Professional Documents
Culture Documents
00 MASTHEAD
02 PREFACE by Svend Auken, Danish Minister for the Environment and Energy (from 1993 to 2001)
04 INTRODUCTION
06 ‘inspiration’ by P. Wessel, Photographer
08 CASE STUDIES: Introduction
10 Marks & Spencer
12 Patagonia
16 Holstein Flachs
18 Nike
20 The Sustainable Solution Design Association
22 The Sustainable Cotton Project (SCP)
24 ‘inspiration’ by Robin Skjoldborg, Photographer
26 THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER
30 ETHICS
34 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE – a clear overview of the environmental impact of
the production, use and disposal of fabrics made from cotton and polyester.
40 ‘inspiration’ by Jette Jørs, Photographer
42 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES – a thorough
description of how the environment is affected by the production, use and
disposal of textiles made from, e.g. cotton, wool, polyester and flax.
54 ‘inspiration, by Mikkel Bache, Photographer
56 FROM FIBRES TO FINISHED FABRICS – Checklist for how you should make a choice A HANDBOOK ON THE ENVIRONMENT FOR
THE TEXTILE AND FASHION INDUSTRY
58 Introduction
60 “The quickies”
62 Questions about the production of cotton fibres
64 Questions about the production of wool fibres
67 Questions about the production of viscose fibres
68 Questions about the production of polyester fibres
69 Questions about the production of acrylic fibres
70 Questions about spinning mills
71 Questions about weaving mills
72 Questions about knitting mills
73 Questions about dye works
75 Questions about print works
76 ‘inspiration’ by Christian Rud Andersen, Photographer
78 ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING SCHEMES
82 LIST OF ADDRESSES
86 NOTES – for your own notes
94 WORD LIST
96 THANKS TO THE CONTRIBUTORS ISBN: 87-988309-0-2 SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION
1 KAPITEL
by Svend Auken, Danish Minister for the Environment and Energy (from 1993 to 2001)
It does not take much to make a minister for the environment happy. All you need to do is to
present him with a project which makes it realistic for a wide range of people to respect the
environment during their daily work. Such a project has now been carried out – in the form of
this attractive environmental handbook for textile designers and buyers.
Designers and buyers have a considerable influence on the way textiles affect the
environment. If a designer chooses to work with qualities and dyes which are inappropriate
from an environmental perspective, or if the buyer has chosen to disregard these issues,
nature will foot the bill. In contrast only a few environmentally sound decisions need to be
made during the design and procurement phase to increase the environmental benefit
considerably.
The production of textiles is one of the most polluting processes in the world. Even so, it has
been difficult for environmental ideas to break through in the industry. But that attitude has
gone. Today the environmental industry is as fashionable as the fashion industry itself, and
this trend will gather momentum in the years ahead.
The three authors of this handbook are all designers who have worked with textiles and
the environment for a number of years and they are aware that it can be difficult to solve
the puzzle. We of the Danish Ministry of the Environment and Energy are happy that they
will share their experience with the rest of the industry. And it is my hope that this book will
inspire a growing circle of talented designers and clever buyers so that related industries will
also take up the challenge.
So far Denmark has been renowned throughout the world for the high-quality of its design of
clothes, art, craft and furniture. If we choose to incorporate the environmental dimension as
well the phrase line, “Made in Denmark” will have a quality dimension which we can truly be
proud of.
4 INTRODUCTION 5
This book is intended as a handbook on the environment to help and inspire designers, buyers and other
players within the textile and clothes industries to whom it may be of relevance. The hope is that it will
stimulate the industry to endeavour to achieve a more environmentally friendly and thus a more sustainable
production.
The book is published with subsidies from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (Miljøstyrelsen). The
book was created through cooperation between the Sustainable Solution Design Association (Foreningen til
Fremme af Bæredygtigt Design) and the consultancy RAMBØLL.
For many years the Sustainable Solution Design Association has been working to communicate, promote and
develop sustainable design. The aim of the association is based on the attitudes and conclusions drawn from
the Brundtland Commission which defines sustainable development as follows:
“A development which satisfies the present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs”.
It can be difficult to work in accordance with the above definition especially in the fashion industry where
trends change rapidly. This is why it is so interesting that futurologists believe that consumers increasingly
require knowledge about how a specific product has come into existence – i.e. the story behind it all. This is
a time-consuming process both in terms of production research and communicating with the consumer.
In this context it should also be mentioned that man’s need to decorate himself is a fact that cannot be
ignored even if you work with environmental issues. Design and procurement should meet today’s trend so
that sustainability is associated with something positive instead of something negative.
The book examines the responsibility and role of the designer and buyer when they consider sustainability
and ethics in their work. At the beginning of the book you will find a number of case studies describing how a
number of Danish and foreign companies have tried to tackle the issue. The following chapters describe the
most significant environmental impact in the production of textiles.
The user part of the book is intended as a checklist including environmentally related questions about cotton,
wool, acrylic, polyester and viscose. The checklist deals with how the environment will be affected by the
production of the different types of materials – from fibres to end-fabrics. The checklist is intended as a tool
for the designer and the buyer to include environmental considerations in their daily routines.
The last chapter in the book describes the different environmental labelling schemes that are relevant to the
textile and clothing industry.
Finally, further research can be carried out and more information and guidelines can be sought from the list
of participants and the bibliography at the back of the book.
Enjoy your reading!
PHOTOGRAPHY: P. WESSEL
8 CASE STUDIES 9 CASE STUDIES
The motives of the different companies are not the reasons why they
are described in this book. The point is that it is possible to change
to more environmentally friendly production! This is why it makes
sense to focus on all types of businesses: from global organisations
to quite small local firms. It is one thing to emphasise that trends
and styles have nothing to do with sustainability but the fact remains
that for both large and small businesses it has clearly been possible
to combine the two - despite all the complications encountered by all
during the process.
BUSINESS: Marks & Spencer was estab- so large,” says a Marks & Spencer’s spokesperson “and
lished in the UK in 1884. Through its world- there is only so much organic cotton per season that we
wide department stores and shops Marks & can phase into the store. We have to steadily build up a
Spencer sells clothing, foods and homeware. supply to ensure long term stability and consistency of the
On 31 March 2000 Marks & Spencer had programme”.
an annual turnover of approximately GBP
8,195m employing a total of 75,500 people “We considered a blend but felt that a 100% pure product
worldwide. was more appropriate for Marks & Spencer. Our customers
expect trust in the brand implicitly. Anything less than 100%
LOCATION: Marks & Spencer’s has its organic would fall below our customers’ expectations. Just
headquarters in London and has 702 stores as we offer our customers a choice between organic and
worldwide. conventional produce, so we are offering the same choice
for our fibre products”.
COTTON: Marks and Spencer tested
organic and naturally dyed cotton in the early Marks and Spencer needs to consider carefully its raw
1990s without much success. The items material sources for future organic cotton products. Some
were too expensive, the Marks & Spencer farmers have certified organic land and can move straight
marketing of the product was minimal and into organic cotton crops. Others need to have their land in
the public was not nearly as aware of the a certification programme for three years before the crop
benefits of organic agriculture as they are can be labelled organic. Crops within this three-year time limit
now. Nowadays, Marks & Spencer has a are termed ‘transitional’ organic. One idea thought through
promising organic food business. In addition, by a Marks and Spencer Cotton technologist suggested
there is widespread consumer concern in maintaining the organic products marketed as organic with
the UK about GM crops including cotton. a 100% organic content, whilst using transitional cotton in
With this increased awareness and interest a given percentage blend across the Marks and Spencer
in organic produce, the largest retailer in the conventional range. This steady market would encourage
UK, launched an organic cotton line for the more farmers to put their conventional crop into transition,
Easter of 2000. Targeted for 12 stores, the and after the three year requirement period become certi-
garments were clearly labelled and certified fied, and build up a future supply of organic fibre for the M&S
organic. Marks & Spencer’s organic cotton programme.
products were 30% more expensive than
their conventional equivalents. Sales results of the first organic cotton test have not been
particularly good. This may be partly because of the minimal
Modelled on the Marks & Spencer food use of organic cotton marketing materials at point of sale.
division, the garments are made from 100% Though Marks and Spencer, at the time of writing, has been
PHOTOGRAPHY: P. WESSEL
certified organic cotton, placed next to other going through major restructuring and market repositioning
items made from conventional cotton. In for their conventional business, they continue to explore and
the early 1990s this model was avoided, develop organic cotton as an important part of the business.
the biggest fear being: “How will this reflect Representing the true mainstream, Marks and Spencer will
on the rest of our range”? “Our business is be an interesting case study to watch.
12 CASE STUDIES 13 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: Patagonia is an American - formerly As the organic industry becomes more established, the
French - business generating an annual turnover number of suppliers steadily increases from year to year.
of $163m. Patagonia is a private company. Patagonia explained to its customers the reason for the increased
Cotton represents 20% of the company’s retail price, and why it was important to change to organic
consumption. cotton. Customer loyalty increased and its organic cotton sales
are now even higher than when the range was conventional.
LOCATION: U.S.A.
POLYESTER: Patagonia also carried out other environmental
HISTORY: After the company’s founder Yvon activities in the product areas.
