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HSC Physics
Implementation
1. Increased understanding of cathode rays led to the development
of television
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
F=qvB sin
The force (F) acting on a charge (q) moving with a velocity (v) at an
angle to a magnetic field (B), is given by:
F=qvB sin
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Michael McElroy
-
HSC Physics
E=
V
d
F=qE
J.J. Thompson created a cathode ray tube that had electric and
magnetic fields in it. By doing this, he observed that the cathode
rays behaved differently when subject to an electric or magnetic
field. That being, the rays would be deflected in an electric field
(towards the positive plate) with a force of qE where q is the charge
and E is the electric field strength. Similarly a magnetic field could
be arranged that would cause the beam to be deflected upwards in
the arc of a circle (like centripetal force) with a force of qvB, that is:
qvB=
mv 2
q v
=
r
m Br
qE=qvB v=
E
B
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Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
In Hertzs spark-gap coil experiment, he noticed that light affected the intensity
of the spark in the receiver. This was discovered by placing glass an absorber of
ultraviolet light between the transmitter and receiver. Hertz discovered that UV
light from the transmitter spark was causing electrons to join the receiver spark,
making it stronger and allowing a spark to occur over a larger gap. Hertz did not
investigate this further, but today this phenomenon is known as the photoelectric effect, were electrons are freed from a metal lattice allowing them to
flow across a gap.
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Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
However, Einstein used the basis of Plancks quantum idea (particle model) to
explain the photoelectric effect. He stated that:
-
Page 5 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
Classical
predictions
Experimental
results
Einsteins model
Intensity
Emission time
If emission occurred, it
was instantaneous,
Frequency
Emission is
independent of
frequency.
Energy
Emission was
frequency dependant.
Below a certain
frequency (the
threshold frequency)
no electrons were
emitted, regardless of
the intensity of the
light.
As the intensity
increased, the
maximum kinetic
energy (Ek max)
remained constant. Ek
max was found to
depend on the
frequency of light used
and the type of
surface.
Intensity is measured
by the number of
photons per unit area,
which means that as
the intensity is
increased the number
of photons will be
increased hence the
photocurrent is
increased.
A photon transfers all
its energy to the
electron, provided this
energy is greater than
the work function, the
electron will leave
immediately. If
however, hf < the
electron will not be
emitted.
Since the energy of
the photon is
dependent on
frequency, then it
follows, if the
frequency is too low
the available energy
may be too low to
release the electron
Intensity is
independent of photon
energy. Since it is the
photon energy that
determines the Ek max
of the electron, then Ek
max must also be
independent of
intensity
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
(i.e. photons of ultraviolent light have higher energy than those of visible light
such as blue, red etc.). The intensity of light depends of the number of photons
per unit area, which means that as intensity is increase the number of photons
will be increased.
E=hf
And
c=f
By combining the two equations we can get a relationship between energy and
wavelength,
E=
hc
A photo cell is a device that converts energy from sunlight into electrical energy
by using the photoelectric effect. Essentially photocells consist of a cathode and
anode. The cathode is coated with a photosensitive material that emits electrons
when light falls on it. The photoelectrons are accelerated to the anode resulting
in a photocurrent that is proportional to the intensity of the light falling on the
cathode. Some uses of photocells include electric eyes, burglar alarms,
radiation detectors and light meters.
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Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
Conductor
Energy level
Condition band
Valence band
Insulator
Conduction band
Energy gap
Semi-conductor
Condition band
Energy gap
Valence band
Valence band
Conductors
Large number of electrons can drift from atom to atom in the
conduction band
Semiconductors
There are some electrons available to drift from atom to atom in the
conduction band; this can be increased by adding energy in the
form of heat
Insulators
There are no electrons available to drift from atom to atom in the
conduction band
Page 8 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
Solid state devices and thermionic devices operate with the same
purpose. They can modify, amplify or switch electric signals.
