below: 1 and 2 may computed as

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1

K1 K c
;
K 11 K 12

K2 Kc
;
K 21 K 22

1 2
2

K1,K2 are column stiffness coefficients at the ends 1 and 2 (EI/L).

Kc is the stiffness coefficient (EI/L) of the column being designed.
Kij is the effective beam stiffness coefficient (EI/L)
= 1.0 when opposite end restrained.
= 0.5

free to rotate

= 0 for a cantilever beam.

Limiting values of slenderness ratio

1. The slenderness ratio of concrete column shall not exceed 140.
2. second order effects in compression member need not be taken in to account in the
following cases:
15
a) For sway frames, greater of 25 or v d shall be used.
vd =

N sd
f cd A c

M1
25
(
)
b) For non-sway frames, 50
M 2 shall be used.

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Where: M1 and M2 are first order calculated moments, M2 being always positive and greater than
M1 in magnitude and M1 is positive if member is bent in single curvature and negative if bent in
double curvature.
A frame may be classified as non-sway if its response to horizontal forces is sufficiently stiff
enough to neglect any additional internal forces or moments arising from horizontal
displacements of its nodes. For a given load case a non-sway frame satisfies the criterion:
N sd
0.1, where
N cr
. (3.3)
Nsd total design vertical load
Ncr the critical axial load, given by
N cr

2 EI e
Le

EIe = 0.2EcIc+EsIs >= 0.4EcIc (C concrete, S-steel)

EXAMPLE 3.1 Short or slender column

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3.3Reinforcement arrangement and minimum requirement

3.3.1

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Longitudinal reinforcement

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The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.008 Ac nor more than 0.08
Ac.
The minimum number of longitudinal bars shall be 6 for circular columns and 4 for
rectangular columns.
The minimum cross sectional size of rectangular column is 150mm and for circular,
diameter = 200mm
The diameter of longitudinal bars shall not be less than 12mm.
3.3.2

Lateral reinforcement

The diameter of ties or spirals shall not be less than 6mm or one quarter of diameter or
longitudinal bars.
The center-to-center spacing of lateral reinforcement shall not exceed: o 12* diameter of the longitudinal bars
o b (least dimension)
o 300mm
The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.
3.3.3

Axial compression
The ultimate capacity of an axially loaded short column can be computed from;
Pdu = fcd(Ag-Ast) +Astfyd
= fcd Ag[1-g]+ g Agfyd
= Ag [fcd(1- g)+ g fyd]------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.4)

Where Ag and Ast are gross concrete area and total area of main reinforcement, and g is steel
ratio.
g

Le
12
b

A column may be classified as long when the slenderness factor g, defined as

,
where Le is the height and b is the least dimension of the column. For such columns a load
reduction factor Cr is introduced in such a way that the concentric design axial load capacity
may be given by.

Pduc = CrPdu where Cr = 1.25 -

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3.4 Interaction Diagram
An interaction diagram is a plot of axial load capacity of a column against the bending moment it
sustains. Columns, which are concentrically loaded, are rare and hence they are subjected to
bending moment, in addition, which decreases the axial load capacity. This may be due to
misalignment of load on the column as shown in fig. 3.3b or may result from the column
resisting a portion of the unbraced moment at the ends of the beam supported by column fig. 3.3
c. The distance e is referred to as eccentricity of the load. The two cases are the same because the
eccentric load P in fig.3.3 b can be replaced by a load P acting along the centroidal axis, plus a
moment M=Pe about the centroid. The load P and the moment M are calculated with respect to
geometric cenroidal axis because the moments and the forces obtained from structural analysis
normally are referred to this axis.
To illustrate conceptually the interaction between moments and axial load in a column, an
idealized homogenous and linearly elastic column with a compressive strength, fcu, equal to its
tensile strength, ftu, will be considered.
Such a column would fail in compression when the maximum stress is reached, fcu give by:
P
M
+
=1, dividing both sides by f cu
f cu A f cu I

max f cu

P
f cu A

My
1
f cu I

M max

------------------------------ (3.5)
f I
cu
y

But Pmax = fcu A and

where: A,I = area and moment of inertia of the x-section respectively
y = distance from the centroidal axis to the most highly compressed
surface (surface
A-A in fig 3.3 a)
P= axial load, positive in compression
M=moment, positive as shown in fig. 3.3 c

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Figure 3.3 Load and moment on column

P
M

1
Pmax
M max

Substituting in (3.5)

---------------------------------------------------------- (3.6)

Equation. (3.6) is known as an interaction equation because it shows the interaction of, or
P
relationship between P and M at failure.

