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CHAPTER II
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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Fertilizers
Fertilizers are substances containing the chemical elements that improve
growth and productivity of plants. It is derived from a plant or animal residue or byproduct or natural material deposit which has been processed in such a way that its
content of plant nutrients has not been materially changed except by purification and
concentration (Meister, 2002). Sinnadurai, (1992), defines fertilizers as inorganic or
organic plant food in solid or liquid forms that can be applied to soil in order to improve
the quality and/or quantity of crops produced. They enhance soil fertility thus the ability
of the soil to provide plant nutrients and resources that support growth, by increasing
plant nutrients during the cycle. Crooke, (1972), pointed out that fertilizers have the
ability to reduce the cost of production since they can raise yield with marginal increase
in total cost per hectare.
Although fertilizers provide nutrients to crops, they can contain elements, such
as heavy metals, that are potentially harmful for the environment. They can be a major
source of non-point pollution in soil and water. Eutrophication, NO3 contamination of
ground water, and the accumulation of heavy metals in soil and their release to waters,
together with their potential bioaccumulation in the food chain, are among the main
problems mentioned by (Shokeri, 2008).
Due to increasing concern regarding environmental problems related to
fertilizers, previous agricultural production research aimed at optimizing fertilizer
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form chlorophyll. Lack of sulphur is unusual where the soil is rich in organic matter
(Jokella, Magdoff, Bartlett, Bosworth, & Ross, 2004).
2.2.2 Micronutrients
Micronutrients are mostly needed in minute quantities. Manganese (Mn) helps
make chlorophyll and protein and acts as an activator for enzymes in plant growth
process. A deficiency in Mn shows as stunting and yellowing of new leaves. Iron (Fe)
serves as an activator for biological processes, such as respiration, photosynthesis, and
symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Only the tiniest quantities of iron are needed. Iron
deficiencies are most likely happen on chalky soils. Symptoms of lack of iron are pale
leaves with brown edges and margins. Zinc (Zn) controls the synthesis of indole acetic
acid, an important plant growth regulator. Copper (Cu) aids in the activation of
numerous plant enzymes and plays a role in the development of plant pigments that
influence color. Boron (B) is an important element for growing plant tissues. A lack of
boron could cause corkiness in fruit and vegetables. Molybdenum (Mb) is required by
plants for the utilization of nitrogen. Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen are taken up from
sunlight, air and water (Jokella, Magdoff, Bartlett, Bosworth, & Ross, 2004).
2.2.3 Inorganic fertilizer: Definition, advantages and disadvantages
Inorganic fertilizers are fertilizers made artificially by chemical reactions. It is
a fertilizer material which does not have carbon as the essential component of its basic
chemical structure (Meister, 2002). They are specifically designed to feed a plant a
certain amount of specific nutrients. Listed in Table 2.1 are common inorganic
fertilizers. These fertilizers are extensively consumed by most of the farmers because it
is widely available in the market.
A PLANT DESIGN ON THE PRODUCTION OF INTEGRATED ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZER
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Table 2.1 Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) content of common chemical
fertilizers*
Product
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate
21
Urea
48
Ammoniated super-phosphate
3-6
48-53
Di-ammonium phosphate
11
48
Mono-ammonium phosphate
11
48
Super-phosphate
18-50
46
Potassium chloride
60
Potassium nitrate
13
44
Potassium sulphate
50
Potassium-magnesium sulphate
22
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Crooke, (1972) also added that organic fertilizers can improve the soil by
lowering bulk density and they can reduce soil erosion and improve soil fertility. These
fertilizers also care for the living soil, which entails maintaining microbiological life
in the soil in balance with the whole ecosystem without altering soil pH.
Despite of its numerous benefits, utilizing organic fertilizers has also the
following drawbacks such as bulkiness, offensive odor, slow acting, difficulty to
transport and doubtful efficacy (Alimi, Olubode-Awosola, & Idowu, 2006). And
potentially toxic heavy metals also limit the use of organic fertilizer. The nutrient
composition of organic fertilizers is highly inconstant. Also, long term or heavy usage
to agricultural soils may result in salt, nutrient and heavy metal accumulation and may
adversely affect plant growth, soil organisms, water quality and animal and human
health (Chen, 2006).
