Accepted Manuscript

Effects on learning of multimedia animation combined with multidimensional concept

maps
Chei-Chang Chiou, Li-Chu Tien, Li-Tze Lee
PII:

S0360-1315(14)00202-4

DOI:

10.1016/j.compedu.2014.09.002

Reference:

CAE 2698

To appear in:

Computers & Education

Received Date: 21 April 2014

Revised Date:

9 September 2014

Accepted Date: 9 September 2014

Please cite this article as: Chiou C.-C., Tien L.-C. & Lee L.-T., Effects on learning of multimedia
animation combined with multidimensional concept maps, Computers & Education (2014), doi: 10.1016/
j.compedu.2014.09.002.
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Running Head: multimedia animation and multidimensional concept maps

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Effects on learning of multimedia animation combined with multidimensional concept

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maps

Chei-Chang Chiou1, Li-Chu Tien2*, Li-Tze Lee2

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1 Department of Accounting, National Changhua University of Education

No.2, Shi-Da Road, Changhua 500, Taiwan, R.O.C.

ccchiou@cc.ncue.edu.tw

2 Department of Hospitality Management, MingDao University

369, Wen-Hua Road, Peetow, Changhua 52345, Taiwan, R.O.C.

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m9316621@yahoo.com.tw

2 Department of Accounting Information, Overseas Chinese University

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No. 100, Chiao Kwang Road, Taichung 407, Taiwan, R.O.C.

leelitze@ocu.edu.tw

Abstract

This study investigates whether teaching materials combining multimedia animation and
multidimensional concept maps (MAMCMs) improve learning achievement, retention, and
satisfaction more than multidimensional concept maps (MCMs), as suggested by Huang et al.
(2012) in Computers & Education. Learning retention, learning achievement, and learning

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satisfaction associated with two sets of course materials were compared in this
quasi-experimental study. In total, 114 students from two classes at one private university in

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Taiwan participated in this 6-week teaching experiment. Analytical results indicate that
learning achievement, learning satisfaction, and learning retention of the MAMCM group
were better than those of the MCM group. Pedagogical implications and suggestions are

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given.

Keywords: computer-mediated communication; improving classroom teaching;

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multimedia/hypermedia systems; teaching/learning strategies

Corresponding concerning this article should be addressed to Li-Chu Tien, Department of Hospitality Management, MingDao University,

No. 369, Wen-Hua Road, Peetow, Changhua 52345, Taiwan, R.O.C. E-Mail: m9316621@yahoo.com.tw Tel: +886 -4-887 -6660 ext. 7833

Multimedia animation and multidimensional concept maps

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Abstract

This study investigates whether teaching materials combining multimedia animation

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and multidimensional concept maps (MAMCMs) improve learning achievement,

retention, and satisfaction more than multidimensional concept maps (MCMs), as

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suggested by Huang et al. (2012) in Computers & Education. Learning retention,

learning achievement, and learning satisfaction associated with two sets of course

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materials were compared in this quasi-experimental study. In total, 114 students from
two classes at one private university in Taiwan participated in this 6-week teaching
experiment. Analytical results indicate that learning achievement, learning satisfaction,

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and learning retention of the MAMCM group were better than those of the MCM

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group. Pedagogical implications and suggestions are given.

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Keywords: computer-mediated communication; improving classroom teaching;

multimedia/hypermedia systems; teaching/learning strategies

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Effects on learning of multimedia animation combined with multidimensional

concept maps

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1. Introduction

Multimedia materials are preferred by many teachers in current learning

environments (Sankey, 2003). Multimedia animation can contain words, pictures,

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sounds, images, and moving pictures. Previous studies indicated that animation

improves a learners ability to remember facts and information processing (Holzinger,

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Kickmeier-Rust, & Albert, 2008; Schar & Zimmermann, 2007). According to Mayer
(2001), the Segmenting Principle and Coherence Principle in multimedia
instructional design can model the structure of an entire chapter and the relationships
among chapters. With sound, action, and images, animation can elucidate complex

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abstract concepts for learners. Additionally, studies have shown that multimedia
animation as a teaching tool can help learners understand complex concepts, identify
misconceptions, and positively impacts learners motivation, satisfaction, learning

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achievement, and information processing (Dalacosta, Kamariotaki-Paparrigopoulou,

Palyvos, & Spyrellis, 2009; Holzinger et al., 2008; Leung & Pilgrim, 1995; Mayer &

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Moreno, 1998; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller,
1997). Hence, animation is an appropriate teaching material. However, good teaching
materials should be effective and suited to a students cognitive level (Holzinger et al.,
2008).

