2 - Ashby Method

2.1 - Introduction to Materials Selection

Outline

Materials and their attributes

Materials and processes data
Exploring relationships: Material Property Charts
Matching material to design: Screening and ranking
Selection strategies and multi-objective optimisation

Resources:
M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design Butterworth Heinemann, 1999
The Cambridge Material Selector (CES) software -- Granta Design, Cambridge
(www.grantadesign.com)

The evolution of materials

The world of materials

Steels
Cast irons
Al-alloys

Metals
Cu-alloys
Ni-alloys
Ti-alloys
PE, PP, PC
PA (Nylon)

Alumina
Si-Carbide

Polymers,
elastomers

Ceramics,
glasses

GFRP
CFRP

Soda-glass
Pyrex

Composites

Butyl rubber
Neoprene

KFRP
Plyw ood

Polymer foams
Metal foams

Foams
Ceramic foams
Glass foams

Woods

Natural
materials
Natural fibres:
Hemp, Flax,
Cotton

Basic material properties

Mechanical properties

Thermal expansion

General
Density , Mg/m3
Cost/kg Cm, $/kg

Mechanical
Elastic limit,y

Youngs modulus, E

Stress

Strain

Stiffness:

Youngs modulus E, GPa

Strength:

Elastic limit y , MPa

Thermal conduction

Thermal

Brittle materials

Expansion: Expansion coeff. , 1/K

(fracture)
Tensile
strength,

Conduction: Thermal conductivity , W/m.K

Youngs
modulus, E

Electrical

Expansion
coefficient,
Temperature, T

Fracture strength: Tensile strength ts , MPa

Brittleness: Fracture toughness K ic , MPa.m1/2

ts

T1

To

Area A

Q joules/sec

Heat flux, Q/A

Stress

Ductile materials

lo

Thermal strain

Weight:
Expense:

Thermal
conductivity,

Conductor? Insulator?

(T1 -T 0)/x

Strain

Mechanical properties illustrated

Stiff
Strong
Tough
Light

All OK !

Not stiff enough (need bigger E)

Not strong enough (need bigger y )

Not tough enough (need bigger Kic)

Too heavy (need lower )

Materials information for design

The goals of design:
To create products that perform their function economically, safely, at acceptable cost
What do we need to know about materials in order to do this?

Statistical
analysis

Data
capture

Selection of
material and process

Economic analysis
and business case

Mechanical Properties
B ulk M odulus
Com pressiv e Strength
Ductility
E las tic Limit
E ndurance Lim it
Fracture Toughness
Hardness
Loss Coefficient
M odulus of Rupture
P ois son's Ratio
S hear Modulus
Tensile S trength
Y oung' s Modulus

Test

Test data

4.1 55 0.06 40 24 2.3 100 0.00950 0.38 0.85 45 2.5 -

4.6 GPa
60 MP a
0.07
45 MP a
27 MP a
2.6 MP a.m1/2
140 MP a
0.026
55 MP a
0.42
0.95 GPa
48 MP a
2.8 GPa

Design data

$
Real
applications

Potential
applications

Selection and implementation

Characterisation

The nature of material (or process) data

Unstructured data -reports, papers, the
Worldwide Web etc

Structured data -Handbooks,

data sheets etc

Numeric
modulus,
density.

Rankings
eg corrosion resistance
in sea water? A,B,C,D,E

Boolean
Design guide-line
Standards

Case studies

Codes

eg can be blow-moulded?
Yes/No

Descriptive info.

Specific documentation
Experience with the material

Applications

Help
lines

Failure analysis

Supply
chain

FE
modules

Consultants

Non-specific documentation

Data organisation: materials

Kingdom

Family

Class &
member

Ceramics

MATERIAL

Glasses
Polymers
Metals
Elastomers
Composites
Natural

Steels
Cu-alloys
Al-alloys
Ti-alloys
Ni-alloys
Zn-alloys

1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000

Attributes
Density
Mechanical props.
Thermal props.
Electrical props.
Optical props.
Corrosion props.
Supporting information
Processes
Shapes

A material record

Structured data for ABS

Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) - (CH2-CH-C6H4)n
Thermal Properties

General Properties
Density
Price

1.05 2.1 -

1.07 Mg/m^3
2.3 USD/kg

Mechanical Properties
Bulk Modulus
Compressive Strength
Ductility
Elastic Limit
Endurance Limit
Fracture Toughness
Hardness
Loss Coefficient
Modulus of Rupture
Poisson's Ratio
Shear Modulus
Tensile Strength
Young's Modulus