On the other hand, the utilization of organic waste in agriculture depends on
several factors, including the characteristics of the waste such as its organic matter,
nutrient and heavy metal content, its energy value, the odor generated by the waste, its
benefits to agriculture, its availability and the transportation cost and regulatory
considerations (Hernandez, Chocano, Moreno, & Garcia, 2014).
2.2.5 Potential sources of organic fertilizers
Most organic fertilizers are made from diverse raw materials which can be
classified into two main categories like (1) agro-industrial and (2) those derived from
civil establishments. More precisely, Sharma, Canditelli, Cornacchia, & Fortuna, (1996)
classified the waste into the following main groups: (1) animal waste; (2) crop residues;
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(3) fruit and vegetable waste; (4) aquatic biomass and biofertilizers; (5) fish and marine
wastes; (6) industrial wastes; (7) human habitation waste, etc.
Naturally occurred organic fertilizers are manure, slurry, worm castings, peat,
seaweed, sewage and guano. Among the sources of organic matter, farm manure has
been of major importance over the past years. Farm animals void most of the nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium that is present in the food they eat and this constitutes an
enormous fertility resource (Table 2.2). Organic manures can serve as alternative to
mineral fertilizers (Naeem, Iqbal, & Bakhsh, 2006), for improving soil structure (Dauda,
Ajayi, & Ndor, 2008) and microbial biomass (Suresh, Sneh, Krishn, & Mool, 2004).
Table 2.2 Nutrient composition of selected manure*
Manure Source
N (%)
P (%)
K (%)
Chicken
3.8
1.9
1.8
Duck
2.2
1.1
1.2
Pig
2.8
1.4
1.2
Cattle
2.8
1.4
1.2
Carabao
0.3
0.1
Goat
0.6
0.1
0.2
Horse
2.3
0.8
1.3
Rabbit
1.7
1.3
1.1
Guano
0.6
0.4-6.6
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dried manure is very high in nitrogen. Fish meal contains nitrogen and phosphate. Dried
manures have all trace elements but are quite low on NPK. Seaweed extract is also quite
excellent and it is a slow releaser of nutrients. It contains cytokinins and hormones that
promote photosynthesis and protein synthesis. Ash from wood is high in potassium and
some phosphate which depends on the type of wood (Bary, Cogger, & Sullivan, 2004;
Jokella, Magdoff, Bartlett, Bosworth, & Ross, 2004). Average nutrient concentrations
of various organic materials are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 NPK content of selected organic materials*
Material
Bone meal
1-6
11-30
Blood meal
12
1-2
0-1
Composts
1-3
1-2
1-2
Feather meal
12
Glass clippings
1-2
0-0.5
1-2
Kelp
1-1.5
0.5-1
5-10
Leaves
0-0.5
0-0.5
Sawdust
0-1
0-0.5
0-1
Sewage sludge
2-6
1-4
0-1
Seaweed extract
Straw/corn stalks
0-0.5
0-0.5
Wood ashes
1-2
3-7
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The main type of fertilizer consumed has usually been nitrogen-based, until
recently, next in importance are phosphate-based fertilizers. Data from Fertilizer and
Pesticide Authority (FPA) provide a breakdown in fertilizer consumption by type
A PLANT DESIGN ON THE PRODUCTION OF INTEGRATED ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZER
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(Figure 2.2). This data set only considers the major types, namely 0-0-60 (potassium
sulfate), 14-14-14 (complete NPK), 16-20-0 (ammonium phosphate), 18-46-0
(diammonium phosphate), 21-0-0 (ammonium sulfate) and
largest shares in consumption are urea and ammonium sulfate and next in rank is
complete NPK fertilizer.
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Table 2.4 Capacity and products of fertilizer manufacturers in the Philippines (2012)*
Company
Capacity (tons/year)
Products
AFC
45,000
Single superphosphate
30,000
Ammonium sulfate
80,000
Complete NPK
75,000
Ammonium phosphate
Farmfix Fertilizer
50,000
Fertilizer blends
Inchem
22,000
Potassium sulfate
PHILPHOS
1.17 million
NP fertilizer, NPK
fertilizer,
Ammonium sulfate
1 million
NPK fertilizers:
14-14-14, 16-20-0, 6-9-15
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