Based on Ausubels (1968) cognitive learning assimilation theory, Novak and

Gowin (1984) advocated using concept maps for teaching, learning, and constructing
teaching materials (Huang et al., 2012). Early studies confirmed that applying concept

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maps for teaching materials positively impact motivation, satisfaction, and learning
outcomes for learners (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002; Fesmire, Lisner, Forest, & Evans,
2003; Gilbert & Greene, 2001; Simone, Schmid, & McEwen, 2001). Huang et al.
(2012) developed the multidimensional concept map (MCM) based on Millers (1956)

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theory of short-term memory and working memory. This MCM overcomes the

shortcomings of the traditional complex Novak concept map (NCM) (Adesope &

Nesbit, 2013; Amadieu, van Gog, Paas, Tricot, & Marin, 2009) and outperformed the

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NCM and traditional textbook instruction in terms of learning achievement and

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satisfaction.

However, according to information processing theory, MCM digital teaching

materials (Huang et al., 2012) have one shortcoming; that is, an MCM only uses the
visual system, which may cause cognitive overload for learners (Deimann & Keller,

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2006). This study overcomes this problem and design learning materials that combine
multimedia animation and a multidimensional concept map (MAMCM) based on
dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1986) and cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer,

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2001). Two information processing systems exist: the auditory system and visual
system. These systems comprise the dual-coding memory model (Schnotz & Bannert,

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2003). No study has used dual-coding theory to assess the impact of multimedia
animation combined with concept maps on learning. Therefore, based on dual-coding
theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning, this study is the first to
investigate whether learning achievement and learning retention are improved more
by MAMCMs than by MCMs.

Tough (1978) noted that learning satisfaction is a perception learners of

comprised of satisfied, happy, or positive feelings in contrast to unsatisfactory,

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unhappy and negative feelings. Biehler and Snowman (1990) asserted that linking
new concepts with daily events will harness learners attention and interest. The
MAMCM materials in this study contain images of real life, fashion, music,
advertising, and popular images are simple and easily understandable (Anderson,

satisfaction is better with MAMCMs than with MCMs.

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1987). Therefore, the second purpose of this study is to investigate whether learning

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In short, two research purposes of this paper are to examine:

retention than MCMs; and

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1. whether MAMCMs improves more students learning achievement and learning

2. whether MAMCMs gets better students learning satisfaction than MCMs.

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2. Review of literature

In 1984, Novak and Gowin proposed a concept map based on Ausubels (1968)

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cognitive learning assimilation theory (Novak & Gowin, 1984). In this theory, a

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concept map is composed of propositions and is a graphical representation in two

dimensions that uses words linking two concept nodes to facilitate meaningful
learning (Beyerbach, 1998; Chiou, 2008, 2009). Meaningful learning is active,
in-depth, or constructive; that is, learners adopt actively new concepts by linking or
associating them with concepts in their cognitive structures. Knowledge is updated
and individualized cognitive structures are existing expanded after such learning

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(Ausebel 1968; Novak & Gowin, 1984). Concept maps, therefore, can promote deep
learning.

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In fact, previous researches have demonstrated that concept mapping can

improve student learning. For instance, concept mapping can facilitate meaningful

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learning (Malone & Dekkers, 1984), enhance the abilities of students to solve

problems and web-based problem-solving performance (Hwang, Kuo, Chen, & Ho,

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2014; Novak, Gowin, & Johanson, 1983; Trowbridge & Wandersee, 1996), decrease
student learning anxiety (Jegede, Alaiyemola, & Okebukola, 1990), improve reading
comprehension and writing ability (Liu, 2011; Liu, Chen, & Chang, 2010), and

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improve memory and learning effectiveness (Chiou, 2008, 2009; Cliburn, 1990;
Huang et al., 2012). Researchers also have developed or used computer-assisted

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concept mapping systems, such as Inspiration, and showed that computer-assisted

concept mapping can help students construct and revise concept maps, improve the

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quality of teacher and student interactions, and enhance student learning achievement
(Anderson-Inman & Horney, 1996; Chang et al., 2001; Chu, Hwang, & Liang, 2014;
Hwang, et al., 2014; Hwang, Yang, & Wang, 2013; Liu, 2011; Liu et al., 2010; Yang,
et al., 2013).

Furthermore, previous researchers proved that Internet-based teaching materials

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constructed using a concept map can help students construct overall knowledge and
improve learning achievement (Chang, Sung, & Chiou, 2002; Huang et al., 2012),

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because thinking and memory are neural network functions. Also, a hierarchical
concept map links horizontal and vertical concepts in courses for integration,

classification, and sorting through linking words to express relationships among

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concepts, allowing students to learn through relationships by understanding how new

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knowledge and existing meaningful structures fit. A graphic presentation can be used
to integrate curriculum knowledge and help students construct their personal
knowledge (Chiou, 2008, 2009). Therefore, the concept map is ideally suited for

3. Learning design

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constructing teaching materials.

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3.1. Mayers cognitive theory for multimedia learning

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Paivios (1986) dual-coding theory asserted people receive cognitive information

visually and auditorily. When information is coded into language and non-language
forms or visual and auditory forms, it can help individuals store information in
long-term memory (Kulhavy, Stock, & Kealy, 1993). In 2001, Mayer argued that
animation and auditory materials can improve learning effectiveness, and he proposed
the cognitive theory of multimedia learning by integrating information processing

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theory (Keefe & Jenkins, 1997), dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1986), a model of
working memory (Baddeley, 1992), and Mayers (1997) generative theory of

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multimedia learning (Mayer, 2003; Mayer & Moreno, 2002, 2003).

