Professional Documents
Culture Documents
110
Sedimentation
Engineering
Processes,Measurements,
Modeling,andPractice
EditedbyMarceloH.Garca,Ph.D.,
P.Eng.
Preparedby
theASCETaskCommitteetoExpandandUpdateManual54ofthe
SedimentationCommitteeof
theEnvironmentalandWaterResourcesInstitute
PublishedbytheAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.TaskCommitteeforthePreparationoftheManualon
Sedimentation.
Sedimentationengineering:processes,management,modeling,andpractice/editedby Marcelo
H.Garcia;preparedbytheASCETaskCommitteeforthePreparationoftheManualon
SedimentationoftheSedimentationCommitteeoftheHydraulicsDivision
p.cm.(ASCEmanualsandreportsonengineeringpractice;no.110).
CompletarytoSedimentaryengineering,editedbyVitoA.Vanoni.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN13:9780784408148(alk.paper)
ISBN10:0784408149(alk.paper)
1. Sedimenttransport. 2. Soilconservation. I. Garca,MarceloH.,1959 II. Title.
TC175.2.A432 2007
627 '.042dc22
2006027517
PublishedbyAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers1801
AlexanderBellDrive
Reston,Virginia20191
www.pubs.asce.org
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Copyright2008bytheAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.
AllRightsReserved.
ISBN13:9780784408148
ISBN10:0784408149
ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
Aboutthecover:RiverdunesintheRioParannearPasodelaPatria,Argentina.Bedmorphologymeasurementsweremadewithamultibeamechosounder inMay
2004.Notetheubiquitoussuperimpositionofsmallerbedformsonthestosssideofthelargerdunes.ImagecourtesyofDanParsonsandJimBest,UniversityofLeeds,
U.K.
Contents
Chapter
Chapter
Foreword
xvii
Dedication
xxi
OverviewofSedimentation
Engineering
RobertC.MacArthur,CharlesR.Neill,BradR.Hall,
VicJ.Galay,andAndreyB.Shvidchenko
1.1
Introduction
1.2
OverviewofErosion
1.3 OverviewofSedimentTransport
1.4 OverviewofSedimentDeposition
1.5 ManagementandTreatmentofSedimentationProblems
4
8
11
14
References
17
SedimentTransportANDMORPHODYNAMICS
21
MarceloH.Garca
Chapter
2.1 SedimentTransportMechanicsandRelatedPhenomena
21
2.2 FluidMechanicsandHydraulicsforSedimentTransport
2.3
SedimentProperties
2.4 ThresholdConditionforSedimentMovement
2.5
SedimentTransport
2.6
BedLoadTransport
2.7
BedForms
2.8 BedForms,FlowResistance,andSedimentTransport
2.9
SuspendedLoad
2.10 DimensionlessRelationsforTotalBedMaterialLoad
inSandBedStreams
2.11 MorphodynamicsofRiversandTurbidity
Currents
2.12 MorphodynamicsofLakeandReservoirSedimentation
24
34
44
60
66
77
99
107
References
146
123
129
133
TransportofGraveland
SedimentMixtures
GaryParker
165
3.1 FluvialPhenomenaAssociated
vii
3.2
withSedimentMixtures
EngineeringRelevance
165
171
3.3
GrainSizeDistributions
175
viii CONTENTS
3.4 DimensionlessBankFullRelationsforGravelBed
andSandBedStreams
3.5 TheActiveLayerConcept
3.6 GeneralFormulationforBedLoad
TransportofMixtures
3.7 RelationsforHidingandBedLoad
TransportinMixtures
3.8
FieldData
3.9
Abrasion
3.10 NumericalModelingofBedLevelVariation
withSorting
3.11 StaticandMobileArmoring:Observations,
Experiments,andModeling
3.12 DownstreamFining:Observations,Experiments,
andModeling
3.13 MorphodynamicsofLocalPlanformSorting
3.14 TheCaseofSuspensionDominatedSandBedRivers
3.15 TracersandVerticalSorting
Notation
References
Chapter
178
183
186
191
209
210
213
216
223
227
229
237
239
243
FineGrainedSedimentTransport
253
AshishJ.MehtaandWilliamH.McAnally
4.1
Chapter
Introduction
253
4.2
SedimentCharacterization
4.3
SedimentTransportProcesses
4.4
Aggregation
4.5
SettlingVelocity
4.6
DepositionUnderFlow
4.7
ConsolidationandGelling
4.8
Erosion
4.9
WaveInducedErosion
4.10 Diffusion
4.11 Applications
254
259
261
266
270
272
275
283
291
293
References
297
SedimentTransportMeasurements
307
5.1 General
P.Diplas,R.Kuhnle,J.Gray,andD.Glysson
307
5.2
309
BedMaterialMeasurementTechniques
5.3
P.Diplas
SuspendedSedimentSamplers
J.Gray,D.Glysson,andT.Edwards
5.4
BedLoadSamplers
andSamplingMethods
320
339
R.Kuhnle
References
Chapter
346
FundamentalsofFluvial
Geomorphology
D.S.Biedenharn,C.C.Watson,andC.R.Thorne
6.1
BasicConcepts
355
6.2
ChannelMorphology
359
CONTENTS ix
355
6.3
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
SedimentTransport
363
6.4
ChannelFormingDischarge
6.5
RelationshipsinRivers
6.6 ChannelStabilityandInstability
6.7
ChannelClassification
6.8
ChannelEvolutionModels
6.9
GeomorphicAssessment
6.10 Closure
Notation
364
367
371
375
379
381
382
382
References
383
StreamBankErosionandRiver
WidthAdjustment
JamesE.PizzutoandtheASCETaskCommittee
onHydraulics,BankMechanics,andModelingof
RiverWidthAdjustment
387
7.1
387
Introduction
7.2 GeomorphicContextofRiverWidthAdjustment
7.3 FactorsInfluencingBankErosion
andWidthAdjustment
7.4 MethodsforEvaluatingBankErosionand
WidthAdjustment
7.5 ProcedureforApproachingWidthAdjustmentProblems
7.6
Conclusions
Appendix.DataSources
Acknowledgments
387
408
References
430
391
426
428
429
430
RiverMeanderingandChannel
Stability
A.JacobOdgaardandJorgeD.Abad
439
8.1
439
Introduction
8.2
MeanderingProcess
8.3 FlowandBedTopographyinMeanders
8.4
ChannelStability
8.5 ApplicationsofFlowandStabilityRelations
8.6 SimulationofMeanderEvolution
8.7
ChannelStabilization
439
443
445
449
450
451
References
454
StreamRestoration
461
F.DouglasShields,Jr.,RonaldR.Copeland,
PeterC.Klingeman,MartinW.Doyle,
andAndrewSimon
9.1
Introduction
461
9.2 PreparationofSedimentStudiesPlan
9.3 SelectingValuesforDesignDischargeandBed
MaterialSize
466
9.4
474
StabilityAssessment
469
CONTENTS
9.5
Chapter
10
RiverRestorationDesign
485
9.6
StabilityChecks
9.7
ImplementationandConstruction
9.8 MonitoringandPostconstructionAdjustment
9.9
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
494
496
496
497
497
References
497
BridgeScourEvaluation
505
J.R.RichardsonandE.V.Richardson
10.1 Introduction
Chapter
11
505
10.2
TotalScour
10.3 ClearWaterandLiveBedScour
10.4 LongTermBedElevationChanges
10.5
GeneralScour
10.6 CriticalVelocityforMovementofBedMaterial
10.7
LocalScour
10.8 LocalScouratPiers
10.9 HEC18PierScourEquation
10.10 ScourDepthswithDebrisonPiers
10.11 JainandFishersEquation
10.12 MelvillesEquation
10.13 OtherPierScourEquations
10.14 TopWidthofPierScourHoles
10.15 LocalScouratAbutments
10.16 ChangandDavisAbutmentScourEquation
10.17 SturmAbutmentScourEquation
10.18 RichardsonandTrivinoAbutmentScourEquation
506
507
507
508
510
511
512
513
523
523
524
525
525
525
527
528
529
10.19 Richardsonetal.EquationforL/y25
530
10.20 ComputerModels
10.21 StreamInstability
10.22 ScourinTideAffectedWaterways
10.23 ScourCalculationsforTidalWaterways
10.24 OverviewofTidalProcesses
10.25 PreliminaryAnalysis
10.26 DeterminationofHydraulicVariables
530
530
531
532
533
534
536
References
539
BridgeScourPrevention
andCountermeasures
BruceW.Melville,ArthurC.Parola,and
StephenE.Coleman
543
11.1 Introduction
543
11.2
ScourProcesses
11.3 ProtectionagainstGeneralScour
andContractionScour
11.4 CountermeasuresforLocalScouratBridgePiers
11.5
AbutmentProtection
11.6
EnvironmentalConsiderations
543
References
574
549
557
568
574
CONTENTS
Chapter 12
xi
ReservoirSedimentation
579
GregoryL.Morris,GeorgeAnnandale,
andRollinHotchkiss
12.1 Introduction
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
579
12.2
SedimentationRates
12.3
Sustainability
12.4
SedimentationImpacts
12.5 SedimentDeliverytoReservoirs
12.6
QuantifyingSedimentYield
12.7 SedimentDepositioninReservoirs
12.8 SedimentManagementinReservoirs
12.9
DamRemoval
12.10 ConcludingRemarks
580
582
585
587
590
595
598
607
608
References
609
iceeffectsonSedimentTransport
inRivers
RobertEttema
613
13.1 Introduction
613
13.2
IceFormation
13.3 IceCoverEffectsonFlowDistribution
13.4
IceCoverBreakup
13.5 SedimentTransportbyIce
13.6 IceCoverEffectsonSediment
TransportbyFlow
13.7 RiverIceEffectson
AlluvialChannelMorphology
Acknowledgments
615
619
623
625
References
645
627
635
645
ComputationalModelingof
SedimentationProcesses
WilliamA.ThomasandHowardChang
649
14.1 Introduction
649
14.2 LocalScourandDeposition
14.3 GeneralEquationsforFlowinMobile
BoundaryChannels
14.4 SimilaritybetweenComputationalModelStudies
andPhysicalModelStudies
14.5 DataTypesandResolution
14.6
ModelCalibration
14.7
BaseTest
14.8
PlanTest
14.9
InterpretationofResults
14.10 ExamplestoIllustrateModelApplicability
14.11 AnExampleApplication
14.12 AvailableComputationalModels
650
References
680
650
654
656
667
670
671
671
671
672
679
xii CONTENTS
Chapter
15
TwoandThreeDimensional
NumericalSimulationofMobileBed
HydrodynamicsandSedimentation
MiodragSpasojevicandForrestM.Holly,Jr.
683
15.1 Introduction
683
15.2 ProblemTypesandAvailableTechniques
andModelingSystemsASurvey
15.3 MathematicalBasisforHydrodynamicsin
TwoandThreeDimensions
15.4 OverviewofModelsofSediment
TransportandBedEvolution
15.5 BedandNearBedProcesses
15.6
SuspendedMaterialProcesses
15.7
SedimentExchangeProcesses
15.8 SystemClosureandAuxiliaryRelations
15.9 MobileBedNumerical
SolutionConsiderations
15.10 FieldDataNeedsforModelConstruction,
Calibration,andVerification
15.11 Examples
15.12 CriticalAssessmentofStateofthe
ArtandFuturePerspectives
References
Chapter
Chapter
16
17
685
690
695
701
705
707
708
712
714
720
755
759
TurbulenceModelsforSediment
transportEngineering
D.A.Lyn
763
16.1 Introduction
763
16.2 Turbulence,Models,andParticulateFlows
16.3
TheReynoldsAveragedEquations
16.4
TurbulenceClosureModels
16.5 ApplicationsofTurbulenceModelstoProblems
RelatedtoSedimentTransport
16.6
Discussion
AppendixI.CartesianTensorNotation
AppendixII.SpatiallyAveragedModels
763
766
771
References
820
WatershedSedimentYield
794
812
815
817
827
DevaK.Borah,EdwardC.Krug,andDanielYoder
17.1 Introduction
827
17.2
UplandSoilErosion
17.3
GullyErosion
17.4 StreambedandBankErosion
17.5 GrossErosion,DeliveryRatio,andSedimentYield
17.6
WatershedModels
829
837
839
839
840
References
854
CONTENTS xiii
Chapter 18
EngineeringGeomorphology
859
S.A.SchummandM.D.Harvey
18.1 Introduction
Chapter
19
859
18.2
History
18.3
SystemsApproach
18.4
GeomorphicHazards
18.5 TheEngineeringGeomorphicApproach
18.6
Conclusions
861
865
873
878
880
References
880
SedimentationHazards
885
MarceloH.Garca,RobertC.MacArthur,
RichardFrench,andJulianneMiller
19.1 Introduction
885
19.2 SedimentationHazardsHistoryandMagnitude
19.3 MechanicsofMudflows,DebrisFlows,and
MudFloods
19.4 AlluvialFanFloodingandSedimentation
19.5 MethodstoMitigatetheConsequencesof
SedimentationHazards
19.6 MathematicalModelingofMudflows
andDebrisFlows
887
References
917
889
900
905
909
AppendixCHAPTER19CaseStudyMount
Chapter
20
St.Helens20YEARSLATER
JeffreyBradley,TomGrindeland,
andHansHadley
923
IntroductionandChronology
923
WatershedRecovery
SedimentSources
SedimentYield
Conclusions
927
930
933
934
References
936
AmericanSedimentationLawand
PhysicalProcesses
JamesE.Slosson,DouglasHamilton,
andGerryShuirman
937
20.1 Introduction
937
20.2 Manual54:SedimentationEngineering(Vanoni1975)
20.3 RecentTrendsinAmericanSedimentationLaw
20.4 KeyTrendSettingCourtDecisions
20.5 PublicLiabilityandNaturalHazards:
CommonLawandRegulatory
TakingsFutureDirections
937
939
939
940
xiv
CONTENTS
20.6 VariousDefenses
Chapter
21
946
20.7
SovereignImmunity
20.8
StatutesofLimitations
20.9 HazardMitigationMeasuresBased
uponTortTheories
20.10 MoreontheTakingsIssue:ExpandedStatusand
TrendsinTortandTakingsLaws
20.11 UpstreamversusDownstreamLegalIssues
20.12 ActofGodDefense
20.13 ForensicGeology
20.14 FutureDirections
20.15 SummaryandRecentDevelopments
20.16 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
946
948
CourtCitationsandOtherReferences
957
ContaminantProcessesinSediments
948
949
949
950
952
952
954
956
956
956
959
DannyD.Reible
21.1 Introduction
Chapter
Chapter
22
23
959
21.2
ContaminantsofConcern
21.3 ContaminantReleaseandExposurePathways
21.4 WaterSideMassTransferProcesses
21.5 AnalysisofSedimentBedFate
andTransportMechanisms
21.6
EngineeringManagement
ofContaminatedSediments
21.7
Summary
960
962
968
References
979
969
974
979
SedimentOxygenDemand(sod)inRivers,
Lakes,andEstuaries
MikiHondzoandNancySteinberger
983
22.1 Introduction
983
22.2
DiffusiveSublayerThickness
22.3
MassTransferCoefficient
Appendix:DevelopedFlowConcepts
984
987
989
References
990
developmentandapplicationof
NumericalModelsofSediment
TransportAssociatedwith
DamRemoval
YantaoCuiandAndrewWilcox
995
23.1 Introduction
995
23.2 DamRemovalandSedimentTransportModeling
23.3 NumericalSimulationofSedimentTransport
FollowingtheRemovalofMarmot
Dam,SandyRiver,Oregon
Acknowledgments
1000
1019
References
1019
CONTENTS xv
995
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
RockScour
GeorgeW.AnnandaleandErikF.R.Bollaert
1021
Introduction
1021
OverviewofRockScour
CombinedApplicationofMethods
TheEIM
TheCSM
Summary
1021
1024
1024
1026
1035
References
1035
RiprapDesign
SteveMaynordandCharlesNeill
1037
B.1 Introduction
1037
B.2 RiprapStructureTypes
B.3 PhysicalCharacteristicsofRiprapStone
B.4 SignificanceofHydraulicLoading
B.5 GeotechnicalRequirementsforRiprap
B.6 EnvironmentalRequirementsforRiprap
B.7 ScourProtectionRequirementsforBankRevetments
B.8 SizeRequirementsforRiprap
B.9 ConstructionandMaintenance
1037
1039
1041
1044
1045
1046
1048
1053
References
1054
SedimentTransportScaling
forPhysicalModels
1057
CliffordA.Pugh
C.1 Introduction
C.2
C.3
1057
ModelingConsiderations
Nomenclature
1057
1064
References
Appendix
1065
EstimatingSedimentDischarge
1067
~
JohnR.GrayandFranciscoJ.M.Simoes
D.1 Introduction
D.2 SuspendedSedimentConcentrationInterpolation
Method
D.3 TransportCurveMethodforSuspendedSediment
Load,BedLoad,andTotalLoad
D.4 EquationsforEstimatingBedLoadand
BedMaterialLoad
D.5 TowardCollectionofConsistent,Reliable
FluvialSedimentData
References
Appendix
1067
1067
1069
1073
1083
1084
LimitedGlossary
OFSelectedTerms
1089
RobertC.MacArthurandBradR.Hall
Appendix
ConversionofUnits
1103
VitoA.Vanoni(1904 1999 )
NormanH.Brooks
1107
Index
1115
Chapter1
OverviewofSedimentationEngineering
RobertC.MacArthur,CharlesR.Neill,BradR.Hall,VicJ.Galay,
andAndreyB.Shvidchenko
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 General
Sedimentation engineering embraces the
identification, planning, analysis, and
remediation, principally in the context of
civil and hydraulic engineering practice, of
projectsortechnicalinvestigationstoavoid
and/or mitigate problems caused by
sedimentation processes. These processes
include erosion, entrainment, transport,
deposition, and compaction of sediment.
External agents and forces driving these
processesmayincludewater,wind,gravity,
and ice. Human activities also affect
sedimentation processes. This volume of
Sedimentation Engineering, referred to
hereinasManual110,focusesprimarilyon
physicalprocesses,measurements,modeling,
and the practice of sedimentation
engineering,mainlyinthecontextofrivers
and inland water bodies. (Chapter 4,
however, addresses fine sediments topics,
includingthosefoundincoastalandestuarine
environments.)
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENTATION
ENGINEERING
originalManual54.Manual110isintendedto
supplement rather than replace the original
manual, which contains a wealth of
fundamental information that has not lost its
validity.Together,bothmanualsdocumentthe
evolution of the specialized field of
sedimentation engineering over a 50year
period.
1.1.2 GlobalAspectsandChanging
Roles
As awareness of sedimentation processes and
the consequences of poor sediment
management practices has increased among
civil engineers and other water resources
professionals,ithasincreasinglybeenrealized
that a multidisciplinary approach to problem
identification,quantification,andmanagement
is often required to deal with the interrelated
effectsofgeomorphologic,environmental,and
engineeringissues.Thistypeofcomprehensive
systems approach is also demanded by more
stringent legal and regulatory requirements
regardingsedimentandhydraulicprocessesin
waterbodies.
Factors that have resulted in increased
publicawarenessandgreaterpotentialimpacts
towaterresourcesandtheenvironmentinclude
thefollowing:
Growing global populations place
increasing pressures on land and water
resources. As forest and farmlands
become subjectto increasedsoil erosion
(Fig. 11), reservoirs designed for
centuries of useful life may fill with
sediment in a few decades, and water
supply, irrigation systems, and critical
aquatichabitatareasmaybecomeclogged
with sediment deposits, while poorly
managedforestsandfarmlandsdeclinein
functionandproductivity.
Human settlements have increasingly
occupiedareasmorevulnerabletoerosion
and sedimentation, thus aggravating
runoff,soilerosion,andgullying(Fig.1
2).Poorlanduseplanning,management,
andmaintenance
Fig.11. Severesoilerosionresultingfromannual
burningofunderbrushinteakforestsonhillsidesin
Java,Indonesia.PhotographbyB.J.Evans.