Chouinard saw for himself the devastating Patagonia was the first company to use recycled polyester
environmental effects of Californian cotton fleece fabric: a programme that was implemented in 1993.
production whilst on a farm tour hosted by
SCP (Sustainable Cotton Project), he decided Since polyester is extracted from a non-renewable source
the company would convert to organic cotton and is not biodegradable, keeping it in an industrial loop
fibres or shut down it’s cotton sportswear system is one of the best ways to reduce its impact on the
business altogether. In 1992-1994, Patago- environment. Polyester is recyclable from used consumer
nia started to test out organic cotton T-shirts products, though a certain percentage of virgin fibre may be
and sweatshirts and in 1995 other cotton needed to achieve finer polyester yarn. Patagonia’s polyester
accessories were added to the range. fleece is recycled from used consumer plastic bottles. The
fabric was developed by one of Patagonia’s suppliers know-
COTTON: As a result, fabric development ing this ecological approach to fabric would be of interest to
teams set about researching how they could the company.
implement the commitment. By 1996, after
4 years of trials, Patagonia had converted Recycled soda bottles are chopped, washed and converted
all its cotton sportswear knits and wovens to into small flakes which are then melted to form a viscose
100% organic. liquid. The recycled polyester is mixed with virgin polyester
to maintain the integrity of the fibre. The new fibres are
Initially, Patagonia had to change many of extruded from the liquid, and then compressed and formed
its regular suppliers, in order to ensure that into bales. The bales of fibre are then shipped to mills to be
only 100% organic cotton was used. As a knitted, dyed and made into clothes. The final recycled con-
consequence, some of the other factors a tent of the product varies from 50%-90% and virgin polyester
company considers when selecting suppliers forms the balance.
were initially challenging: delivery, reliabil-
ity, and some quality issues arose (from Between the spring of 1993 and the spring of 1996, Patago-
changing suppliers, rather than using organic nia diverted over 54m plastic bottles from landfills and saved
cotton) and it took two seasons to iron out over 600,000 gallons of oil from being used.
these obstacles.
PHOTOGRAPHY: MIKKEL BACHE
BUSINESS: Holstein Flachs employs approximately 20 for clothing with all the raw materials originat-
people. The company is owned by farmers. ing from certified organic cultivation.
All products are certified by IMO (Institut Für
LOCATION: Schleswig-Holstein in Northern Germany. Marktökologi) in accordance with
IFOAM’s (International Federation Of Organic
HISTORY: In the mid-1980s a group of farmers tried to see Culture Movements) regulations and the strict
if it would be possible to grow flax again as production of provisions of the International Natural Textile
this crop had stopped 30 years earlier due to pollution when Association which means that organic flax is
retting the flax. Despite a difficult start-up Holstein Flachs grown without using any forms of pesticides
managed to start growing flax again and today more than and fertilisers. A field will be designated as
5,000 hectares of land has been cultivated on approximately organic if no pesticides or mineral fertilizers
1,000 different plots. have been used for three years.
HIGH QUALITY FLAX: Having tested a wide range of The interesting design and the new tech-
varieties such as elephant grass, hemp and nettles, Holstein niques for processing the organic flax from
Flachs has succeeded in growing high-quality European Schleswig-Holstein have helped single out the
flax with help from the faculty of cultivation of plants at the characteristics and benefits of this specific
University of Kiel. flax.
There has been severe competition from Belgium and These are the reasons why a young business
France, amongst others, and it has been difficult for a small without considerable financial resources
company like Holstein Flachs that has to pay high wages and has been able to survive in a part of the
salaries and expenses. conventional industry which otherwise would
Even so Holstein Flachs has managed to use some of the move its production to countries which
PHOTOGRAPHY: ROBIN SKJOLDBORG
waste products from the flax stems for useful by-products can produce the items more cheaply. This
which have generated a considerable and important extra proves that if you stick to local traditions and
income from the sale of flax. sustainable farming methods, a small busi-
ness can penetrate the global market with a
CERTIFIED/APPROVED FLAX: Holstein Flachs has enjoyed clear profile and business philosophy despite
international respect and recognition for its production of flax meeting opposition from all sides.
18 CASE STUDIES 19 CASE STUDIES
BUSINESS: Nike is an American company through special product design and a broader product range
with an annual turnover of $7bn. A large part in order to balance supply with demand.
of Nike’s production is cotton.
LABOUR: Nike operates in 50 countries, in factories total-
LOCATION: Head office in U.S.A. ling 708 worldwide.
COTTON: Nike is a member of an organisa- As a corporation, NIKE does not use child or under-aged
tion named Natural Step which provides a labour in any of its manufacturing operations. Several years
framework for companies to become more ago there were stories in the press that under age work-
ecologically sustainable businesses. Nike’s ers were believed to be involved in the production of NIKE
use of organic cotton was included in its soccer balls in Pakistan at the Saga Sport Ball factory. To
company wide initiatives to implement the combat further bad publicity, NIKE worked with the Saga
principles of sustainability. Sport Ball Company to set up dedicated stitching centres
close to the workers’ homes to produce their products.
Nike targeted the high volume promotional Since that time, NIKE has set the highest minimum accept-
t-shirt area of the company. In 1998, the able working age standard in the industry. The minimum
company introduced 4 models in 5.4-ounce acceptable age for workers in a footwear factory is 18, and
jersey using a 3% blend of organic cotton the minimum age for workers in factories producing any
with conventional cotton. This was through other NIKE product is 16. This is even higher than the mini-
one US vendor only and the total volume mum age set by the ILO. (International Labor Organisation).
at that time was 30 million T-shirts. By In addition, in 1994, NIKE was the first company in the
1999, volume was 75 million units, and the Sports and Fitness and/or apparel industry to conduct
programme had extended to sweatshirts and continuous third party monitoring. Today NIKE has developed
socks. Since the programme began in 1997, this programme further to involve not only companies like
Nike has used 2.2 million pounds of organic Price WaterhouseCoopers, who conduct Code of Conduct
cotton which has eliminated 330 tonnes Compliance Monitoring visits, but also NGOs and other out-
of toxic chemicals from contaminating the side organizations who engage workers, listen to their voice,
environment (Calculations by SCP). and make sure that the standards that have been set are not
Nike’s choice of a 3% blend of organic cotton only being met, but are continually improving.
with conventional cotton was based on price; In addition to the opportunities the jobs themselves provide,
the conversion amounted to an increase in 85% of the footwear factories currently offer after-hours
FOB cost of just 2 cents per t-shirt. education to workers. Many factories have set up recreation
By 2010, Nike is aiming for 3% of the cotton and activity centres, and all footwear factories, and many
consumption for the entire company to of the larger apparel and equipment factories, have on-site
be organic. This would include European medical clinics.
and Asian vendors as well as the initial US
vendor. OTHER RESEARCH: Nike says that by 2001, nine out of
Conversion to 100% organic cotton across 10 shoes it manufactures will be made without toxic glues,
PHOTOGRAPHY: JETTE JØRS
the whole range would not be immediately cleaners, or solvents. The company has also pledged to
possible due to the limited supply of organic find an alternative to sulphur hexafluoride, a greenhouse gas
fibre and the economic risk at that volume used in air cushions for its shoes. Ultimately the company
of eroded margin. Nike is carefully planning says it wants to sell products that are made from recycled
the increase in the organic percentage both materials and are themselves recyclable.
20 CASE STUDIES 21 CASE STUDIES
PHOTOGRAPHY: THOMAS TOLSTRUP
BUSINESS: Sustainable Solution Design tions when dealing with sustainable clothes. It is an area in For Sustainable Solution Design Associa-
Association (Foreningen til fremme af constant change and where no answer key is given. tion and Paradigm the design process itself
Bæredygtigt Design) and Paradigm employ is rather long because you will often keep
three people. From the very beginning the aim was to work with as envi- returning to the idea before it finally comes
ronmentally friendly textiles as possible. But since only a few into shape. Naturally, Sustainable Solution
LOCATION: Denmark textiles are ecolabelled most of the work included to build up Design Association and Paradigm have opted
and nourish personal contact to the sub-suppliers. Sustain- to put great emphasis on creating a dynamic
HISTORY: Sustainable Solution Design able Solution Design Association and Paradigm could thus design compared with the sustainable tex-
Association was established in 1995 by the personally warrant the textiles that they used and continu- tiles they are working with. They have taken
designers Tina Hjort and Drude Breds with ously influence the suppliers making requests of environmen- up the challenge posed by each individual
active participation from the board which tal principles and asking loads of questions. textile and tried to further develop these at
amongst others included Helle Krüger. The a level appropriate to present trends with
aim was to gather and communicate knowl- Sustainable Solution Design Association and Paradigm only prints, pegs, embroideries etc.
edge about sustainable clothing. This knowl- use organic cotton and organic flax for their basic collec-
edge was communicated to consumers, tion and in addition they only use materials such as piña At first the real challenge was to design
designers, manufacturers etc. via lectures, (pineapple fibres) and uncultivated silk and wool which has simple, feminine and well-fitting daily attire
articles, the fashion magazine “Itch” and the not been sprayed as an exclusive supplement to the collec- made of sustainable fabrics. A basic col-
fashion show “Organic” at the “First Organic tion. Sustainable Solution Design Association and Paradigm lection has now been designed having had
World Trade Fair” in Holmen in 1996. have decided to see the immediate limitation to the range of regard to the environment in the form of dif-
sustainable fabrics as a challenge which has made this work ferent paddings, casting offs, ornaments etc.
Through Sustainable Solution Design Asso- even more interesting since it is no longer just a question of
ciation’s work the aim is to encourage the styles and dyes. But in order to put a stop to the myth that
target group to integrate sustainable princi- organic clothes are boring and unsaleable
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION’S
ples when buying and designing clothes and ENVIRONMENTAL CODE OF CONDUCT:
they have also considered it a challenge to
in production at par with other parameters • to work with materials from environmentally certified producers - or materials make suggestions to unique wedding, gala
produced by already known producers - who work in accordance with environmentally
such as quality, design and price. safe processes.
and party gowns of the future where espe-
• to avoid fabrics of mixed varieties (considering the disposal phase) except from cially the crafts involved in the different Fair
fabrics providing longer wear and abrasion resistance or undergoing a similar degrada-
In cooperation with Helle Krüger the efforts tion phase.
Trade projects were emphasised in combina-
to communicate the above vision were in • to avoid fabrics which have been subjected to undue additional treatment with tion with Paradigm’s ideas.
chemicals.
1999 expanded to establish the company • to use high-quality fabrics. To include ethics which are at par with the environment
SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION’S CODE
named Paradigm who develops and pro- and design.