Short-term memory is concerned with such information-related activities as daily

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conversations, pictures, animation, and videos. As long as a learners awareness is

aroused, sensory memory can transfer information into short-term memory or

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long-term memory. When designing teaching materials, one must consider both
long-term and short-term memory capacities and time constraints. Short-term memory
encodes information based on audio and semantic codes. Once information attracts

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learners interest in visual stimulation, sounds, smells, or stimulation acquired by the

other sensory organs, this information is stored in short-term memory. Biehler and

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Snowman (1990) asserted that new information should be connected with daily events
to retain the interest of learners. Thus, this study designs accounting materials using

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multimedia animation and concept maps that incorporate learners life experiences to
attract their interest and attention. By integrating prior knowledge and new knowledge,
meaningful learning can be facilitated (Ausebel, 1968). For instance, Merchandising
companies is a general concept. Expenses and cost of goods sold follow this
concept in a hierarchical order, such that these three concepts become a hierarchy
whose structure can benefit meaningful learning (Novak, Gowin, & Johansen, 1983)

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(see Fig. 1). Additionally, since 7-11 is a merchandising company, advisement music
for 7-11 is used to first attract the attention of learners and daily life images

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and animation features are then used in the map for expositive teaching to increase the
interest and attention of learners and enhance their internalization of information.
According to Holzinger et al. (2008) and Thompson and McGill (2008), teaching

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materials that incorporate visual (images and animation) and audio (sound)

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information are superior to visual (text and picture) materials alone because it
simultaneously stimulates two sensory systems.

3.2. Mayers theory in designing teaching materials

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3.2.1. Two teaching materials

The MAMCM teaching material was designed based on Mayers cognitive

model of multimedia learning. Contents were from the Merchandising and

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Inventory units. This teaching material consisted of 86 image files (visual language
system) (Fig. 2) and 35 audio files (non-language sound system) (Fig. 3). Five colors

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(light yellow, light green, light blue, pink, and red) were used to classify the accounts
expenses, revenue, cost of goods sold, operating expenses, and non-operating
expenses. Terminology in the accounting concept maps is marked with a cubic text
block. Block size is 2.65 6.8 cm and 3.8 6 cm, font size is 28 pt, and each picture
is a concept map. Additionally, another feature of the MAMCMs is it was designed
for deep and broad learning, which was discussed by Huang et al. (2012) (see Huang
et al., 2012, pp. 864865).

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The MCM refers to the design style by Huang et al. (2012), but does not include
multimedia animation. The two digital teaching materials were checked by six experts
to obtain consensus and assess content validity. The six experts were two accounting

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teachers, two animation experts, and two curriculum specialists.

3.2.2. The MAMCMs achieves deep and broad learning effectiveness

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When instructors teach Merchandising in an entire concept map without

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multimedia animation, students may become confused. Thus, to reduce the risk of
cognitive overload and disorientation, Mayers cognitive theory of multimedia
learning and Paivios dual-coding theory were used to design the teaching material.
For instance, Fig. 4 shows a basic unit. The top-level concept for Expenses is

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presented as a picture of cash outflow with the sound of a cash register. The
second-level concept for Operating Expenses is presented as pictures of water and

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electricity receipts with the sound of bombs exploding, likening utilities payment to

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bombs exploding. The concept for Non-operating Expenses refers to expenses or

losses that are outside the regular course of business. A picture of a stock market price
and sound of games for buying stocks are presented as the concept of investment loss.

These animations help learners memorize course content. Additionally, learning

from animated concept maps with daily experiences can help students connect two
relevant concepts with words to attain meaningful learning. For instance, the word

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includes links Expense and Cost of Goods Sold, and the word contents link
low-level concepts such as Selling Expenses and Administration Expenses.

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Further, Cost of Goods Sold, Operating Expenses and Non-operating Expenses

are closed at year end in three statements: Income Statements, Retained Earnings
Statements and Statements of Financial Position, sequentially (Fig. 5 for the

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advanced units). The hyperlink between three statements can help students acquire a

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deep and broad understanding of closing entries (Figs. 68) (Huang et al., 2012).

Anderson (1987) recommended that teaching materials should be in an easy and

clear format instead of a difficult and complex format. The use of daily life pictures

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and sound benefits accounting content and enhances long-term recall of learned
material (Holzinger et al., 2008). The Experimental class was taught using multimedia

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animation with multidimensional concept maps hyperlink language for vertical and
horizontal connections in accounting teaching materials, while the control class was

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taught using a MCM without animation, sounds, colors, and images (Figs. 9 and 10).

4. Research design

4.1. Information processing theory

The design of MAMCMs in this study is based on information processing theory

from cognitive learning theory, which models how learners absorb, apply, and store

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knowledge through feelings, attention, conversion, memory, and other internal

functions (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). The information processing sequence in the

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human brain moves from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to
long-term memory. Sensory memory exists when an individual receives visual, audio,
taste, smell, and touch stimulation and the sensory organs then store this information.