Fig.12. Acceleratedlanderosionandgullying:
active gullying resulting in severe soil loss and
highsedimentyieldsontheupperplateauofRio
Calicanto,Bolivia.Thisfertilecroplandwasaban
donedbylocalfarmersbecauseoftheirmigration
tococaproducingareas.Becauseofneglectand
lackofannualmaintenance,thealteredlandsare
nolongermanagedorstabilized,resultinginrapid
erosion and headcutting of gullies during
rainstorms. Irrigation reservoirs downstream are
now filled with sediment eroded from this area,
resultinginsignificantimpactstowatersupplyand
floodcontrol.PhotographbyV.J.Galay.
Thefollowingexcerptsfromavolumedevoted
to reservoir sedimentation by Morris and Fan
(1997) raise difficult issues related to water
resourcesandsedimentationengineering:
Fig.13. PhotoofDavisDamontheColoradoRiver.
Watershed sedimentsaretrappedbehindaseriesof
eightdamsandreservoirsresultinginapproximately
20 feet of riverbed lowering in places along the
ColoradoRiver.PhotographbyV.J.Galay.
Inanumberofcountriespopulationgrowth
seems to be rapidly outstripping the
availablewaterresourcesbase....
Waterresourceengineersanddevelopment
planners have a responsibility to study,
understand and communicate the capacity
andlimitsoftheearthsresources....Isita
legitimate or ethical function of the
1.1.3 AdditionalComments
Some general observations on the state of
sedimentationengineeringintheearlyyearsof
thetwentyfirstcenturyareasfollows:
Sedimentation processes are not always
adverseorundesirableassomewritings
suggest. To the contrary, sedimentation
processes are essential for the mainte
nance of morphologic balance and are
critical components of aquatic
ecosystems. For example, fertile
agriculturallandsandwildlifeareasmay
benefit from periodic flooding and silt
deposition,andfishmayrelyoncontinual
renewal of bed sediment (gravels) in
spawning areas. Sedimentation processes
are key components of most fluvial
systems.
Project planners and designers are
presented with so much information on
environmental and biological issues that
the importance of hydraulic and
sedimentation processes are sometimes
overlookedorunderestimated.Giventhe
needforreliablefielddata,however,itis
importanttoaddresssedimentationissues
atanearly
INTR
ODU
CTIO
N
stage.Wherethereareclearlysignificant
problems or impacts, sediment data
collection should receive as much
attention as hydrometeorologic and
environmentaldata.Itisasimportantto
develop uninterrupted longterm
sedimentationdatasetsasitistomonitor
hydrologic and biologic changes and
trends.
Field studies providing fullscale
confirmationoftheoreticalandlaboratory
resultsarerelativelyscarce,comparedto
thelargenumberoftheoreticalandsmall
scale experimental studies proposing
methodsforthecomputationofsediment
transport rates, scour depths at bridge
foundations,andsoon.Thisisnotsurpris
inggiventheirdifficultyandcost,butthe
limitationsoftheoreticalformulationsand
scaleduplaboratoryresultsaresometimes
overlooked.
Sediment management issues and
morphological changes may arise from
reduction of sediment inputs as well as
from increases in sediment production.
Poor project planning, poor land use
management, or the occurrence of
significant natural hazards (fires, earth
quakes,andfloods)mayresultinshortor
longterm sediment imbalances. For
example, construction of storage
reservoirs that trap fluvial sediment or
excessive mining (extraction) of fluvial
sediments may have adverse effects on
channel morphology and the biological
habitat in downstream river reaches and
cause undermining of structure
foundationsandaltercoastalmorphology
andstability.
1.1.4 ScopeofSubsequentChapters
andAppendices
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENTATION
ENGINEERING
Sedimentsources,erosion,andhazards:
Chapters6,1719.
Sedimenttransportmechanicsand
measurement:Chapters25.
Computationalmodelingofsediment
transport:Chapters14,15,19,and23.
Lateralstabilityofriverchannels:
Chapters7and8.
Assessmentandremediationofselected
sedimentationproblems:Chapters912
and23.
Environmentalissues:Chapters9,21,
and22.
Iceeffectsonsedimenttransport:Chapter
13.
Turbulencemodeling:Chapter16.
Sedimentationlaw:Chapter20.
AppendicesAthroughDprovidesummarieson
additionaltopicsincludingrockerosion,riprap
design, the use of physical models for
assessing sediment engineering problems, and
methods for estimating sediment discharge.
AppendicesEandFprovideaglossaryofterms
andunitconversions.
1.2 OverviewofErosion
1.2.1 General
ASCEs original Manual 54 (Vanoni 1975)
distinguished between geological (or natural)
erosion and accelerated (or humaninduced)
erosion, viewing the latter as a mainly local
phenomenon.Inthetwentyfirstcentury,sucha
view is outdated. Hooke (1994) estimated
annualglobalvolumesoferosionduetovarious
agents and concluded that humans are
arguablythemostimportantgeomorphicagent
currently shaping the surface of the Earth.
However, others (Valdiya 1998) have shown
that geological erosion through mountain
ranges, such as the Himalayas, continues to
produceimmensevolumesofsediment.
Itisoftendifficulttodeterminewhetheran
observed erosional process is natural or
whetheritresultswhollyorpartlyfromhuman
influences. For example, gullying and
landslides that appear natural may have been
triggered or aggravated by overgrazing,
significant land use modifications such as
urbanization,infiltrationofirrigationwater,or
deforestation. Overviews of erosion, sediment
transport, and deposition are presented in
Sections1.2,1.3,and1.4,respectively.
1.2.2 GeologicorNaturalErosion
Geologicalerosionresultsfromtectonicuplift,
earthquakes, weathering, and chemical
decomposition and the longterm action of
water,wind,gravity,andice(seeChapters6,
17,and18).Overlongperiods,suchprocesses
haveproducedsomeenormouserosionalscars
for example, theGrand Canyonin Arizona
(Fig.14).Insomeregions,thebulkofnatural
erosionmayresultfromsevereepisodicevents
like
earthquakes,landslides,volcaniceruptions,and
extremefloods.
Ratesofgeologicerosionvarywidelyboth
among and within regions. Summerfield and
Hutton (1994) list average rates of natural
erosion estimated for major world drainage
basins. Rates tend to be slow in terms of a
humanlifetimebutmaybesignificantenough
to require consideration in some projects.
Controlisoftendifficultorimpracticalbecause
the erosion is distributed over large areas
divided among multiple owners and resource
managementjurisdictions.Poorlydesignedand
implemented land or water use projects can
dramaticallyacceleratepriorerosionrates.
Geologic erosion rates have varied widely
over time, primarily as a result of climatic
variations.Rapidclimatechangeintheformof
global warming has led to unprecedented
erosioninsensitiveareasliketheArcticcoast
ofNorthAmerica(McCarthyetal.2001).
1.2.3 AcceleratedorHumanInduced
Erosion
Accelerated erosion may be wholly or partly
caused by human activities. The impacts of
individualorcumulativehumanactivitiesmay
be subtle and may commence slowly but can
resultindramaticrapidchangesinmorphology,
sedimentproduction,anddepositionwithtime
once critical geomorphic stability thresholds
are exceeded. Hatheway (2005) explains that
prior to the nineteenth century, humans
possessedarelativelylimitedabilitytoalterthe
geologic landscape. However, anthropogenic
effects on global landscapes and the
environment dramatically accelerated during
thenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Besides
causingsedimentationproblemsandimpacting
constructed facilities, poorly planned human
activities often lead to environmental
degradationanddamagetohabitat. Simply to
address accelerated erosion as a local
engineering problem without regard to
basinwide sources and responses is generally
inadvisable.Thepotentialforerosionshouldbe
consideredinthecontextofamultidisciplinary
and participatory approach to a range of
associated problems. In the face of growing
populationsandassociatedpressuresplacedon
landandnaturalresources,thebasicproblems
associated with sedimentation processes may
notbefullysolvable,butatleasttheyshouldbe
recognized and faced by authorities and the
public.
1.2.4 SourcesofAcceleratedErosion
Extensivediscussionsonanumberofsources
of accelerated erosion are contained in the
original Manual 54. Some important sources
arediscussedbrieflybelowandinChapters6
and17through19.
1.2.4.1 AgriculturalActivities Manual54
cited an estimated annual soil loss from
croplands in the United States of 4 109
tons/year,ofwhichabout25%wasestimated
toreachtheoceans.IntheUnitedStates,severe
soil erosion in the 1930s was followed by
intensive conservation efforts, which
substantiallyreducedratesofsoillossbyabout
40%invulnerableregions,between1982and
1997(UriandLewis1998).
Globalpopulationincreases,ontheorderof
80millionpeopleperyearbetween1975and
2000, have placed severe pressures on
agricultural and water resources on several
continents.Ithasbeenestimatedthattowardthe
endofthetwentiethcentury,from5to7million
hectares of arable land worldwide were lost
annually because of soil degradation and
erosion (Hauck 1985; Jalees 1985; Brown
1991). Although improvements have occurred
andcontinuetotakeplaceintheUnitedStates,
Canada,andsomeotherpartsoftheworld,soil
losshassubstantiallyincreasedinotherregions,
leadingtoanetincreaseinworldwideannual
soilloss(Barrow1991;FoodandAgricultural
Organization of the United Nations [FAO]
2001).
1.2.4.2 Forest Activities World timber
demand,extendedagriculture,anduseofwood
forfuelinmany
OVERVIEWOF
SEDIMENTATIONENGINEERING
crossflows into bridge and culvert openings
(which may have serious effects in steep
terrain)and(2)interferencewithnaturalriver
migration and overbank flow patterns by
construction of permanent bridge crossings,
approach embankments, and levees running
OVERVIEW
OFEROSION
regions have caused extensive destruction of
forestlandbycuttingorburning,especiallyin
parts of Africa, Asia, and South America
(Bryantetal.1997).Inasingledecadebetween
1990and1999,theglobalforestareadeclined
bynearly20%(FAO2001).Ithasbeenclaimed
that conversion of forestland to agriculture
generally increases soil erosion by a factor
ranging from several times to as much as 25
times(Golubev1982).
Whereforestsaremanagedforsustainable
timber yield, extraction activities are not
necessarilyerosional,butacceleratederosion
oftenresultsfromcuttingonsteepslopesor
closetostreambanksandfromconstruction
of access roads and skid trails. In steep
terrain, alteration of streams and drainage
patternscantriggerdestructivedebrisflows
containing boulders, gravel, fine sediment,
and woody debris (Costa 1988; Slaymaker
1988). Poorly planned, irresponsible
conversionofforestlandshasledtodramatic
longtermenvironmentalimpactsandlossof
stableforestareasinAsia,Africa,andinthe
Amazon River basin in South America.
Stabilization and rehabilitation of such
channels and river systems may require
largescale and expensive engineering
measures(WieczorekandNaeser2000).
Fig.15. JacalitosCreek,California:thecreekisattemptingtooutflankahighwaybridgebecausethenarrow
bridgeconstrictionandapproachembankmentpreventnaturaldownvalleymigrationofmeanders.Flowisfrom
righttoleft.PhotographbyV.J.Galay.
Fig.16. LowerGuadalupeRiverbelowtheCity
of San Jose, California: an example of a
channelized urban river. The formerly
meandering river was significantly straightened
and leveed, restricting floodwaters to the main
riverchannel.Formerlyanagriculturalarea,the
floodplainisnowmainlyoccupiedbyurbanand
industrial development. View downstream.
PhotographbyR.C.MacArthur.
inreservoirsisaddressedinChapters2and12.
Chapters 6 and 18 discuss other beneficial
aspectsofreservoirsaswellastheirpotential
impactsonriversystems.
Erosionaleffectsassociatedwithdamsand
reservoirsmayincludethefollowing:
Slope flattening and headcutting of the
downstream river and consequent
destabilizationoftributarystreamsdueto
sediment starvation, increased flow
duration,and/ormagnitudeofflows(Fig.
18).
Waveerosionaroundtheshorelines.
Fig.17. Natural(topphoto)andmined(bottom
photo) reaches of Cache Creek, California, in
1986. Historically, excessive aggregate mining
significantly altered the channels morphology,
causingchanneldegradationandthalweglowering
(incision). Implementation of comprehensive
mining regulations in 1996 has improved
conditions.PhotographsbyR.C.MacArthur.
OVERVIEW
OFEROSION
1994). Chapters 6 through 9 present relevant
informationregardingthesetopics.
1.2.4.7 Warfare and Population
Migrations Themainpotentialerosionaleffect
oftheseactivitiesresultsfromconstructionof
defenseworksandtheneglectorabandonment
of traditional agricultural methods, water
conveyancesystems,orengineeringworksthat
previously protected land and streams against
erosion. Heavy armored transport, shelling,
bombing,andfirescanalsocausesignificant
destructionofforestsanderosionprotectionand
land conservation systems. Rose (2005)
discusseshowhistoricalmilitaryactivitieshave
impacted local and regional geological
conditionsbychangingthenatureandrateof
erosionanddepositionprocesses.
1.2.4.8 Multiple Causes Accelerated
erosioninmanyworldregionsmayarisefroma
combination of causes. For example, a
publication edited by Walling et al. (1992)
presents a regional approach for evaluating
basinwidechangesanddealswithinterrelated
problems of erosion, debris flows, and the
environment in mountain regions, with
particularattentiontothePacificRim.
1.2.5 EstimationofErosionRatesand
Quantities
Fig.18. Severeerosionandheadcuttinginformer
natural channel below Grapevine Dam Spillway,
Texas, resulting mainly from greatly increased
maximumoutflowsfromcollectedurbanfloodrunoff.
PhotographbyC.R.Neill.
OVERVIEWOF
SEDIMENTATIONENGINEERING
or more locally from measured deposition
quantitiesinlakesandreservoirsormeasured
rates of sediment transport in rivers.
Uninterrupted, longterm sediment delivery
data from monitored basins produce the most
reliable sediment yield estimates.
Unfortunately,veryfewbasinshavesuchdata,
so sediment yield estimates must usually be
Estimationoferosionratesandsedimentyield
fromriverbasinscaninvolvelargeuncertainties
duetothesparsityofreliabledata.Theproblem
can be approached indirectly by considering
sourcequantitiesoferosionorsoilloss,ormore
directlybyconsideringsedimentyieldthatis,
the quantity delivered to the river system
which is usually much less than the source
erosion.Thefirstapproachtendstobefavored
by geographers, soil scientists, and
agriculturistsandthesecondbyurbanplanners
and water resource engineers. Extensive
literatureexistsforbothapproaches(see,e.g.,
Barfieldetal.1981;SimonsandSenturk1992;
Haan et al. 1994; Reid and Dunne 1996; de
Boeretal.2003).Inmanybasins,asignificant
proportionofthematerialerodedfromtheland
surfacedoesnotreachtheriversystembecause
ofintermediatetopographicfeaturesthatactas
sediment sinks (traps or temporary storage
areas).
Erosion from land surfaces can be
considered on a large scale in the context of
typicalratesperunitareafromspecificregions
orspecifictypesofterrain,oratsmallscalein
thecontextofexperimentalplotsthatmeasure
erosion from different types of soil under
different vegetation covers and land uses.
Experimental plots often tend to overpredict
effectivesedimentproductionanddeliveryrates
fromlargerareas.Ontheotherhand,estimates
based only on land surface erosion may
overlook erosion from valley slopes, gullies,
andstreamchannels.Inthecaseofmigrating
stream channels, reliable determination of net
erosionquantitiesisdifficultbecauseerosionat
one location is often compensated by
depositionatanother.
Sedimentyieldcanbeconsideredgloballyin
the form of typical rates per unit area from
variousregionsorterraintypes,
developed from empirical relationships. For
specific regions, empirical correlations are
availablerelatingsedimentdeliveryratio(the
ratioofnetsedimentyieldtogrosserosion)to
drainage area or other physiographic
parameters.Therearealsomethods(Barfieldet
al. 1981; Haan et al. 1994; Reid and Dunne
1996) for estimating sediment yield in
unmonitoredbasinsfromregionalsoilerosion
and yield maps, empirical yield estimation
relationships, or simplified soil loss and
delivery models, as well as methods for
Fig.19. 1995photoofbedscourandbankerosion
under Highway 162 Bridge on Sacramento River,
California.Longlengthsofformerlyburiedpilesare
exposedbybankrecessionassociatedwithtoescour.
PhotographbyR.C.MacArthur.
1.3 OverviewofSediment
Transport
1.3.1 General
Sediment transport is treated extensively in
severalchaptersofManual54(Vanoni1975).
That earlier treatment includes transport by
windandtransportinpipes,neitherofwhichis
addressed in the present volume. Substantial
partsofthematerialintheoriginalManual54
are of a fundamental nature and retain their
validity.Chapters2through5ofManual110
mainly update selected aspects of the topic.
Chapters14through16and23covernumerical
modeling, a topic that has developed rapidly
since1975andwasnotcoveredintheoriginal
Manual54.AppendixDdiscussesmethodsfor
estimatingsedimentdischarge.
1.3.2 ModesofSedimentTransport
Thetermsedimentcoversawiderangeofgrain
sizes transported by flowing water, ranging
fromfineclayparticlestolargeboulders.These
areoftenviewedinspecificsizeclasses,suchas
finesand,coarsegravel,andsoon,usingoneof
several alternative classification systems
(ASCE 1962). Depending on grain sizes and
sediment material density, fluid density and
viscosity,andthestrengthandturbulenceofthe
flow,sedimenttransportmayoccurinavariety
ofmodesinvolvingdifferentsizeclassesatthe
sametimeorthesameclassesatdifferenttimes.
In rivers and channels with moderate
gradients,therearetwooverlappingsystemsof
classifyingtransportmodes:
(1)as bedload plus suspendedload or(2)as
bedmaterial load plus washload (seeChapter
2). Under the first system, suspended load
consists of the finer sediment maintained in
suspension by turbulence, whereas bed load
consists of the coarser particles transported
alongthebedintermittentlybyrolling,sliding,
or saltating. Under the second system, bed
material load comprises all sizes normally
found in the bed, whether transported as bed
load or in suspension, whereas wash load
consists of fine sizes that always travel in
suspension and are not found in significant
quantitiesinthebed.
Bedloadtransportmaytakeplacesimilarly
toaconveyorbelt(ormovinglayers)orby
evolution and migration of various bed and
channelforms(dunes,bars,bends,andsoon).
Insomeenvironments,unusualandrareforms
of bedload transport may occur, such as the
developmentandmovementofarmoredmud
balls(Fig.110).
Suspended load is generally transported
within andat thesame velocityas thewater,
whereas bedload transport may occur only
occasionally during highflow events. The
boundarybetweensuspendedsedimentandbed
loadtransportisnotpreciseandmayvarywith
the flow strength. The higher the flow, the
coarserthesedimentthatcanbesuspendedby
turbulence. Suspended load plus bed load, or
wash load plus bedmaterial load, together
composethetotalsedimentload(seeTable24
inChapter2).
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
Raudkivi(1976),GardeandRangaRaju(1977),
Yalin (1977), Parker (1978), Graf (1984),
Thorneetal.(1987),Chang(1988),Ikedaand
Parker (1989), Parker (1990), Simons and
Senturk(1992),vanRijn(1993),Yang(1996),
ChienandWan(1999),andJulien(2002).
Particlesthatcanmoveeitherassuspended
load or as bed load and that periodically
exchange with the nonmoving bed constitute
the bedmaterial load. At least in theory, this
partofthetotalsedimentloadcanbecalculated
fromhydraulicparametersandthecomposition
ofthebedmaterial. On the other hand, wash
loadconsistsofthefinerparticles(usuallysilt
and clay) in the suspended load that are
continuously maintained in suspension by the
flow turbulence and that are not found in
significantquantitiesinthebed.Thispartofthe
totalloadisusuallyrelatedtowatershedsupply
andcannotbedeterminedtheoreticallyinmost
cases.
