Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
Muhammad Waseem
Definition
All types of moisture reaching the surface of earth from
atmosphere.
Factors determining
Forms of precipitation
Convective Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
Cyclonic Precipitation
(Frontal/Non frontal)
Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge( front)
of a warm air mass meets a cool air mass. The warmer air
mass is forced up over the cool air. As it rises the warm air
cools, moisture in the air condenses, clouds and precipitation
result.
Convective Precipitation
Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the earth's
surface that causes air to rise rapidly. As the air rises, it cools and
moisture condenses into clouds and precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
It results when warm moist air of the ocean is forced to rise by large
mountains. As the air rises it cools, moisture in the air condenses and
clouds and precipitation result on the windward side of the mountain
while the leeward side receives very little. This is common in British
Columbia.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
Time, min
100
120
140
Annual rainfall, mm
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
Years
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Annual Precipitation
average precipitation
18
Tipping Bucket
rain gauge
type recording
24
area
Instrumental error in gauge or in their
recording or measuring arrangements
Some rainwater may get lost due to splash from
the collector
Some initial rainwater may get lost in
moistening gauge funnel and inside surfaces
(Un)avoidable Errors
Equipment failure
Observer error
Avoidable Errors
Site
Obstructions
Height - splashing
Surrounds
Wind
Common Errors
Evaporation
Adhesion
Inclination
Splash
Wind
- 1%
- 0.5%
- 0.5%
+1%
-5-8%
need of attendant
Recording rain gauge also gives intensity of
rainfall at any time, while non-recording gauge
gives only total rainfall for time interval
Recording rain gauges can be installed far off
places as no need of attendant
Possibility of human error is obviated
Paper Charts
Data Loggers
Telemetry
Paper Charts
Simplest method
Chart moved by spring or electronically driven clock
past pen
Pen moves with weight/float etc
Two Types
Drum - rotates
Strip - moves past pen
Data Loggers
A data logger is a computer that records and stores
data from sensors both analog (voltage) and
digital(counts).
The data logger requires a program to tell it what to
do.
Data Loggers
Problems
Telemetry
Data stored by logger can transferred directly to a
base station via some form of telecommunication
RAIN-GAUGE DENSITY
Depends on Storm type
Cyclonic storms (large areas, low intensities) -small number of gauges is O.K.
Convective storms (local, intense, uneven distribution) -denser network needed.
Convective storms may have seasonal dominance -need to consider this as well.
Orographic rainfall due to mountains (not fronts) -may need denser network than
flatter area.
Area
Rain-gauge density
Plains
1 in 520 km2
Elevated regions
1 in 260-390 km2
Hilly and very heavy rainfall areas
1 in 130 Km2
In India, on an average, there is 1 rain-gauge station for every 500 km2, while in
more developed countries, it is 1 station. for 100 km2.
Where:
Px = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station I
N = number of rain gauges
Where:
Pm = precipitation at the missing location
Pi = precipitation at index station
Nm = average annual rain at missing data gauge
Ni = average annual rain at gauge
N = number of rain gauges
Example
Find out the missing storm precipitation of station C
given in the following table:
Station
Storm precipitation (cm)
Normal Annual precipitation (cm)
9.7
8.3
---
11.7
8.0
100.3
109.5
93.5
125.7
117.5
Solution:
10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35
10% Range of Nc= 84.15 to 102.85 (Values of Nb , Nd and Ne
are out of this range, hence normal mean method
applicable)
N
N
1 N
Px P1 x P2 x P3 x
4 N1
N2
N3
N4
Example 3.3:
Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a
month during which a storm occurred. The storm
totals at three surrounding stations A, B and C were
respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The normal annual
precipitation amounts at stations X, A, B and C are
respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate the
storm precipitation for station X.
Solution:
Pa = 10.7 cm
Pb = 8.90 cm
Pc = 12.2 cm
Px = ?