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According to Sperling (1960), when a message is not retained for more than 1 second,

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memory loss will occur. Averbach and Coriell (1961) indicated that an image stays in
sensory memory for only 0.25 sec, while an audio message is generally retained for 5
sec (Anderson, 1990). As learners receive a stimulus, they can pay attention to it and
code it into another perception, related it to a previous perception, or ignore it;

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however, no stimulus causes messages to be forgotten (Zheng, 1997).

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Short-term memory refers to memories that last for 2030 seconds when motive,
need, or experience is triggered by information sensory receptors. According to Gange

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(1985), although humans can retain 1530 concepts every minute, only half are
transferred to short-term memory. Since time constraints exist for retaining
information in short-term memory, without instant processing, information begins to
fade within 20 sec during the moving process from sensory stimuli to cognitive
awareness (Peterson & Peterson, 1959). Miller (1956) showed that most peoples
short-term memory can only store 7 2 units. Therefore, by expanding working

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memory or linking information with meaningful events, the time restriction and
capacity limits can be improved.

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Long-term memory is generally permanent memory. For instance, an elderly

person may be able to recall clearly details about their school and loves from over 20

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years ago. Long-term memory without a capacity or time limit can store massive
amounts of information as long as data are classified, integrated, and retained

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systematically and coded for retrieval. Long-term memory, sensory memory, and
short-term memory code information differently. Semantic coding and visual coding
are preferred by long-term memory. Semantic coding is preferred in language learning,

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while visual coding is prioritized for non-language learning. These two coding types
are complementary for learning (Chang, 2003).

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The MAMCM material for teaching in this study is based on information

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processing theory, visual and auditory dual-coding theory, and the concept map
construction method (see Huang et al., 2012), which considers Millers (1956)
short-term memory capacity limit, and limits the number of concepts in each digital
teaching material in Millers request scope. Therefore, this material can enhance
short-term and long-term memory of students.

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4.2. Method
4.2.1. Experimental design and participants

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This is a nonequivalent quasi-experimental study. Subjects were 114 students in

two freshmen classes (56 in the experimental group and 58 in the control group) at
one private university in Taiwan. The experimental group was 30 females and 26

males (54% female), and the average age was 18 years. While the control group was

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34 female and 24 males (59% female), and the average age was 18 years.

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All students participated in a 6-week teaching experiment. Independent variables

are the two classes. Dependent variables are learning achievement, learning
satisfaction, and learning retention.

Before this study, neither class had learned about concept maps, such that they

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had same knowledge level. A pretest implemented before experiment. The

experimental class used MAMCM teach materials, while the control class used

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MCMs. After the teaching period, each class took the same post-test, and after four
weeks they took the second post-test to long-term retention.

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To minimize interference variables, such as test, incident, maturity, measurement

tool, loss of subject, choice difference, or different classroom, this study used the
same instructor, teaching hours, textbook, content of the course, test instrument, and
requirements for taking this course (Borg & Gall, 1989; Campbell, & Stanley, 1963).
To eliminate the problem of interference, the pretest was a covariate, while class was
the independent variable and post-test was a dependent variable. Thus, one-way
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was applied (Fig. 11).

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4.2.2. Context of the study

The experimental course is Financial Accounting because it is a required course

for the two participating freshmen classes. Learning objectives of this course include

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definition and relationship among different accounting concepts, accounting recording

process, financial statement preparation, and application to practical business
situations.

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To construct correctly a financial statement, a thorough understanding of the

relationships between different accounting concepts is essential. The correctness of

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financial statements and understanding among different accounting concepts are

essential objectives. From this viewpoint, researchers (Chiou, 2008; Leauby &
Brazina, 1998) proposed concept map logic which can build links and cross-links

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between accounting concepts and relationships.

In addition, financial statements are hierarchical structured. Balance Sheet is a

general concept which contains total assets, and total assets contains current assets

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while cash as the specific unit under current assets. This hierarchical structure can
also be found in the hierarchical concept map (Chiou, 2008; Leauby & Brazina, 1998).

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Therefore, concept maps in accounting should provide considerable assistance to

students in terms of learning the logic and relationship germane to financial
statements.

The MAMCM digital teaching material, which includes multidimensional

concept maps and multimedia animation, was used to teach students in the
experimental group. While the control class was taught using a MCM without
multimedia animation.

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4.2.3. Research instrument

4.2.3.1. Learning achievement tests

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The pre-test had 25 multiple-choice questions on journalizing, posting, trial

balance, and adjusting from first three chapters while the post-test had 25

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multiple-choice questions on merchandising and inventory from four and five

chapters. Before the pilot test, questions were examined using a two-way specification

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table with sections for knowledge, comprehension, application, and analysis. The pilot
test was administered to 65 freshmen at one national university in central Taiwan.
According to American assessment scholar Ebel, distinction criteria for question

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difficulty should be 0.200.80 (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991). According to this standard, 20
questions worth 5 points each for a total of 100 points were selected for the pretest

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and post-test. Kuder-Richardson reliability for the pretest and post-test, were 0.69 and

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0.70, respectively.