Anotherformoftransportthatoccursonly
in limited settings and steep channels is
referred to as hyperconcentrated flow, where
waterandveryhighconcentrationsofsediment
moveasanintegratedmasshavingproperties
somewherebetweenthoseofaNewtoniananda
nonNewtonianfluid.Flowsofthistype,which
include mud flows, debris flows, lahars, and
rockandbouldertorrents,formaspecialgroup
of sediment hazards with unique fluid
properties, high energy, and very destructive
capabilities. Snow avalanches and ocean
densitycurrentsrepresentsomewhatanalogous
phenomenainotherenvironments.Chapter19
addresses this class of fluids and associated
sedimenthazards.
1.3.3 SedimentTransportMechanics
Sediment transport mechanics as used herein
(Chapters 2 through 5) refers to theories and
experiments concerning physical factors that
determinesedimentdisplacementandtransport
and methods of estimating quantities
transported. Although the fundamentals were
fairlywellestablishedbefore1975,theoutput
of publications treating the subject has
continued. Significant references since 1975
include
10
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENTATION
ENGINEERING
provide a thorough summary of sediment
measurement methods according to USGS
approvedprotocols.Fielddataareoftenneeded
to develop reliable sediment budgets and are
essentialforpropercalibrationandvalidationof
numerical models used to predict sediment
dynamicsinriversandreservoirs.Borgenetal.
(2003)reportadvancesinthesetechniques.
Whenestimatingsedimenttransportrates
forgivenhydraulicconditions,theengineer
may select from a wide range of transport
formulas,algorithms,orprocedures,manyof
which are offered as options in computer
programs for sediment transport modeling.
Most of those have a partially theoretical
background but depend importantly on
laboratory experimental data for their
quantitative aspects. A considerable degree
ofexperienceandjudgmentmayberequired
to select those most appropriate for the
particular circumstances. It is usually
advisable to compare results from several
methods because results may vary over a
wide range. Wherever practicable, some
degree of calibration against field
measurements is highly desirable.
Comparisons of sediment transport
calculationproceduresweresummarizedby
Vanoni(1975)andmorerecentlybyChang
(1988), Gomezand Church (1989),Simons
andSenturk(1992),Yang(1996),Chienand
Wan (1999), and Julien (2002), among
others. This topic is covered further in
Chapters2through5.
Publishedproceduresmaydealwithoneor
morecomponentsoftotalsedimenttransport.
Ingeneral,hydraulicbasedrelationshipscannot
predict wash load, which is usually supply
limitedandmayconstituteasignificantportion
ofthetotalload.Thewashloadportionofthe
total load is generally determined from field
measurements. Some hydraulic relationships
predictbedloadonlyandarelimitedmainlyto
gravel and coarser sediment. Others predict
totalbedmaterialloadandaremoreappropriate
wheresandisanimportantsizeclass.Although
theoretical relationships cannot predict wash
loadinquantitativeterms,theycanpredictthe
competenceoftheflowtotransportgivensizes
insuspensionandtheirdistributionwithdepth.
This can greatly assist interpretation and
extrapolation of suspended sediment data
obtainedfromfieldmeasurements.
Basicissuesinsedimenttransportmechanics
are the definition of hydraulic conditions
required to (1) initiate movement of a given
sedimentgrainsizeonthebedofachanneland
(2)liftitintosuspension.Theseissueswhich
are closely linked to sediment transport
calculations and in the first case to the
determination of stable sizes for erosion
protection,havebeenaddressedboththeoreti
callyandexperimentallysincetheearlydaysof
hydraulicengineeringandformthesubjectof
numerousstudiesandpublications.Chapters2
through5addressthesetopicsinconsiderable
detail.
1.3.4 SedimentTransport
Measurements
Sediment measurement techniques are
discussedindetailinChapter5andAppendix
D.EdwardsandGlysson(1999)also
Suspended load concentrations are often
reportedroutinelyalongwithstreamflowdata
atcertainrivergaugingstations. Limited data
on grainsize distributionsin suspendedloads
andinthebedmayalsobereported.Suspended
loaddatareportsareusuallybasedonsampling
the water column down to a short distance
abovethebed. Measured suspendedload data
include virtually all the wash load and,
especiallyinthecaseofsandtransport,partof
the bedmaterialload. Where routinedata are
not available, special measurements may be
undertakenoveralimitedtimeperiod.
Forestimationofsedimentationinreservoirs
andrelatedproblems,measuredsuspendedload
data over a period of years are generally
correlatedwithflowdatatodevelopasediment
rating curve. Total sediment delivery over a
period is then determined by applying the
sediment rating curve to a flowduration
relationship.Anallowanceontheorderof10%
isoftenaddedtoaccountforbedloadorother
unmeasuredload.However,thepercentageof
bedloadcanbesubstantiallygreaterthan10%
insteepriversandstreamswithlargesupplies
ofgravelandcoarsematerials.
Sediment rating curves usually show wide
scatter because the transportflow relationship
may vary widely with season, basin cover
conditions, and other factors. Where the
availabledatadonotincludemuchinformation
on high flows, extrap olation of the curve to
flood flowswhich may account for a large
proportion of the transportmay introduce a
high degree of uncertainty. Testing and
validation of extrapolated values is always
recommended.
Bedloadisdifficulttomeasureandisnot
normally measured on a routine basis. For
project purposes, special field measurements
maybeundertakenusingtechniquesdescribed
inChapter5andAppendixD.
1.3.5 SedimentModeling
AfterthepublicationofManual54in1975,the
use of integrated computer programs for
numerical modeling of sediment erosion,
transport, and deposition in time and space
becameincreasinglycommon(seeChapters14
and 15). Some are onedimensional, typically
applied for evaluation of sedimentation
processesalongriversandchannels.Othersare
twoorthreedimensional,typicallyappliedfor
evaluationofsedimentationprocessesinbroad
floodplains, estuaries, coastal regions, and
stratified water bodies. Numerical models are
particularlyvaluableforexaminingtheeffects
of historical or proposed changes and of
alternativeprojectproposals.Chapter23pres
ents methods for modeling the effects of
sediment transport associated with dam
removal, while Chapter 16 discusses tur
bulence modeling associated with
sedimentationprocesses.
appliedforthesetup,execution,andevaluation
oftheextensivedatabasestypicallygenerated
by the timevariant solution of
multidimensional equations of hydrodynamics
and conservation of sediment mass. On the
otherhand,theconvenienceofGUIsenables
inexperienced users to unknowingly set up
poorly formulated or erroneous simulations.
(This dilemma is not unique to
multidimensional sedimentation modeling.) It
is, therefore, highly recommended that
vicinityofactivefluvialsystems.(Chapter7
summarizestheextensiveresearchandanaly
sisonstreambankerosionandchannelwidth
adjustment conducted since publication of
Manual 54.) Recent models address the
effectsofhumaninducedinfluencessuchas
flow regulation by reservoirs, land use
changes and associated changes in runoff
and sediment yield, and alteration of
floodplain boundaries due to levee
construction(Parker1978;Paolaetal.2006).
Chapter 8 discusses the physical processes
andnumericalmodelingofrivermeandering
andchannelplanformadjustment.Planform
response models are based on linkages
between channel curvature, velocity
redistribution, and bank erodibility (Ikeda
andParker1989).Chapter19addressesthe
computationalmodelingofsedimenthazards
suchasmudanddebrisflowsandfloodingin
alluvialfans.
1.4 OverviewofSediment
Deposition
1.4.1 General
Asinthecaseoferosion,sedimentdeposition
canbecategorizedintogeological(ornatural)
andaccelerated(orhumaninduced)deposition.
Geologicdepositionoccursbecauseofnatural
processesoftectonicuplift,volcaniceruptions,
earthquakes, climate warming, glacial
movements, and so on. This category of
processesusuallyoccursoverlongperiodsbut
mayalsoresultfromsevereepisodicevents.On
the other hand, humaninduced deposition
resultingfromvarioushumanactivitiesusually
results in relatively rapid changes in river
morphologyandsedimentation.
Productsoferosionmaybetransportedand
depositedoverawiderangeofdistancesfrom
theirsource.Wheretherearelongdistancesto
theultimatesinkoftheoceans, only a minor
fractionofthesourceloadmayarrivethere.It
has been estimated that in the United States,
only about 10% of the material eroded from
uplandbasinsreachesthe
12
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENTATION
ENGINEERING
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENT
DEPOSITION 11
oceans, the remainder being stored in lakes,
reservoirs,channels,andlandsurfaces(Curtis
etal.1973;Holeman1981).
Deposited sediment may be harmful or
beneficial according to circumstances and
viewpoints. Although sediment may fill
reservoirsandeliminatetheirstoragecapacity
or aggrade riverbeds and lead to increased
flooding, silt deposits on floodplains may
eventuallyformvaluableagriculturalsoils,and
graveldepositsinriversmayprovidevaluable
fishhabitatandasourceforbuildingmaterials.
Where deposition in downstream reaches of
rivers poses problems, settlement basins are
sometimes provided to store deposited
sediment at upstream locations. These may
offeronlytemporaryreliefunlessthedeposits
can be removed at regular intervals.
Construction of dams and other flow control
structuresthatencouragesedimentdeposition
can reduce sediment delivery downstream to
coastalareasandmayleadtolongtermbeach
erosionandshorelineretreat.
Problems and studies involving sediment
deposition have greatly expanded beyond
concerns over engineering works (structures)
intoenvironmentalconcernssuchaseffectson
fish habitat and benthic communities and the
roleofsedimentinstoringandreleasingtoxic
contaminants.Chapters21through23address
these topics further. Acute problems of
sediment deposition may follow catastrophic
eventssuchasearthquakes,volcaniceruptions,
dam failures, massive landslides, and debris
flows(seeMacArthuretal.1985,1990;Costa
and Wieczorek 1987; Committee on Alluvial
Fan Flooding (CAFF) 1996; Chen 1997;
Wieczorek and Naeser 2000). Chapter 19
discussesthesetopicsfurther.
1.4.2 CausesofSedimentDeposition
1.4.2.1 UplandRiverDeposits Depositsat
the base of eroding slopes are discussed in
Manual 54. Some other forms of nearsource
depositsaredescribedbrieflybelow.
Debrisflowsinsteepstreamsproducerun
out deposits containing large woody debris
mixedwithfinerorganicmaterialandsediment
ofawiderangeofsizesuptolargeboulders
(Fig.111).Suchdepositsmayblockroadsand
Fig.111. Debrisflowdepositfromsmalltributaryof
TinauRiverinNepal.PhotographbyV.J.Galay.
Fig.112. BraidedriversystemlocatedontheRio
Maule, Chile, comprised primarily of cobble and
bouldermaterials.PhotographbyC.R.Neill.
levees,andbankprotectionmaydisruptnatural
processesandcauseunforeseenproblems,such
as channel aggradation or degradation or
acceleratederosionofunprotectedbanks.
1.4.2.3 Sedimentation
Due to
Mining
Activities
Miningactivitiesinriverbasinsandfailuresof
mine tailings dams can produce disastrous
sedimentation and contamination of
downstreamrivers/waterbodies(Figs.115and
116). The design, construction, and
maintenanceofsuchfacilitieshaveoftenbeen
inadequate (see, e.g., United Nations
Environment Program and International
Commission on Large Dams [UNEP/ICOLD]
2001). Once constructed, mines and tailings
damsoftenresultinlongtermhazardsthatmay
culminate in costly mitigation having to be
performedbyfuturegenerationsoflandowners
and governments. When mines and tailing
ponds are eventually abandoned, extensive
engineeringmeasuresmaybeneededtoprevent
future erosion or release of contaminated
sediments.
1.4.2.4 DepositsinLakesandReservoirs
Deposits in larger lakes and reservoirs that
receiveriverbornesedimentgenerallyconsistof
coarsersediment(sandandgravel)forminga
delta at the inlet end and finer sediment (silt
andclay)
Fig.113. Boxculvertandsedimentdetentionbasin
on urbanized reach of Upper Berryessa Creek in
Milpitas,California.Basinfilledwithgravelisshown
intopphotoandaftercleaninginbottomphoto.View
isupstream.PhotographsbyR.C.MacArthur.
Fig.114. MeanderingreachofWalker
River,California.
PhotographbyE.Wallace.
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENT
DEPOSITION 13
Fig.115. CopperandgoldmineonMountFubilan
inPapuaNewGuinea.Sincethemid1980s,themine
has discharged 70 million tons per year of
contaminatedrockandtailingsintotheOkTediand
Flyrivers.PhotographbyB.Hall.
spreadoutoverallorasubstantialpartofthe
bottomarea(Figs.117and118).Insmaller
waterbodies,thedeltamayeventuallyextendto
occupy most of the volume. Lakebottom
sedimentsinsomeregionsexhibitannuallayers
(varves) that reflect different conditions of
deposition between seasons. These can
sometimesbeusedtodeterminethevariation
ofdepositionratesoverlongperiodsoftime.
Deposition patterns of finer sediment may be
affected by weak currents, wind, and density
currentsarisingfromthedifferentdensitiesof
sedimentbearinginflowsandclearlakewater.
During the middle part of the twentieth
century, when large numbers of dams and
reservoirs were constructed worldwide in
regionsofunstablephysiographyforpurposes
such as hydropower, irrigation, and water
supply,theproblemofreservoirsedimentation
tendedtoreceiveinsufficientattentioninmany
preproject planning studies. Sediment
depositionseverelyaffectsoperationsand
14
OVERVIEWOFSEDIMENTATION
ENGINEERING
Fig.118. LakeSolano,California:exampleof
significantreservoirsiltation.PhotographbyR.C.
MacArthur.
theusefullifeofthefacility.Arelatedproblem
ishowtomanagereservoirsedimentdepositsto
avoidadversedownstreamconsequenceswhen
adamisremovedordecommissionedbecause
of disuse, structural deterioration, and so on.
Chapter 23 discusses how numerical models
can be used to assess potential changes in
sediment transport associated with dam
removal.
Morris and Fan (1997) provide extensive
information regarding deposition in reservoirs
and lakes, including dam removal, and cite
numerous case studies. They provide an
overview that emphasizes sustainable
development and the need for longterm
viewpoints in planning and design. White
(2001)presentsinformationdevotedtoremoval
of sediment from reservoirs. The
morphodynamicsofreservoirsedimentationis
addressedinChapter2.Chapter12providesan
additionaloverviewofreservoirsedimentation
issues.
1.4.3 EnvironmentalandHabitat
Effects
ofSedimentDeposition
Sedimentdepositionmayhavemajoreffectson
zoologicalhabitat,particularlyforsalmonidand
other nonwarmwater fish species in streams.
Problems tend to occur whenever the natural
hydrologicandsedimentregimeisdisruptedin
suchawaythatchangesoccurinquantitiesand
gradation of delivered sediment or in the
physicalcharacteristicsoftheriverbed.Inmany
jurisdictions, regulations regarding both short
and longterm disturbances have become
increasinglystringent.
Where sediment is trapped in new
reservoirs,downstreamfisheryeffectsmaybe
beneficial or harmful. If the stream formerly
carriedhighsuspendedloadsoffinesediment,
trappingmaybebeneficialtoaquaticspecies.
Ontheotherhand,ifsandandgravelistrapped
from a relatively clear stream, downstream
reachesmaydowncuttoaflattergradientand
becomepavedwithlargestonesthatofferpoor
habitatandbiologicalenvironmentforavariety
of benthic and pelagic species. Reduction of
flood peaks by reservoir regulation may
adversely affect annual flushing of fine sedi
mentfromspawningareas.Chapter3contains
materialusefultoaddressingthesetopics.
Wherelandusechangesincreaseinputsof
fine sediment to a river, its deposition
downstream may clog spawning beds (Huang
andGarcia2000).Constructionoperationsfor
bridgeandpipelinecrossingsmaytemporarily
increase fine sediment inputs, with similar
results.
Manytoxicsubstancesandcontaminantsin
water become preferentially attached to
sediment (particularly to fine sediments) and
accumulate within deposition zones.
Contaminatedsedimentsmaybecomeburiedif
thesourceisdiscontinuedbutmaybeexposed
later by erosion and channel shifting.
Concentration by bioaccumulation, especially
ofheavymetalsandpesticides,isoftenamajor
concern. Deposits behind mine tailings dams
are often highly contaminated, requiring
massivecleanupoperationsin
1.4.4 EstimationofDepositionRates
andQuantities
Estimation of past rates and quantities of
deposition in static water bodies is usually
based on periodic bathymetric surveys aided
bycoresamplinganddating.Reservoirssubject
to significant sediment deposition should be
surveyed and sampled at regular intervals.
Statistics on reservoir deposition are often
availablefromowners,operators,andregulat
ingagencies.
1.5 ManagementandTreatment
ofSedimentationProblems
1.5.1 General
In general, management and treatment of
sedimentation engineering problems can be
addressed upstream at the sources of the
sedimentproduction,downstreamatthesiteof
the problem, or at intermediate locations.
However,theefficacyofsedimentmanagement
canbeenhancedbyaddressingandmanaging
sedimentproblemsatawholewatershedlevel
ratherthroughaseriesofdisconnectedlocally
independent projects. Obviously, the best
solution is to avoid problems through good
planning and design. More important,
restorationofprocessismorelikelytoaddress
the causes of river degradation, whereas res
torationtowardafixedendpointaddressesonly
the symptoms (Wohl et al. 2005). Some
problems,suchasscouratbridgefoundations,
are clearly local and require only local
treatment. Others, such as deposition in
reservoirs, often derive from an extensive
drainagebasinandmightbeaddressedeitheron
a local or on a basinwide basis. In many
sedimentationproblems,acompletesolution
is not possible, and the best that can be
achievedisareliablesystemformanagement
andmonitoring.Attentionshouldgenerallybe
given to the feasibility of nonengineering as
wellasengineeringapproaches.
Treatment of erosion at the source would
often be the most satisfactory solution in the
long term, but in many cases it may not be
physically, economically, or socially feasible
becausethesourcesaretoowidelydistributed
and are associated with natural geological
processes or human activities regarded as
inviolable. The engineer must then design
works
MANAGEMENTANDTREATMENTOFSEDIMENTATIONPROBLEMS 15
1.5.2 ProblemIdentification
andDefinition
During planning and design of new
projects and before attempting to
devisealternativesolutionstoexisting
sedimentationengineeringproblems,
it is important to develop a clear
definition of existing and potential
problems,whichmaybecomplexand
mayultimatelyinvolveotherinterdis
ciplinary concerns. To do this, each
importantcomponentofaproblem(or
potentialproblems)mustbeidentified
and quantified to some level of
certainty.Thoroughprojectplanning
and evaluation of future project
performance can greatly increase
project reliability while reducing
maintenance and possible future
sedimentrelatedproblems.Chapter3
intheCorpsofEngineersEM1110
21416, River Hydraulics (USACE
1993b), outlines procedures for
conducting hydraulic engineering
studies so as to avoid unforeseen
sediment or project performance
problems. Questions to consider
duringplanformulationandproblem
identification and definition phases
mayincludethefollowing:
Wherearethesourcesoferosion
andsediment,andwhataretheir
relativesignificances?
Istheproblemascribablemainly
tofinewashloadsedimentsuch
assiltandclay;tocoarserbed
materialsedimentsuchassand,
gravel,andboulders;ortoboth?
Inwhatmodeswillthematerial
be transported under various
streamflowconditions?
Istheproblemassociatedmainly
with river flood conditions or
with a wide range of stream
flows?
Istheproblemneworhasitbeen
developingforalongperiodof
time?Istheproblemperiodicor
chronic?Whatisthehistoryof
thesourcesoferosion?
Istheproblemlocalizedormore
regional in nature? Is its scale
smallorlarge?
Is theproblem associatedwith
scour,depositionofmaterials,or
both?
Whatinformationisavailableon
rates and quantities and grain
sizesofsedimentintransport?
Haveratesandquantitiesbeen
increasing, and, if so, why?
Have there been significant
changes in land use or river
worksandmanagement,orhave
extreme events occurred
recently?