However a few differences between the two are:
Page 9 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
o
o
o
o
o
Page 10 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
The Braggs used the interference patterns of reflected X-rays off a crystal to
determine its crystal lattice structure. They did this by using an X-ray tube to
emit X-rays onto a sample. They determined that X-rays could penetrate the
surface of matter and reflect from the atomic lattice planes within the crystals,
due to their short wavelength (approximately the size of an atom). These
reflected waves often interfered (superimposed) with one other, sometimes
causing constructive interference, resulting in intensity maximum and
destructive interference, resulting in an intensity minimum. The interference
pattern is also known as diffraction, as it was believed by the Braggs that the
crystal lattice acts as a diffraction grating (a device for producing interference
effects). A photographic film was used to allow for the interference pattern of the
X-rays to be seen (bright spots represented intensity maximums or constructive
interference). Measuring the geometry of the interference pattern then allowed
Layers of a crystal lattice or diffraction grating
the Braggs to deduce the spacing of the lines on the diffraction grating (crystal
lattice). Ultimately, with the use of Braggs Law, analysis of the interference
pattern as well as the angles involved therefore allowed for the calculation of the
crystal layer spacing which would determine the crystal lattice structure.
Reflected X-rays that will interfere with each other to produce a pattern
Page 11 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
The atoms in a crystal are in a regular repeating pattern called the crystal lattice.
In each type of crystal structure a certain fundamental grouping of atoms is
repeated indefinitely in three dimensions, called a unit cell. It is these unit cells
that repeat itself throughout the crystal to form the lattice. A few types of
crystals are molecular crystals and infinite arrays, which include metallic
crystals, ionic crystals and continuous covalent crystals.
General metals have only one, two or three electrons in their valance shell.
These electrons are only loosely bound to the positive ions, meaning that a metal
consists of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a sea of electrons that are
free to move under the influence of an electric field. These electrons move
randomly and collide with each other and the lattice constantly. This random
motion of electrons results with no net movement of charge. However, when a
potential difference is applied to the metal an electric field is established that
creates a force that causes the electrons to drift in a common direction. This
-e
drift velocity is proportional to-ethe applied
electric
field.
-e
+-e +
-e
-e + -e
+
Sea or cloud of electrons
-e
-e
+-e
-e
+-e +
-e
-e
+ -e
+ -e +
+
-e +
Positive ions
Resistance ()
Page 12 of 16
Temperature (K)
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
The BCS theory explains how superconductivity occurs. The theory states that at
the critical temperature of a material, an electron moving through the lattice is
able to attract atoms close to it and distort the lattice. This causes the atoms of
the lattice to become slightly closer together, meaning that there is an area of
slightly increased positive charge. This extra positive charge then draws in an
electron which links up which another electron when they absorb energy known
as a phonon that is released from the distortion of the lattice. The link up of
electrons is called a Cooper pair. A Cooper pair can move through the lattice
without loss of energy, and is unaffected by impurities or lattice vibration. The
discharge and absorption of phonons between the electrons will allow them to
remain together, however the bond will be broken when the temperature of the
material rises.
Lattice distortion
Electron
Cooper pair
Page 13 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
Advantages
Disadvantages
Allows for:
o The development of magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) machines
o The development of Maglev trains
o The development of
superconducting quantum
interference devices (SQUIDs) that
are necessary for doctors to
analyse aspects of the brain
o Greater efficiency in computer
systems
o More efficient generators as high
magnetic fields means greater
currents in same rotor
Tc (K)
Page 14 of 16
Tc (C)
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
Aluminium
Hafnium
Lead
Mercury
Niobium-aluminiumgermanium alloy
Technetium
Tin
Tin-niobium alloy
Titanium
Uranium
Metal oxide ceramics
YBA2CU3O7 (YBCO)
HgBa2CA2CU3O8
1.20
0.35
7.22
4.12
21
-271.95
-272.8
-265.93
-269.03
-253.15
11.2
3.73
18
0.53
0.8
-261.95
-269.42
-255.15
-272.62
-272.35
90
133
-183.15
-140.15
The Maglev train uses magnetic levitation for propulsion. They operate on the
basis of magnetic repulsion, which involves having magnetised coils running
along the rack that repel large magnets on the trains undercarriage. When the
train is levitated, power is supplied to the coils on the track that generate
magnetic fields that pull and push the train along the track. The electric current
supplied in the coils in the track is constantly alternating to change the polarity
of the magnetised coils. This change in polarity in the magnets along the track
generates a series of repulsive and attractive forces that causes the magnetic
field in front of the train to pull the vehicle forward, while the magnetic field
behind the train pushes it forward. This method of propulsion allows for
frictionless movement, making it possible to reach high speeds with easy
acceleration.
Page 15 of 16
Michael McElroy
HSC Physics
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