Solutions

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.

In everyday life we usually think of solutions as liquids,
but air is a gaseous solution, alloys like brass are solid
solutions.
Binary solutions - have 2 components only
Solvent - substance present in greater amount
When water is the solvent the solution is aqueous
(aq).
Solute (a substance dissolved in another substance)
substance present in lesser amount
-Can have a solid, liquid or other substance dissolved in
a liquid solvent.
Process of dissolving= a physical change
Solvation Individual solute particles are surrounded by
solvent molecules.
Hydration- Solvation where water is the solvent.

Molecular compounds - Usually the molecules separate

from one another and are surrounded by solvent. The
molecules themselves stay intact. (There are exceptions
to this e.g. acids)
Most solutions of molecular compounds DO NOT
conduct electricity. Solutes = nonelectrolytes.
Example: sucrose (table sugar)
C12H22O11 (s) C12H22O11 (aq) (by adding water)

Ionic Compounds One that dissolve in water separate

into individual ions that are surrounded by solvent.
NaCl (s)

NaCl (aq)

(by adding water)

NaCl (aq) is equivalent to Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Each individual sodium ion is surrounded by water.
Each individual chloride ion is surrounded by water.

There is a favorable (attractive) interaction between the

solvent and the solute particles in a solution. Otherwise,
you wouldn't get dissolving at all.

Watch how many ions you get.

MgCl2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq) (by adding water)

1 formula unit of magnesium chloride yields

1 magnesium ion and 2 separate chloride ions.
Example:

Iron(III) fluoride

FeF3 (s) Fe3+ (aq) + 3 F1- (aq)

Polyatomic ions stay intact.

Keep track of how many you get:
Mg(OH)2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH1 formula unit of magnesium hydroxide yields
1 magnesium ion and 2 separate hydroxide ions
Hydroxide ions stay intact (the O and H don't separate).
Other examples:

Iron(III) nitrate

Fe(NO3)3 Fe3+ (aq) + 3 NO31- (aq)

Ammonium phosphate

(NH4)3PO4 (s) 3 NH41+ (aq) + PO43- (aq)

In wires electric current is due to the flow of electrons.
In solutions electric current is due to the flow of IONS.
(Solutions are conductive.)
Absolutely pure water doesn't conduct electricity. Tap
water will due to minerals and other dissolved ions.

Electrolytes- .Solutes that yield conductive solutions

All ionic compounds that can dissolve in water are
electrolytes.
Strong electrolytes dissociate completely to ions in
solution. Good electrical conductors.
Weak electrolytes not all particles dissociate into ions in
solution (most remain intact). Poor electrical
conductors.
Some molecular compounds are electrolytes,
but many are weak electrolytes (examples: some acids and bases).

Example: Acetic acid, CH3COOH acidic hydrogen

comes off as H1+
CH3COOH CH3COO1- (aq) + H1+ (aq)
More proper to write: CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO1- (aq) + H3O 1+ (aq)

Only a few % of the acetic acid molecules form ions.

Solubility
Soluble (adj.) applies to a substance that can dissolve in
a certain solvent.
Insoluble (adj.) applies to a substance does not dissolve
in a certain solvent
Terms for liquids mixing with liquids:
Miscible (adj.) means two liquids can mix
Immiscible (adj.) means liquids do not mix (oil & water)
Solubility - The maximum amount of a solute that can be
dissolved in a given amount of solvent.
(At a certain temperature and pressure.)
Units: grams of solute per 100 g of solvent
g of solute/100 mL of water (recall dH2O=1 g/mL)
grams of solute per liter of solvent
moles of solute per liter of solute.
Many solubilities are tablulated.

CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics

Figure 5.3 gives some general solubility trends.

Temperature Dependence - Rules of thumb:

Solids solubility often increases as temperature
increases (sugar in hot vs. cold tea)
Gases solubility decreases as temperature increases
(Boiling water drives out dissolved gases.)
Carbonated beverages are best cold, to keep CO2
dissolved so it will still be fizzy. Hot Coke is flat due to
loss of CO2.
There are exceptions to the rules of thumb.

3 classifications of solutions based on the

amount of dissolved solute.
1. unsaturated solution - less than the maximum amount of solute is dissolved. More could be
added and dissolved.
dilute - relatively small amount of a solute is
dissolved
concentrated - relatively large amount of solute is
dissolved
2. saturated solution - Exactly the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given amount of
solvent, no more, no less.
3. supersaturated solution - an unstable solution that has more than the usual maximum
amount of solvent dissolved.
To do this: In hot solvent dissolve a large amount of a solute
whose solubility is very temperature dependent.
- VERY carefully cool the solution
Sometimes the extra solute will stay dissolved
B bumping, stirring, putting in a crystal, etc. can cause the excess solute to come out of solution and
form a solid precipitate.