If sediment will be stored in
reservoirs or detentionbasins,
how fast will this occur, and
whatwillhappenwhentheseare
filled?Whatarethedownstream
engineering and environmental
implications ofperiodic storage
and release of materials from
thereservoirinthefuture?
What are the degrees of
uncertainty in quantitative esti
mates,andwhataretheproject
implications of under or
overestimatingfuturequantities?
What allowances should be
made for land use change and
climatechange?
16
OVERVIEWOF
SEDIMENTATIONENGINEERING
Examples of works and projects
most amenable to engineering
treatment include (1) intakes from
rivers into pipelines and canals for
purposesofhydropower,irrigation,or
water supply, where the aim is to
reduce or eliminate the inflow of
specificsizeclassesofsedimentthat
would clog or deposit in diversion
conduits and facilities; (2) bank
protection and channel maintenance
in large or fastflowing rivers and
streams(Fig.119);
(3) protection of rivercrossing
facilitiesagainstbankerosionandbed
scour;(4)damsandreservoirs,where
itisinfeasibletodealwithupstream
basinconditionsandsedimentinflows
mustbeacceptedasdeliveredtothe
site;and(5)floodcontrolfacilitiesto
provide public safety during severe
floodevents.
Thedesignofintakestoreducethe
entryofsedimentisaddressed,among
others, by Bouvard(1992), Raudkivi
(1993),andASCE(1995).Riverbank
protection is addressed by Appendix
B and USACE (1991, 1994), CUR
(1995), Thorne et al. (1995), and
Escarameia(1998).Scouratbridgesis
addressed in Chapters 10 and 11
herein,andreservoirsedimentationis
addressedinChapter12.
In formulating and presenting
engineering solutions, it is important
Whatessentialdataareneededto
betterdefinepotentialproblems
andsolutions?
What alternative solutions are
there, and how sustainable are
alternative solutions in both
engineering and environmental
terms?
Manyoftheseimportantquestionsare
addressed in the following chapters
and appendices of this manual. The
keytosuccessfulproblemavoidance
and solution is to achieve objective,
credible problem identification early
inprojectplanning.Thiswillfacilitate
more effective field and office
investigationsandthedevelopmentof
feasiblealternatives.Carefulattention
tothisstepcanproduceeconomiesin
investigations and avoid the
formulationofinappropriatesolutions.
Chapter20,AmericanSedimentation
Law and Physical Processes,
discusses changes in legal
requirementsandliabilitiesassociated
with standards of care, responsible
projectplanning,anddesign.
SincetheprintingofManual54in
1975, the focus of sedimentation
engineering has greatly expanded
fromtheidentificationandsolutionof
individual problems (however
complex they may be) to much
broader
involvement
in
multidisciplinary planning, analysis,
anddesignofmultipurposeprojects.
This role often requires careful
balancing of engineering science,
environmental concerns, public
interests,andaffordability.
1.5.3 EngineeringTreatment
Engineering(orengineered)treatment
embracestheplanninganddesignof
civil engineering works and
operationalsystemstodealwithand
managesedimentationprocessessoas
to avoid serious problems. The
chapteronsedimentcontrolmethods
inManual54isdevotedmainlytothis
type of treatment. Engineering
treatments
and
erosion
countermeasures are usually
associated with more traditional
structural hardscape solutions (see
Chapters11and19andAppendicesA
andB).
to identify limitations in knowledge
and uncertainties as to future
outcomesandtoprovideflexibilityfor
future changes if quantitative
estimates and performance of works
prove to be less favorable than
expected. The limitations and
uncertainties inherent in quantitative
sediment estimates and sediment
modeling are not always fully
understood by project planners,
environmentalists, and structure
designers. Legal aspects and
responsibilitiesofsedimentengineers
arediscussedinChapter20.
1.5.4 Nonengineering
(Nonstructural)Treatment
In the latter part of the twentieth
century,atrenddevelopedtoreplace
engineering treatment of
sedimentation problems by
nonengineering, or nonstructural,
treatment with apparently greater
environmental benefits; fewer
hardscapetype
Fig.119. Bankprotectionworksinurban
settingconsistingof ripraptoearmorand
bank revetment materials with horizontal
rowsofwillowpoleplantings,asinstalled
onSoquelCreek,California.
PhotographbyS.Seville.
floodconveyancechannels.Chapter9
presents detailed discussions of the
benefits and methods for restoring
river systems using a variety of
bioengineeringtechniques.
Some publications and guidelines
prepared by nonengineers have
tendedtorecommendtheapplication
of
nonengineering
and
bioengineering measures in
circumstanceswheretheyareunlikely
to be successfulfor example,
vegetation plantings for bank
protectioninsteepstreamswithhigh
velocities and turbulence. It is
therefore an unfortunate
misrepresentation associated with
recent movement toward
nonengineered or bioengineered
methodstoimplythatlessengineering
analysesandjudgmentisrequiredin
ordertoachievebetterresults.Tothe
contrary, significant hydraulic, river,
and sedimentation engineering
experience andanalyses arerequired
with inputfrom otherbiological and
PhotographbyB.Walsh.
1.5.5 FishHabitatand
EnvironmentalIssues
REF
ERE
NCE
S
17
Fig.122. Photosshowbarriertofish
passage through bridge culvert before
(top)andafter(bottom)constructionof
log step weirs and gravelbottom pool
and step approach aprons on Little
Salmon Creek, Toledo, Washington.
View is upstream. Photographs by J.
Johnson.
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Barfield,B.J.,Warner,R.C.,andHaan,C.
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OVERVIEWOF
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20
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Chapter2
SedimentTransportandMorphodynamics
MarceloH.Garca
2.1 SedimentTransport
Mechanics
andRelatedPhenomena
21
suspendedload,fluidturbulencecomes
intoplay,carryingtheparticleswellup
into the water column. In both cases,
thedrivingforceforsedimenttransport
is the action of gravity on the fluid
phase; this force is transmitted to the
particlesviadrag.Whetherthemodeof
transportissaltationorsuspension,the
volume concentration of solids
anywhereinthewatercolumntendsto
beratherdiluteinrivers.Asaresult,it
is generally possible to treat the two
phasesseparately.
Inthegeophysicaldomain,thefield
ismuchbroaderthanriversalone.The
samephenomenaofbedloadandsus
pendedloadtransportoccurinavariety
ofothergeophysicalcontexts.Sediment
transport is accomplished in the near
shore of lakes and oceans by wave
action. Turbidity currents act to carry
suspended sediment into lakes,
reservoirs, and the deep sea.
Landslides,debrisflowsandmudflows
providemasstransportmechanismsfor
thedeliveryofsedimentfromhighlands
tolowlands.
Thesolidphasecanvarygreatlyin
size,rangingfromclayparticlestosilt,
sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders.
Rocktypescanincludequartz,feldspar,
limestone,granite,basalt,andotherless
commontypessuchasmagnetite.The
fluidphasecan,inprinciple,bealmost
anythingthatconstitutesafluid.Inthe
geophysical sense, however, the two
fluids of major importance are water
andair.
The phenomenon of sediment
transportcansometimesbedisguisedas
ratheresotericphenomena.Whenwater
is supercooled, large quantities of
particulatefrazilicecanform. As the
watermovesunderafrozenicecover,
one has the phenomenon of sediment
transport in rivers stood on its head.
Thefraziliceparticlesfloatratherthan
sink,andthustendtoaccumulateonthe
bottomsideoftheicecoverratherthan
on the riverbed. Turbulence tends to
suspendtheparticlesdownwardrather
thanupward.
In the case of a powder snow
avalanche,thefluidphaseisairandthe
solidphaseconsistsofsnowparticles.
The dominant mode of transport is
suspension. These flows are close
analoguesofturbiditycurrents,insofar
asthedriving
22 SEDIMENTTRANSPORT
ANDMORPHODYNAMICS
antidunes,andalternatebars.Thefirst
three of these can have a profound
effectontheresistancetoflowoffered
by the riverbed. Thus, they act to
control river depth. Riverbanks
themselvescanalsobeconsideredtobe
a selfformed morphological feature,
thusspecifyingtheentirecontainer.
The container itself can deform in
plan. Alternate bars cause rivers to
erodetheirbanksinarhythmicpattern,
thusallowingtheonsetofmeandering.
Fully developed river meandering
implies an intricate balance between
sediment erosion and deposition. If a
streamissufficientlywide,itwillbraid
rather than meander, dividing into
several intertwining channels. Braided
rivers are an important component of
the Earths surface. The deposits of
ancient braided rivers may contain
significant reserves of water and
hydrocarbon.
Rivers create morphological
structures on much larger scales as
well. These include canyons, alluvial
fans,anddeltas.Turbiditycurrentsact
to create similar structures in the
oceanic environment. In the coastal
environment,thebeachprofileitselfis
createdbytheinteractionofwaterand
sediment. On a larger scale, offshore
bars, spits, and capes constitute
rhythmic features created by wave
currentsediment interaction. The
boulderleveesoftencreatedbydebris
flows provide another example of a
morphological structure created by a
sedimentbearingflow.
Thischapterisanintroductiontothe
mechanics of sediment transport and
river morphodynamics. Rivers evolve
over time in accordance with the
interaction between the flow and
sedimenttransport fields over an
2.1.1 TheSedimentCycleinthe
Environment
The sediment cycle starts with the
processoferosion,wherebyparticlesor
fragments are weathered from rock
material. Action by water, wind, and
glaciers as well as plant and animal
activities,contributestotheerosionof
theearthssurface.Fluvialsedimentis
the term used to describe the case
where water is the key agent for
erosion.Natural,orgeological,erosion
takes place slowly, over centuries or
millennia. Erosion that occurs as a
resultofhumanactivitymaytakeplace
much faster. It is important to
understand the role of each when
studyingsedimenttransport.
The dynamics of sediment in the
environment and its morphological
consequences are schematized in Fig.
21.Anymaterialthatcanbedislodged
isreadytobetransported.The
SEDIMENTTRANSPORTMECHANICSANDRELATEDPHENOMENA
23
Fig.21. SedimentationprocessesandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinaWatershed(adaptedfrom
DietrichandGallinatti1991).
24 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
transportinicecoveredriversisthesubjectofChapter
13.Hyperconcentratedflows,includingmudflowsand
debris flows as well as sediment hazards related to
flowsinalluvialfans,aretreatedinChapter19.This
chapterisintendedtoprovidethefoundationfortherest
ofthemanual.
erosion, rapiddeposition,anduncertaintyinflowpath
makethepredictionoffloodevolutionandextentrather
difficult(NRC1996).
2.1.2 ScopeofthisChapter
This chapter presents fundamental aspects of the
erosion, entrainment into suspension, transport, and
depositionofsedimentinfluvialsystems.Theemphasis
isonprovidinganintroductiontothefluidmechanicsof
sedimenttransportinriversandthemorphodynamics
of lake and reservoir sedimentation by turbidity
currents, with the objective of establishing the
backgroundneededforsedimentationengineeringand
management. Emphasis isplaced onthe transportof
noncohesivesediment,wherethematerialinvolvedisin
granularformandrangesinsizefromfinesilttocoarse
sand.Thetransportofgravelandsedimentmixturesis
treated in Chapter 3, whereas the transport of fine
grained,cohesivesedimentisconsideredinChapter4.
Fluvial processes are addressed in Chapter 6 while
engineering aspectsof geomorphologyare coveredin
Chapter16.Sediment
2.2 FluidMechanicsandHydraulicsfor
SedimentTransport
2.2.1 FlowVelocityDistribution:Lawofthe
Wall
expressedas:
bgHS
where
consideration.Withthehelpoftheboundaryshearstress,it
ispossibletodefinetheshearvelocityu*as
u*
Theshearvelocity,andthustheboundaryshear
stress,providesadirectmeasureoftheflowintensity
and its ability to entrain and transport sediment
particles.Thesizeofthesedimentparticlesonthe
bottomdeterminesthesurfaceroughness,whichin
turn affects the flow velocity distribution and its
sedimenttransportcapacity.Becauseflowresistance
and sediment transport rates are interrelated, it is
importanttobeabletodeterminetheroleplayedby
thebottomroughness.
Inthecaseofsteady,uniformflowtheshearstress
varieslinearlyintheverticaldirectionasshowninFig.
22andisgivenbythefollowingexpression:
waterdensityand
g gravitationalacceleration.
(22)
(23)
Itiswellestablished,bothexperimentallyandfrom
dimensional arguments (Schlichting 1979; Nezu and
Rodi1986)thattheflowvelocitydistributioniswell
representedby:
ln z
z
(24)
0
Here
u timeaveraged flow velocity at a distance z
abovethebed;
z0
Fig. 22. Definition diagram for openchannel flow over a
sedimentbed.
u* z
u*
(25)
FLUIDMECHANICSANDHYDRAULICSFORSEDIMENTTRANSPORT
25
11.6
v
u*
u
u*
ln
5.5 followingempiricalfit
Bs8.5
u*
1lnz
Bs
ks
u* z
1lnz
u*
2.5ln Re*
3e
0.121ln
AplotofthisfunctioncanbeseeninFig.
AnalternativewayofwritingEq.(29a)is
A z
ln
u*
s ks
ItfollowsthenthatAsandBsarerelatedb
A
8.5 ln30
ks
u*
u*z
103
9(u*zv)
ln1
10.3(u*ksv
2.2.2 FlowVelocity
Distribution:VelocityDefect
andLogWakeLaws
Theflowvelocitydistributiongivenby
thelawofthewall,Eq.(24),requires
someknowledgeofthebedroughness
characteristics. An alternative
formulationcanbeobtainediftheflow
depth H is introduced as the relevant
length scale. Assuming that the
maximum flow velocity umax takes
placeatthewatersurface, z H,Eq.
(24)canbemanipulatedtoobtainthe
socalled velocitydefect law, also
knownastheouterformofthelawof
thewall(Schlichting1979)
u u
max
z
lnH
26 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.23. PlotofBsfunctioninloglawvelocitydistribution.
Anumberofresearchershavearguedthat
the logarithmic behavior of the velocity
distribution,eitherintheinnerformgivenby
Eq.(24)orintheouterformgivenbyEq.(2
11), can be justified only for a restricted
regionnearthebed(z H 0.2),andthat,for
z H 0.2, a correction of the logarithmic
function is necessary (Coleman and Alonso
1983;Sarmaetal.1983).
NezuandNakagawa(1993)addedawake
functiontothestandardloglawgivenbyEq.
(27), calling it the logwake law, as
follows,
u
u
ln
u*z
5.5 w
z
H
z
H
2W
sin2
z
2H
max
z
ln
2W0
cos
z
2H
(213)
FLUIDMECHANICSANDHYDRAULICSFORSEDIMENTTRANSPORT
27
2.2.3 RelationsforChannel
FlowResistance
udz
Nowbyslightlychangingthelower
limit of integration to avoid the fact
thatthelogarithmiclawissingularatz
0,thefollowingresultisobtained:
H
u*
ln
z
ks
ks
oraftertheintegrationisperformed
U
ln H
ks
6 ln
9.34 z
ln30
u*
ks
ks
ln11
k
*
8.1
Tofacilitatetheircomparison,aplot
ofEqs.(217a)and(217b)isshownin
Fig. 24. It is similar to the one
presented by Brownlie (1983). The
relativeerrorbetweentheloglawand
thepowerlawislessthan4.2%inEq.
(217a)andlessthan3%inthecaseof
Eq.(217b).Keulegan(1938)wasthe
first to point out the equivalence
between the loglaw and the power
law, given by Eq. (217b), in the
context of openchannel flows. Chen
(1991) provides a rigorous discussion
oflogarithmicandpowerlawvelocity
distributions, including a comparison
of the associated flow resistance
relationsforbothhydraulicallysmooth
flowsandfullyroughflows.
Now, between Eqs. (22) and (2
16),aresistancerelationcanbefound
forthebedshearstress:
b
toestimategraininducedresistancein
gravelbed streams (e.g. Bray 1979;
Parker1990).
Itcanbeshownthatthelogarithmic
form ofEqs. (28) and(216) canbe
approximated by power laws of the
ManningStricklerform,asfollows:
CfU
(218)
wherethefrictioncoefficientCfis
givenby
H16
k
16
ln11
Cf
(219)
ks
Fig.24. Comparisonoflogarithmiclaws
versuspowerlawsforvelocitydistribution
andflowresistance.
Thisrelationisknownas
Keulegansresistancelawforrough
flow(Keulegan1938)andithasbeen
extensivelyused
28 SEDIMENTTRANSPORT
ANDMORPHODYNAMICS
IfEq.(217b)isusedinsteadofEq.
(216),thefrictioncoefficienttakesthe
form:
8.1 H
Cf
16
ks
ItisimportanttoemphasizethatEq.
(218) providesa localpoint estimate
of bed shear stress, while Eq. (21)
givesareachaveragedvalueofthebed
shearstress(Yen2002).
Itisusefultoshowtherelationship
betweenthefrictioncoefficientCfand
the roughness parameters in open
channelflowrelationscommonlyused
inpractice.BetweenEqs.(21)and(2
18), a form of Chezys law can be
derived(Chow1959):
12 12
UCzH S
wheretheChezycoefficientCzis
givenbytherelation
g
CZ
12
Cf
H23S12
HereManningsnisgivenby
n
k1s
8.1g
12
numberSt.Analternativewaytoexpress
theStrickler number is withKeulegans
equation and powerlaw equivalent.
Assumingthatks D,theidentitygiven
in Eq. (217b) can also be used to
estimatetheStricklernumber
HD
St
(224c)
UM
gHS
ks
WherethedimensionlessconstantM
8.1 in this case and is valid for very
widechannels.Differentvaluesfor M
canbefoundintheliteraturedepending
ontheStrickler(1923)coefficientused
in Eq. (223b). Yen (1993) reports
values of M between 6.71 and12.82,
whileJulien(2002)fitsavalueofM
5tofieldobservations.Withthehelpof
Eq. (223b), itispossibletodefinea
dimensionlessStricklernumber
St
1
8.1
Itfollowsthattheconstant M inEq.
(224a) is the inverse of the Strickler
ln11H D
St0.30
0.
H
D
90
ThisimpliesthatMintherelationto
estimatethemeanflowvelocity(Eq.2
24a)wouldnolongerbeconstantbut
would change as a function of flow
depthforH D 10.
FLUIDMECHANICSANDHYDRAULICSFORSEDIMENTTRANSPORT
29
onal
accelerat
ion;u*
shear
velocity;
Rhisthehydraulicradius(approximately
equaltotheflowdepthHforverywide
channels);andfisthe
2.2.4 FixedBed(SkinorGrain)
Roughness
Itisclearthattousetheserelationsfor
channelflowresistance,acriterionfor
evaluating the equivalent roughness
height ks isnecessary.Frictionfactors
forturbulentflowinpipesandinfixed
bed channels have their roots in the
classic sandroughened pipe
experiments conducted by Nikuradse
(1933).Heconductedasetofpioneer
experiments and proposed the
following criterion. Suppose a rough
surfaceissubjectedtoaflow.Thenthe
equivalent roughness height ks of the
surfacewouldbeequaltothediameter
of sand grains that, when glued
uniformlytoacompletelysmoothwall,
andthensubjectedtothesameexternal
conditions, yields the same velocity
profile. Nikuradse used sand glued to
the inside of pipes to conduct this
evaluation.
ToanalyzetheworkofNikuradse,
it is convenient to introduce another
relation that can be used to estimate
mean flow velocity in openchannel
flows, known as the DarcyWeisbach
equation
U
Inthisequation
g
gravitati
8
f
gR S
h
8
f
dimensionless
DarcyWeisbach
frictioncoefficient,which,forapipe
with diameter D is known to be a
function of the flow Reynolds
number Re UD v and the relative
roughnessD ks.
notaswellknownasNikuradseswork
on pipes. However, this experimental
study was conducted for a set of
relativeroughness(Rh ks)valuesmore
representative of the conditions
observed in the field for the case of
sandbedstreamswithplanebeds. In
fact,therelationobtainedbyZegzhda
forfullyroughhydraulicconditionsis
very similar to the expression
advanced independenly at about the
sametimebyKeulegan(Eq.216).
