Stratigraphic Sections

Geologists study sequences of sedimentary rocks on a bed by bed basis.

They measure the thickness of each bed, record the physical, chemical and
biological characteristics of the rock and note the nature of the contacts (or
bedding planes) between beds. Using these data, geologist draws up a
stratigraphic section for a particular sequence of the rocks.
The stratigraphic section is a graphical representation of the sequence of rock
units. Standard symbols, called lithologic symbols, are used to refer to each
rock type.

Drawing a stratigraphic section

To draw a stratigraphic section
A- You must have data from the sequence of rocks such as the thickness of
each bed, all the physical, chemical and biological characteristics as well as
the character of its contacts.
B- Before you start, you need to examine your data to determine the total
thickness of the section you plan to draw. Then, determine a proper scale so
that the entire section will fit in your paper.
C- Draw a vertical column in which you will plot your data, and then mark off
the thickness of each bed or formation using the scale you established.
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D- Draw in the contacts between units; if the contacts are erosional, you
should use a wavy line. Once you have drawn in contacts, draw the
lithologic symbols for each unit, Information on fossils and sedimentary
structures may be placed within the unit, or beside it using a special
symbol or a small sketch
E- Once you have drawn several stratigraphic sections for an area, you may
begin to correlate them.

Sedimentary contacts and unconformities

There are two basic types of contacts between rock units, conformable and
unconformable contacts.
Conformable contacts between beds of sedimentary rocks may be either
abrupt or gradational. Most abrupt contacts are bedding planes
resulting from sudden minor changes in depositional conditions.
Gradational contacts represent more gradual changes in depositional
conditions. Conformable contacts generally indicate that no significant
time gap or break in deposition has occurred.
Unconformable contacts are surfaces which represent a gap in geologic
record, because of either erosion or non deposition. The time
represented by this gap can vary ranging from millions to hundreds of
million of years. Unconformities are useful in relative dating because
recognizing them allows us to distinguish between the older rocks below
the unconformity and the younger rocks above the unconformity.
There are several field criteria that help the geologist to recognize
unconformities such as:
Sedimentary criteria include the presence of basal conglomerates often
with clasts derived from the underlying unit, beds of phosphatized
pebbles, glauconite or manganese-rich beds.
Structural criteria include the presence of an irregular contact cuts
across bedding planes in the underlying unit, a difference in the angle of
dip of the beds above and below the contact, and truncation of dykes or
faults along a sedimentary contact.
Paleontological criteria include abrupt changes in fossil assemblages
such as a change from marine to land- dwelling fossils.
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The basic types of unconformities include;

1- Angular unconformities
They are characterized by an erosion surface which truncates folded
or tilted strata and the overlying strata are deposited parallel with the
erosion surface. The rocks above and below the unconformity surface
are at an angle to one another.

2- Nonconformities
They are characterized by an erosion surface which truncates igneous
or metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks unconformably overlie
igneous or metamorphic rocks.

3- Disconformities
They are characterized by an irregular erosion surface which
truncates flat- lying sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks above
and below the unconformity surface are parallel to one another.
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4- Paraconformities
They are characterized by a surface of nondeposition separating two
parallel units of sedimentary rocks with no obvious evidence of erosion.
This type of unconformities can be recognized only by examination of
fossils which shows a time gap.

Sedimentary Facies
A facies: is a unit of sedimentary rock deposited in a particular sedimentary
environment. Each facies has distinctive physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics which serve as clues that help the geologist to interpret the
environment in which the rock was deposited. (Examples of sedimentary
environments include beaches, rivers, lakes, deserts, alluvial fans, deltas, reefs,
lagoons, tidal flats, etc.).
Lateral facies changes:
Beds may change laterally in thickness or in rock type as a result of
differences in the sedimentation rate, or environment of deposition. In these
cases, a bed of rock may be in the same position in the sequence, but it is
somewhat different in thickness or rock type.
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Illustration of lateral changes in bed thickness