Pmax

(C )

1.0 A

Interaction Diagrams

M
(CCW ) -1.0
M max

1.0

-1.0

-0.5 0.5

P
(T )
Pmax

1.0

M
(CCW )
M max
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P
(C )
Pmax

Interaction diagram for an elastic column, |fcu| = |ftu|

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(CW )
M max

0.5

M
Mm

P
(T )
Pmax

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a) Material with ftu = 0

P
(C )
Pmax
1.

0.25

M
-0.75
D
(CCW )
M max

0.75B
0.5

M
(CW )
M max

P
(T )
Pmax

f tu

f cu
2

b) Material with
Figure 3. 4: Interaction diagrams

Interaction diagrams for elastic columns /fcu/ /ftu/.

Reinforced concrete is not elastic and has ft much less than fc. An effective tensile strength is
developed, however, by reinforcing bars on the tension face of the member. For these reasons
the calculation of an interaction diagram for an RC member is more complex than for an
elastic material. However the general shape of the diagram resembles fig. 3.4 b above.
Concepts and assumptions

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cu
A

s1

s1

N .A
A

s2

fcd

= 0 .0 0 3 5

fsc

0 .8 x

C s = A s1 fsc
C c = 0 .8 x fcd b

s2

f st

Ts = A

S t r a in s

S tre s s e s

In te rn a l fo rc e s

a) small axial force, so that

( x < 0.8h )

b) large axial force, so that

( x 0.9h )

s2

f st
R e s u lt a n t f o r c e s

Figure 3.5: Calculation of Pn and Mn for a given strain distribution

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Significant points in the interaction diagram

Figure 3.6: Strain distributions corresponding to points on interaction diagram of a

reinforced concrete column
Any combination of loading within the curve is a safe loading.
Any combination of loading outside the curve represents a failure combination.
All combinations of Pn and Mn between points A & C will cause the concrete to fail in
compression before the bottom reinforcement, As yields.

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All combinations of Pn and Mn between points C & F will result in tensile yielding of As
before the concrete fails in compression.
When a member is subjected to combined axial compression Pd and moment Md, it is
more convenient to replace the axial load and the moment with an equivalent Pd, applied
at eccentricity ed.
EXAMPLE 3.2 Calculation of interaction diagram
3.5 Design of columns according to EBCS-2 1995
Design of Isolated columns
Columns may be considered as isolated column when they are isolated compression members
(such as individual isolated columns or columns with articulations in a non-sway structures) or
compression members which are integral parts of the of a structure but which are considered to
be isolated for design purpose (such as slender bracing element considered as isolated columns,
and columns with restrained ends in a non-sway structure)
Short columns are usually designed using charts such as those developed in the previous section.
Selecting equal quantities of tension and compression reinforcement may not be the most
economic solution but it has an important practical advantage.
1) Total eccentricity.
The total eccentricity to be used for the design of columns of constant cross
section is given by
etot = ee+ea+e2 ,
where
ee - is equivalent first-order eccentricity of the design axial load.
ea - is additional eccentricity to account for geometric imperfection
ea

Le
20mm
300

(Le - effective length mm)

e2 - is the second order eccentricity.

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For first order eccentricity e0 equal at both ends of a column,

ee = e0

For first order moments varying linearly along the length, the equivalent
eccentricity is the higher of the following two values:

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ee = 0.6e02 + 0.4e01 or
ee = 0.4e02
Where e01 and e02 are the first order eccentricities at the ends, e02 being positive
and greater in magnitude than e01.