4.1 55 0.06 40 24 2.3 100 0.00950 0.38 0.85 45 2.5 -

4.6 GPa
60 MPa
0.07
45 MPa
27 MPa
2.6 MPa.m 1/2
140 MPa
0.026
55 MPa
0.42
0.95 GPa
48 MPa
2.8 GPa

Glass Temperature
Ma x Service Temp
Min Service Temp
Specific Heat
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Expansion

350
350
150
1500
0.17
70

360
370
200
1510
0.24
75

K
K
K
J/kg.K
W/m.K
10-6/K

15
MV/m
3.3
1.6x1022 ohm.cm
0.009

Electrical Properties
Breakdown Potential
Dielectric Constant
Resistivity
Power Factor

14
2.8
6.3x1021
0.008

Corrosion and Wear Resistance

Flammability
Fresh Water
Organic Solvents
Oxidation at 500C
Sea Water
Strong Acid
Strong Alkalis
UV
Wear
Weak Acid
Weak Alkalis

Average
Good
Average
Very Poor
Good
Good
Good
Good
Poor
Good
Good

Unstructured data for ABS

What is it? ABS is a terpolymer one made by copolymerising 3 monomers:
acrylonitrile, butadiene and syrene. It is tough, resilient, and easily moulded. ABS is
opaque, or at best translucent, but it can be given vivid colours. It is used for casings,
telephones, lego bricks, and small moulded parts such as the casings of computer mice. ABSPVC alloys are tougher than standard ABS and, in self-extinguishing grades, are used for the
casings of power tools.

Design Notes. The acrylonitrile gives thermal and chemical resistance, rubber-like
butadiene gives ductility and strength, the styrene gives a glossy surface, ease of machining
and a lower cost. ABS can be welded to ABS/PC, acrylic and itself, and it can be bonded
with polyester, epoxy, alpha-cyanoacylate or nitrile-phenolic adhesives. Ultrasonic welding
can reduce the strength of the material to 95% of the original; hot plate welding can reduce
the strength to 80%. ABS can be extruded or formed to sheet. Thin (extruded) gauges of
ABS can be easily processed on all types of forming equipment. A co-extrusion process or a
special film overlay is recommended to extend the life of ABS for outdoor applications.
Compression moulded heavy gauge ABS is often used for prototype model making. ABS has
the highest impact resistance of all polymers. It allows many colour options and has
attractive aesthetic qualities. Integral metallics can be easily added (as in GE Plastics'
M agix.) ABS is UV resistant for outdoor application if stabilisers are added.

Shaping. ABS is distributed as pellets for moulding or extrusion. The material is normally available a rod or sheet in a range of colours.
Highlights. ABS is FDA compliant. It is readily available, easily machined, bonds well, product versatility, easily formed, good
mechanical properties, cost, good impact strength (also at low temperatures), satisfactory stiffness, satisfactory dimensional stability, glossy
surface, easy to machine, resistant to some bases and alcohol

Warnings. ABS is hygroscopic (may need to be oven dried before thermoforming), and damaged by petroleum-based machining oils. It
has only limited chemical resistance, with poor resistance to solvents.

Typical Uses. Cabinets and cases for domestic goods, TV boxes, telephones, food mixers, vacuum cleaners, baths, showers trays, pipes.
Other typical applications include luggage shells, RV parts, business machine housings and parts, shower stalls and cassette holders;
automotive parts, housing for tools and appliances, luggage and safety hard hats. Lego, computer mice, razors, handles, shavers, chairs.

Data organisation: processes

Kingdom

PROCESS

Family

Deformation
Moulding
Powder
Casting
Machining
Composite
Molecular
Special

Class &
member
Investment
Full mould
Sand 1
Shell
Sand 2
Sand
Die
Sand 3
Squeeze Sand 4
Ceramic Sand 5
mould
Permanent
mould

Attributes

Size Range
Shape/complexity
Min. section
Tolerance
Roughness
Economic batch
Materials
Shapes

Structured data for Green-sand casting

Physical attributes
Size range normal (extreme)
Min. section thickness normal (extreme)
Tolerance, normal (extreme)
Surface roughness, normal (extreme)
Aspect ratio
Adjacent section ratio
Hole diameter
Min. corner.radius
Max.dimension
Quality factor (range 1-10)

25 - 100 kg
5 - 999 mm
1.2 - 3
mm
12 - 25 mm
1 - 20
1 - 5
30 - 300 mm
5 - 50 mm
100 - 3000mm
1 -4

Economic attributes
Economic batch size
Capital cost
Tooling cost
Lead time
Production rate
Tool life
Material utilisation fraction

1 1000100 2
0.1 10 0.5 -

1000
units
5000

2000

4
weeks
1
Units/hr
1000 Units
0.7

Class attributes
Material class
Process class
Shape class

Ferrous, non-ferrous, light alloys

Discrete, primary shape-forming
3-D hollow, transverse features

Unstructured data for Green-sand casting

Name: Sand Casting (green)
Description.