OF DESIGN:
duces environmentally friendly and exclusive • to design garments of a classic and the latest cut.
• to base designs on previous years’ models.
garments. Sales from paradigm’s store DESIGN PRINCIPLES: Sustainable Solution Design Associa- • to add value to the design through embroideries and details of
have primarily included a unique production tion and Paradigm have attached main importance to the use good craftsmanship.
• to combine the materials to obtain lightness and consistency
manufactured by Paradigm itself. of natural textiles because they are the most suitable for the between the materials.
company’s designs. This is not to say that synthetic textiles • to reuse excess materials as insertions in different models.
• to find solutions to avoid interlining materials – or to use
SUSTAINABLE PRINCIPLES: Sustainable will not be used or that Sustainable Solution Design Associa- environmentally friendly fabrics as interlining materials.
Solution Design Association and Paradigm tion and Paradigm believe that natural fibres are always more
soon realised that there are no definitive solu- environmentally friendly than synthetic fibres.
22 CASE STUDIES 23
BUSINESS: The Sustainable Cotton Project USA. Organic cotton acreage in California is currently at 3,000
(SCP) is a non-profit based group of farmers acres, but could increase to whatever the market demands, as
who help cotton growers to convert from long as farmers have pre-harvest contracts.
conventional to organic farming.
In 1998, SCP launched its Cleaner Cotton Campaign, an
LOCATION: U.S.A. initiative aiming to increase the markets for organic cotton in
the textile industry. Will Allen, executive director of SCP, and a
HISTORY: Through their programme named farmer himself, and Lynda Grose, fashion designer, give pres-
BASIC (Biological agricultural systems in Cotton) entations to companies in the textile industry, to educate them
farmers who have already converted to organic about conventional cotton farming, the organic alternatives,
farming mentor new farmers through the and to present successful models for implementing organic
transition. BASIC is not a certification system, cotton production in the industry.
it is a programme developed by farmers for
farmers to take steps to reduce their use of The presentation takes the form of a slide show covering
chemicals and eventually convert to organic market trends, increased consumer awareness about ecology
farming systems. SCP’s pilot project is in and graphic representation of strategies which a company
California, and is now expanding to Missouri, might adopt or implement in their own production. Contacts
in the organic industry are supplied to the companies to help
COMPANIES WHICH HAVE SHOWN initiate research into the possibilities of developing their own
INTEREST IN ORGANIC PROGRAMMES organic cotton fabrics.
SO FAR INCLUDE:
Company owners and managers are encouraged to join
Next (/*), Adidas (/), Target (/x), Mervyns farm tours of the Californian organic and conventional cotton
(/), L.L. Beans (::), Hanna Anderson (*/), farms to witness the difference between the two methods of
Norm Thompson (*::) and Eddie Bauer (: farming for themselves. The farm tours are held from October
:), USA, and Jigsaw (x) and Mothercare to November each year, just as the cotton crop is being har-
(x), UK. vested. This is when the contrast between organic and conven-
tional farming methods is at it’s starkest. Defoliants, which are
SYMBOLS
* = developing organic cotton programmes
used to strip the leaves from the plant to enable easier picking
x = testing organic cotton fabric of the bolls are amongst the most toxic chemicals used in
:: = have been on a farm tour
conventional cotton farming.
/ = have seen an SCP presentation
Many players in the textile and clothing industry believe that about how Nike and Patagonia have intro-
there is a contradiction in working with sustainability and duced 100% or 50% use of organic cotton
fashion. Firstly, because fashion equals excessive consump- instead of conventional cotton. This has not
tion controlled by fast-changing trends and, secondly, because changed their style or their target groups in
many people associate environmentally friendly clothes with any way.
unbleached, undyed and shapeless items which are thus unsale- It will of course require an open mind and a
able. Ideas of fanaticism, holiness and other forms of negative wish to gain knowledge of the subject before
attitudes could also be a great barrier. But many consumers it is possible to do anything at all. This is why
are also open to the issue following the general trend which the designer, who has the ability to adjust
increasingly puts an emphasis on the origin of a product. ideas to current trends, company styles,
Today it is to a large extent the designer and the buyer who economy etc., is very well-qualified to seam-
are able to change attitudes and take part in a new sustain- lessly integrate sustainable principles.
able development of the production. Making their options and
purchases they often have far more power and thus far more Today it is not a natural part of the work-
responsibility than would be attributed to today’s conscious ing process to consider sustainability. It
consumer. People still disagree whether environmental behav- will therefore require much of the individual
iour is a trend which has come to stay; or whether the trend member of staff to introduce these principles
is reserved for a specific part of the population the “politically to his/her workplace and/or incorporate
correct” buyers. them in his/her daily routines. But designers/
Designers and buyers may therefore launch products on the buyers should not feel discouraged. Many dif-
market which are not necessarily perceived to be environmen- ferent suggestions are presented as to which
tally friendly and thus cater for a much larger target group. correct environmentally friendly options to
The sustainable element will thus become a natural part of the make. Sometimes these issues become
production itself and will no longer be accredited as a short- confusing. But instead of becoming confused
term trend. This will also put pressure on the producers so that or losing the plot – face up to the challenge!
the influence will also have an effect the other way and it may If you understand how to turn the process
gradually stimulate more environmentally friendly production. round, you will experience that the limita-
tions can become an interesting challenge
This is illustrated in Fig. X (The Old Model) and Fig. Y (The New which will only make you wiser. Please note
Model) where Environmental Resources Management in coop- that there is no such thing as asking stupid
eration with the designer Lynda Grose has prepared a chart questions – it is better to ask one too many
describing how industry operates today and how it may change questions than one too few! The most impor-
and improve. tant point is to be persistent and take small
In Fig. X it appears quite clearly that the designer’s field of steps at the time. It can make the process
activity is limited to relating to current trends i.e. exclusively to simpler if, in the beginning, only one issue is
movements in cultural trends: colours, shapes, styles and pos- investigated: e.g. dyeing. And if for example
sibly also sales potential. The designers and the buyers do not it is desirable to use a synthetic fibre due to
relate at all to any information submitted before then regarding resistance to wear and tear, the sustainable
the production itself. option will of course be the synthetic fibre in
If you take a closer look at Fig. Y you will see that they are stead of a natural fibre that is not durable.
actually not mutually exclusive which therefore puts far more It is also possible to receive professional
responsibility on the designer. Trends, colours and cultural guidance and assistance. Today there are
changes in society should not exclude a fundamental aware- many institutions and organisations – both
ness and interest in the development and production of the Danish and international ones – who are
Food
industry
Social trends,
Seed Advertising Consumer culture &
subculture
Colour, style,
Pallets &
Designer material and
rangers
texture
MODEL
THE OLD
Customer
FIG. Y
29
MODEL
THE NEW
Social trends,
Consumer
Advertising culture &
awareness
subculture
Government
Farmers Spinners
Educational establishments
Colour, style,
Pallets & Constraints &
material and
rangers opportunities
texture
Designer
30 ETHICS 31 KAPITEL
We must behave ethically to achieve sustainability but our when they are at work but they never talk
ethic values are not always in the best interest of others. about it. It is considered very shameful to be
laid off and they will be laid off if they make
Ethics means a way of living and all individuals have a set of the slightest complaints.
values according to which they should live.
We will have to evaluate our product from cradle to grave. Some of the mills have very few toilets for
According to which principles do we want to live? What are many hundreds of people and the workers
our attitudes to society? have to fill in forms to monitor how often
they go to the toilet. Therefore many of the
Textile mills throughout the world use cheap labour and create workers avoid using the toilets by skipping
jobs and generate export earnings for the poorer countries. breakfast or not having a drink all day.
But it is often at the expense of the environment and human
rights. Far too many people work in poor working conditions The press hardly ever reports criticism of
that are damaging to their physical and mental health. the clothing industry in Bangladesh to avoid
accusations of attempting to ruin the biggest
There are about 120m inhabitants in Bangladesh and by export success Bangladesh has experienced.
1998 approximately 1.4m people were employed in more The clothing manufacturers have a strong
than 2,000 textiles mills. If the administrative staff were union with powerful political connections
included, such as clerks, cleaners and drivers etc. the figure so they are therefore not the ones who will
would be approximately 5m people who directly or indirectly attempt to improve working conditions.
depend on the clothing industry.
CONSUMER DEMANDS IN THE WEST
THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY VIOLATES HUMAN RIGHTS However, it has turned out that the demands
Clothing accounts for 68% of Bangladesh’s exports. The clothing made by consumers in the rich part of the
industry is helping in many ways to develop one of world’s world can make a difference.
poorest countries to incorporate it into the global economy. The conscious consumer has existed for many
But it is at the expense of the environment and human rights. years and has helped to change history.
Examples of the above include Yugoslavia,
At the mills the factory workers are often not allowed to Burma and the Shell ban during apartheid
speak to each other while they are working unless they want in South Africa and also the drop in sales of
to discuss job-related issues. The factory owners claim that French wine and cheese to Danish consum-
it will reduce the efficiency. ers as a response to the nuclear tests.
According to a survey made by the organisation Action Aid, Nike is also a good example. By and
20% of unmarried women who work at the country’s textile large Nike itself has no production plants.
mills have sex with their supervisors. 15% of the women Practically everything it sells is made by its
only have sex with these men because they want to achieve suppliers and sub-suppliers throughout the
RED BARNET
something, e.g. to receive their wages on time or simply to world – especially in third-world countries.
receive all the DKK 180 which is the average monthly wages Previously Nike had not formulated its ethi-
for a sewing machinist. cal values. Nike had not undertaken social
PHOTOGRAPHY:
The women work in wretched conditions and many are raped therefore constantly criticised because its
32 KAPITEL 33 ETHICS
suppliers or sub-suppliers employed child tries is described – according to the ILO (International Labour
labour. Organisation) Convention – as general labour performed by
Nike lost billions due to this criticism and any one under the age of 14 years or for hazardous work by
because the consumers imposed a massive any one under 18 years.
boycott of its goods. However, the above-mentioned convention is still being
interpreted in many different ways and many international
This resulted in Nike changing its course businesses have even stricter requirements to age limits
radically. than those set by the ILO.