For different eccentricities at the ends (negative and positive) the critical end
section shall be checked for first order moments.
etot= e02+ea

2) Second order eccentricity

For non-sway frames, the second order eccentricity e2 of an isolated column may
be obtained as
2
K 1 Le 1
e2
( )
10 r
K 1=

0.75
20
where Le is the effective buckling length of the column

K1

0.75
20

K1=1.0

1
r

for 15 <

< 35

for >35

is the curvature at the critical section.

1
5
K 2 ( ) * 10 3
r
d

, where

d is the column dimension in the buckling plane less the cover to the center of
the longitudinal reinforcement.
K2

Md
M bal

Md - is the design moment at the critical section including second order effects.

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Mbal is the balanced moment capacity of the column.
The appropriate value of K2 may be found iteratively taking an initial value
corresponding to 1st order actions.
In the amplified sway moments method, the sway moments found by a first-order
analysis shall be increased by multiplying them by the moment magnification factor:
1
s
N
1 sd
N cr
, where
Nsd is the design value of the total vertical load.
Ncr is the critical value for failure in a sway mode.
The second order eccentricity can be neglected when;
For sway frames

25

15

d

For non-sway frames

M1
50 25
M2

N sd
f cd Ac

<5025
,

M1
M2

where M1 & M2 are 1st order moments, M2 being positive & greater than
M1.
M1 =

+ ve if the member is bent in single curvature.

- ve if the member is bent in double curvature.

3.6 Design of columns for uniaxial bending

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A column is said to be uniaxial if it is loaded with a bending moment about one axis in addition
to axial force. For the design of such a column interaction charts are prepared using non and
dimensional parameters,
, in which
Nd
f cd bh

Mh
f cd bh 2

----------------------------------------------------- (3.6)

In using these charts for design, the following procedures may be adopted:
Given Pd, Md = Pded = Pdetot

Assume a cross section b/h

Assume d and evaluate d/h to chose appropriate chart No.

Calculate and using (*)

If the coordinate ( , ) is within the boundary of the curve, the assumed cross
section is adequate; otherwise, larger section should be tried.

The coordinate ( , ) gives the value of

bhf cd
Ast
f yd

As ,min 0.008 Ac

Ast , prov

Check that

As ,max 0.08 Ac

EXAMPLE 3.3 Design of Column using interaction diagram

3.7 Design of column for biaxial bending
There are situations in which axial compression is accompanied by simultaneous bending about both
principal axes of the section. This is the case in corner columns, interior or edge columns with
irregular column layout. For such columns, the determination of failure load is extremely laborious
and making manual computation difficult.
Consider the Rc column section shown under axial force p acting with eccentricities e x and ey, such
that ex = My/p, ey = Mx/p from centroidal axes (Fig. 3.7c).
In Fig. 3.7 a the section is subjected to bending about the y axis only with eccentricity e x. The
corresponding strength interaction curve is shown as Case (a) (see Fig. 3.7d). Such a curve can be

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established by the usual methods for uni-axial bending. Similarly, in Fig. 3.7 b the section is
subjected to bending about the x axis only with eccentricity e y. The corresponding strength
interaction curve is shown as Case (b) (see Fig. 3.7 d). For case (c), which combines x and y axis
bending, the orientation of the resultant eccentricity is defined by the angle :

arctan

M ny
ex
arctan
ey
M nx

Bending for this case is about an axis defined by the angle with respect to the x-axis. For other
values of , similar curves are obtained to define the failure surface for axial load plus bi-axial
bending.
Any combination of Pu, Mux, and Muy falling out side the surface would represent failure. Note that
the failure surface can be described either by a set of curves defined by radial planes passing
through the Pn axis or by a set of curves defined by horizontal plane intersections, each for a
constant Pn, defining the load contours (see Fig. 3.7 d).

Fig. 3.7 Interaction diagram for compression plus bi-axial bending

Computation commences with the successive choice of neutral axis distance c for each value of q.
Then using the strain compatibility and stress-strain relationship, bar forces and the concrete
compressive resultant can be determined. Then P n, Mnx, and Mny (a point on the interaction surface)
can be determined using the equation of equilibrium (see below).