In SAND CAST ING a mixture of

sand and a binder is packed around a pattern that has
the shape of the desired casting. The pattern is then
removed to leave the cavity in which molten metal is
poured. When the metal solidifies, the mould is
broken to retrieve the casting.
Design Notes. The pattern is made slightly larger
than the desired casting to compensate for shrinkage
of the metal as it cools. There are several variations
of the process especially in terms of the type of binder
used.
Green sand and dry sand moulds refer to sand bonded with clay. Sand casting is not limited to nonrefractory, non-reactive metals with melting points below 2000K. Shapers are frequently solid but
complex internal shapes can be made using cores

Typical Uses.

Very diverse - automotive engineering, machine-tool selectors, Engine blocks,

cylinder heads, manifolds, machine-tool frames, pump housing

Sources of data.
Bralla, J.G. (1986) Handbook of Product Design, McGraw Hill, NY.
Schey, J.A. (1977) Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw Hill, NY.
Clegg, A.J. (1991) Precision Casting Processes, Pergamon Press, Oxford U.K.
Metals Hanbook - Vol 15, Casting, (1988) 9th Ed. ASM Int Ohio, USA

Finding data

Library searches

Data Sources compilations such as Chapter 13 of Materials Selection

Locate candidate on CES MATERIALS tree

or PROCESSES tree and double click

Use the SEARCH facility to find all records contain candidate name, or
trade-name, or application

Proprietary searchable software: ASM handbooks, B&H Handbooks ..

The Worldwide Web, using WEBLINKS to find web sites containing data
(e.g. www.matweb.com)

Relationships: property bar-charts

Diamond

Tungsten, Commercial Purity

ee
CFRP

Elas tic Lim it (M Pa)

1000.

Silicon Nitride

Acetal
100.

PolyUrethane
Silica

Fibreboard

Copper

10.

Lead

MDF
Butadiene

1.

Aerated Concrete

Ceramics

Metals

Polymers

Materi al s:\Cerami c

Materi al s:\Metal

Materi al s:\Pol ymer

Material Class

Composites
Materi al s:\Composi te

Bar- chart created with CES

Low alloy steel

Youngs
Young'smodulus
Modulus (GPa)(GPa)

WC
BC
S iC

High carbon steel

Stainless steel

1 000

Alumina

Ti-alloys
1 00

Cu-alloys
Zn-alloys
Al-alloys
Mg-alloys

10

CFR P
Glass Ceramic

Acetal, POM
Polyester, rigid
PS ABS

Silica glass

KFRP

Soda-Lim e glass

GFRP

P UR
PE

PC
PP

Al-SiC C omposite

Plywood

P TFE
Ionomer

0 .1

EVA
0 .01

Polyurethane
Natural R ubber (NR)

1 e-0 03

Neoprene

Metals

1 e-0 04

M ate ria ls:\M ET AL S

Ceramics & glas s

Polyme rs
Ma ter ials: \POLY MER S

M at eri als:\ CERAM ICS an d GL ASSES

Compos ites
Ma te rial s:\COM POSIT E S

Untitled


Explore relationships

Elementary selection (Find materials with large elastic limit)

Materials property bubble charts

Plotting one material property against another.

Strong focus on strength, modulus, toughness, density, thermal

expansion, conductivity, etc.

Properties usually span 5 decades.

Properties values cluster according to the six classes of materials.

Actually eight classes are used because engineering composites are

separated from foams and woods and engineering ceramics are
separated from porous ceramics.