COMPANY HEALTH-CHECKS Our ethical attitudes to child labour may be right for us in the
More and more companies have now rich part of the world but the same attitudes might have seri-
implemented ethical guidelines because it ous consequences for families in the third world.
is too expensive to have a bad reputation If for example child labour is experienced with one supplier
and a bad reputation can take a long time to and the company therefore decides to terminate the relation-
remedy. Many large companies therefore try ship the livelihood for an entire family might disappear with
to build up a good image and avoid a poor disastrous consequences for many children who are forced
one. And therefore it has become crucial to into prostitution because they have to earn money to support
check that the good intentions are actu- their family somehow.
ally met. Many international audit firms and
consultancies are engaged in overseeing One solution might be to accept that human rights can only
that the companies’ suppliers in developing be met through opportunities for education and then tell the
countries meet the requirements. supplier that light child labour is acceptable but only after
Not only do they prepare a “Code of Con- school. Nike has for example established schools where their
duct” for the companies to follow but they suppliers employ child labour.
also work out procedures for checking that
the code is adhered by the company and by ANIMALS AND THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY
the suppliers. They also prepare contingency As with human beings there are many aspects to consider on
plans for the company in case breaches of the use of animals in the clothing industry. The industry uses
the guidelines should occur. for example hides, leather, fur, feathers and wool from many
different animal species.
THE BUYERS SHOULD BE CHECKED
There may be many suppliers and sub-sup- But in contrast to human beings for whom a number of rules
pliers in many different countries behind one are set worldwide on how humans should live and be treated,
product. This means that the buyers acting no such set of rules has been set for animals. The consumer
for companies with ethical guidelines should organisations have to put pressure on this and legislation has
be geared to inspect the sub-suppliers and to to be introduced in this area.
ask the right questions.
We could emphasise certain points of resemblance between
The buyers are important because once the animal ethics within the food industry and the textile and
contract is signed it can be difficult to set clothing industry. This could for example be the number of
new requirements. It is therefore important animals cramped in a specific area and a set of rules for how
for the companies to train their buyers so we should treat animals bred for the clothing industry.
they are able to assess whether the suppliers
can and will meet the ethical guidelines and Animal ethics is an emotive topic. The limit on what is right
that for example they do not employ children. and what is wrong – or good or bad – can be a very personal
issue which each designer, buyer or company should form
COMPLEX CHILD LABOUR an opinion on.
Many companies have made it a requirement
of their supplier that they do not use child The only thing, which can be said to be under present legisla-
labour. Child labour in the developing coun- tion worldwide, is that it is prohibited to kill and use the hides
or fur from endangered species.
34 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE 35 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE
Not only do textiles affect the environment during production of the fabrics but also during
the cultivation and manufacturing process of the fibres and not least during the consumption
phase where laundry and disposal has a considerable effect on the environment.
It will be important to consider the entire process »from cradle to grave« when assessing a
textile’s impact on the environment.
The figures give a clear overview of the environmental impact of textile products made from
polyester and from cotton. In the section below we will give a more detailed description of
the environmental impact of a textile product.
36 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE 37 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE
POLYESTER MANUFACTURING
Polyester is a man-made fibre which is
manufactured from refined raw oil. Raw oil
is not a renewable resource.
The fibre is made from raw oil passing
through a number of processes during
which chemicals are added many of which
are suspected of being carcinogenic.
SPINNING
The noise level is very high when the
fibres are spun and much waste from the
fibres and yarns is seen. Spinning oils are
also used and these do not easily break
down when they are washed out later and
discharged into the wastewater.
DISPOSAL
Large amounts of clothes are disposed of
each year. The clothes may either be recy-
cled or they may end up in the waste bin
for later to be taken to waste incineration
plants or landfills.
WEAVING
Like the spinning process the weaving one
is very noisy.
Sizing agents are used for the weaving USE AND LAUNDRY
process to reinforce the longitudinal yarns. When consumers buy clothes, the clothes
When the size is flushed during later often contain residuals from the chemicals
processes, it will affect the surrounding that were used during the separate produc-
water environment (lake, river and sea) tion processes and in some cases may
because of the high contents of organic cause irritation of the skin or eczema.
compounds, which for example can cause The laundry process also affects the envi-
oxygen depletion and kill off fish. ronment. A textile product only needs to
be washed a few times for more energy to
have been used for this process than for
the production of the product itself.
WET TREATMENT
Wet treatment includes a large number
of processes: desizing, prewashing and
bleaching, dying, printing, after treatment
and heat treatment. The spinning oils and
sizing agents are washed out of the fabrics TRANSPORT AND SALES
during the wet treatment process and vari- The fabrics and the finished clothing are
ous chemicals, e.g. detergents, dyes and often transported from one end of the
solvents, many of which may damage the
SEWING world and back again. The heavy consump-
The sewing process affects the external tion of fuel affects the environment.
environment and human health, are added
environment especially because of dis- Many resources are also used for packag-
during the separate processes.
posal of large amounts of fibre, textile and ing which when disposed of affects the
packaging waste. environment.
The most difficult issue in the sewing
process is working conditions, particularly
the risk of repetitive strain injuries and
exposure to toxic fumes from the residual
chemicals in the textiles such as for exam-
ple formaldehyde.
PHOTOGRAPHY: JETTE JØRS
42 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 43 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
44 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 45 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The path from cotton seed or extraction of of fibre/textile chosen for the product will have a significant is not complete and even more brand names same environmental effects are related to the production
raw oil to the end product is a long one and impact on the environment are likely to be found at trade fairs and with of all types of natural fibres or all types of chemical fibres.
there are many links in the chain which affect suppliers. Each type of fibre has its “own” environmental impact. In this
the environment. Today there are so many different types of textiles on the section examples will be given of some of the environmental
market that it can be very difficult to keep track of all of There are many different environmental problems associated with the production of a selection of
The aim of this section is to give an under- them and know their effect on the environment during the difficulties connected with the manufacturing both natural fibres and chemical fibres.
standing of the scale of the environmental manufacturing process. In the table below a number of process of a textile whether it is based on
difficulties from the very beginning when the fibres are listed and divided into categories according to natural or artificial fibres. It is by no means In Table 2 below a number of environmental effects caused
fibre is grown or manufactured until disposal their properties as natural or chemical fibres. Natural fibres only the manufacturing process of the fabric by the production of natural and chemical fibres are
of the end product when it is worn or has are fibres from either plants or animals. Chemical fibres are which puts pressure on the environment described.
become obsolete. man-made fibres which can be made from either plant fibres which we indicated above in the description
which are regenerated (reclaimed) e.g. viscose or which of the life cycle of polyester and cotton. In general it could be argued, however, that the difference
CHOOSING TYPES OF TEXTILES can be pure synthetic fibres that are extracted from raw oil, It is difficult to generalise and claim that the in environmental terms between natural fibres and synthetic
When the designer chooses his/her fabrics such as for example polyester. In Table 1 under chemical
for a new product range and the buyer pur- fibres the names in italics are brand names. For example for TABLE 2:
chases the fabrics from the supplier, the type polyester we have listed five different brand names. The list
ENVIRONMENTAL NATURE FIBRES CHEMICAL FIBRES
IMPACT
TABLE 1:
NATURAL REGENE- SYNTHETIC
RATED
NATURAL FIBRES CHEMICAL FIBRES
Cotton Flax etc. Wool etc. Viscose and Polyester Polyamide Acrylic
Plant fibres Animal fibres Regenerated fibres are fibres Synthetic fibres are made bast fibres 1 animal similar fibres (Nylon)
made from natural from sythetic polymers fibres cellulose
regenerated (reclaimed) extracted from raw oil fibres 2
plant fibres
GROWING /
FIBRE MANUFACTURING
Cotton Wool Viscose Polyamide or nylon
Water consumption
Flax Camel Floxan Enkalon
Hemp Alpaca Swelan Perlon Pesticides - - - -
Jute Angora Modal Rilsan Wastewater - - - -
Ramie Cashmere Avril Tactel Air emission - - -
Manila Mohair Polynosic Polyester PRODUCTION OF
FABRICS
Sisal Silk Vincel Dacron
Water consumption
Coco Hair Cupro Diolon
Wastewater
Pineapple Lyocell Tergal
PCP/TeCP - - -
Banana Tencel Teteron
Chlorine bleaching - - -
Acetate Trevira
Metal complex dyes - -
Dicel Acrylic or polyacrylic
Allergy-provoking - - - - - -
Rhodia Acrilan dyes
Triacetate Cashmilon Carrier - - - - - -
Arnel Courtelle Petrol-based printing -
Tricel Dralon AFTERTREATMENT /
Modacrylic FINISH
Vonnel Formaldehyde - - - -
Dynel Flame retardants
Chlorofibres or polychloride
Rhovyl
: Significantly relevant environmental impact by the fibre in question
Polypropylene
: Partly relevant
Elasthane
- : Not relevant
Lycra
Polyurethane : The category of bast fibres includes ramie, jute and hemp, for example
1
Vinylal : Including amongst others acetate, triacetate, cupro, lyocell and modal
2
46 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 47 MILJØPROBLEMER
the use of pesticides. But in 1996 the organic cotton pro- PRODUCTION OF NATURAL FIBRES
duction amounted to approximately 20,000 tonnes, which ALSO AFFECTS THE WATER
corresponds to approximately 0.1% of the total global cotton ENVIRONMENT
production. So there is still long way to go! Wool comes primarily from sheep. The raw
wool is full of natural impurities and grease
In Australia and New Zealand sheep are often sprayed with which will be removed during the washing
or immersed in pesticides to kill the parasites, lice and fleas, process. The wastewater from the washing
found in their wool. However, it should be emphasised that process contains large amounts of grease
Danish sheep farmers rarely use this form of chemical treat- which, when discharged into the wastewater,
ment. is favourable to the growth of algae which
At present there is very little pesticide-free wool available on may cause oxygen depletion and kill off fish.
the global market and apparently the farming of organic wool When the wastewater has a large content of
is mostly connected with production of organic mutton and grease (organic substance) it is known as
lamb. having a high COD/BOD level.