Na = 112 cm
Nb = 93.5 cm
Nc = 119.9 cm
Nx = 97.8 cm
The annual rainfall depths recorded by five rain gauges (A, B, C, D, and E) over
a seven year period are tabulated below. Use this information to check the
consistency of rain gauge A.
(i). In what year does gauge Aappear to develop a fault?
(ii) Derive and apply correction factor to correct the erroneous data.
Annual rainfall totals ( m m )
Ye a r
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
Gauge A
1367
1313
1333
1347
1123
1203
1033
Gauge B
1020
960
972
1000
998
1080
1150
Gauge C
1054
959
970
1013
1004
1095
1134
Gauge D
1044
970
980
1020
1003
1110
1050
Gauge E
1040
982
983
1035
1004
1110
1086
Cumulate the annual rainfall amounts for gauge A and for the other four
gauges (B, C, D and E). In the case of the latter - the annual rainfall totals for
gauges B, C, D and E have to be averaged before the cumulative annual
rainfall totals are computed. Once this is done, the mass curve can be plotted:
Annual rainfall totals (mm)
Gauge X
Gauges
1,2,3,4
Year
Gauge A
Gauge B
Gauge C
Gauge D
Gauge E
Mean of gauges
1,2,3,4
1975
1367
1020
1054
1044
1040
1040
1367
1040
1976
1313
960
959
970
982
968
2680
2008
1977
1333
972
970
980
983
976
4013
2984
1978
1347
1000
1013
1020
1035
1017
5360
4001
1979
1123
998
1004
1003
1004
1002
6483
5003
1980
1203
1080
1095
1110
1110
1099
7686
6102
1981
1033
1150
1134
1050
1086
1105
8719
7207
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
If the gauge A record is consistent, the points will fall on one straight line.
Deviation from a straight line indicates an inconsistency. In this case, there
is a distinct change at 1979. The conclusion is that the record for gauge A is
not consistent beyond 1979, and that the annual rainfall amounts for gauge
A from 1979 on require correction.
To perform the correction, the gradients of the two best fit lines (that is,
1975-79 and 1979-81) and a correction factor, k, (defined as the ratio of the
two) are computed. All the annual rainfall amounts for gauge A from 1979
onwards are corrected by multiplying each by k.
From the uncorrected double mass curves the gradients are found to be:
1975-79
Gradient = (6483-1367) / (5003-1040) = 1.29
1979-81
Gradient = (8719-6483) / (7207-5003) = 1.01
So, k = (1.29 / 1.01) = 1.27
The corrected annual rainfall values for gauge A (shown in bold) and the
corrected cumulative rainfall amounts are shown in the following table:
62
Year
1975
1367
1367
1367
1040
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1313
1333
1347
1123
1203
1033
1313
1333
1347
1501
1608
1381
2680
4013
5360
6861
8469
9850
2007
2984
4001
5003
6102
7207
Computation of Average
Precipitation
are used.
Arithmetic Mean
Method
P1 P2 ..... Pn
P
P
i 1
Example
Four rain-gauge stations are located in a catchment area.
Annual precipitation recorded by these stations in the year
2015 are:
A(95cm), B(150cm), C(115cm), D(98cm).
Calculate the average annual precipitation on the catchment in
2015
n
P P2 ..... Pn
P 1
P
i 1
95 + 150 + 115 + 98
4
114.5 cm
Thiessen Polygon
Method
Isohytel Method
Introduction
Isohyet: An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
If P1, P2, . . . , Pn are the values of isohyets and if A1,A2, . . . ,An1 are
the inter-isohyet area respectively, then the mean precipitation over
the catchment is given by
3.Isohytal Method
Plot gauge locations on a map.
Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts between gauges at a
selected interval.
Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines of equal rainfall
amounts (isohyets).
The area between adjacent isohyets is measured using a planimeter.
If isohyets go out of the catchment, the catchment boundary is used
as the bounding line.
Example
The isohyets due to a storm in a catchment were drawn and
the area of the catchment bounded by isohyets were
tabulated as below. Estimate the mean precipitation due to
the storm.
Solution
Isohyetal Example