4.2.3.2. Learning satisfaction scale

Learning satisfaction was assessed for the experimental group (MAMCMs) and

control group (MCMs). The learning satisfaction scales for these two groups included
three factors and was designed based on the computer user satisfaction scale by Doll
and Torkzadeh (1988). Three major factors in this learning satisfaction scales

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contained: teaching material content, knowledge characterization, and individual

differences. For instance, one question stated that I feel this material helps me learn

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and understand the fundamental accounting concepts. Cronbachs alpha for the three
factors was 0.83, 0.86 and 0.82, and overall scale value was 0.93 for the experimental
group. The cumulative explained variance was 67.93% for the 13-item scale. For the

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control group, Cronbachs alpha for the three factors was 0.90, 0.88 and 0.84, and that

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of overall scale was 0.82. The cumulative explained variance was 70.13% for the
13-item scale. A 5-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (+1) to
strongly agree (+5), was used by this learning satisfaction questionnaire. Therefore,
the maximum score was 65. As a learners score increased, his/her satisfaction

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increased and vice versa.

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4.2.4. Experimental teaching procedure

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The teaching experiment was divided into four steps. The first step was
preparation and lecturing with traditional digital teaching materials on journaling,
posting, trial balance, and adjusting. Second, students were administrated a pretest to
assess the extent of their knowledge. Third, two topics, Merchandising and Inventory,
were divided into 12 units and taught using MAMCMs and MCMs for the
experimental and control classes, respectively. This was a seven-week-long formal

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teaching experiment with three hours per week. Learning achievement and learning
satisfaction were evaluated during week seven. Four weeks after the learning

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achievement posttest, a learning retention test was administered to assess retention of

course contentmemory. Table 1 shows the experimental procedure.

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5. Results

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5.1. The learning achievement of the MAMCM class exceeds that of the MCM class

Financial Accounting is a hard subject to study. For example, in Taiwan, the

passing score for National Certified Public Accountant Test is 60. In this sense,

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average score over 60 is very good performance. Average scores for the experimental
and control classes on the pretest were 64.64 and 65.36, respectively; the average

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score for experimental class was 0.72 lower than that of the control class. In addition,
average post-test scores for experimental and control classes were 64.10 and 52.60,

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respectively; the average score for the experimental class was 11.5 higher than that of
the control class (Table 2).

As pretests scores were not the same for both classes, analytical results may be

impacted. Therefore, in this study, pretest score is a covariance, posttest score is a

dependent variable and class is an independent variable. The ANCOVA analysis was
applied to exclude interference of pretest scores and account for real differences in

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posttest scores between the two classes. The ANCOVA analysis can be applied since
the homogeneity test of regression coefficients was examined and no significant

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difference (F = 1.88, p = 0.174) was found (Table 3).

After controlling for the interference of covariates, posttest scores of the

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experimental class and control class differed significantly (F = 5.2, p < .05). This
analytical result indicates that after excluding the influence of pretest scores, the

were more effective than MCMs.

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experimental class outperformed the control class. That is, MAMCMs for instruction

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5.2. Learning satisfaction of the MAMCM class was better than that of the MCM class

To test for differences in learning expectations, the MAMCM learning

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satisfaction scale and the MCM learning satisfaction scale were applied. Each
question in each instrument was scored 15; as total score increased, a students

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satisfaction increased. Total teaching materials satisfaction score in the experimental

group was 47.5 and average score was 3.66 after divided by 13 questions. The average
score implied that students satisfaction level in the MAMCM group was near agree.
Thus, students in average were satisfied with MAMCM teaching material. However,
total teaching materials satisfaction score in the control group was 44.14 and average
score was 3.19 after divided by 13 questions. The average score implied that students

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satisfaction level in the MCM group was near no opinion. In other words, students
in the control group did not very satisfy with MCM teaching materials.

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Additionally, a significant difference (t = 3.04, p < .05) existed in the

independent sample t-test (see Table 4), meaning that learning satisfaction differed

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between the two classes. The learning satisfaction score of the experimental class was
higher than that of control class by 3.36, and average scores for both the experimental

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and control groups were 47.50 and 44.14, respectively. Hence, learning satisfaction in
the MAMCM class was better than that of the MCM class.

5.3. Course content retention by the MAMCM group was significantly better than that

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of the control group

Researchers who conducted this study wanted to determine whether retention of

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course content by the MAMCM class was better than that of the MCM class. Thus,

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post-test was applied four weeks after the experiment end. In MAMCM group, the
average scores for post-test and content retention were 64.1 and 62.32, respectively. It
implied that learning retention decline by 1.78 points. On the other hand, in MCM
group, the average scores for post-test and content retention each were found 52.6 and
46.38, respectively. The learning retention scores dropped by 6.22 and implied a great
memory loss.