When flax is extracted from the stalks of the
COTTON GROWING REQUIRES LARGE flax plant, the stalks undergo a process to
QUANTITIES OF WATER soften them. This process is called retting
Another big environmental problem connected with cotton and if it is carried out in basins without appro-
growing is that for optimum growth the cotton plant requires priate cleaning facilities for the wastewater,
large quantities of water which can only be achieved by the process can cause pollution due to the
irrigation. This puts considerable demand on the water oxygen depleting substances discharged into
resources and soil erosion is often seen due to uncontrolled the aquatic environment. The retting process
use of irrigation. for flax can also be carried out in the field
itself (field retting) where the dew will help
A frightening example of the consequences of large con- bringing about the natural disintegration of
sumption of water is from the Aral Lake in Russia where the the flax. This process is considered the most
water level in the lake has fallen by 50% due to irrigation environmentally friendly.
of large areas of land being used for growing cotton. Due
to heavy use of pesticides and fertilisers, polluted soil and EXAMPLES OF HOW THE ENVIRONMENT
ground water have caused large problems for animals and IS AFFECTED BY THE PRODUCTION OF
humans; among other things it has had an effect on the FABRICS
world’s highest child mortality rate in the area and a large During recent years many Danish textile
number of spontaneous abortions, cancer of the stomach producers have introduced new, cleaner
and the like. technological solutions in their production.
This has had the effect that production in
THE PRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL FIBRES many areas has become more environmen-
AFFECTS THE AIR AND WATERS tally friendly. However, there are still many
During the production of chemical fibres, i.e. both regener- areas in which the environmental measures
ated and synthetic fibres, the environment will especially be could be improved and naturally this espe-
affected because substances that are harmful for the envi- cially applies to the large number of foreign
ronment and human health are emitted into the air and the sub-suppliers.
water. For example during the production of polyester volatile The production of the textile, i.e. the produc-
organic substances and hazardous chemicals are emitted tion of the fabric, covers many processes
which are classified as being possibly carcinogenic. ranging from spinning, weaving, knitting, wet
Viscose is extracted by dividing wood into fine particles treatment and sewing. Various environmental
which are dissolved in a water solution. This process also problems are attributed to all these proc-
FOTO: CARY S. WOLINSKY
produces large quantities of wastewater with high contents esses for all the different types of fibres.
of organic substances and hydrogen-sulphide and carbon For example some of the problems are
sulphide, both substances are classified as environmentally caused during the spinning, weaving and
hazardous. knitting processes by the use of various
chemicals, especially spinning oils, wax and
50 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 51 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
PHOTOGRAPHY: HELLE KRÜGER
52 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 53 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
sizing agents. The spinning oils do not easily break down There is a special group of dyes for wool knitwear and sizing agents are only discharged from woven DISPOSAL OF CLOTHES MAY ALSO
naturally, i.e. they are slowly degradable. The sizing agents called chrome-mordant dyes. These are used items). Excess dyes are discharged from the dyeing process. AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT
cause many difficulties because they are flushed out during for very dark shades, especially black and Excess dyes can affect the microorganisms at the sewage When our clothes become worn and
subsequent processes and cause a large content of organic marine. They pollute the wastewater with plants to such a degree that they are unable to clean the unfashionable, we throw them away. From an
substances in the wastewater. Besides, environmentally chrome and the dichromate in the finished water. environmental perspective it seems that the
harmful preservative such as for example PCH (pentachlo- textile which is harmful to human health best thing to do is to recycle them, either by
ridephenole) may have been added to the size which should (although they are used in very small quanti- EXAMPLES OF HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS AFFECTED giving them to the Red Cross or to sort and
not be used in production if you want to be able to use the ties in Denmark). BY THE AFTER TREATMENT OF FABRICS reuse the clothes for e.g. production of yarn,
eco-label “the EU Flower” for your textiles. There are many different forms of after treatment aimed at cotton waste, mattresses etc. However,
There are a number of dyes that are altering some of the fibre’s properties and providing it with there may also be problems with sending
CHEMICALS AND DYES WHICH AFFECT THE ENVIRON- suspected of causing allergy. These types new ones. For example, it can be made less flammable, them to the Red Cross for reuse since the
MENT ARE USED IN PRODUCTION of dyes are called dispersion dyes and are water and oil resistant, dirt-repelling, softer, superwash clothes will eventually end up as waste some-
When a fabric is produced it will undergo many processes primarily used for polyester and sometimes (wool), antistatic, resistant to moth etc. where in the world and it might be in a place
generally called wet treatment. Wet treatment includes the for triacetate. For after treatment of cotton the following processes are with no incineration facilities where the waste
following processes: desizing, prewashing, bleaching, mer- used: crease fastness finishing also called “easy care”, will end up in landfills.
cerising, dying and printing. A number of chemicals and dyes Polyester is normally dyed at 130°C and at a “no iron”, “wash and wear” etc. This form of finishing may If the clothes are not reused they will end
are used which are considered to have an adverse effect on pressure of several atmospheres. For several contain large amounts of formaldehyde which is on the list up in the waste bin and often hauled to the
the environment and human health. Since these materials reasons this is not always possible and there- of substances considered to be carcinogenic. However, it is incineration plant. At worst the clothes will
increase the toxicity of the wastewater they may accumulate fore the dyeing process has to be carried out possible with the use of modern technology and chemicals to end up in landfills.
in the food chain or be difficult to degrade. at 98°C. Especially polyester/wool mixtures reduce the contents of formaldehyde to very little, if neces- Clothes containing PVC are harmful to the
require such temperatures because the wool sary even to zero. environment after disposal. PVC is made
Natural fibres are often bleached before they are dyed. is unable to tolerate the high temperatures. In order to make clothing less flammable they are treated from raw oil and chlorine and during the pro-
They are bleached to make the dyeing process as effective A so-called carrier therefore has to be used with so-called flame-retardants. They can be based on a duction of PVC vinyl chloride is discharged
as possible. Unfortunately, in many countries the bleaching which is a chemical substance that helps the number of different chemicals all of which are more or less which may cause cancer in human beings.
process involves chlorine-containing bleaching materials dyes to penetrate the polyester fibre. Some damaging to the environment. In synthetic fibres, especially Softeners are added to the PVC. The most
(though these are rarely used in Denmark), which cause a of these carriers may be more harmful to the polyester, there are some fibres which are naturally fire- common softeners are Phthalates which
high chlorine content in the wastewater. The high content of environment than others, i.e. the so-called retardant. are on the Danish Environmental Protection
chloride makes it difficult to clean the wastewater. However, halogenated carriers. On the whole the group Agency’s list of unwanted substances due to
in most cases chlorine bleaching can be replaced by other of carrier chemicals should, however, be USE AND LAUNDRY the harmful effects on the water environment
less destructive forms of bleaching, mainly peroxide bleach- avoided. New clothes may contain chemical residues which can and human beings.
ing. irritate the skin. A lot of children’s wear have printed pictures
Some printing houses still use petrol based made with pigment dyes which may contain softeners such The PVC often ends at the incineration
Azo dyes belong to the largest main group of textile dyes. It printing systems especially for cellulose as the phthalates which are on the Danish National Working plant and when PVC is burnt, toxic smoke,
is therefore impossible to avoid using them in the production. fibres, which from an environmental point of Environment Authority’s list of carcinogenic substances. In which contains hydrochloric acid, will be
But a few of the azo dyes separate the so-called arylamines view are quite unacceptable. It is now pos- some cases they may also contain glycols which can irritate discharged. The smoke will therefore have
that may cause cancer. The criteria laid down for the EU sible to print by using entirely water-based the skin. to be cleaned but this process will create
Flower include a list of the arylamines which can be used if systems. Although the industry has endeavoured to limit the amount of other environmental problems. Each time two
the producers want their textiles to be labelled with the EU chemical residues in the finished clothes they are unfor- kilograms of PVC are incinerated, another
Flower. THE PRODUCTION OF FABRICS ALSO tunately still found in many finished products. The Danish two kilograms of environmentally hazardous
AFFECTS THE WASTEWATER Environmental Protection Agency therefore recommends that waste will be discharged which will have to
Other dyes may cause other problems as they can contain As with the production of fibres problems new clothes are washed before being worn. be disposed of. The Danish Environmental
impurities of heavy metals. If for example the designers/ also occur to the wastewater when produc- We tend to wash and tumble dry our clothes quite often and Protection Agency has therefore decided
buyers choose turquoise textiles they will have automati- ing fabrics. In general you might say that the that is of great relevance to the impact we cause on the envi- that PVC shall no longer be incinerated at
cally chosen to use heavy metals in their production since fibres made from natural materials (includ- ronment. A textile product only need to have been washed a the ordinary municipal incineration plants.
turquoise shades can generally only be obtained by using ing viscose etc.) require far more water few times for more energy to have been used for this proc- Instead it will have to be taken to the waste
dyes containing heavy metals. These metal complex dyes during the refinement process and they ess than for the production of the product itself. recycling sites as environmentally hazardous
are especially used for cotton, flax and other bast fibres and will therefore create more wastewater. The It is important that the designers/buyers choose a type of waste.
viscose and other regenerated cellulose fibres. wastewater contains residuals especially textile which will retain its quality even after frequent wash- Polyurethane and nylon (polyamide) are good
from spinning oils, needle oils and sizing ing. alternatives to PVC since they are less harm-
Wool and polyamide are often dyed with special dyes that all agents, which are washed out as described ful to the environment and humans.
contain one or more metal complexes regardless of shades. above (needle oils are only discharged from
PHOTOGRAPHY: MIKKEL BACHE
56 SPØRGEGUIDE 57 CHECKLIST
On the following pages you will find guidelines which will help buyers or designers so that the
fabrics chosen for the range will have affected the environment as little as possible during the
production process.