Afittotheexperimentalresultsof
Nikuradsethatcanbeusedtoestimate
the roughness length parameter z0 in
Eq. (24) as a function of ks was
proposed by Christofferson and
Jonsson(1985)
ks 1exp
30
u*ks
27
Smith(1977)seemstohavebeenthe
first to plot Nikuradses data in a way
useful to estimate the roughness length.
Similar empirical relations have been
proposed by Fuentes and Carrasquel
(1981)andDadeetal.(2001).Foru*ks v
3, the flow is hydraulically smooth
andz0 0.11v u*;whereasforu*ks v
100theflowishydraulicallyroughandz0
0.033ks.Inmanyinterestingsediment
transport situations the flow is
hydraulicallytransitionalandanequation
such as Eq. (227) has to be used to
estimatetheroughnesslengthinEq.(24)
associated with graininduced roughness
(Kamphuis 1974). Typically, muds and
flatfinesandsare
9u
30 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.25. RevisedNikuradsefrictionfactordiagramforflowinpipesofdiameterDoropenchannelflowswith
hydraulicradiusRh D 4(afterBrownlie,1981).
sizelargerthanD50ismoremeaningfultoestimateflowresistance
ks
sDx
Suggestedvaluesof swhichhaveappearedinthelit
eraturearelistedinTable21,originallycompiledbyYen
(1992; 2002) and updated for this manual. Different
sedimentsizeshavebeensuggestedfor Dx inEq.(228).
Statistically,D50(thegrainsizeforwhich50%ofthebed
material is finer) is most readily available. Physically, a
representative
(229)
50
proportionaltoarepresentativesedimentsizeDx,
(228)Noticethesimilaritywiththepowerlawequations
8
f
3.92log
H
D
50
6.86
(230)
FLUIDMECHANICSANDHYDRAULICSFORSEDIMENTTRANSPORT 31
Table21 RatioofNikuradseEquivalentRoughnessSizeandSedimentSizeforRivers
Measureofsedimentsize,Dx
Investigator
AckersandWhite(1973)
1.23
84
1.6
Strickler(1923)
50
Katuletal(2002)
84
Keulegan(1938)
50
MeyerPeterandMuller(1948)
50
ThompsonandCampbell(1979)
50
Hammondetal.(1984)
50
EinsteinandBarbarossa(1952)
65
Irmay(1949)
65
EngelundandHansen(1967)
65
LaneandCarlson(1953)
75
Gladki(1979)
80
Leopoldetal.(1964)
84
Limerinos(1970)
84
Mahmood(1971)
84
Hey(1979),Bray(1979)
84
Ikeda(1983)
84
Colosimoetal.(1986)
84
WhitingandDietrich(1990)
84
SimonsandRichardson(1966)
85
Kamphuis(1974)
90
VanRijn(1982)
90
Fromtheseequations,itfollowsthatforwide,open
channelflowstheDarcyWeisbachfrictioncoefficient
andManningsroughnesscoefficientarerelatedby
1
8
f
KnH
1
ng
U
gHS
inwhichKnisaconstantequalto1inmetricunitsand
equalto1.486inEnglishunits(Yen2002).Thevelocity
distribution in highgradientstreams with relatively low
values of relative submergence H D50 is no longer
logarithmicnear thebedduetothewakeeffectproduced
by large roughness elements. Wiberg and Smith (1991)
have developed a model for the velocity field in steep
streams with coarse gravel beds that is capable of
reproducingthefieldobservationsmadeby
32 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
2.2.5 MovableFlatBedRoughness
Inflowsovergeometricallysmooth,fixedboundaries,
theapparentroughnessofthebed ks canbecomputed
usingNikuradsesapproach,asshownabove.However,
Dx
35
AguirrePeandFuentes(1990)
s s
3.3
3.5
1
1
2.0
6.6
1
1.5
2.0
3.2
2.5
3.9
2.8
5.1
3.5
1.5
3.6
2.95
1
2.0
3.0
0N
Sincebothestimatorsdependontheflowintensity
asgivenbythebedshearstress,Eqs.(232a)and(2
32b) provide an estimate of a variable roughness
appropriateformovablebedswithoutthepresenceof
bedforms.
Wiberg and Rubin (1989) evaluated several
expressionsforcharacterizingbedroughnessproduced
byalayerofsaltatingsedimentgrains;theyproposed
with the help of a formulation for the vertical eddy
(232a)
diffusivity coefficient (Gelfenbaum and Smith 1986;
Longetal.1993)aformulationwhichmakesuseofa
vertical flow velocity distribution given by the fol
lowingexpression
where
0
z0 N
s
26.3;
Nikuradseroughnesslength;and
0.033ksandks
z0 N
b
zexp
(zH)3.3(zH)
(2
33)
where
z distancefrom
thebed;H flow
depth;and
0.41 vonKarmansconstant.
0N
1 b
(1966)wereusedtoobtainbestfitvaluesfortheshear
velocityu*andbedroughnesslengthz0withthehelpof
Eq.(233).TheanalysisofWibergandRubin(1989)
showsthatthebedroughnessassociatedwithsediment
transportcanreachvaluesaboutanorderofmagnitude
empiricalconstantequalto0.077;
largerthantheNikuradsegrainroughnessinplanebed
0.033ksandks
Nikuradseroughnesslength;and
flows,butthisroughnesswillingeneralbesignificantly
smallerthantheroughnessassociatedwithripplesand
bedloadlayerheight,
duneswhentheyarepresentonthebedsurface.
whichiscomputedas
1.2D(1
cos)
b
c
dz
2.2(zH)
z0
1(zH)
z
*
bedsedimentdensity.
Thisapproachisparticularlysuitableforsandbed
rivers and has been widely used in coastal
sedimentation(e.g.,SmithandMcLean1977).
Theroughnessparameteralsocanbeestimatedwith
aschemeproposedbyDietrichandWhiting(1989),
where
u(z)
0.2
b
c
where
angleoffriction,and
D meandiameterofthebedmaterial.
Athighbedshear stressesandsedimenttransportinten
sitiesinsandbedstreams,dunesarewashedoutandthebed
becomesplane.Inthisregime,sedimentistransportednearthe
bedinalayerwithathicknessthatismuchlargerthanthe
grainsize.Collisionsbetweengrainsareintenseinthislayer,
resultinginagrainfloworgranularfluidflow.Thisregimeis
knownassheetflowandmeasurementstakenbyresearchers
(Wilson1987,1989;NnadiandWilson1992)haveshownthat
(232c)
flowresistanceincreasesdrasticallywithflowintensityinthis
regime.Sumeretal(1996)foundthatflowresistanceinduced
bythesheetflowlayercanbeexpressedintermsoftheratio
of Nikuradses equivalent sand roughness to the grain
diameter (ks D). This ratio was found to behave differently
whetherofnotthegrainsbecamesuspendednearthebed.In
theabsenceofsuspensionmode,ks D dependsonlyonthe
*
Shields parameter ( ) defined by Eq. (256). In the
*
suspensionmode, ks D dependsnotonlyon
but
also on a dimensionless sediment fall velocity
parameter Rf definedbyEq.(246b).Thereis
also evidence that sediment transport in the
sheetflowlayerisinfluencedbytheturbulent
burstingprocess(e.g.,Sumeretal.2003).
FLUIDMECHANICSANDHYDRAULICSFORSEDIMENTTRANSPORT
33
offlow(Nikoraetal.2001)overdunes
areavailable,thismethodcanbeused
to estimate a spatiallyaveraged com
posite roughness kc due to the
combinedeffectofbothgrainfriction
andformdragduetobedformsinlarge
sandbedrivers.Boundarylayerstudies
haveshownthatanalternativetoEq.
(29a)fordescribingtheverticalflow
velocity distribution in flows where
thegeometryandsizeoftheroughness
elementsissuchthatskinfrictionand
formdragarepresent,isgivenbythe
followingequation
2.2.6 EquivalentRoughnessof
BedForms
As the flow intensity increases, bed
forms such as ripples and dunes can
develop (e.g., Raudkivi1997). In this
situation, the bed roughness also will
beinfluencedbyformdragduetothe
presence of bed forms. The
fundamental problem is that the bed
formcharacteristicsand,hence,thebed
roughness depend on the main flow
characteristics (e.g., mean velocity,
depth) and sediment characteristics
(e.g., grain size, density). Thus, the
hydraulicroughnessinthepresenceof
bedformsisadynamicparameterthat
depends strongly on flow conditions
as well as on the bed sediment
properties. The equivalent roughness
of alluvial beds in the presence of
ripplesandduneswasaddressedwith
the Nikuradse hydraulic roughness
approachbyBrownlie(1981)andvan
Rijn (1982, 1984c). In van Rijns
approach, the height due to grain
induced roughness (Eq. 228) was
addedtoanestimateoftheequivalent
roughness height produced by ripples
and dunes obtained from field and
laboratory observations, to obtain a
measure of the total (grain plus form
resistance)effectiveroughness,
D
s90
and
ln
zu*
u u*kc
u*
InEq.(235a),
0.41and A 5.5
are universal constants previously
introduced,and u u*isaroughnessfunc
tionwhichisequaltozeroforsmoothwalls
(square brackets indicate functional
relationship). When plotting u u*versus
ln(u*z v),thisequationrepresentsafamily
of parallel lines, each being displaced
downwards from the smoothwall velocity
profile by an amount u u* (Schlichting
1979).
1.1(1e
sf
3(seeEq.228);
grainsizeforwhich90%of
thebedmaterialisfiner;
duneshapefactor 1.
sf
u*
25 It shows
where
D 90
bedformheightandlength,
respectively;andbedform
steepness.
than100200,mostofthedatacollapsealong
a straight line, along the fullyrough
hydraulicregime,whichiswellrepresented
bythefollowingfit,
u* kc
2.43ln
u*
3.24
Theeffectiveroughnessheightwas
thenusedtoestimatetheChezyfriction
coefficient(Eq.222),
1
CZ
18log
12
Cf
(235b)
34 SEDIMENTTRANSPORT
ANDMORPHODYNAMICS
FedeleandGarca(2001)alsofound
thatthecompositeroughnesskccouldbe
approximatedwith
ep
1.45
ThedatausedtobyFedeleandGarca
(2001)toobtainthisfitareshowninFig.
27. This expression provides only a
crude approximation for the friction
factor, but clearly indicates that the
roughnessinalluvialstreamswithdunes
is a dynamic parameter that depends
nonlinearlyontheflowintensitygivenby
the Shields stress parameter ( *), the
relative flow depth (H D), and the
particleReynoldsnumber(Rep).
whichisvalidfor(H D) 10 andRep
30, which are commonly found
conditionsforlargealluvialriverswith
sanddunes.
Here,
*
H
S
R
dimensionlessbedshearstress(i.e.,Shields
parameter)foruniformflow
flowdepth;
channelslope;
1 submergedspecific
s
ment;
sedimentsize;
gRDD
ep
particleReynoldsnumber;and
H D relativeflowdepth.
1
f
U
u
ln
(HD)
*3R
ep
2.3 SedimentProperties
Inthissection,rocktypes, aswellas
fundamental characteristics of
sediment particles such as size, size
distribution, density, and fall velocity
are considered. The role of sediment
sizeonstreammorphologyisanalyzed
also,withthegoalofunderstandingthe
behavior of sandbed and gravelbed
streams.
2.3.1 RockTypes
The solidphase insediment transport
canbeanygranularsubstance.Interms
of engineering applications, however,
the granular substance in question
typically consists of fragments
ultimately derived from rockshence
the name sediment transport. The
properties of these rockderived
fragments,takensinglyoringroupsof
many particles, all play a role in
determiningthetransportabilityofthe
grains under fluid action. The
important properties of groups of
particles include porosity and size
distribution. The most common rock
typeoneislikelytoencounterinthe
riverorcoastalenvironmentisquartz.
Quartz is a highly resistant rock and
cantravellongdistancesorremainin
placeforlongperiodsoftimewithout
losing its integrity. Another highly
resistantrocktypethatisoftenfound
togetherwithquartzisfeldspar.Other
commonrocktypesincludelimestone,
basalt,granite,andmoreesoterictypes
2.3.3 ModelLaboratory
Sediments
Inthelaboratory,itisoftenofvalueto
employ light weight model sediment
(Shen1990).Toseetheutilityofthis,
itisusefultoconsideramovablebed
scalemodelofanactualriver.Consider
a reach of the Minnesota River,
Minnesota, with a bankfull width of
90 m, a bankfull depth of 4 m, a
streamwise slope of 0.0002, and a
mediansedimentsize D50 of0.5mm.
Thereachisscaleddownbyafactorof
100 to fit into a typical laboratory
model basin, resulting in a bankfull
widthof90cmandabankfulldepthof
4 cm. In an undistorted model, slope
remainsconstantat0.0002.
suchasmagnetite.Limestoneisnota
resistantrock;ittendstoabradetosilt
rathereasily.Siltsizedlimestoneparti
cles aresusceptible tosolution unless
thewaterissufficientlybuffered.Asa
result,limestoneisnottypicallyfound
tobeamajorcomponentofsediments
atlocationsdistantfromitssource.On
the other hand, it can often be the
dominant rock type in mountain
environments.
Basaltic rocks tend to be heavier
than mostrocks composingthe crust
oftheearth.Theyaretypicallybrought
to the surface by volcanic activity.
Basalticgravelsarerelativelycommon
in rivers that derive their sediment
supply from areas subjected to
volcanism in recent geologic history.
Basalticsandsaremuchlesscommon.
Regions of weathered granite often
provide copious supplies of sediment.
Theparticlesproducedbyweathering
areofteninthegranulesizebutoften
quicklybreakdowntosandsizes.
Sediments inthe fluvialor coastal
environmentinthesizerangeofsilt,or
coarser, are generally produced by
mechanical means, including fracture
orabrasion.Theclayminerals,onthe
otherhand,areproducedbychemical
action. As a result, they are
fundamentally different from other
sedimentsinmanyways.Theirability
toabsorbwatermeansthattheporosity
ofclaydepositscanvarygreatlyover
time.Claysalsodisplaycohesiveness,
which renders them more resistant to
erosion.
2.3.2 SpecificGravity
Sediment specific gravity is defined as
theratiobetweenthesedimentdensity s
andthedensityofwater .Sometypical
materialinquestion.Theweight
WofaparticleofvolumeV p is
givenby
W SgVP
(236a)
Table22 SpecificGravityof
RockTypesand
ArtificialMaterials
Rocktypeormaterial
Quartz
Limestone
Basalt
Magnetite
Bakelite
Coal
Groundwalnutshells
PVC
SEDIM
ENT
PROPE
RTIES
WS
Quartz,forexample,isamineralwith
a specific gravity s near 2.65. If a
grainofthesamevolumeweremodeled
inthelaboratoryusingcrushedcoalwith
aspecificgravityof1.3,itwouldfollow
from Eq. (236a) that the coal grain
wouldbeonly1.3 2.65or0.49timesthe
weight of the quartz grain. Rephrasing,
thecoalgrainis2.04timeslighterthan
thequartzgrain,andthus,insomesense,
twiceasmobile.
In fact, the benefit of using
lightweightmaterialismuchgreaterthan
this, because the effective weight
determiningthemobilityofagrainisthe
submerged weight Ws, i.e., the actual
weight minus the buoyancy force
associatedwiththe hydrostaticpressure
distributionabouttheparticle.Thatis,
gVP
0.30
0.
quartz
WS quartz
1.65
Itfollowsthatunderwater,thecoal
grainis1 0.18 5.5timeslighterthan
a quartz grain of the same size.
Lightweightmodelsedimentsarethus
a very effective way of increasing
mobility in laboratory experiments
(Zwamborn 1981; ASCE 2000, p.
105). More material on physical
modeling of sedimentation processes
canbefoundinAppendixC.
where
g accelerationofgravity.
coal
35
WS
R
coal
2.3.4 Size
Thenotation D willbeusedtodenote
sediment size, the typical units of
whicharemillimeters(mmsandand
coarsermaterial)ormicrometers( m
clay andsilt). Another standardway
of classifying grain sizes is the
sedimentological scale,accordingto
which
D 2
RgV
(237a)
Takingthelogarithmofbothsides,it
isseenthat
where
R
log2D
denotesthesubmergedspecificgravity
ofthesediment.Comparingcoaland
quartz again in terms of submerged
weight,itisseenthat
36 SEDIMENTTRANSPORT
ANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Table23 SedimentGradeScale
Sizerange
ClassName
Millimeters
Microns
lnD
ln2
Verylargeboulders
4096 ~2048
Largeboulders
2048 ~1024
Mediumboulders
1024~512
Smallboulders
512 ~256
9~
Largecobbles
256 ~128
8~
128~64
7~
64 ~32
6~
32 ~16
Smallcobbles
Verycoarsegravel
Coarsegravel
5~
16~8
4~
Finegravel
8 ~4
3~
Veryfinegravel
4 ~2
2~
Verycoarsesand
2.000 ~1.000
1~0
2000 ~1000
Coarsesand
1.000 ~0.500
0 ~1
1000~500
Mediumsand
0.500 ~0.250
1 ~2
500 ~250
Finesand
0.250 ~0.125
2 ~3
250 ~125
Veryfinesand
0.125 ~0.062
3 ~4
125~62
Coarsesilt
0.062 ~0.031
4 ~5
62 ~31
Mediumsilt
0.031 ~0.016
5 ~6
31 ~16
Finesilt
0.016 ~0.008
6 ~7
16~8
Veryfinesilt
0.008 ~0.004
7 ~8
8 ~4
Coarseclay
0.004 ~0.002
8 ~9
4 ~2
Mediumclay
0.002 ~0.001
2 ~1
Fineclay
0.001 ~0.0005
1 ~0.5
0.0005 ~0.00024
0.5~0.24
Mediumgravel
Veryfineclay
2.3.5 SizeDistribution
Anysedimentsamplenormallycontainsa
range of sizes. An appropriate way to
characterizethesesamplesisintermsofa
grain size distribution. Consider a large
bulksampleofsedimentofgivenweight.
Let pf (D)or pf ( )denote the
fraction by weight of material in the
sampleofmaterialfinerthansizeD( ).
Thecustomaryengineeringrepresentation
ofthegrainsizedistributionconsistsofa
plotofpf 100
SEDIM
ENT
PROPE
RTIES
37
(percentfiner)versuslog10(D)thatis,
a semilogarithmic plot is employed.
Theplot,then,wouldlookliketheone
inFig.28(a).
The same size distribution plotted in
sedimentological form would involve
plottingpf 100versus onalinearplot,
likeshowninFig.28(b).
1
log10(2)
log10 (D
Theutilityofalogarithmicscalefor
grain size now becomes apparent.
Consider asediment samplein which
onethird of the material lies in the
range0.11.0mm,onethirdliesinthe
range1.010mm,andonethirdliesin
therange10100mm.InFig.28(c)pf
100isplottedversus D onalinear
scale, and in Fig. 28(d) pf 100 is
plottedversusDonalogarithmicscale
pf 100isplottedagainstlog 10(D).
Plot(c)isvirtuallyunreadable,asthe
finesttworangesarecrowdedoffthe
scale. Plot (d) provides a useful and
consistent characterization of the
distribution. It can be concluded that
for the purposes of statistics, the
relevant grain size should be on a
logarithmic scale, e.g., rather than
Ditself.
The size distribution pf ( ) and size
densityp( )byweight(Fig.28(e))canbe
usedto extractusefulstatisticsconcerning
thesedimentinquestion.Letxdenotesome
percentage, say 50%; the grain size x
denotes the size such that x% of the
weightofthesampleiscomposed
of finer grains. That is, x is
definedsuchthat
(a)
(b)
38 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
(d)
(c)
(e)
(f)
Fig.28.