Materials property bubble charts

Materials property bubble charts

Materials property bubble charts

Materials property bubble charts

Materials property bubble charts

Materials property bubble charts

Property chart created with CES

100 0

Silicon C arbide
Alumina

Modulus - Density

Boro n C arbide
Silicon

Tungsten Carbides

Steels

N ickel alloys

Al alloys
C FRP
GFR P

B amboo

Youngs
modulus
(GPa)
Young's Modulus
(typical)
(GPa)

Copper alloys

M g alloys

100

Zinc alloys
T itanium

Wood
10

Lead alloys

C oncrete

Plywood

PET
PVC
PUR

PP
1

PE
PT FE

Rigid Polymer Foams

0.1

EVA
Silicone

Cork
0.01

Flexible Polymer Foams

Polyisopren e
Polyurethane
B utyl R ubber

1e-0 03

Neopr ene
1e-0 04
0.01

0.1

10

Density (typical) (Mg/m^3)

Density (Mg/m3)

Materials property bubble charts

Other parameters that are calculable from the fundamental properties

can be represented on these charts as lines of constant value of the
parameter.
Example: longitudinal wave speed of sound in solid,
Modulus vs Density chart.
1/2

E
=

Log(E) = Log() + 2Log( )

Thus, on a log-log plot iso - lines appear as parallel
straight lines with a slope of unity.

Materials property bubble charts

The main points

A classification system for materials allows data for them to be

organised
The data takes several forms:
(a) numeric, non-numeric data that can be structured in a uniform
way for all materials
(b) supporting information specific to a single material, best stored
as text and images
The organization allows information to be retrieved accurately and
efficiently
Visual presentation of data as bar-charts and property (bubble)
charts reveals relationships and allows comparisons
Hard-copies of the charts can be found in Appendix B of the text or downloaded from
the Granta web site (www.grantadesign.com)

The design process and data needs

Tools for Design

Need
Design phase

(Material needs)

Concept

Data for all materials

and processes, low precision

Embodiment

Data for fewer materials

or processes, higher precision

Detail

Data for one material

or process, highest precision

Life phase

Production

Redesign

Use

Tools for
life-cycle
analysis

Disposal

Design requirements
Translation

material specification

Design concept

Analyse: Function
What does the component do ?
Objective(s) What is to be maximised or minimised ?
Constraints What essential conditions must be met ?
Free variables Which design variables are free ?
From which we obtain
Screening criteria expressed as numerical limits on
material property-values
Or expressed as requirements for processing,
corrosion, .
Ranking criteria based on material indices that
characterise performance

Screening by attributes and links

Eliminate materials that cant do the job
Example: heat exchanger tubes

Screen on attributes

Retain materials with:

max operating temp > 100C
resistivity R > 1020 .cm
T-conduct. > 100 W/m.K

Requirements: must
operate at 100oC
be electrical insulator
conduct heat well
Screen on links

Example: cheap metal window frame

Retain materials with:
links to extrusion

Requirements: must
be extrudable

Screen on both attributes and links

Screening using attribute limits

Search region

Property value

Diamond

Steel

CFRP

Silica

GFRP
Copper

Polyethylene
PP

Cement
Lead

Ceramics

Fibreboard

Metals

PTFE

Polymers

Composites

Screening using attribute limits

Search region
Tungsten, Commercial Purity

Diamond

ee
CFRP

Ela stic Lim it (M Pa )

1000.

Silicon Nitride

Acetal
100.

PolyUrethane
Silica

Fibreboard

Copper

10.

Lead

MDF
Butadiene

1.

Aerated Concrete

Ceramics

Metals

Polymers

Materi als:\Cerami c

Materi als:\Metal

Materi als:\Pol ymer

Composites
Materi als:\Composite

Material Class

Ranking by performance
Objective -- a metric of performance, to be maximised or minimised.
Examples: Mass, volume, eco-impact, cost .per unit of function
Convention: express in form to be minimised.

Cost per unit strength

C
P m
y
Mass per unit bending stiffness

1/ 2

Volume per unit energy absorbed

1
yD

Many more

Performance metric

Performance metrics:
Minimise -Value range of metric
for selected materials

Most highly ranked materials

Material indices
Strong tie of length L and minimum mass
F

Area A

L
Length L is specified
Must not fail under load F

Function

Tie-rod

Constraints

Objective

Minimise mass m

Free variable Cross-section area A is free

Equation for objective:

m = AL

(1)

Equation for constraint:

F/A < y

(2)

Eliminate A in (1) using (2): m = FL

y

Minimise the material index
y

Materials indices

Each combination of
FUNCTION
Tie

Function
Objective
Constraint
Free variable

Has a
characterising
material index

OBJECTIVE
Beam
Minimum cost
Shaft

Minimum
weight

Column

Maximum energy
storage

Mechanical,
Thermal,
Electrical...