It would be wise to start with a selected part of your production and only to focus on one or two
types of materials to begin with.
58 59 CHECKLIST
The guidelines have been made for the following five types of THE STRUCTURE OF THE CHECKLIST
materials: The checklist contains questions about the production of the various textile
• Cotton fibres and also questions about all five different types of materials.
• Wool
• Viscose The list is structured in this way because the production of the different
• Polyester fibres affects the environment quite differently depending on whether you
• Acrylic produce cotton, wool, viscose, acrylic or polyester fibres. For each of the
five types of materials there will be one or more pages with questions about
There are two types of guidelines: the environment in relation to the production of fibres.
• “The quickies” which can help you to quickly make a good environmental choice.
• The Checklist which will give you a number of essential questions to ask The environmental impact from the spinning mills, weaving mills, knitting mills
your suppliers. and dye-works, on the other hand, is more or less the same whether cotton,
wool, viscose, acrylic or polyester is produced. This is why the same
“The quickies” and the Checklist can be found on the Internet at questions were listed for all five materials under the headings: Spinning mills,
www.guidelines.dk. You can always make a new print out whenever you need Weaving mills, Knitting mills and Dye-works/Prints.
one. You will also find a checklist for your own use, which is not completed,
so you can add your own questions. However, the materials differ also at these stages of the production.
Therefore a few questions specifically about one or more of the materials
Both types of guidelines are described in more details below. have been inserted.
“The quickies” can be used as the first step towards incorporation of the • First, use the questions about cotton growing and harvesting. Either use all
environment in your production. the questions or select a few.
• Next, use the questions about spinning mills, weaving mills and dye-works/
“The quickies” can also be used e.g. when you come across a specific textile print. You can for example decide only to use the general questions or only
at a trade fair and you want to find out whether it is environmentally friendly. the questions about cotton.
On these pages you will find some essential details that can help you to assess whether a specific textile is
good environmental choice. Under each heading the details are divided into the products you should choose
and the products you should avoid if you want to make a choice that considers the environment.
“The quickies” can be used as the first step to better understand where it is important to make a choice. In
this way you can select the questionnaires in the Checklist which you want to start using.
POLYESTER
You can also choose to use “The quickies” as the first questions to ask of the supplier about the textile you
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:
are interested in buying. You can either rewrite the details as questions or find them at the back in the
Checklist. • the wastewater discharged from all polyester fibre • catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese
production stages is cleaned before discharge are used for the production of the polyester fibre
COTTON • the air emitted from all polyester fibre production • the catalytic agent antimontrioxide is used for the
stages is cleaned before discharge production of the polyester fibre.
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:
• the chemicals used for the production of polyester
• the cotton is 100% organically grown according to • defoliants are used before the cotton is picked fibres are collected and recycled if possible
organic principles
• solvents are used in the prewashing of the fabric
• the cotton is grown without using pesticides. (prior to dyeing)
ACRYLIC
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE: • the wastewater discharged from all acrylic fibre • vinyl acetate (VA) is used for the production of
production stages is cleaned before discharge acrylic fibres
• the sheep are 100% organically bred according to • pesticides are used to control external parasites in
organic principles the sheep • the air emitted from all acrylic fibre production stages • acrylicamide (AA) is used for the production of
is cleaned before discharge acrylic fibres
• solvents are used in washing of the raw wool
• the chemicals used for the production of acrylic fibres • N,N-dimethyl-formamid is used as a solvent for
• PER (perchloroethylene) is used as a cleaner for are collected and recycled if possible the production of acrylic fibres
washing the raw wool
• spinning oils are used which easily break down • preservatives (e.g. PCP) that are harmful to the
VISCOSE environment and human health are used for the sizing
• the size used for weaving is collected and recycled agent for weaving
CHOOSE FABRICS WHERE: AVOID FABRICS WHERE:
• dyes of high fixation rates are used (high dyeability) • dyes and pigments that may cause allergy or that are
• the wood used is grown according to sustainability • chlorine-containing bleachers are used for the carcinogenic are used
principles production of viscose fibres • the wastewater from the dye works is cleaned
biologically before it is discharged • heavy metal containing dyes are used
• the wastewater from the production of viscose fibres • zinc sulphate is used for the production of viscose
undergoes biological purification before discharge fibres • a printing process based on water is used instead of • after treatment agents containing formaldehyde are
a process based on solvents used for the dyeing process.
• the air emitted from all viscose fibre production stages • catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese are
is cleaned before discharge used for the production of viscose fibres
62 CHECKLIST 63 CHECKLIST
YES N/A NO
The production of cotton fibres involves growing, harvesting and ginning during which process the cotton
9. Has the cotton been hand picked although defoliants have been used?
fibres are separated from the residual parts of the plant. The production of cotton takes place abroad. Your
questions and requirements should therefore be directed at the distributor from whom your business buys 10. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on how the cotton is grown and harvested?
the spun cotton or the finished cotton fabrics. The word »supplier« in the table shall be referred to as the
supplier of the product you want to buy. COTTON FIBRE – GINNING
11. Are the processes/machinery emitting particularly large amounts of dust sealed during
the ginning of the fibres?
SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL 12. Is the waste from ginning separated into fibre, plant parts and dust so the useable parts can
be recycled?
Name of business:
Contact: 13. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on how the cotton is ginned?
COTTON FIBRE – GROWING AND HARVESTING SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS INSECTICIDES: (INSECTICIDES cont.:)
YES N/A NO • Aldrin • Permethrine
1. Is the cotton fabric made from organically grown cotton awarded any of the following eco-labels? * • Chlorinated camphene (toxaphen) • Pirimicarb
• The international label Certified Organic (OCIA) • Captafol • Malathion
• 2-4-D
NOTE:
*All the above listed pesticides have been banned or subjected to rigorous restrictions in the EU and/or Scandinavia.
64 CHECKLIST 65 CHECKLIST
YES N/A NO
The production of wool fibres involves breeding of sheep, cutting and washing the raw wool which may be
BREEDING AND TRIMMING
carried out either with the help of water or solvents. Sometimes the wool may also go through a so-called
carbonisation process. Most of the wool used in Denmark is produced overseas. Your questions and 1. Is the fabric made from organically grown wool awarded any of the following eco-labels *?2
SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL 2. Is the wool fabric awarded any of the following eco-labels *?
7. Is the wastewater cleaned for residuals of pesticides? (Question should only be asked if pesticides are used)
8. Is the grease from the wool removed from the wastewater?
ASK ABOUT THE USE OF WATER OR SOLVENTS IN THE WASHING OF THE WOOL
9. Is the removed grease from the wool refined into lanolin and sold for the production of
other products (e.g. beauty products)?
10. Is the washing detergent APEO used?
15. Are all the solvents used in the washing collected and recycled?
16. Is the air emitted from the washing cleaned before discharge?
17. Are the different types of waste (e.g. grease from the wool and residues from pesticides) collected
separately and recycled?
18. Are the factory workers protected against dusty processes and fumes from the solvents?
19. Is PER (perchloroethylene) used as a cleaner?
20. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the use of solvents in the washing of the wool?
CARBONISATION
The production of viscose is based on wood. The production of viscose fibres involves manufacturing of the
WOOL – USE OF PESTICIDES* SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS wood i.e. the viscose mass is extracted and the viscose fibres they go through a spinning and after
YES N/A NO treatment process. The questions in the table do not distinguish between the different processes of the
production.
WHICH PESTICIDES HAVE BEEN USED (See question 4)
• Aldrin The production of viscose takes place overseas. Your questions and requirements should therefore be put to
• Arsenic and its mineral salts the distributor from whom your business buys the spun viscose or the finished viscose fabrics. The word
“supplier” in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you want to buy.
• Carbophenotion
• Chlorfenvinphos
SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL
• Chlorpyrifos
Name of business:
• Coumaphos
Contact:
• Cyhalothrine
Phone:
• Cypermethrine Address:
• DDT E-mail:
• DDD Website:
• DDE
• Deltametrin
• Dieldrin VISCOSE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS
• Diazinone YES N/A NO
• Dichlorfenthion 1. Is the wood grown according to sustainability principles?
• Endrin 2. Is the wastewater cleaned at biological water purification plants before discharge (river, lake, sea)?
• Fenchlorphos 3. Is the wastewater cleaned from carbon disulphide, hydrogen sulphide and AOX?
• Fenvalerate 4. Is the air emitted from all production stages purified before discharge?
• Heptachlore, (incl. heptachlorepoxide) 5. Is the air emitted from the manufacturing process purified especially from carbon disulphide and
hydrogen sulphide?
• Hexachlorocyclohexane (incl. all isomers and lindane)
6. Are the chemicals used for the production recycled?
• Malathion
7. Are catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese used?
• Methoxychlore
8. Are chlorine-containing bleachers used?
• Parathione
9. Are chlorine-containing bleachers used for the production?
• Propetamphos
10. Are spinning oils used which do not easily break down?
11. Are products used for the after treatment of the textiles which can affect the environment?
12. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the production of viscose?
(Footnotes) * *All the above listed pesticides have been banned or subjected to rigorous restrictions in the EU and/or in Scandinavia.
68 CHECKLIST 69 CHECKLIST
The production of polyester is based on refined crude oil. The production of polyester fibres involves the The production of acrylics is based on refined crude oil. The production of acrylic fibres involves the
development of various chemical intermediate products and synthesis of the polyester fibres when the development of various chemical intermediate products and synthesis of the acrylic fibres when the acrylic
polyester mass is extracted. At the end of the process the polyester fibres are spun and given after mass is extracted. At the end of the process the acrylic fibres are spun and given after treatment. The
treatment. The questions in the table do not distinguish between the different processes of the production. questions in the table do not distinguish between the different processes of the production.