Sedimentgrainsizedistributionin(a)semilogscale,(b)sedimentologicalscale,
(c)linearscale,(d)logscale,(e)sizedistributionandsizedensity,and(f)discretizationofgrainsize
distribution .(Continued)
particularlyusefulforcharacterizingbedroughness,as
discussedpreviously.
pf
100
The density p(
moments.Ofthese,themostusefularethemeansize mand
(239a)
the standard deviation . These are given by the
relations
Itfollowsthatthecorrespondinggrainsizeintermsof
equivalentdiameterisgivenbyDx,where
Dx2
Themostcommonlyusedgrainsizesofthistypearethe
mediansizeD50andthesizeD90suchthat90%ofthesample
byweightconsistsoffinergrains.Thelattersizeis
(239b)
Dg
(240b)
Thecorrespondinggeometricmeandiameter Dg andgeo
metricstandarddeviation garegivenas
g
m
(240a)
(241a)
(241b)
SEDIMENT
PROPERTIES
Notethatforaperfectlyuniformmaterial,
0and g
1.Asapracticalmatter,asedimentmixturewithavalueof
g oflessthan1.3isoftentermedwellsortedand canbe
1
i
1
m
i1
16
(242b)
D84
1 2
D16
DgD84D16
Relations(240a)and(240b)nowdiscretizeto
12
i i
i=1
i
i
2.3.6 Porosity
50
84
16
Furthermore,itcanbedemonstratedfromastandardtable
thatinthecaseoftheGaussdistributionthesize displaced
onestandarddeviationlarger that m isaccurately given
by 84;bysymmetry,thecorrespondingsizeonestandard
deviation smaller than 84 is 16. The following
relationsthushold:
1
2
84
16
40 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
sedimentisoftenreferredtothepercentageoffinesin
thegraveldeposit.Whenthisfractionrisesabove2026
%byweight,thedepositisoftenrenderedunsuitable
for spawning. Salmon bury their eggs within the
gravel,andhighfinescontentimplieslowporosityand
thus reduced permeability. The flow of groundwater
necessary to carry oxygen to the eggs and remove
metabolicwasteproductsisimpeded.Inaddition,newly
hatched fry may encounter difficulty in finding pore
spacethroughwhichtoemergetothesurface.Allof
the above factors dictate lowered survival rates. An
(244b)
(242a)
84
(245a)
p p
i f
39
(243c)
volumeofvoids
volumeoftotalspace
Ifagivenmassofsedimentofknowndensityis
deposited, the volume of the deposit must be
computedassumingthatatleastpartofitwillconsist
ofvoids.Inthecaseofwellsortedsand,theporosity
canoftentakevaluesbetween0.3and0.4.Gravels
tend to be more poorlysorted. In this case, finer
particles can occupy the spaces between coarser
particles,reducingthevoidratiotoaslowas0.2.So
calledopenworkgravelsare essentiallydevoid of
sandandfinermaterialintheirinterstices;thesemay
have porosities similar to that of sand. Freshly
deposited clays are notorious for having high
porosities. As time passes, clay deposits tend to
consolidate under its own weight so that porosity
slowlydecreases.WuandWang(2006)proposedan
(244a)
empiricalrelationtoestimatetheinitialporosityof
sediments,whichhavebeddepositedwithinayear
orless,asafunctionofthemediandiameterD50of
the sediment mixture. In situ measurements of
porosityindicatethatbiologicalactivitycanhavean
important effect on the porosity of sediments
(Wheatcroft2002).
The issue of porosity becomes of practical
importanceasregards,forexample,salmonspawning
grounds in gravelbed rivers (Alonso and Mendoza
1992;HuangandGarca2000).Thepercentageofsand
andsiltcontainedinthe
empiricalrelationshipbetweenpercentembryosurvival
andthegeometricmeandiameterofthesubstratein
(245b)
gravelbedriversisshowninFig.29(ShiraziandSeim
1981).Itisclearthatasthematerialbecomescoarser,
the substrate porosity can be expected to increase
accordingly, augmenting the embryo survival rates.
Chief causes of elevated fines in gravelbed rivers
includeroadbuildingandclearcuttingoftimberinthe
watershed.
2.3.7 Shape
Fig.29. Relationshipbetweenpercentembryosurvivaland
thegeometricmeandiameterofthesubstrate(afterShiraziand
Seim,1981).
c
a
b
ItfollowsthatasphericalparticlewillhaveaSF
1.FornaturalsandsSF 0.7.Theshapefactorhas
beenusedin
Fig.210. DefinitionofZinggdiagram.
studiesofparticlefallvelocity(Dietrich1982;Jimenez
andMadsen2003;WuandWang2006).Morematerial
onsedimentparticleshapeanditseffectonparticlefall
velocitycanbefoundinVanoni(2006,p.14).
2.3.8 FallVelocity
SEDIMENT
PROPERTIES
velocityforasphericalparticleinquiescentfluidvscan
bepresentedas
41
12
Rf
3C D R
therangesforsilt,sand,andgravelareplottedforakine
(246a)
maticviscosityv 0.01cm2 s(clearwaterat20 C)anda
where
Noticethatforfinesilts,Rpissmallerthanoneandthedrag
coefficientgivenbyEq.(246d)reducesto
s
Rf
(246b)
gRD
24
CD
Rp
(246c)
Substitutionof(246f)into(246a)yieldsthewell
knownStokeslawforsettlingvelocityoffineparticles,
andthefunctionalrelationCD f(Rp)denotesthedrag
coefficient for spheres (Garca 1999). Here g is the
acceleration of gravity, R ( s
) is the
submergedspecificgravityofthesediment,and isthe
kinematicviscosityofwater.Thisrelationisnotvery
usefulbecauseitisnotexplicitin s;onemustcompute
fallvelocitybytrialand error.Onecanusethe
followingequationforthedragcoefficient
CD
CD
(246f)
Rp
24 10.152R1/2p
0.0151Rp
vs
gRD
(246g)
18
Ausefulempiricalrelationtoestimatethekinematicvis
cosityofclearwateris:
(246d)
1.7910
Rp
(m s)
0.00021T
10.03368T
andthedefinition
(246h)
where
gRDD
ep
toobtainanexplicitrelationforfallvelocityintheformofRf
versusRep.SuchadiagramispresentedinFig.211,where
T temperatureofthewaterindegrees
centigrade( C).
(246e) Anumberofrelationsforterminalfallvelocityfor
thecaseofnonspherical(natural)particlescanbefound
intheliterature.Dietrich(1982)analyzedfallvelocity
datafornaturalparticlesanduseddimensionalanalysis
toobtaintheusefulfit
Rfexpb1
b4 ln
where
b2lnRep
3
Rep
b3ln
b5ln
Rep
4
Rep
(247a)
42 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.211. DiagramofRfversusRepcalculatedfromthedragcoefficientforspheres.
vs
vs
*
gRD
A
N
B
S*
(10.36
3 1/2
1.049D* ) 10.36
where
inwhich
gR
S*
DN
4
(249a)
D*
13
(249b)
gRDN
Here
accelerationofgravity;
D
R
kinematicviscosityofwater;
meansievediameterofgrains;and
( s
)isthesubmergedspecificgravityofthe
grains.
v
Soulsby(1997)proposedthefollowingrelationforthehin
dered fall velocity vsc of grains in a dense suspension
havingavolumetricsedimentconcentrationC:
sC
4.7
3 12
(10.36 1.0491C D* )
10.36 (249c)
whichisvalidforallvaluesofD*andC.WhenC 0,
Eq.(249c)reducestoEq.(249a).
Thesubjectofsedimentfallvelocityisfarfrom
being resolved. However, the empirical fits
presented here should suffice for engineering
purposes. Other useful relations to estimate
sedimentfallvelocitycanbefoundinSwameeand
Ojha (1991), Cheng (1997), Ahrens (2000), and
Ahrens (2003). Recently, Wu and Wang (2006)
compared different formulations and developed
anotherempiricalfittoestimatefallvelocitywhich
accountsfortheeffectofparticleshapethroughthe
Coreyshapefactor
SF c ab.
Materialonparticlesettlingforthecaseoffine
grainedcohesivesedimentispresentedinChapter4.
SEDIMENT
PROPERTIES
43
2.3.9 RelationbetweenSize
Distributionand StreamMorphology
Thestudyofsedimentproperties,andinparticular
sizedistribution,ismostrelevantinthecontextof
stream morphology. The material that follows is
intendedtopointoutsomeofthemoreinteresting
issues,andinparticular,morphologicaldifferences
between sandbed and gravelbed streams. More
discussiononthesubjectcanbefoundinChapters3
and6.
InFig.212,severalsizedistributionsfromthe
sandbed Kankakee River, Illinois, are shown
(Bhowmiketal.1980).ThecharacteristicSshape
suggests that these distributions might be
approximatedbyaGaussiancurve.Themedian
sizeD50fallsnear0.30.4mm.Thedistributions
areverytightwithanearabsenceofeithergravel
orsilt.Forpracticalpurposes,thematerialcanbe
approximatedasuniform.
InFig.213,severalsizedistributionspertaining
to the gravelbed Oak Creek, Oregon, are shown
(Milhous1973).Ingravelbedstreams,thesurface
layer(armororpavement)tendstobecoarser
thanthesubstrate(identifiedassubpavementin
thefigure).Whetherthesurfaceorsubstrateis
Fig.212. ParticlesizedistributionsofbedmaterialsinKankakeeRiver,Illinois(afterBhowmiketal.1980).
44 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.213. SizedistributionofbedmaterialsamplesinOakCreek,Oregon(afterMilhous1973).
2.4 ThresholdConditionfor
SedimentMovement
Inthissectionthethresholdconditionsforinitiationof
motionareanalyzed.Amechanisticmodelforinitiation
ofmotionispresented.TheShieldsdiagramandother
methods for assessing initiation of motion are
introduced. The analysis is limited to noncohesive
granularsedimentssuchassilt,sandandgravel.
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFORSEDIMENTMOVEMENT
45
Fig.214. Dimensionlessgrainsizedistributionfordifferentrivers(afterWhiteetal.1973).
2.4.1 SubmergedAngleofRepose
Ifgranularparticlesareallowedtopileupwhilesubmergedina
fluid,thereisaspecificslopeangle beyondwhichspontaneous
failure of the slope occurs. This angle is termed the angle of
repose,oralternatively,thefrictionangle.Tostudythisinmore
detail,consideratypicalgrainrestingonthesurfaceofsucha
slopeasshowninFig.215.
ThecoefficientofCoulombfrictionisdefinedtobe ,where
Fgn (s
)gVpcos (250c)
Fr
Fgn(250d)Theconditionfor
incipientmotionisgivenby
FF
gt r
(250e)
tangentialresistive
force
downwardnormalforce
(250a)
Theforcesactingontheparticlealongtheslopearethesubmergedforceofgravity(gravitationalforceminusbuoyancyforce),whichhasadownslope
componentFgtandanormalcomponentFgn,andatangentialresistiveforceFrduetoCoulombfriction.Thesearegivenby
gt
)gV sin
p
tan
(250b)
(250f)
46 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.215. Definitiondiagramforangleofrepose.
2.4.2 CriticalStressforFlowovera
GranularBed
When a granular bed is subjected to a
turbulentflow,itisfoundthatvirtuallyno
motion of the grains is observed at some
flows, but that the bed is noticeably
mobilizedatotherflows(ChengandChiew
1998;Papanicolauetal.2002;Nioetal.
2003). Literature reviews on incipient
motioncanbefoundinMilleretal.(1977);
LavelleandMofjeld(1987);andBuffington
andMontgomery(1997).
Factorsthataffectthemobilityofgrains
subjected to a flow are summarized as
follows,
Randomness
Grainplacement
Turbulence
Lift
FluidMean&
tur
bul
ent
Dr
ag
CertainassumptionsenterintotheIkeda
ColemanIwagaki analysis. The flow is
takentofollowthelogarithmiclawnearthe
boundary (Eq. 24). The origin of the z
coordinate for evaluating the logarithmic
law is taken to be the base of the dan
gerouslyexposedparticle.Turbulentforces
ontheparticleareneglected.Dragandlift
forces act through the particle center (in
general,theydonot,givingrisetotorqueas
well as forces). The value of the drag
coefficient cD canbeapproximatedbythe
freestream value (Coleman 1967). The
coordinate z is taken to be vertically
upward, corresponding to very low
streamwiseslopes S.Theroughnessheight
ksisequatedtotheparticlediameterD.
Forcesongrains
Gravity
Fig.216. Forcesactingona
dangerouslyplacedparticle.
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFOR
SEDIMENTMOVEMENT
Itisseenfromtheaboveassumptionsthat 47
theparticlecenterislocatedat z D 2.Itis
Nowtheforcesactingontheparticlecanbe
necessary to use some information about
turbulent boundary layers to define the
considered.ThestreamwisefluiddragforceD f,
effectivefluidvelocityufactingontheparticle
upwardnormal(verticalinthiscase)fluidlift
inordertofacilitate computation ofthefluid
force L f , and downward vertical submerged
forces.Aviscoussublayerexists(seeEq.26)
gravitationalforce Fg actingonthe particle of
whenD vislessthanabout0.5,or (u*D v)
thepreviousfigurearethus
5. In this case, the effective fluid velocity uf
actingontheparticleisestimatedwithEq.(2
5)as
uf
1uD
2
c
(252a)
cLu2f
(252b)
u*
v
Lf
Ontheotherhand,ifD v 2,noviscous
sublayerexists,andthelogarithmiclawapplies
near(butnotat)thebed.Sotheflowvelocity
actingontheparticlecanbeestimatedby
uf
Fg
2.5ln 30
u*
z
D
uD
u*
Rg 3
Fr
Fg
(252d)
Lf
where
DfFr
F
1u*D
2
for
u*D
13
and
F6.77for
(252c)
ItfollowsthenthatEqs.(251a)and(2
51b) can be written in the more general
form
6.77
1
uf
u*D
13.5
Thatis,if Df Fr,theparticlewillnot
move,andifDf Fr,itwillmove.Between
Eqs. (252a), (252b), (252c), (252d), and
(253),thefollowingrelationisobtainedfor
criticalfluidvelocityufatz D 2:
(253)
uf
(254)
3cD
RgD
cL
However,itwouldbemoreconvenient
tohaveacontinuousfunctionF,sothatthe
transition between hydraulically smooth
andfullyroughcondition,issmooth.Thefit
proposedbySwamee(1993)canbeusedto
evaluateFinEq.(251c)bysettingz D 2
andks DinEq.(210),
shearstressinquestionisthecritical
one for the onset of motion and is
denotedby bc. Between Eqs. (251c) and
(254), the IkedaColemanIwagaki
relation is obtained for the critical
shearstress:
9uD
10
Thisrelationisnowconvertedtoarelationin
termsofboundaryshearstress.Itmayberecalled
that by definition u2*
b, where b denotes
the boundary shear stress. In this case, the
ln 1
u*D
0.3
uD
4
3 c
1
D
F2(u
(255a)
Dv)
*c
48 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
effectofgravityhastobeincludedinthe
forcebalancepresentedearlier,resultingin
the following expression for the critical
shearstress
*
c
4 cos
3
sin
(c
c
D
Dv
F (u
*c
Noticethatfor
0,Eq.(255b)reduces
toEq.(255a).Apredecessorofallthese
equationswasadvancedbyEgiazaroff
(1965).ItcanbefoundinVanoni(2006,p.
58)andisusedforsedimentmixturesin
Chapter3.Similarrelationswerealso
obtainedbyFredseandDeigaard(1992,p.
203)andcanalsobefound,albeitwithout
derivation,in
channelwithadownstreamslopeangle ,
thedownslope
(251f ) and certain realistic assumptions
abouttheinternalangleoffriction ,and
thedrag cD andlift cL coefficients.Asan
example, two internal friction angles are
considered,
40 (
0.84) and
60 (
1.73), and the following
assumptionsaremade: ks 2D,and cL
0.85cD.ItisfurthermoreassumedthatcDis
givenasafunctionof ufD v accordingto
thestandarddragcurveforspheres(i.e.,Eq.
246d).AplotofEq.(255a)isshownin
Fig.217,togetherwiththedataofShields
(1936). Considering all the assumptions
madefordevelopingthethreoreticalmodel,
theagreementisquitereasonable.Thebest
agreement between the IkedaColeman
IwagakimodelandShieldsobservationsis
found for
60 (
1.73). Such
friction angle is rather high but is not
possible to know the exact value of this
parameterforthesedimentusedbyShields
in his experiments, and whether or not
incipienttransportconditionswerepresent
ChienandWan(1999,p.319).
*
Intheaboverelation, c isadimensionless
measureof boundaryshearstressknownasthe
Shieldsparameterandgivenbythedefinition
*
c
bc
gRD
where
bc
u
*c
u2 *c criticalbed shearstress
motion;
criticalshearvelocity;
waterdensity;
)isthesubmergedspecificgravityofthe
sediment;
g
D
accelerationofgravity;and
sedimentparticlediameter.
combinationsofcriticalshearstress bc,sediment
and waterspecificweightssand ,respectively,
sedimentsize
u D
*
c
bc
gRD
F*
*c
foundthatShieldscrticalshearstressvalues
are indeed higher than those observed.
More discussion on the internal friction
angle is given below when the model of
WibergandSmith(1987)ispresented.
Although there are a number of
assumptions made in its derivation, the
mechanisticIkedaColemanIwagakimodel
(Eq. 2.55a) makes it possible to visualize
the sources of uncertainty (i.e., angle of
repose, drag and lift coefficients, particle
location,etc.)andhelpstounderstandwhy
it is so difficult to characterize the
threshold condition with a deterministic
model (e.g., Bettess 1984; Lavelle and
Mojfeld1987;Komar1996;Papanicolauet
al. 2001; Shvidchenko and Pender 2001;
Nio et al. 2001; Dancey et al. 2002).
Recentlytheroleplayedbyturbulenceon
initiationofmotionhasbeenexaminedby
Zanke (2003), whofoundthatturbulence
inducedfluctuationsintheliftforcemake
particleslighterandeasiertomove.
2.4.3 ShieldsDiagram
Shields(1936)conductedhissetofpioneering
experiments to elucidate the conditions for
whichsedimentgrainswouldbeattheverge
of moving. While doing this, Shields
introduced the fundamental concepts of
similarityanddimensionalanalysisandmade
a set of observations that have become
legendary in the field of sediment transport
(Kennedy 1995). Shields deduced from
dimensional analysis* and fluid mechanics
considerationsthat c shouldbeafunction
ofshearReynoldsnumberu*cD v,as
impliedbyEq. (255a).TheShieldsdiagram
isexpressedbydimensionless
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFOR
SEDIMENTMOVEMENT
49
lesscriticalshearstressforvaluesofRe*
u*Dvinexcess
of500,whileGessler(1971)suggestsusingavalueof
*
c
0.046forsuchcondition.
*
Thevalueof
tobeusedindesigndependsonthepar
ticularcaseathand.Ifthesituationissuch
thatgrainsthat
aremovedcanbereplacedbyothersmovingfrom
upstream, some motion can be tolerated, and the
valuesfromtheShieldscurvemaybeused.Onthe
otherhand,ifgrainsremovedcannotbereplacedas
onastreambank,theShieldsvalueof c* aretoo
large and should be reduced. As already
AsfirstnoticedbyVanoni(1964),the
Shieldsdiagramisnotpracticalintheform
ofFig.218,becauseinorder
bc,one
tofindthecriticalshearstressforincipientmotion
mustknowthecriticalshearvelocityu*c
relationcanbecastinexplicitformbyplotting
*
c versusRep,notingtheinternalrelation
u*D
whereR
u*
gRD
gRDD
bc
* 12
Rep
.The
(258)
thesediment.
Fig.2.18. Shieldsdiagramforinitiationofmotion(sourceVanoni,1964).