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F

Pn Pc Psc Pst - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(3.8)

where:

Pc A ci f i

, resultant force in concrete

Psc A sci f sci

, resultant compressiv e force in compressio n steel

Pst A sti f sti

, resultant tensile force in tension steel

nx

M ny

A ci f ci y ci

f y sci

sci sci

f y sti - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(3.9)

sti sti

A ci f ci x ci A sci f sci x sci A sti f sti x sti

(3*)

Since the determination of the neutral axis requires several trials, the procedure using the above
expressions is tedious. Thus, the following simple approximate methods are widely used.
a) Load contour method: It is an approximation on load versus moment interaction surface
(see Fig. 3.7). Accordingly, the general non-dimensional interaction equation of family of
load contours is given by:

M dx

M dxo

M dy

M dyo

p
n 0.667 1.667 da
p do

and

1.15 n 2.0

where: Mdx = pd ey
Mdy = pd ex
Mdxo = Mdx when Mdy = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about x)
Mdyo = Mdy when Mdx = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about y)
b) Reciprocal method/Breslers equation: It is an approximation of bowl shaped failure
surface by the following reciprocal load interaction equation.

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1
1
1
1

p dx p dxo p dyo p do
-------------------------------------------------------------- (3.10)
Where: Pd = design (ultimate) load capacity of the section with eccentricities e dy and edx
Pdxo = ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with e dx only (edy = 0)
Pdyo = ultimate laod capacity of the section for uni axial bending with edy only (edx = 0)
Pdo = concentric axial load capacity (edx = edy = 0)
However interaction charts prepared for biaxial bending can be used for actual design. The
procedure involves (considering the cross-section shown below):
-

Select cross section dimensions h and b and also h and b

h'
h

b'
b

Calculate
and
(range of values of 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, ,
0.25 are available)
Compute:
Normal force

N
f cd Ac

h'
h

h'
b'

ratio:
Moment ratios:

Mh
f cd Ac h

b'

Mb
f cd Ac b

Select suitable chart which satisfy

Enter the chart to obtain

A tot
-

h'
h

and

b'
b

ratio:

Ac f cd
f yd

Compute
Check Atot satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions
Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the charts requirement

Circular columns
When load eccentricities are small, spirally reinforced columns show greater ductility (greater
toughness) than tied columns; however the difference fades out as the eccentricity is increased.
Interaction Diagram for Circular columns

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The strain compatibility solution described in the preceding section can also be used to calculate
the points on an interaction diagram for circular columns
Consider the following circular cross section reinforced with 6 longitudinal bars
y

cu

fcd

s1

N .A

M
f st2

s2

fsc

0 .8 x

s3
y
c r o s s - s e c t io n

f st1
s tre s s e s

s t r a in s

C o m p r e s s io n z o n e

R e s u lt a n t F o r c e s

Figure 3.8 Calculation of Pn and Mn for a given strain distribution

Calculations can be carried out in the same way as in the previous section except that for circular
columns the concrete compression zone subject to the equivalent rectangular stress distribution
has the shape of a segment of a circle (Fig. 3.8).
To compute the compressive force and its moment about the centroid of the column, it is necessary
to be able to compute the area and centroid of the segment.

C e n t r o id o f c o m p r e s s io n z o n e

C e n t r o id o f c o m p r e s s io n z o n e

0 .8 x
(h /2 -0 .8 x )

Case 1 : 0.8x h/2, < 90o

(0 .8 x -h /2 )

Case 2 : 0.8x > h/2, > 90o

h / 2 0 .8 x
h / 2

0.8 x h / 2
h / 2

cos 1

cos 1

The area of the segment is:

sin cos

A h2

The moment of this area about the centre of the column is:

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_

sin 3
12

A y h 3

Where is expressed in radians.