The production of polyester takes place overseas. Your questions and requirements should therefore be put The production of acrylics takes place overseas. Your questions and requirements should therefore be put to
to the distributor from whom your business buys the spun polyester or the finished polyester fabrics. The the distributor from whom your business buys the spun acrylics or the finished acrylic fabrics. The word
word “supplier” in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you want to buy. “supplier” in the table shall be referred to as the supplier of the product you want to buy.
Contact: Contact:
Phone: Phone:
Address: Address:
E-mail: E-mail:
Website: Website:
1. Is the air emitted from all production stages purified before discharge? 1. Is the air emitted from all production stages purified before discharge?
2. Is the air emitted especially purified from acetaldehyde and 1.4-di-oxane? 2. Is the wastewater from all production stages cleaned before discharge?
3. Is the wastewater from all production stages cleaned before discharge? 3. Are the chemicals used for the production collected and recycled?
4. Is the wastewater specially cleaned from acetaldehyde and 1,4-di-oxane? 4. Is vinyl acetate (VA) used for the production of the product?
5. Is the wastewater from the spinning and the after treatment process biologically cleaned before discharge? 5. Is acrylamide (AA) used for the production of the product?
6. Are the chemicals used for the production collected and recycled? 6. Is N, N-dimethylformamide used as a solvent for the production of the product?
7. Are catalytic agents containing cobalt or manganese used? 7. Are catalytic agents that affect the environment used for the production?
8. Is the catalytic agent antimontrioxide used for the production? 8. Are spinning oils used which do not easily break down?
9. Are catalytic agents that affect the environment used for the production? 9. Are products used for the after treatment of the textiles during the spinning process which can
affect the environment?
10. Are spinning oils used which do not easily break down?
10. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the production of polyester?
11. Are products used for the after treatment of the textiles which can affect the environment?
12. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the production of polyester?
70 CHECKLIST 71 CHECKLIST
The crude fibres are spun into crude yarn at the spinning mill. There are eight or nine spinning mills in The most significant environmental effects from the weaving process more or less apply to all five types of
Denmark. A considerable amount of the crude yarn is spun overseas. The table starts with questions about fibre. The questions asked in the table therefore apply to textiles made of all the above types of fibre.
all five types of fibres and then follows questions about the individual types of fibres.
Phone: Phone:
Address: Address:
E-mail: E-mail:
Website: Website:
1. Are the machines that emit large amounts of dust sealed in order that the fibre dust emitted can 2. Is the waste from fibres, textiles and packaging materials collected and separated into categories
be collected? according to type and then recycled?
2. Are only spinning oils used that do easily break down? 3. Are the factory workers protected from the considerable noise level?
3. Is the fibre and yarn waste collected and separated so it can be recycled? 4. Are preservatives used for the size agents which are harmful to the environment and human health,
e.g. PCP?
4. Are the factory workers protected from the considerable noise level?
5. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the conditions laid down for the woven fabric?
5. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the conditions laid down for the spinning
of the yarn?
COTTON
6. Are any precautions taken to protect the workers from being exposed to the dangerous mixture of
cotton dust and endotoxines?
POLYESTER
7. Is the air emitted from the texturisation process cleaned before discharge?
The most significant environmental effects from the knitting process more or less apply to all five types of At the dye-works the fabric will go through the following processes: desizing, prewashing, prebleaching,
fibre. The questions asked in the table therefore apply to textiles made of all the above types of fibre. dying and after treatment. The table starts with questions about all five types of fibre and then follows
questions about the individual types of fibre.
KNITTING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS DYEING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS
1. Are only needle oils that do easily break down used? 1. Is the wastewater cleaned biologically before discharge?
2. Is the waste from yarns, fabrics and packaging materials collected and separated into categories 2. Is the desizing of the sizing agents based on size made from enzymes?
according to type and then recycled? 3. If enzymes are used for the desizing, is the wastewater cleaned by membrane filtration?
3. Are the factory workers protected from the considerable noise level? 4. If membrane filtration is used for the cleaning of the wastewater, are the cleaned products then recycled?
4. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the conditions laid down for the knitting 5. Are synthetic size agents recycled and concentrated by membrane filtration?
of the products?
6. Are dyes of high fixation rates mainly used (high dyeability)?
7. Is prewashing combined with bleaching?
8. Are after treatment agents containing formaldehyde used for the process?
9. Are heavy metal containing dyes used?
10. Are dyes used which are toxic or which may cause cancer or allergy?
11. Are the detergents APEO or LAS used for the pre-treatment, dyeing or after treatment processes?
12. Are the complexing agents NTA or EDTA used for the pre-treatment, dyeing or after treatment processes?
13. Are the softeners DTDMAC, DSDMAC or DHTDMAC used as softeners after dyeing?
14. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the dyeing of the products?
74 CHECKLIST 75 CHECKLIST
»Printing« involves printing and after treatment processes. The table starts with questions about all five types
FARVERI (FORTSAT) SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS of fibre and then follows questions about the individual types of fibre.
YES N/A NO
COTTON
2. Are the most concentrated alkali baths from mercerisation recycled? SUPPLIER FABRIC/MATERIAL
Name of business:
3. Is the energy, salt and water used for the dye bath from reactive dyeing recycled by coal absorption?
Contact:
4. Is the energy and water used for flushing after reactive dyeing recycled by membrane filtration?
Phone:
5. Is equilibrium rinsing used as an alternative to overflow rinsing after reactive dyeing?
Address:
6. Are mainly low-salt dyes used for the reactive dying process? E-mail:
7. Is hydrogen peroxide used for bleaching as an alternative to chlorine? Website:
10. Are chrome and copper salts used for the direct dyeing process? PRINTING – ALL TYPES OF FIBRE SUPPLIER'S ANSWERS
11. Are dichromates used for the vat dyeing? YES N/A NO
8. Are dyes and pigments used which are toxic or which may cause cancer or allergy?
POLYESTER
9. Are dyes and pigments used which can separate out carcinogenic arylamines?
17. Are high-temperature processes used for the dyeing of polyester?
10. Are the detergents APEO or LAS used for the washing or other after treatment processes?
18. Are chlorinated carriers used for low-temperature dyeing of the polyester?
11. Are the complexing agents NTA or EDTA used for the washing or after treatment processes?
12. Are the softeners DTDMAC, DSDMAC or DHTDMAC used as softeners after printing?
13. Has the supplier any documentation about the details on the printing of the products?
WOOL
14. Are agents containing chlorine used for the anti-felting after treatment?
POLYESTER
15. Is the air emitted from high-temperature hardening purified before discharge?
ACRYLIC
16. Is the air emitted from high-temperature hardening purified before discharge?
PHOTOGRAPHY: CHRISTIAN RUD ANDERSEN
78 ECO-LABELLING 79 ECO-LABELLING
It can be difficult to figure out what the various eco-labels, both European and international ones, that textiles
are labelled with today involve. The aim of this section is to make a brief description of the most prevalent
environmental labels and/or eco-labels which also apply for textiles.
FOR INFORMATION ABOUT The Danish Plant Directorate INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS: Good Environmental Choice
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS: (PLANTEDIREKTORATET) (BRA MILJÖVAL)
Skovbrynet 20 The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
DK - 2800 Lyngby DANISH OFFICES: (Svenska Naturskyddsföreningen)
The Sustainable Solution T: (+45) 45 26 36 00 Norre Állegaten 5
Design Association F: (+45) 45 26 36 10 The International Federation of Organic Box 7005
(FORENINGEN TIL FREMME AF www.plantedirektoratet.dk Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Se - 402 31 Göteborg.