Minimum
environ. impact

CONSTRAINTS

Stiffness
specified
Strength
specified
Fatigue limit
Geometry
specified

INDEX

M=
y

Minimise
this!

Material indices: the key to optimised choice

Material indices --

Material properties -the Physicists view of materials, e.g.

Cost,

Cm

Density,

Modulus,

Strength,

Endurance limit,

Thermal conductivity,

T- expansion coefficient,

the Engineers view of materials

Objective: minimise mass
Function

Stiffness

Strength

Tension (tie)

/E

/ y

Bending (beam)

/E1/2

/ 2/3

Bending (panel)

/E1/3

/1/2
y

Minimise these!
Many more: see Appendix B of the Text

Selection using charts

C=

y = / C
Log y = Log() Log(C)

=C
y

Contours of constant
C are lines of slope 1
on an y- chart

Search
region

Steps of selection
All materials (processes.)
Structured
data

Screening, using constraints

eliminate materials which cant to the job

Ranking, using objectives

find materials which do the job best

Subset of materials (processes)

Unstructured
data

Further Information :
search family history of candidates

Shortlist of candidates
Local conditions:
does the choice match the local needs, expertise ?

Selected material (process)

Materials, processes and shapes

Deformation
Moulding
Powder methods
Casting
Machining
Composite forming
Molecular methods

MATERIALS

Ceramics
Glasses
Polymers
Metals
Elastomers
Composites
Natural materials

PROCESSES

SHAPES

Axisymmetric
Prismatic
Flat sheet
Dished sheet
3-D solid
3-D hollow

Materials, processes and shapes

Materials, processes and shapes

Materials, processes and shapes

Selection by technical analysis

Select on material properties alone

Enter

Find material that has

Attribute 1 < C1

(Density, )

Attribute 2 > C2

(Modulus, E)

Attribute 3 > C3

(Strength, )

Attribute 4 = C4

(Poisson, )

MATERIALS
Multiple
constraints

Material 1
Material 2
Material 3
..

PROCESSES
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
..

PRODUCTS
Product1
Product 2
Product 3
..

Selection by association
Select on processability and material properties

Find material that of type

INJECTION MOULDABLE

Enter

and has
Attribute 1 > C1
Attribute 2 > C2
Attribute 3 < C3

MATERIALS
Material 1
Material 2
Material 3
..

PROCESSES
Multiple
constraints

Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
..

Attribute 4 < C4

PRODUCTS
Product1
Product 2
Product 3
..

Selection by analogy
Select on similarity (and innovative substitution)
Find material that is like
Material X, or like that of

MATERIALS
Material 1
Material 2
Material 3
..

Product Z

but has
Attribute 1 > C1
Attribute 4 < C4

PROCESSES
Additional
constraints

Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
..

PRODUCTS
and is of type
SAND-CASTABLE

Enter

Product1
Product 2
Product 3
..

Conflicting
objectives

Plot performance metric P

against cost metric C
A solution, is a material
with a given combination of
cost and performance
Dominated and
non-dominated solutions

A Dominated

solution

Cost C

Performance, P
Cost, C

B Non-dominated

solution
Trade-off surface

Cheap

How balance objectives ? eg

Expensive

Multi-objective optimisation for selection

Performance metric P

High

Low

Non-dominated solution (B):

no one other solution is better by
both metrics

solution

Cost C

Dominated solution (A):

some other solution is better by
both metrics

A Dominated

B Non-dominated

solution
Trade-off surface

Cheap

Solution: a viable choice,

meeting constraints, but not
necessarily optimum by either
criterion.

Expensive

Multi-objective optimisation for selection

High

Performance metric P

The trade-off surface (or Pareto front) is the surface on which the nondominated solutions lie
Use intuition to select
Form a value function: a composite objective

Low

Multi-objective optimisation for selection

100

Cost of insulation
(1000$/m3 )
Co st/kgC
xD
mensity

R efrigerator insulation
Trade-off
surface

10

Ba lsa (0 .1)

C o rk

Ph e no lic foa m (0 .035)

P U fo am (0.024)
0.1

PS fo a ml (0.050)
P S fo a m (0.020)
PP fo a ml (0.02)
PP foa m (0 .03)

0.0 1

L igh tw e igh t Co n cre te

Ae ra te d C on cre te

0 .01

0.1

The rm al C onductivity (W /m.K )

Thermal conductivity (Watts/m.K)

10