The shape of interaction diagram of a circular column is affected by the number of bars and their
orientation relative to the direction of the neutral axis. Thus the moment capacity about axis x-x
(see above) is less than that about axis y-y.
Since the designer has little control over the arrangement of bars in a circular column, the
interaction diagram should be computed using the least favorable bar orientation. But for circular
columns with more than 8 bars, this problem vanishes as the bar placement approaches a continuous
ring.
Design or analysis of spirally reinforced columns is usually carried out by means of design aids.
Design of as per EBSC 2
I. General
The internal forces and moments may generally be determined by elastic global analysis using either
first order theory or second order theory.

b)

First-order theory, using the initial geometry of the structure, may be used
in the following cases

Non-sway frames

Braced frames

Design methods which make indirect allowances for second-order

effects.

c)Second-order theory, taking into account the influence of the deformation of the structure,
may be used in all cases.
II. Design of Non sway Frames
Individual non-sway compression members shall be considered to be isolated elements and be
designed accordingly. (Design requirements were listed in section 3.5)
III. Design of Sway Frames.

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The second order effects in the sway mode can be accounted using either of the following two
methods:
a) Second-order elastic global analysis: When this analysis is used, the resulting forces and
moment may directly be used for member design.
b) Amplified Sway Moments Method: In this method, the sway moments found by a first-order
analysis shall be increased by multiplying them by the moment magnification factor:

where

1
N
1 sd
Nc r

Nsd is the design value of the total vertical load

Ncr is its critical value for failure in a sway mode.

The amplified sway moments method shall not be used when the critical load ratio

N sd
0.25
N cr

Sway moments are those associated with the horizontal translation of the top of story relative to
the bottom of that story. They arise from horizontal loading and may also arise from vertical
loading if either the structure or the loading is asymmetrical.

As an alternative to determining

column type frames

N sd N

N cr HL

N sd
Nc r

direct, the following approximation may be used in beam and-

(see section 5.5)

where , L, H and N are as defined before.

In the presence of torsional eccentricity in any floor of a structure, unless more accurate methods
are used, the sway moments due to torsion should be increased by multiplying them by the larger
moment magnification factor s, obtained for the two orthogonal directions of the lateral loads
acting on the structure.
Effect of Creep

Creep effects may be ignored if the increase in the first-order bending moments due to creep
deformation and longitudinal force does not exceed 10%.
The effect of creep can be accounted by:

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a) For isolated columns in non-sway structures, creep may be allowed for by multiplying the
curvature for short-term loads( see the expression of curvature in second order
eccentricity) by (1 + d), where d, is the ratio of dead load design moment to total design
moment, always taken as positive.
b) For sway frames, the effective column stiffness may be divided by (1 + d), where d, is as
defined above.

Detailing Requirements

Size: The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be at least 150 mm.
Longitudinal Reinforcement (see section 3.3):
Lateral Reinforcement (see section 3.4 also)
a) Ties shall be arranged such that every bar or group of bars placed in a corner and alternate
longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie with an included
angle of not more than 135 0 and no bar shall be further than 150 mm clear on each side
along the tie from such a laterally supported bar( see Fig. )
b) Up to five longitudinal bars in each corner may be secured against lateral buckling by means
of the main ties. The center-to-center distance between the outermost of these bars and
the corner bar shall not exceed 15 times the diameter of the tie (see Fig.)
smax = 350 mm
c) Spirals or circular ties may be used for longitudinal bars located around the perimeter of a
circle. The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.

a) Measurement between laterally

(b) Requirements for main

supported column bars

and intermediate ties

Fig. 5.13

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Sample Design charts taken from EBCS 2, part 2

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Chapter 4
Slender Columns
They are columns with high slenderness ratio and their strength may be significantly reduced
by lateral deflection.
When an unbalanced moment or as moment due to eccentric loading is applied to a column, the
member responds by bending as shown in Fig. 4.1 below. If the deflection at the centre of the
member is, d, then at the centre there is a force P and a total moment of M + P . The second
order bending component, P, is due to the extra eccentricity of the axial load which results
from the deflection. If the column is short is small and this second order moment is negligible.
If on the other hand, the column is long and slender, is large and P must be calculated and
added to the applied moment M.

Fig. 4.1

Slenderness Ratio
The significance of P (i.e. whether a column is short or slender) is defined by a slenderness ratio.
In EBCS 2, the slenderness ratio is defined as follows:
a) For isolated columns, the slenderness ratio is defined by:

where:

Le
i

Le is the effective buckling length

i is the minimum radius of gyration. The radius of gyration is equal to

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i I A
where: I is the second moment of area of the section
A is cross sectional area
b) For multistory sway frames comprising rectangular sub frames, the following expression
may be used to calculate the slenderness ratio of the columns in the same story.