50 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
conducted a series of experiments and
observedthatforfinegrained,noncohesive
sedimentsthecriticalshearstressescanbe
Brownlie(1981)usedthisrelationtoconvertthe
estimatedwiththefollowingrelation
original Shieldsdiagram intoone with * versus
c
Rep.SimilardiagramsusingD* (seeEq.2
49b)insteadofRep havebeenadvanced
amongothersbyBonnefille(1963),Smith
(1977), van Rijn (1984a), Garca and
Maza (1997), and Soulsby and
Whitehouse (1997). A useful fit to the
ShieldsdatawasproposedbyBrownlie
(1981,p.161):
0.261
*
c
0.135R
ep
(259c)
Fig.219. ModifiedShieldsdiagram(afterParker2005).
Thecriticalconditionformotionofthe
coarsematerialmakinguptheriprapcanbe
writtenas
2
recently, Sarmiento and Falcon (2006)
u* c
*
introducedthenovelideaofusingspatially
averaged(overmanyparticles)shearstresses
(iii)c
to define incipient conditions for particle
RgDRR
motionatlowtransportrates.
Buffington(1999)thoroughlyreanalyzed
Shields work, pointing out some
Where *c shouldbebetween0.02and0.03
inconsistencies in the way Shields obser dependinguponhowbroadlythebediscovered
vations had been interpreted and used by withriprap(seeFig.219).Combiningtheabove
relationsyields
others. This motivated a discussion that
analyzed the universality of the Shields
1
diagraminthecontextofsandandgravel
1H
U
* 1
(iv)
8.1 c
bed rivers (Garca 2000), resulting in the
s
D
riversedimentationdiagrampresentedbelow
RR
(Fig.229).
RgDRR
2.4.3.1 Application to Riprap Sizing
Forexample,if
0.03
and
2.5,thisrelation
*
andFlowCompetence Itisworthwhileto
s
c
show how knowledge about velocity reducesto:
distributionandinitiationofmotioncanbe
used for a practical problem. Consider the
design of a riprap cap to protect
contaminated riverbed sediment against
U
H 1
erosion.Ageotextileorafilterlayercanbe
1.204
(v)
used to cover the contaminated riverbed
portionandthenthislayercanbeprotected
D
withriprapmaterialhavingasize DRR.The
RR
RgDRR
riprap size has to be determined to ensure
thestabilityofthecapdesign.
This equation is very similar to the many
As introduced earlier, the Manning empiricalequationsthathavebeendetermined
Stricklerrelationforflowresistanceis
forriprapdesign(see
1
(i)
8.1
u
*
H
k
Here
(ii) ks
sDRR
Typicalvaluesforthecoefficient
foundinTable21.
scanbe
2.4.4 YalinandKarahanDiagram
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFOR
SEDIMENTMOVEMENT
51
Eq.B.5inAppendixB).Inparticular,
thisrelationisverysimilartotheone
proposedbyNeill(1968)forinitiation
ofmotionofcoarsematerial
(vi)
U
RgDRR
1.204
RR
Asimilaranalysiscanbeusedto
estimatetheflowcompetencetomove
coarse riverbed material of a given
size.Inthiscase,thequestionwould
bewhatmeanflowvelocityanddepth
areneededtomovecoarsematerialof
a certain size? This is a typical
problem when analyzing salmonid
spawning gravel streams (e.g.,
Buffingtonetal.2004).
Inastudyoftemperatureeffectsoninitiation
ofmotion,TaylorandVanoni(1972)reported
thatsmallbutfiniteamountsoffinegrained
sediment were transported in flows with
*
valuesof c wellbelowthosegivenbythe
Shieldscurve. They found that as the
LiketheoriginalShieldsdiagram,the
YalinKarahan diagram can only be
used in an iterative way since *c
appears
52 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.220. DiagramforInitiationofMotion,YalinandKarahan(1979).
Forlaminarflowconditions,
Re
D
13
*c
(
D
*c
0.1439
*c
)g
13
D0.352
0.0084exp
*c
5.6243
9.21
D
*c
0.2164D*c11.252
Hereand
specificweightofwaterandsediment,
lowingusefulfittotheYalinKarahandata:
Forturbulentflowconditions,
0.137D
*c
*
c
0.377
0.1074
*c
*c
0.178
D
31.954
0.0437exp
0.7303
*c
2.084
2.453
10
*c
*c
47.75
c0.045;
*
D*c47.75
sizesandflowconditions.Dey(1999)hasalso
proposed a rather simple model for threshold
conditions that captures the behavior displayed
by the Yalin and Karahan (1979) laboratory
observations.
2.4.5 WibergandSmith
Diagramfor
HeterogeneousSediments
Mostoftheworkoninitiationofmotionhasbeen
doneforuniformsizesediment.Oneexceptionis
the model advanced by Wiberg and Smith
(1987). They derived an expression for the
critical shear stress of noncohesive sediment
usingabalanceofforcesonindividualparticles
verysimilartotheoneshownpreviously.Fora
given grain size and density, the resulting
equationdependsonthenearbeddragforce,lift
forcetodragforceratio,andparticleangle
(261d)
*
c
4 tan
3
0cos
cD
where
tan
sin
0cL
F (zz o )
cos
Dks
Dks
where z*
0.02 is the average level of the
bottomofanalmostmovinggrainanddepends
0 angleofreposeofthegrains;cDandcLdragandlift onparticlesphericityandroundness.Hereksisthe
equivalent Nikuradse roughness length. Equation
coefficients,respectively;
(262b)wasfoundtorepresentthedataofMiller
andByrne(1966)wellfor D ks 0.5.Computed
curvesfornondimensionalcriticalshearstressfora
andthefunction F u(z) u* isthelogarithmic
range of ratios of particle diameter to bed
function (i.e. Eq. 24) that relates the effective
roughness,D ks 0.5 5.0,areshowninFig.2
fluidvelocityactingontheparticletotheshear
22a.AlargeratioofD ksindicatesalargerparticle
velocity.WibergandSmith(1987)evaluatethe
onasmallerbed,andvice versa.Inthisplot,the
logarithmic function with an equation for the
critical roughness Reynolds number (R*) cr
velocitydistributionfirstproposedbyReichardt
(u*)cr ks v isacharacteristicofthebed.Thus, for
in the early 1950s, which provides a smooth
anybedroughness,theintersectionsofavertical
transition between the viscous sublayer and the
linethroughsome(R*)cr andthe( *)cr curvesfor
outerportionofthevelocityprofile(Schlichting
1979,p.601).Criticalshearvelocitiescomputed
theappropriateD ks valuesdeterminethecritical
withEq.(262a)asafunctionofnominalgrain
shearstressforthesizes ofmaterialpresentinthe
bed.
diameterforquartzdensitysedimentareshownin
bedslopeangle;
Fig.221. Calculatedcriticalshearvelocityasafunctionofgraindiameter(afterWibergandSmith1987).
(262b)
54 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
(a)
(b)
Fig.222. (a)Calculatednondimensionalcriticalshearstressasafunctionofcriticalroughness Reynolds
numberforvaluesofparticlediametertobedroughnessscale.(b)Calculatednondimensionalcriticalshear
stressasafunctionofnondimensionalparticlediameterforvaluesofparticlediametertobedroughnessscale
ratio(afterWibergandSmith,1987).
D s
*
(R*)crDks
( )
* cr
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFORSEDIMENT
MOVEMENT
55
ForH D 744.2
Inthisfashion,iterationisnotneededtofindthecritical
shear stress for a particle of diameter D in a bed with
characteristicroughnesslengthks.
Asystematicanalysisofeightdecadesofincipient
motionstudies,withspecialreferencetogravelbed
rivers was conducted by Buffington and
Montgomery (1997). Different models available in
theliteraturetoestimateentrainmentintomotionof
sedimentshavingmixedgrainsizesanddensitiesare
reviewed by Komar (1996). The work of James
(1990) with spheres and Carling et al (1992)
employingregularlyshapedparticles(rods,cylinders,
discs and cubes) illustrates that grainshape
variability and grain orientation are important to
entrainment, resulting in a range of stresses for
particlesthathaveotherwisethesameweight.Bridge
andBennett(1992)havedevelopedamathematical
modelforentrainmentandtransport,whichaccounts
fordifferentgrainsizes,shapesanddensities.Nio
etal(2003)wereabletomeasuretheeffectofgrain
size variability on sediment entrainment into
suspensionwiththehelpoflaboratotyexperiments.
More information about initiation of motion and
transport of gravel and sediment mixtures can be
foundinChapter3.
2.4.6 LischtvanLebedievDiagramfor
MaximumPermissibleFlowVelocity
Inpractice,itisoftenconvenienttoestimatetheflow
velocitynecessaryforinitiationofmotionandsediment
erosion.Anumberofresearchershaveconductedflume
experiments to collect data relating grain sizes and
densities to flow velocities, discharges and mean
stresses needed to initiate particle movement (e.g.
Miller et al. 1977). In the early 1920s, Fortier and
Scobey first introduced the concept of maximum
permissible flow velocity (Chow 1959, p. 165). The
maximumpermissibleflowvelocity,orthenonerosible
flow,isthegreatestmeanvelocitythatwillnotcause
erosionofthechannelbed.LischtvanandLebedievused
observations made in Russian channels (Lebediev
1959)forwiderangesofquartzsedimentsizes(0.005
mm D 500mm)andflowdepths(0.40m H
10m)toobtainvaluesofthemaximumpermissibleflow
velocityUcasafunctionoftherelativeflowdepthH D
(GarciaandMaza1997).The LischtvanLebedievdata
are plotted in dimensionless form in Fig. 223. Two
curveshavebeenfoundtofitthedatabyGarcaand
Maza(1997).
H0.1283
Uc
RgD
(263a)
1.630 D
ForHD744.2
Uc
H0.3221
RgD
1.453 D
(263b)
AninspectionofFig.223suggeststhatEq.(263a)
corresponds to flow conditions representative of
gravelbed and cobblebed streams (i.e., low relative
flowdepth),whileEq.(2.63b)correspondsconditions
commonly found in sandbed streams (i.e., large
relative flow depth). Notice that the general form of
these relations is very similar to the one obtained in
Section 2.4.3.1. The LischtvanLebediev relations are
widelyusedinLatinAmericaforthedesignofstable
channels and to estimate potential sediment erosion
conditions in sandbed rivers (e.g. Schreider et al.
2001).
2.4.7 EffectofBedSlopeonIncipientMotion
2.4.7.1 GranularSedimentonaSlopingBed The
work of Shields and others on initiation of motion
applies only to the case of nearly horizontal slopes.
Moststreams,particularlyinmountainareas,havesteep
gradients,creatinganeedtoaccountfortheeffectof
thedownslopecomponentofgravityontheinitiation
of motion. In fact, the model of Wiberg and Smith
(1987) as given by Eq. (262a) does account for the
effectofstreamwisechannelslope.
Asshownforthecaseofnegligiblelongitudinal
slope, the effect of the streamwise bed slope on
incipient sediment motion can be illustrated by
considering the forces (lift, drag, buoyancy, and
gravity)actingonaparticlelyinginabedconsisting
of similar particles over which water flows. Such
analysisyieldstheequation(ChiewandParker1994)
*
c
cos
co
tan
tan
(265a)
where
angleofrepose;
*
c
criticalshearstressforsedimentonabedwitha
longitudinalslopeangle;and
criticalshearstressforabedwithverysmallslope.
co
56 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.223. LischtvanLebedievdiagramformaximumpermissibleflowvelocity.
Eq.(265a)ispositive.Intermsofshearvelocities
therelationtakestheform
*c
tan
cos1
*o
tan
equationmathematicallyequivalenttoEq.(2
65a)oftheform
*
c
*
co
sin
sin
(265c)
Theyfoundthattheconditionforinceptionofmotion
dependsontheslopeangleaswellasontheReynolds
numberoftheflow.TheirrecommendationisthatEq.(2
65c)canbeusedforslopeanglesallthewayuptothe
angleofreposetogtherwithShieldscriteriatoestimate
*
co.Whitehouse etal.(2000)testedEq.(265c),
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFORSEDIMENTMOVEMENT
57
Fig.224. Effectofstreamwisebedslopeoncriticalshearvelocity.CurvecorrespondtoEq.2.65b(modified
fromChiewandParker1994).
2
2
Df
(266a)
c u e
D f 1
FF e
F e
g g 2 2
g3
(266b)
58 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
FurtherreducingwiththeaidofEqs.(254)and(2
55),itisfoundthat
wheree1,e2,ande3areunitvectorsinthestreamwise,
transverse, and downward normal to the side
directions,respectively.
Rg 4 D
F ,F
g2
g3
sin,cos
Theliftforceisgivenas
1
2
cLu2fe3
angle ,Eq.(269b)reducesto
(267)
magnitudegivenby Fg 3e 3 Lf .Asshowninthedia
gram,undercriticalconditions,itmustpreciselybalancethe
vectorialsumoftheimpellingforcesduetoflow(Df)anddue
tothetransversedownslopepullofgravity(Fg2e2).
Theseconditionsonmagnitudeanddirectionleadto
thefollowingresultforthresholdconditions:
g3 3 f
Df
F e
g2 2
SubstitutingEqs.(266a),(266b),(266c)and(2
67) into Eq. (268) and reducing, the following
relationisobtained:
RgD
3cD
4
3cD cos
cD
TheCoulombresistiveforceactingonagrain
hasa
F e L
Thecaseofatransverselyhorizontalbedisrecovered
bysetting
0.ThecriticalShieldsstressisfoundtobe
givenbyEq.(255a)forthiscase.Thisvalueisdenotedas
*
co,thesubscript o denotingthatthebedishorizontalin
(269b)
cL
cos
3c D F2
Lf
3c D F2
(266c)
2 12
4 sin
sin
cLu
12
c c
L D
*
co
sin
(269c)
c
12
c c
L D
cos
*
c
*
co
Equation(269c)isaquadraticpolynomialin *c *co,
and assuchiseasilysolved.AsolutionisshowninFig.2
26,whichhasbeenevaluatedforthecase
0.84(
40 )andcL 0.85cD.ItisalsoassumedthatcDisgiven
(268)
asafunctionofuf D vaccordingtothestandarddragcurve
for spheres (i.e. Eq. 246d). As can be seen there, the
Shieldsstresstakesthevalue *co onahorizontalbed(
0).Itprogressivelydecreasesasthesideslopeangle
increases,reachingavalueof0attheangleofrepose.
Manymethodsforstablechanneldesign,starting
withthe classic workofGlover and Floreyin the
early 1950s, make use of Eq. (269c) to design a
channelincoarsealluviumthatisatthethreshold
forsedimentmotionbutisstable(e.g.,Lietal.1976;
Diplas and Vigilar 1992). Parker (1978) also used
thisapproachtoanalyzeflowinselfformedstraight
rivers with mobile beds and stable banks. More
material on stable movablebed channels can be
foundinChapter7.
(269a)
2
f
cDRgD
*
c
*
co
cos
tan
tan
Fig.225. Definitiondiagramforparticlelocatedona
sideslope.
(270)
Equation(270)hasalsobeenderivedforapplication
tocoastalsedimenttransportproblemsbyFredseand
Deigaard(1992,p.204).Whitehouseetal(2000)tested
THRESHOLDCONDITIONFORSEDIMENTMOVEMENT
59
Fig.226. VariationofnormalizedcriticalShieldsstressforinitiationofmotionasafunctionofsideslope
angleaspredictedbyEq.2.69c.
60 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
Duanetal.(2001)andDuanandJulien(2005)have
usedthefollowingformulationforsedimenttransport
modelinginmeanderingchannels,
2 12
*
c
*
co
cos
tan
tan
*
co
cos
cos
tan
tan
tan
tan
Noticethatwhen
0,Eq.(271a)reducestoEq.
(270)andwhen
0,Eq.(271a)reducestoEq.(2
65a). Calantoni and Drake (1999) used Eq. (271) to
developadiscreteparticlemodelforbedloadtransport
inthesurfzonethataccountsforvariationsinbottom
slope.
Noticethatwhen
0,Eq.(271b)reducesEq.(2
65c)whichisalsoequivalenttoEq.(265a).When
0,Eq.(271b)reducestoEq.(265a).Itshouldbeclear
that Eqs. (271a) and (271b) are mathematically
equivalent.Intheearly1960s,NormanBrooksprovided
anexcellenttheoreticalanalysisofthisprobleminthe
contextofriverbends.ItcanbefoundinVanoni(2006,
p.64).
(271b)
values for sediments on arbitrarily sloping beds
sin
sin
(271a)
2.5 SedimentTransport
Sedimentloadinthismanualreferstothesediment
thatisinmotioninariver.Therearetwocommon
waysofclassifyingthesedimentloadasshownin
Table 24. The first divides the sediment load
according to the mechanism for transport into bed
loadandsuspendedload.Thesecondclassifiesthe
loadbasedonparticlesizeintowashloadandbed
sediment load. The suspended load, as the term
denotes,movesinsuspensionandisthatpartofthe
load which is not bed load. Wash load is fine
sedimentmoving in suspensionwhichmakes upa
very small part, usually a few percent, of the
sedimentonthebed.Washloadiscommonlytaken
asthesiltandclayfractionofthebedsediment,i.e.,
thatfractionwithgrainsizesfinerthan0.062mm.
Thebedsedimentloadconsistsofparticlesthatare
coarser than the wash load. The transport rate or
discharge of wash load tends not to be correlated
with water discharge while discharge of bed
sediment, both in suspension and as bed load, is
usually correlated with water discharge. The total
sedimentloadismadeupofwashload,suspended
(bedmaterial) load and bed load. Methods and
technologies for measuring sediment transport are
coveredinChapter5.
Table24 SedimentLoadClassification
Classificationsystem
Basedon
Basedon
Totalsedimentload
mechanismof
transport
Washload
Suspendedload
Washload
Suspended
Suspendedload
Bedmaterial
bedmaterialload
Bedload
particle
size
load
Bedload
Bedmaterial
load
examplethewashloadismanytimeslargerthanthe
loadofbedmaterialtransportedassuspendedandbed
load.Noticealsothattherearetwopeaksforthewash
loadassociatedwithsedimentgrainsizesofabout0.001
mm and 0.025 mm. These might be related to the
watershed activities taking place at the time the
observationsweremade.
2.5.1 SedimentTransportModes:Bed
MaterialLoad
andWashLoad
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
61
cohesivestreambankscancontributetothewashload
duringbankfullflowevents.Miningactivitiescanalso
contribute substantially to the wash load of river
systems, with potential environmental effects on
estuarineandcoastalareas(e.g.,coralreefs).Despiteits
importance, a physical characterization of the wash
loadisnotaneasytask.
Bydefinition,thewashloadisnotdeterminedbythe
hydrauliccharacteristicsofagivenriverreach;henceit
cannotbecomputed(EinsteinandChien1953).Atthe
sametime,sedimenttransportformulaeapplyonlyto
bedmaterialtransportanddonotaccountforwashload.
De Vries (1993) argues that there are at least two
reasons why a quantitative distinction between bed
materialloadandwashloadisnecessary.
(i)
largelyontheamountofwashloaddepositedbyfloods
onagivenfloodplainovertheyears.Thisfactwaswell
knownbytheEgyptians,whopracticeagricultureinthe
floodplainsoftheNileRiver.Alsoofrelevance,isthe
factthatcontaminantssuchasPCBsandheavymetals
are often attached to the finegrained sediments that
constitutethewashload.Thewashloadiscontrolledby
landsurfaceerosion(rainfall,vegetation,landuse)and
notbychannelbederosion.However,
PggSUH
1
62 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
specificgravityofthesediment,
sedimentdensity,
waterdensity, vs sedimentfallvelocity,and g
tionalacceleration.
gravita
ThephysicalsignificanceofthetermsinEq.(272a)
canbeidentifiedasfollows:
(1) Meanrateofenergyinputtothefluidphase(i.e.,
water).
(2) Mean rate of energy input to the mean flow
throughthesolidphase(i.e.sediment).
RgHCv
RgSCUH
(2)
(272a)
Inthissimplifiedenergybalancerelation,U mean
flowvelocity, H flowdepth, C meanvolumetric
concentrationofsuspendedsediment,R ( s
1)
submerged
(3) Meanrateofenergylossbymeanflowthrough
turbulent mixing required for maintaining
sedimentinsuspension.