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No significant difference was found for test of homogeneity for regression

coefficients (F= .20, p = .66), indicating that the homogeneity for regression

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coefficients was not violated and covariance analysis can be performed. After
controlling for the interference of the pretest, a significant difference existed in

post-test scores between the two classes (F = 71.78, p < .05) (see Table 5), indicating

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that long-term retention of learning by experimental class was better than that of the

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control class. Therefore, experimental results demonstrate that students taught with
MAMCMs had better learning retention than those taught with MCMs.

6. Discussion

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6.1. The MAMCMs can better improve learning achievement than MCMs

This study found that the MAMCMs can improve learning achievement more
than MCMs. The MAMCMs are hierarchical knowledge structures with hyperlinks

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which link nodes of complex relevant concepts. Therefore, they can help students

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understand the interrelationships between complex accounting concepts and the

structure of the entire textbook (Huang et al., 2012; Liu, 2011). Specifically, the
MAMCMs, using multimedia animation and concept maps with the daily life
experiences of learners, can transfer abstract accounting concepts to concrete real-life
information (Morrison & Reeve, 1988). The MAMCMs, therefore, can attract the
attention of students and improve their learning interest, motivation, and achievement
(Dalacosta et al., 2009; Holzinger et al., 2008). Moreover, the MAMCMs can help
students overcome low learning motivation resulting from complex concepts in

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traditional concept maps and low learning outcomes resulting from limited
information processing abilities (Charsky & Ressler, 2011; Huang et al., 2012;
Thompson & McGill, 2008).

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Additionally, another benefit of MAMCMs is that the same accounting content

can be presented using two different systems that multimedia animation and concept
maps are combined. According to Paivio (1986), dual-coding theory posits two

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distinct information processing systems: auditory and visual. When presenting a

concept, using these two systems simultaneously is better than only one (Paivio,

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1971). Concept maps with an integrated structure and systematic attributes can
improve learning effectiveness by helping students build knowledge frameworks and
understand complex connections among major and minor concepts. However, text and
images, with belong to the visual system, can cause information and cognitive

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overload while ignoring the auditory system (Paivio, 1971). According to Tversky,
Morrison, and Betrancourt (2002), animated images provide knowledge in detail,
display characteristics of an event of context, trigger motivation, and help clarify

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misconceptions. The MAMCM content was designed based on dual-coding theory. In

digital material, concept maps with multimedia animation was presented on the same

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screen to access the two different processing channels. Thompson and McGill (2008)
noted that teaching materials with both auditory and visual aspects can decrease
information loading and then increase learning achievement.

Furthermore, Park (1998) and Schar and Zimmermann (2007) suggested that
good teaching materials should have the following attributes: a) attract the attention of
learners; b) help memory encoding and retrieval; c) linking concepts effectively both
in depth and width; d) be meaningful and structured; and e) explain complex concepts

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or phenomena. According to arousal theory, an increase in arousal by adding, say,

entertaining sounds can increase learner attention, such that the amount of material
processed by a learner increases, likely improving learning performance (Renninger,
Hidi, & Krapp, 1992; Weiner, 1990). The MAMCMs, which address the auditory and

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visual systems, can attract the attention of learners, help their memory encoding and
retrieval, and help them memorize and understand complex concepts or phenomena
(Dalacosta et al., 2009; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995).

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Therefore, experimental results in this study suggest that MAMCMs attract the

attention of learners and improve their learning achievement. Thus, the MAMCMs

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can results in better learning outcomes than MCMs.

6.2. MAMCMs generate higher learning satisfaction than MCMs

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Experimental results also show that students have higher learning satisfaction
when taught with MAMCMs than when taught with MCMs. Learners typically prefer

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teaching materials that are related to daily life. Such material that also stimulates the
auditory and visual sensory organs of learners and attracts their attention can improve

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their interest in learning and satisfaction. Biehler and Snowman (1990) argued that
new concepts should be connected to daily events to attract the attention and interest
of learners. In this study, MAMCMs based on life experiences and content knowledge
were designed using pictures, fashion, music, advertising, and popular images. When
connected to real life, teaching materials can be easily understood and enhance the
learning interests of students (Anderson, 1987).

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According to literature, learners are more attentive to colorful images and

animation than black and white materials (Adesope & Nesbit, 2013; Holzinger et al.,

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2008; Nesbit & Adesope, 2011; Pett & Wilson, 1996; Schwier et al., 2000). Learning
satisfaction is a feeling. One can determine whether the learning needs of students are
met and learning goals are achieved by examining the gap between expectations and

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outcomes. When the gap between expectations and outcomes is small, the learning

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satisfaction of students is high. With increased motivation, students can continue

learning and find satisfaction and interest. The MAMCMs in this study attracted the
attention and interest of students by compiling materials with daily life experiences
and creating content using colorful pictures, fashion, music, advertisements, and

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than MCMs.