12 A
Kl L

where: A is the sum of the cross-sectional areas of all the columns of the story
Kl is the total lateral stiffness of the columns of the story (story rigidity), with
modulus of elasticity taken as unity
L is the story height
Limits of Slenderness

The slenderness ratio of concrete columns shall not exceed 140

Second order moment in a column can be ignored if
a) For sway frames, the greater of

25

15

d N sd f cd Ac
where
b) For non-sway frames

M
50 25 1
M2

Where M1 and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments at the ends, M 2 being always positive
and greater in magnitude than M 1, and M1 being positive if member is bent in single curvature and
negative if bent in double curvature
Effective Length of Columns

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Effective buckling length is the length between points of inflection of columns and it is the length
which is effective against buckling. The greater the effective length, the more likely the column is
to be buckle.
The effective length of the column, Le, can be determined from Fig. 5.8, alignment charts (see Fig.
5.9), or using approximate equations.
a) Figure is used when the support conditions of the column can be closely represented by those
shown in the figure below.

Fig. 5.8 Effective length factors for centrally loaded columns with various idealized conditions

b) The alignment chart (see Fig. 5.9) is used for members that are parts of a framework. The
effect of end restrained is quantified by the two end restrain factors 1 and 2

1 (or 2 )

E cm I col

/ Lcol
E cm I b / Lb

Where Ecm is modulus of elasticity of concrete

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Lcol is column height
Lb is span of the beam
Icol, Ib are moment of inertia of the column and beam respectively
is factor taking in to account the condition of restraint of the beam at the opposite end
= 1.0 opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained
= 0.5 opposite end free to rotate
= 0 for cantilever beam

Note that: if the end of the column is fixed, the theoretical value of is 0, but an value of 1 is
recommended for use. On the other hand, if the end of the member is pinned, the theoretical value
of is infinity, but an value of 10 is recommended for use. The rational behind the foregoing
recommendations is that no support in reality can be truly fixed or pinned.

Fig. 5.9 Alignment Charts/Nomograph for effective length of columns in continuous frames

c) The following approximate equations can be used provided that the values of 1 and 2 dont
exceed 10 (see EBCS 2).
(a) Non-sway mode

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L e m 0.4

0.7
L m 0.8

(b) In Sway mode

Le
7.5 4( 1 2 ) 1.6 1 2

1.15
L
7.5 1 2
Or Conservatively,
Le
1 0.8 m 1.15
L

Where 1 and 2 are as defined above and m is defined as:

1 2
2

Note that: for flats slab construction, an equivalent beam shall be taken as having the width and
thickness of the slab forming the column strip.
Slender columns bent about the major axis
A slender column bent about the major axis may be treated as bi-axially loaded with initial
eccentricity ea acting about the minor axis
Biaxial Bending of Columns
a) Small Ratios of Relative Eccentricity
Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be checked
separately for uni-axial bending in each respective direction provided the relative eccentricities
are such that k

0.2; where k denotes the ratio of the smaller relative eccentricity to the

larger relative eccentricity.

The relative eccentricity, for a given direction, is defined as the ratio of the total eccentricity,
allowing for initial eccentricity and second-order effects in that direction, to the column width
in the same direction.
b) Approximate Method

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Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be checked
separately for uni-axial bending in each respective.
If the above condition is not satisfied, the following approximate method of calculation can be
used, in the absence of more accurate methods.
For this approximate method, one-fourth of the total reinforcement must either be distributed
along each face of the column or at each corner. The column shall be designed for uni-axial
bending with the following equivalent uni-axial eccentricity of load, e eq along the axis parallel to
the larger relative eccentricity:
eeq etot 1 k
where

etot denotes the total eccentricity in the direction of the larger relative eccentricity
k denotes the relative eccentricity ratio as defined in above.

may be obtained from the following table as a function of the relative normal

force

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0.4

0.6

0.8

0.6

0.8

0.9

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0.5

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