Themaininputofenergytothemeanflowthroughthe
sediment phase can thus be positive or negative,
dependingonwhetherornotterm(2)isgreaterthan
term(3).Ifterm(2)islargerthan(3),itmeansthatthe
suspendedsedimentcontributesenergytotheflow.On
theotherhand,if(3)islargerthan(2)itmeansthatthe
flow is expenging energy to keep the sediment in
suspension. However for a dilute openchannel
suspension(C 1),terms(2)and(3)areverysmall
comparedtoterm(1).Thustheflowenergeticsistoa
first approximation independent of sediment
concentration.Itfollowsthatwhetherornotterm(2)is
greaterthanterm(3)hasessentiallynothingtodowith
RgSCUHRgHCvs
gs
ThisistheclassicalBagnoldcriterionforturbidity
currents(Bagnold1962).Itensuresthatthesediment
supplies more energy than it consumes. The
Bagnold criterion must be satisfied if a self
sustaining turbidity current is to occur. This is a
necessaryconditionbutisnotsufficientasdescribed
by Parker et al (1986) since the flow has to be
capable of entraining sediment into suspension to
sustainitself.
(3)foraselfsustainingturbiditycurrent,
RgSCUHRgHCvs
Thisrelationcanbereducedto
US
vs
RC
vs
IRC
(272b)
2 3
Thustheonlypositiveenergyinputintotheturbidity
currentisviaterm(2).Itfollowsthatterm(2)must
exceedterm
US
RC
(272e)
R
(i.e., b
bc).Mathematically,thisconditioncanbedefined
indimensionlessformbytherelations
*
where
*
*
c
Rf
gRDD andcanbeevaluated,forexample,with
ep
Dietrichsrelation(Eq.247).
Nordin(1985b)suggeststhatthemostpracticalway
1.11R when
(272f)
*
toapplythiscriterioninthefieldistoplotthelargest
f
c
particle size that can be suspended and the largest
particlesizethatcanbemovedatthebed,asfunctions
of the shear velocity (u*). The sediment diameter at
which the two curves intersect defines the upper
limitingsizeofthewashload,andparticlesfinerthan
dimensionlessShieldsstressparameterdefinedby
thiswouldnotbefoundinappreciablequantitiesinthe
bedbecausetheywouldgointosuspensionassoonas
Eq.(273a);
their motion is initiated. In the case of the Orinoco
River,Nordin(1985b)foundthattheupperlimitingsize
dimensionlesscriticalShieldsstressforincipient
forthewashloadis0.095mmforawatertemperature
motion(Fig.219);
of 25 C. A limiting size for the wash load in
dimensionlessformwhichimplicitlyincludestheeffect
vs
of temperature, can be found from the dimensionless
dimensionlessfallvelocity(Eq.246b)
particle Reynolds number (Rep) where the curves for
gRD
initiationofmotionandsuspensionintersect,asshown
inFig.228below.However,therelationsproposedby
whichisafunctionof
Mantz(Eq.259c)orYalinandKarahan(Eq.261a)for
incipient motion of finegrained sediment should be
usedinsteadoftheShieldscriterion(Eq.259b)which
doesnotworkforthegrainsizesfoundinthewash
load.
WhileNordinsapproachcanprovideanideaofthe
sizeoftheparticlesmakingupthewashload,because
this finegrained material is transported well below
capacity what ultimately determines how much
sedimentistransportedaswashloadisthesupplyof
finesedimenttoagivenriverfromitswatershedandnot
the transport capacity of the river itself. Watershed
sedimentyieldisaddressedinChapter17.
In what follows, the emphasis is placed on
understandingthemechanicsofbedloadandsuspended
load transport in openchannel flows, including
morphologicalchangesinrivers,lakesandreservoirs,
withthegoalofprovidingtheknowledgeneededfor
sedimentationengineering.Themechanicsoftransport
by turbidity currents is also considered, and used to
analyzedeltaformationandreservoirsedimentation.
2.5.2 ShieldsParkerRiverSedimentation
Diagram
Alluvial rivers that are free to scour and fill during
floodscanbroadlybedividedintotwotypes:sandbed
streamsand
SEDIMENT
TRANSPORT
63
HS
gRD
RD
(273a)
where
b
bedshearstress;
g gravitationalacceleration
and swaterandsedimentdensity,respectively;
R ( s
)
submerged specific gravity of the
sediment;
D meansediment
diameter;Histheflow
depth;and
Sisthestreamslopewhichforsteady,uniformflow
isthesameastheenergygradient.
ThesecondoftheseparametersistheparticleReynolds
numberRepdefinedas:
gRDD
ep
(273b)
64 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTANDMORPHODYNAMICS
Fig.228. ParkersRiverSedimentationDiagram(Garca1999).
data:a)gravelbedriversinWales,UK(Wales);
b) gravel bed rivers in Alberta, Canada
(Canada); c) gravel bed rivers in the Pacific
Northwest,USA(Pacific);d)singlethreadsand
streams (Sand sing); e) multiplethread sand
streams (Sand mult); f) large sandbed rivers
(Parana, Missouri, etc.); and g) largescale
laboratory experiments on bridgepier scour
conducted at St Anthony Falls Laboratory
(SAFL),UniversityofMinnesota.
Thecriticalconditionforsuspensionisgivenby
the ratio (Nio and Garca 1998; Lopez and
Garca2001)
u*
(274)
thecase,whetherornottheprevailingmode
of transport will be suspended load or bed
load. The diagram can also be used to
estimate what kind of bed forms can be
expected for different flow conditions and
sedimentcharacteristics.Forexample,ripples
will develop in the presence of a viscous
sublayer and finegrained sediment. If the
viscoussublayerisdisruptedbycoarsesedi
ment particles, then dunes will be the most
commontypeofbedform.
vs
Rf
(275)
where:
2
u
*
(276) gRD
denotesathresholdShieldsnumberforsuspension
and Rf is given to be Eq. (246b), and can be
computedfordifferentvaluesofRepwiththehelp
ofDietrichsfallvelocityrelationgivenbyEq.(2
47a).
11.6
u*D
(277)
SEDIMENTTRANSPORT
65
Fig.229. ShieldsParkerRiverSedimentationDiagram(afterGarca2000).
whichindimensionlessformcanbewritten
as
*
v
11.6
Rep
Inthisequation, v denotesthethresholdShields
numberbelowwhichripplescanbeexpected.
Relations(259a),(275),and(278)aretheones
plotted in Fig. 229. The ShieldsParker diagram
should be useful for studies concerning stream
restoration and naturalization (Chapter 9), for it
provides the range of dimensionless shear stresses
correspondingtobankfullflowconditionsforgravel
*
bed streams (0.01
0.2) and for sandbed
*
streams (0.6
6). Notice that the bankfull
dimensionless Shields shear stress is in general, an
orderofmagnitudelargerforsandbedstreamsthan
forgravelbedstreams.
66 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
diagramprovidesatooltoquicklydetermine potential
scale effects in movablebed
model studies by simply
plottingthevaluesof( *; Rep)formodelandprototype
*
model
ep model
prototype
ep
prototype
forbankfullflowconditions.Inmostmovable
bedmodels,FroudesimilarityisenforcedandEq.
(279a) is used to achieve sediment transport
similarity.However,sedimenttransportconditions
and the associated bed morphology in a model,
seldom precisely reproduce prototype conditions
becausethesecondconditiongivenbyEq.(279b)
is rarely satisfied. This leads to the common
practiceofusinglightweightmaterial(Table22)
toreproduceprototypeconditionsinsmallscale
models(e.g.,Shen1990).However,thisdoesnot
implythatthebedformsobservedinthemodelwill
bethesameasthoseintheprototype.Theriver
sedimentation
conditions in
(2
(2
informationonmovablebedphysicalmodels
canbefoundinAppendixC.
2.6 BedloadTransport
SincethepublicationofASCEManual54(Vanoni
1975),asignificantamountofworkhasbeendone
tounderstandthemechanicsofbedloadtransport.
Twoschoolsofthoughtcanbeclearlyidentified
andtheybearthenameoftwogiantsinthefieldof
sedimentation,BrigadierRalphAlgerBagnoldand
ProfessorHansAlbertEinstein.
Bagnold(1956)definedthebedloadtransport
as that in which the successive contacts of the
particles withthe bedare strictlylimited bythe
effect of gravity, whereas the suspended load
transport is defined as that in which the excess
weight of the particles is supported by random
successions of upward impulses imported by
turbulenteddies.Einstein(1942,1950),however,
presented a somewhat different view of the
phenomenon.Einsteindefinedbedloadtransport
asthetransportofsedimentparticlesinathinlayer
abouttwoparticlediametersthickjustabovethe
bedbysliding,rolling,andmakingjumpswitha
longitudinaldistanceofafewparticlediameters.
Thebedloadlayerisconsideredtobealayerin
whichmixingduetoturbulenceissosmallthatit
cannot directly influence the sediment particles,
andthereforesuspensionofparticlesisimpossible
in the bed load layer. Further, Einstein assumed
thattheaveragedistancetraveledbyanybedload
particle(asaseriesofsuccessivemovements)isa
constantdistanceofabout100particlediameters,
independentoftheflowcondition,transportrate,
andbedcomposition.InEinsteinsview,saltating
particles belong to the suspension mode of
transport,becausethejumpheightsandlengthsof
saltating particles are greater than a few grain
diameters. On the other hand, Bagnold (1956,
1973) regards saltation as the main mechanism
responsibleforbedloadtransport.
Mostresearchworksthatprovideamechanistic
descriptionofbedloadtransportunderuniform
equilibriumconditionshavefallenintooneorthe
other school of thought. The centerpiece of the
Einsteineanformulationisthespecificationofan
entrainmentrateofparticlesintobedloadtrans
port(pickupfunction)asafunctionofboundary
shear stress and other parameters. The work of
NakagawaandTsujimoto(1980),vanRijn(1984a)
and Tsujimoto (1991), for example, represent
formulationsofthistype.
2.6.1 BedLoadTransportAnalysis
Sedimentcanbetransportedinseveralways.A
grain will begin to move when the boundary
shearstressjustexceedsacriticalvalue.Atthe
lowest transport stages, particles move by
slidingandrollingoverthesurfaceofthebed,
but with a small increase in boundary shear
stressthesegrainswillhopupfromthebedand
follow ballistictype trajectories. This latter
mode of bed load transport is known as
saltation.Gilbert(1914)seemstohavebeenthe
firsttousethetermsaltation,derivedfomthe
Latin verb saltare, which means to leap or
dance,todescribethemotionofsandparticles
inwater.
surfacelayerofthebedmaydeformandmoveasa
grain flow or granular fluid flow (Wilson 1987,
1989). Grain flow is also known as sheet flow
(FredseandDeigaard1992;Sumeretal1996).
Collision of the moving particles with the bed
exertsbothatangentialandanormalstressonthe
bedsurface.TheworkofBagnold(1954),Hanes
andInman(1985),andJenkinsandHanes(1998)
onhighconcentration,granularshearflowshave
shownthatiftheratiooftheappliedtangentialto
normal shear stresses exceeds the critical yield
criterion,thefrictionalresistanceofthebed
BEDLOAD
TRANSPORT
67
willbeovercome,andagrainflowwillbeinitiated
in the surface layer of the bed (Fredse and
Deigaard1992). Soitisimportanttobeableto
discriminatebetweendifferentmodesofsediment
transportsothatthedomainofapplicabilityofbed
loadtransportmodelscanbedetermined(Sumeret
al1996).
Inanattempttointerpretdifferenttransportmodesfol
lowinginitiationofmotion,Wiberg(1987)usedamechanis
ticmodelofbedloadtransport(WibergandSmith1985)to
produceadiagram(Fig.230)oftransportstage(T*
b
bc) or bed shear stress ( b) versus quartz grain
diameter(D), depicting the range of conditions
overwhichsedimentmovesstrictlyasbedload
and a saltationbased model can be used to
describe the phenomenon. Conditions for the
initiationofmotion,thetransitiontosuspension
and the transition to grain flow, are also
included.
AsshowninFig.230(a),attransportstagesT*
1nosedimentmovesinauniformbedofa
given grain size. For grain sizes D 0.08 cm
(coarsesandandfiner),theconditionsforincipient
motionoccurattransportstageslowerthanthose
at which the applied stresses at the bed are
sufficient to overcome the beds frictional
resistance.ForsizesD 0.08cm,thissituationis
reversed, and the conditions for potential grain
flow(sheetflow)atthebedsurfacearereached
beforetheparticlesaresignificantlyaffectedby
the vertical turbulent velocity fluctuations that
couldentrainthegrainsintosuspension(Nioand
Garca1996).Wiberg(1987,p.94)indicatesthat
the advent of either of these processes does not
precludethepossibilityoftheother,butchangesin
the bed load dynamics produced by these
processes are certain to influence the transport
stage at which the other could occur. This is
supported by the observations made by Wilson
(2005),whichshowthatwhentheratiobetween
the shear velocity (u*) and the sediment fall
velocity(vs)increasesoveracriticalvalue(u* vs
6.5), arapid increasein bothflow resistance
and sediment entrainment into suspension is
observed.
For all sediment sizes, Fig. 230(a) suggests
thatatransportstageofabout20isanupperlimit
forsaltationbasedbedloadtransport.Asaltation
model might still provide reasonable transport
predictions for incipient grainflow conditions
beyondthislimit,butthephysicsofthephenom
enon becomes more complicated as graingrain
interactionbecomesmoreintense(e.g.,Kobayashi
andSeung1985).
Fig.230(b)presentsthesameresultsasshownin
Fig. 230(a), but in terms of dimensional boundary
shearstress, b (dy cm2),togiveabettersenseof
when the transition to these transport modes are
actually likely to occur. For sediment sizes D
0.018cm(finesandandfiner)atinitialmotion,the
moving particles go directly into suspension fol
lowingintiationofmotion.Thecorrespondingcritical
shearstress b 2dy cm2,isquitelow,andmaterial
of these sizes is frequently mobilized, provided
cohesiveeffectsarenotlarge(seeChapter4).Fineto
coarsesand(D 0.0180.08cm)movesinitiallyas
bedload,withparticlesstartingtogointosuspension
athighershearsstresses.Forexample,medium
68 SEDIMENTTRANSPORTAND
MORPHODYNAMICS
largesandbedriversorinhighgradientmountain
streams. Thus for the grain sizes commonly
encountered, suspendedload transport is an
important mode of transport for fine sediment,
whereas highconcentration grain flows are
probably relatively uncommon except in a few
specific environments. For a large range of
sedimentsizesinthemediumtocoarsesandrange
andabove,ifthesedimentismovingatall,itis
certainlymovingasbedload.
2.6.2 BedLoadTransportDefinition
Bedloadparticlesroll,slide,orsaltatealongthebed.The
transportthusistangentialtothebed.Whenallofthe
transportisdirectedinthestreamwise,orsdirection,the
volume bed load transport rate per unit width (n
direction) is given by qb; the units are
3
2
length /length/time,orlength /time.Ingeneral, qb isa
function of boundary shear stress b and other
sedimentparameters;thatis,
qbqbb,otherparameters
(2
qu c
b b
bb
(2
inwhichq
b isthevolumetricbedloadtransportrate
(m2 s),cbisthevolumetricsedimentconcentration
(i.e.volumeofsediment/volumeofwatersediment
mixture),ubisparticlevelocity(m s),andbisthe
thicknessofthebedloadlayer(m).Bagnoldeanbed
load transport models use this definition of the
bedload transport rate (Ashida and Michiue 1972;
EngelundandFredse1976;VanRijn1984a;Wiberg
andSmith1987;SekineandKikkawa1992;Nioand
Garca 1994; Lee and Hsu 1994; Nio and Garca
1998;Leeetal.,2000).
Fig. 230. Tentative ranges of conditions over which
sediment moves strictly as bed load. (a) Initiation of
motion,thetransitiontosuspensionandthetransitionto
grain flow plotted in terms of transport stage versus
grain size. (b) The same curves plotted in terms of
dimensional boundary shear stress (in dy/cm 2), versus
gransize.Theverticallinemarkstheparticlesizeatthe
intersection of the incipient suspension and incipient
grainflowcurves, D 0.08cm(adaptedfromWiberg
1987).
2
Inveryenergeticenvironments,suchasthesurf
zoneincoastalareasorduringlargeriverfloods,it
mayalsobepossibleforagrainflow(sheetflow)
todevelop(Wilson1987,1989;Sumeretal1996).
Forcoarsesandandgravel(D 0.086cm),a
relativelylargeboundaryshearstressisrequired
justtoinitiatethemotionofthesediment.For
example,forD 0.5cm(finegravel),thecritical
shearstressis bc 45dy cm2)andagrainflow
ispossibleatashearstress b 550dy cm2;
theseconditionsareonlylikelytooccurinvery
Thebedloadtransportratecanalsobedefined
astheproductofthenumberofmovingparticles
perunitarea,theparticlevolumeandtheparticle
velocity(Garca2000),
qbNbVbub
(2
inwhichNbisthenumberofparticlesperunitbedarea
2
3
(m ), Vb is the particle volume (m ), and ub is the
particle velocity (m s). If the particle velocity is
definedastheratioofthesaltationorsteplength and
the saltationormovementperiod T (i.e.ub
T),
then
qbNbVbTEpDp
Theideaofapickuprateandasteplength
wasfirstproposedbyEinstein(1942;1950)and
constitutes the basis of Einsteinian bedload
(2
vE
s
BEDLOAD
TRANSPORT
69
andParker1991;Nioetal.2003).Erosioninto
suspensioncanbetakentobedirectedupward
normal,i.e.,intheposi
tivezdirection.
_
Letudenotethemeanflowvelocity(ms)atapoint
Beforeconsideringbedloadtransportrelations
in more detail, it is useful to formulate the
interaction between bed sediment and the
watercolumnthrougherosionanddeposition,
sothatthesedimentmassconservationcanbe
formulated. Consider the definition diagram
for a sedimentladen, uniform, openchannel
flowshowninFig.231.Thevolumerateof
erosion of bed material into suspension per
unittimeperunitbedareaisdenotedas
Er.
3
2
The units of Er are length / length /time, or
velocity. A dimensionless sediment entrain
mentrate Es canthusbedefinedintermsof
thesedimentfallvelocityvs:
Next Page
qS
u cdz
(2
Letsdenotethestreamwisedirectionandndenote
the lateraldirection ina twodimensionalcase;then
twocomponents,qSsandqSnresult,where
H
(28
u cdz
Ss
0
Ingeneral, Es canbeexpectedtobeafunctionof
boundary shear stress b and sediment related
parameters(Garca
(28
v cdz
Sn
wherevisthemeanlateral(ndirection)velocity
atadistancezabovethebed.
Depositionontothebedisbymeansof
settling.Therate
atwhichmaterialisfluxedverticallydownwardontothebed
_
(volume/area/time)isgivenbyvc
,wherec
sb
valueofthevolumetricsediment
concentration
authors assume that the value of the nearbed
concentration is the same as the sediment
concentration in the bed load layer defined
previously (Einstein1950; Engelundand Fredse
1976;ZysermanandFredse1994).Thedeposition
rateDrrealizedatthebedisobtainedbycomputing
thecomponentofthisfluxthatisactuallydirected
normaltothebedas
D
r
v c
sb
whichgivesthevolumeofsedimentdeposited
perunitbedareaperunittime(Garca2001).
Fig. 231. Definition diagram for sedimentladen
openchannelflow.
Nowitispossibletoformulatethesedimentmass
conservationforbedmaterialtakingintoaccountboth
bedloadtransportandsedimenterosionintoandfrom
suspension.Consideraportionofriverbottom(Fig.2
32),wherethebedmaterialistakentohaveaconstant
porosity p. Mass balance of sediment requires
thatthefollowingequationbesatisfied:
massofbedmaterial netmass
bedloadinflowrate
t
netmassrateofdepositionfrom
suspension
Adatumofconstantelevationislocatedwell
belowthebedlevel,andtheelevationofthebed
withrespectto
isanear
_
c.So
(2