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popular images. The MAMCMs, therefore, can improve learning satisfaction better

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6.3. MAMCMs generate better retention in long-term memory than MCMs

The MAMCM content helped learners transfer and generalize knowledge and

improved long-term memory. Generalization theory from transfer of learning was

proposed by Judd in 1908. According to this theory, knowledge or skills learned in
stage A can be transferred to stage B once a reaction is triggered by a stimulus. The
expansion phenomenon of learning is called transfer of learning while the previous

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learning effect will impact new learning (Judd, 1908). Transfer of learning occurs
when interaction exists among existing knowledge, skills, methods, attitudes, and new

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knowledge or new skills (Fu, Man, Leung, & Tan, 2006). Transfer of learning is often
regarded as the ultimate educational goal; that is, learners apply knowledge to a new
context to reach a high degree of achievement. According to Huang (1998) and

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Bransford et al. (2004), learning by understanding and connecting content to real life

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experiences facilitates transfer of learning performance. For instance, transfer of

learning occurs when external stimuli and cognitive structures are very similar. Once
learners can transfer and generalize their learning, their knowledge and skills can be
retained in long-term memory and their abilities and learning achievement improve

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(Westling & Fox, 2000). In this study, the MAMCM materials, which contained
real-life images and animation, were vivid and linked to real experiences, helping

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learners transfer to and categorize knowledge in long-term memory.

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Additionally, when learning, students should be equipped with knowledge of

their intrinsic cognitive level and external stimuli and interact with external
environments. Learners receive stimulation through their sensory receptors. Attention
is processed in short-term memory and knowledge stored in long-term memory can be
transferred to encoding memory for later retrieval (Chou, 2011). How retrieve
information from long-term memory and apply this information to produce more

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memory retention is an important issue. According to Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and

Winzenz (1969), people can recall 19% of their random and disorganized memories,

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but 65% from hierarchical storage. Long-term memory without capacity or time limits
can store massive amounts of information systematically. However, data are classified,
integrated, and retained systematically in long-term memory, where only meaningful

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and structural information can be stored (Chang, 2003). Therefore, teaching materials

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should be organized, structured, and systematic for retention in and retrieval from
long-term memory. This study used teaching materials with multidimensional visual
diagrams to organize and integrate multimedia sounds, motion, and daily events or
experiences to connect knowledge and materials and help learners transfer

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information to long-term memory for later retrieval (Chiou, 2003; Jacobs-Lawson &
Hershey, 2002). Therefore, learning retention in long-term memory was better with

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7. Conclusion

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MAMCM material than with MCM material.

Previous studies demonstrated that multimedia animation and concept maps in

teaching materials positively impact teaching and learning in such subjects such as
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine. However, concept maps
alone only use the visual system and ignore the auditory system, possibly causing

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visual system overload and wasting auditory resources. Teaching materials with
multimedia animation provide stimuli that attract the attention of learners and make

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learning fun. However, learners may suffer cognitive overload and learning
disorientation. Thus, MAMCMs, which take advantage of two sensory systems, can
provide cues for subsequent integration and recall. They can help learners construct

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their own cognitive structures and efficiently transfer their knowledge into practice,

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such that good learning effectiveness is achieved (Schnotz, 2005; Huang et al., 2012;
Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, &
Sweller, 1997). Therefore, the MAMCM material is this study clearly demonstrated

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TABLE CAPTIONS
Table 1: Teaching experimental procedure.
Table 2: Descriptive statistics of pretest and post-test scores for two classes.

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Table 3: Post-test scores of one-way ANCOVA.

Table 4: Comparison of learning satisfaction between two classes.

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Table 5: One-way ANCOVA of tracking post-test scores for two classes.

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Table 1
Teaching experimental procedure.
Week

Activities

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Preparing stage 1. Design teaching materials and review by experts

2. Design Learning achievement tests and learning satisfaction
scale

1. Lecture with traditional digital teaching materials on contents of

journaling, posting, trial balance, and adjusting
2. Choose one national university in central Taiwan as a pilot test

6-7

1. Pretest: examine students prior knowledge

2. Grouping: experimental class uses MAMCMs and control class
uses MCMs
3. Instruction: awareness for experimental teaching materials was
announced

8-14

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1-5

1. Experimental class was taught with the MAMCMs and control

class was taught with the MCMs. Teaching contents included

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Merchandising and Inventory units.

2. The Achievement test was used as a posttest for both classes after
experimental teaching to compare difference between classes and
the learning satisfaction scale was used to understand students
learning perception and viewpoints for teaching materials in both
groups
1. The achievement test was used to compare learning retention
between two classes four weeks after the first posttest.

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Table 2
Descriptive statistics of pretest and post-test scores for two classes.
Student

Pretest results

Number

Mean

Female Male

Experimental

30

26

56

64.64

Control

34

24

58

65.36

Post-test results

SD

Mean

SD

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Class

11.8

64.1

12.8

11.1

52.6

14.3

Note. The maximum score of pretest for the experimental class was 84, while the maximum score of pretest for the control class
was 88. The maximum score of post-test for the experimental class was 84, while the maximum score of post-test for the control

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class was 84. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests of normal distribution showed that both pretest and post-test achievement measures

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were normalized, D=0.76, p=0.11; D=0.81, p=0.06.