BÆREDYGTIGT DESIGN) DANSK IFOAM T: (+46) 31 711 64 50
www.guidelines.dk The Danish Technological Institute, Clothing Secretary: Mrs Mette Meldgaard F: (+46) 31 711 64 30
and Textile (Oeko-Tex 100/1000; LCA) Organic Denmark E: gbg@snf.se
Green Info (TEKNOLOGISK INSTITUT, BEKLÆDNING OG (Økologisk Landsforening) www.snf.se
(GRØN INFORMATION) TEKSTIL (ØKO-TEX 100/1000; LCA))
Contact: Mr John Hansen Frederiksgade 72
Nørregade 36, 2. sal DK - 8000 Århus C. CCOF, CALIFORNIA CERTIFIED
DK - 1165 København K Gregersensvej ORGANIC FARMERS
Postboks 141 T: (+45) 87 32 27 07 115 Mission Street
T: (+45) 33 13 66 88 F: (+45) 87 32 27 10
F: (+45) 33 13 66 87 DK - 2630 Taastrup Santa Cruz, California 95060
T: (+45) 72 20 21 20 E: mm@okologiens-hus.dk T: (+001) 408 423 2263
E: greeninfo@greeninfo.dk
www.greeninfo.dk F: (+45) 72 20 21 40 F: )+001) 408 423 4528
E: tekstile@teknologisk.dk DEMETER-FORBUNDET
www.teknologisk.dk Birkum Bygade 20 CLEAN CLOTHES KAMPAGNE
The Danish Agricultural Advisory Centre DK - 5220 Odense SØ
Section for Ecology c/o Südwind Agentur
The TEKO Centre in Denmark T: (+45) 65 97 30 50 Laudongasse 40
(LANDBRUGETS RÅDGIVNINGSCENTER F: (+45) 65 97 32 50
SEKTION FOR ØKOLOGI) (TEKO CENTER DANMARK) A-1080 Vienna
Udkærsvej 15 Centre for Environmentally friendly textiles www.demeter.net Austria
DK - 8200 Århus N. Birk Centerpark 5 T: (+43) 1 405 5515 306
T: (+45) 87 40 50 00 Birk The Danish Save the Children Organisation F: (+43) 1 405 55 19
F: (+45) 87 40 50 10 DK - 7400 Herning (RED BARNET) E: cck@oneworld.at, stefan.kerl@oneworld.at
E: info@okologi-kongres.dk T: (+45) 97 12 70 22 Rantzausgade 60 www.oneworld.at/cleanclothes.html
F: (+45) 97 12 32 56 DK - 2200 København N
The Office for Eco-labelling E: teko@teko.dk T: (+45) 35 36 55 55 ECO BALANCE SUSTAINABLE
The EU Flower and The Nordic Swan Label www.teko.dk F: (+45) 35 39 11 19 DESIGN CONSULTANCY PTY LTD
(MILJØMÆRKESEKRETARIATET E: redbarnet@redbarnet.dk Kirsty Máté, Managing Director
BLOMSTEN OG SVANEN) PO Box 93
Gladsaxe Møllevej 15 The Danish Ministry of Food, Croydon Park
DK - 2860 Søborg Agriculture and Fisheries INTERNATIONAL OFFICES: NSW 2133
T: (+45) 39 69 35 36 The Danish Veterinary and Food Administration Australia
F: (+45) 39 69 21 22 (VETERINÆRDIREKTORATET) BIOLOGICAL FARMERS OF AUSTRALIA T: (+61) 2 9554 6655
E: info@ecolabel.dk Mørkhøj Bygade 19 PO Box 3404 Toowoomba Village Fair F: (+61) 2 9554 6688
www.ecolabel.dk DK – 2860 Søborg Level 1, 456 Ruthven St. E: kirsty@ecobalance.com.au
T: (+45) 33 95 60 00 TOOWOOMBA QLD 4350
MILJØBUTIKKEN Australia INSTITUT FÜR MARKTÖKOLOGI
Læderstræde 1-3 T: +61 (0)7 4639 3299 West Strasse 51
DK - 1201 København K F: +61 (0)7 4639 3755 8570 Weinfelden
T : (+45) 33 95 40 00 E: bfa@icr.com.au Switzerland
E: butik@mem.dk www.bfa.com.au T: +41 (0) 71 626 0 626
F: +41 (0) 71 626 0 623
www.IMO.ch
84 LIST OF ADDRESSES 85 LIST OF ADDRESSES
ABSORPTION BOD COMPLEXING AGENTS EQUILIBRIUM RINSE METAL COMPLEX DYES PIGMENT DYES
Adhesion of gasses and liquids to Biological Oxygen Demand or Agents which can anchor metal Rinsing procedure conducted to Group of dyes involving a metal Dyes which are insoluble in water.
the surface of solids. biological oxygen utilisation. salt e.g. in crude water or which establish balance between atom in the molecule. Metal These dyes are especially used for
Measure of the contamination level are discharged from the raw impurities in the fabric and the complex dyes are especially used textile printing.
ACETALDEHYDE of wastewater. cotton when it is washed. rinsing liquid used. for wool and nylon but may also
- or ethanal. May be used in the be used in dye ranges for RATE OF FIXATION
manufacture of polyester. CARBONISATION DEFOLIANTS FORMALDEHYDE cellulose fibres. The percentage of added dyes for
Chemical acid treatment of raw Defoliants are applied to cotton Formaldehyde may be emitted example deposited on the fabric.
ACRYLAMIDE wool to remove vegetable matter. before harvest causing the leaves from certain product used for the NEEDLE OILS
- or propenamide. May be used in of the plant to abscise or fall off. after treatment of textiles, Needle oil is use as a lubricant for REACTIVE DYEING
the manufacture of acrylics. CARBON SULPHIDE especially certain crease-resistant knitting machines. Dyeing processes involving
Carbon sulphide is used to DESIZING finishing products. Formaldehyde reactive dyes primarily used for
ALKALI BATH produce viscose. Removal of size from woven crude can cause allergy or cancer. NTA cellulose fibres but there are also
Bath with a high pH; used in many yarns prior to dyeing or after- - or nitrilotriacetic acid. NTA is certain ranges for the dyeing of
places for wet treatment of CARRIERS treatment. GINNING used as a complexing agent in wet wool and nylon.
textiles. Carriers are substances used for Separation of seed hulls from raw treatment of textiles.
the dyeing processes of polyester. DETERGENTS cotton. REFINED RAW OIL
ANTIMONOTRIOXIDE Some carriers are chlorinated. Detergents which have the ability OVERFLOW RINSE At the refinery the raw oil is
Can be used as a flame retardant. to release the dirt from the GLYCOLS Rinsing procedure involving water separated into fractions according
CATALYST surface and to resist the dyestuff - or aliphatic dioles. inflow during the entire flushing to their properties and the
AOX Substance changing/increasing a solution. programme thus making water purpose they serve.
- or adsorbable organic reaction but itself remaining DICROMATE HYDROGEN overflow. The water consumption
halogens. Especially used as a unchanged. (See Chromation) used for this process will usually SIZE
measure of wastewater contents LAS be unnecessarily excessive. Natural or synthetic polymer
of chlorine-containing substances, CHROMATION DIOXANES Linear alkyl benzene sulfonates. material used to reinforce the yarn
e.g. in connection with bleaching. End-treatment used for chrome Group of cyclic organic oxygen Detergents which are suspected PEROXIDES prior to weaving.
mordant dyeing. Sodium dicro- compounds. Some of them may of being hazardous to the aquatic Group of oxidizing agents. As an
APEO mates or potassium dicromates be used for the production of environment. example hydrogen peroxide is SULPHIDE
- or alkyl phenol ethoxylates. are generally used for this polyester. used as a bleaching agent for wet Sulphur compounds. Sulphide can
Group of detergents that are process. MANGANESE treatment of textiles. be used for sulphide dyeing.
broken down into substances toxic EDTA Manganese is a heavy metal.
to fish. COBALT - or ethylenediaminetetraacetic Manganese can be used for the PESTICIDES TEXTURISATION
The salts of the heavy metal acid. EDTA is used as a complex- production of viscose as a Agents used as a disease control The processing of creasing
ARSENIC cobalt may appear in textile dyes. ing agent in wet treatment of catalytic agent. for crops or animals to control chemical fibres to make them
Toxic compound. Salts derived Some metal complex dyes also textiles. fungal attacks, weeds, insects or better look more like natural
from arsenic compounds can contain cobalt. MERCERISING pests. fibres.
among other things be used as ENDOTOXINES Treatment of cotton products
defoliants. COD Toxic by-products from dead using a strong alkali for improving PHTHALATES VINYL ACETATE
Chemical Oxygen Demand or bacteria. strength, finish and the absorption Group of organic agents used as - or acetic acid ethylene ester.
chemical oxygen utilisation. of dyes. softeners for PVCs. A number of
Measure of the contamination level these phthalates have an adverse
of wastewater. effect on health and environment.
96 THANKS TO THE CONTRIBUTORS 97 KAPITEL
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GUIDELINES
A handbook on the environment for the textile and fashion industry
PUBLISHED BY:
The Sustainable Solution Design Association:
Drude Breds
Tina Hjort
Helle Krüger
CONSULTANTS:
Rambøll:
Eva Himmelstrup Dahl
Peter Engel
TRANSLATED BY:
Anette V. Christensen/Language Consult
PUBLISHED:
November 2002 (English version)
February 2001 (Danish version)
DESIGN:
Kenneth Schultz / www.kennethschultz.dk
PHOTOGRAPHS:
Christian Rud Andersen
Mikkel Bache
Jette Jørs
Zack Griffin / zgrif3@aol.com
Robin Skjoldborg
Thomas Tolstrup
P. Wessel
FRONT PAGE:
Photograph: Robin Skjoldborg, model: Iben/Unique
make-up: Anja Poulsen/Unique Look
PRINTED BY:
Special-Trykkeriet Viborg a-s
EMAS – Miljøregistret
NUMBER PRINTED:
1000
PAPER:
Munken Lynx
ISBN 87-988309-0-2
98 KAPITEL 99 KAPITEL
00 MASTHEAD
02 PREFACE by Svend Auken, Danish Minister for the Environment and Energy (from 1993 to 2001)
04 INTRODUCTION
06 ‘inspiration’ by P. Wessel, Photographer
08 CASE STUDIES: Introduction
10 Marks & Spencer
12 Patagonia
16 Holstein Flachs
18 Nike
20 The Sustainable Solution Design Association
22 The Sustainable Cotton Project (SCP)
24 ‘inspiration’ by Robin Skjoldborg, Photographer
26 THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER/BUYER
30 ETHICS
34 FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE – a clear overview of the environmental impact of
the production, use and disposal of fabrics made from cotton and polyester.
40 ‘inspiration’ by Jette Jørs, Photographer
42 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES – a thorough
description of how the environment is affected by the production, use and
disposal of textiles made from, e.g. cotton, wool, polyester and flax.
54 ‘inspiration, by Mikkel Bache, Photographer
56 FROM FIBRES TO FINISHED FABRICS – Checklist for how you should make a choice A HANDBOOK ON THE ENVIRONMENT FOR
THE TEXTILE AND FASHION INDUSTRY
58 Introduction
60 “The quickies”
62 Questions about the production of cotton fibres
64 Questions about the production of wool fibres
67 Questions about the production of viscose fibres
68 Questions about the production of polyester fibres
69 Questions about the production of acrylic fibres
70 Questions about spinning mills
71 Questions about weaving mills
72 Questions about knitting mills
73 Questions about dye works
75 Questions about print works
76 ‘inspiration’ by Christian Rud Andersen, Photographer
78 ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING SCHEMES
82 LIST OF ADDRESSES
86 NOTES – for your own notes
94 WORD LIST
96 THANKS TO THE CONTRIBUTORS ISBN: 87-988309-0-2 SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION DESIGN ASSOCIATION