In some cases, a bed thins progressively in one direction until it pinches
out. A pinch-out may or may not be accompanied by the increase in
thickness of an adjacent unit. In some case, the entire sedimentary
section thins in a certain direction.
WALTHER'S LAW AND VERTICAL FACIES CHANGES
The sedimentary sequence seen in outcrops is the result of different
types of sediment being deposited in different sedimentary
environments over time, producing a vertical sequence of different
facies.
Lateral changes in facies are relatively easy to understand. Vertical
facies changes may initially be somewhat puzzling. How does one layer
of sedimentary rock come to overlie another? The vertical relationships
between facies are explained by changes in sea level, or changes in
subsidence and sedimentation rates.
As laterally-adjacent sedimentary environments shift back and forth through
time, as a result of sea level change, facies boundaries also shift back and
forth. Given enough time, facies which were once laterally adjacent will shift
so that the deposits of one environment come to overlie those of an adjacent
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environment. In fact, this is how many (if not most) vertical sequences of
sedimentary rocks were formed. This concept was first stated by Johannes
Walther in 1894, and is called Walther's Law. Basically, in a conformable
sedimentary sequence (i.e., one without unconformities), sedimentary units
which lie in vertical succession represent the deposits of laterally adjacent
sedimentary environments migrating over one another through time.
At any one time, sediment of different types is being deposited in different
places. Sand is deposited on the beach, silt is deposited offshore, clay is
deposited in deeper water, and carbonate sediment is deposited far from shore
(or where there is little or no input of terrigenous sediment). Sedimentary
environments (and facies) move as sea level changes, or as a basin fills with
sediment.

Distribution of sedimentary facies

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A sea level rise is called a transgression. A transgression will produce a

vertical sequence of facies representing progressively deeper water
environments (a deepening-upward sequence). As a result, a transgressive
sequence will have finer-grained facies overlying coarser-grained facies
(fining-upward from sand at the bottom, and then to silt, and then to shale).
Transgressions can be caused by melting of polar A ice caps, displacement of
ocean water by undersea volcanism, or by localized sinking or subsidence of
the land in coastal areas.

Transgressive Sequence
A sea level drop is called a regression. A regression will produce a
sequence of facies representing progressively shallower water
environments (shallowing-upward sequence). As a result, a regressive
sequence will have coarser-grained facies overlying finer-grained facies
(coarsening-upward). Regression can be caused by a buildup of ice in
the polar ice caps, or localized uplift of the land in coastal areas.

Regressive Sequence

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We can easily see how transgressive and regressive sequences form.

First, start with this basic situation:
Illustration of the formation of REGRESSIVE (A - D) and
TRANSGRESSIVE (E - G) sequences.

Assume that sea level drops and the beach moves seaward.

Repeat for another sea level drop.

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Now notice how the facies have migrated to keep their proper position
relative to sea level.

Now begin again with the same basic situation.

Assume that sea level rises and the beach moves landward.

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Repeat for another sea level rise.

Now notice again how the facies have migrated to keep their proper
position relative to sea level.

The figure below illustrates a transgression followed by a regression, or

a transgressive-regressive sequence. The part of the record deposited
during the transgression is marked by an arrow labeled "T", and the
part deposited during the regression is marked by an arrow labeled
"R". Four facies are shown: a sandstone facies, a siltstone facies, a shale
facies, and a limestone facies. Note that the facies pattern produces a
broad V shape in vertical section.
Three "time lines" are shown. (In the geologic record, a "time line"
could be represented by a thin volcanic ash bed, representing one
particular eruption event.) Note that the lithologic units cut across the
time lines. The facies are time-transgressive or diachronous. Note that
the time line marked "Time 2" bisects the V shape of the transgressiveregressive sequence. The point of sea level high stand (maximum
transgression) in a transgressive-regressive sequence is always a time
line, marking the time of maximum transgression. (Similarly, the point
of sea level low stand (maximum regression) in a transgressiveregressive sequence is always a time line, marking the time of maximum
regression.).
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Transgressive-regressive sequence
Now lets see how a transgressive-regressive sequence looks in the
stratigraphic record.
(1) Three stratigraphic sections. Note that the facies that are present in
each section are different. Where might you place these three sections on
the diagram above?

(2) Correlate the three sections.

(3)

Interpret transgression, regression and sea level high stand, and sketch
in the facies.
This diagram shows the V-shaped pattern produced by migrating facies
during a transgression followed by a regression. Three stratigraphic
sections are superimposed on the pattern to illustrate how the facies
would appear in vertical section in three different locations. Note that
the facies that are present in each section are different, due to pinch-out.
Draw a dashed line down the center of the V connecting the maximum
landward extent of each facies. This will be a time line, marking the
time of sea level high stand or maximum transgression.
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What is meant by the following concepts?

Unconformity bounded unit : A body of rocks bounded above and
below by specified significant disconformities in the stratigraphic
succession .
Diastem: A short interruption in deposition with little or no erosion
before resumption of sedimentation.

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