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Table 3
Post-test scores of one-way ANCOVA.
Variation

Df

SS

MS

719.33

719.33

5.20*

Pretest Score
Homogeneity test

1
1

5237.36
259.31

5237.36
259.31

37.86**
1.88

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*p < .05 **p < .01.

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Class

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Table 4
Comparison of learning satisfaction between two classes.
Number

Mean

SD

Experimental

56

47.50

5.31

3.04**

Control

58

44.14

6.42

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C

EP

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D

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AN
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SC

** p < .01.

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Class

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Table 5
One-way ANCOVA of tracking post-test scores for two classes.
Df

SS

MS

7550.981

7550.981

F
71.78**

Pretest Score

3411.426

3411.426

32.43**

Homogeneity test

20.688

20.688

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Variation
Class

.20

Note. The average scores of tracking post-test for experimental and control classes are 62.32 and 46.38, respectively.

AC
C

EP

TE
D

M
AN
U

SC

** p < .01.

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FIGURE CAPTIONS
Figure 1: MAMCM on Merchandising.
Figure 2: Image files.

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Figure 3: Audio files.

Figure 4: MAMCM: Basic unit.

SC

Figure 5: MAMCM: Advanced unit.

Figure 6: MAMCM: Deepened and broadened learning.

M
AN
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Figure 7: MAMCM: Intensive example 1.

Figure 8: MAMCM: Intensive example 2.
Figure 9: MCM: Main unit.

TE
D

Figure 10: MCM: Example.

AC
C

EP

Figure 11: Research structure.

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Animation with picture and

sound from daily life to improve

TE
D

M
AN
U

SC

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memory retention

AC
C

EP

Fig. 1. MAMCM on Merchandising.

Multimedia animation and multidimensional concept maps

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AN
U

SC

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AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig.2. Image files.

Multimedia animation and multidimensional concept maps

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M
AN
U

SC

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AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 3. Audio files.

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Animation with picture and

sound from daily life to enhance

M
AN
U

SC

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memory retention

AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 4. MAMCM: Basic unit.

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Hyperlink to

Deepened

deepened

learning

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learning

Hyperlink to

SC

deepened
learning

M
AN
U

Hyperlink
to Fig. 7

AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 5. MAMCM: Advanced unit.

Broadened
learning

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Hyperlink
to Fig. 7

transfer to at the
end of period

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Hyperlink
to Fig. 8

SC

transfer to at the
end of period

Hyperlink

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to Fig. 8

Example 7

AC
C

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Fig. 6. MAMCM: Deepened and broadened learning.

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SC

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example

Slide
1-47

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C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 7. MAMCM: Intensive example 1.

Net income is
needed to
determine the
ending
balance in
retained
earnings.

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example

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SC

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The ending
balance in
retained
earnings is
needed in
preparing
the
statement of
financial
position

Slide
1-49

AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 8. MAMCM: Intensive example 2.

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No animation with picture and

Merchandise Inventory

sound from daily life to enhance

memory retention

uses the periodic inventory system

uses the perpetual inventory system

Purchases

deepened

inventory

include

deepened

include

learning

learning

purchased on
account

Hyperlink to

Cash

entry

entry

entry

deepened

Purchases xxx
xxx

entry

Inventory xxx

Accounts payable xxx

cash

Inventory xxx

xxx

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AN
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cash

Purchases xxx

purchased on
account

Purchases

SC

Cash
Purchases

Example 1

Hyperlink

EP

TE
D

Fig. 9. MCM: Main unit.

Hyperlink to
deepened
learning

Accounts payable xxx

to Fig. 11

AC
C

learning

Hyperlink to

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Hyperlink to

HOME
5

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Example 1
1. purchased on account)
On October 5. CHU Company buy merchandise on account from LI Company.
The buy price of the goods is $30,000.

10/5
Purchases
Accounts Payable

30,000
30,000

perpetual inventory system

10/5
Inventory
Accounts Payable

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periodic inventory system

30,000
30,000

periodic inventory system

10/5
Purchases
Cash

perpetual inventory system

10/5
Inventory
Cash

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20,000
20,000

SC

2. Cash Purchases

On October 5. CHU Company buy merchandise on cash from LI Company.

The buy price of the goods is $20,000.

AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 10. MCM: Example.

20,000
20,000

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Control variables:
1. Same instructor
2. Same teaching hours
3. Same textbook
4. Same test instrument

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5. Same requirement
The independent variables:

The dependent variables:

1. MAMCM

1. Learning achievement

2. MCM

2. Learning satisfaction

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Covariate:

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3. Learning retention

Accounting prior knowledge

AC
C

EP

TE
D

Fig. 11. Research structure.

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Highlights
>Examining the benefits of multimedia animation with multidimensional concept
maps.
> Multimedia animation with multidimensional concept maps improves learning
achievement.

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> Multimedia animation with multidimensional concept maps enhances learning

satisfaction.

AC
C

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D

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AN
U

SC

> Multimedia animation with multidimensional concept maps improves memory

retention.