Modeling and Control of a Micro-Grid Set Up using

Photovoltaic Arrays
Abstract
This paper presents a complete mathematical model of a micro-grid set up with PV arrays.
The model consists of mathematical design and development of PV module and arrays,
power conditioning DC/DC converter and the inverter set up. These designs are integrated with
an inverter controller that controls the voltage at a power system bus. The complete system is
used as a micro-grid set up connected to a power grid. Testing and evaluations of the
micro-grid is then conducted using off-grid and on-grid studies. The uniqueness of the
proposed modeling and control includes a complete models details of micro-grid set up
with PV system, power conditioning devices and load model, the utilization of an MPPT
and feedback controller to control the output voltage and current. Thus it provides an
appropriate real-life testing platform for micro-grid connections to power grid. Simulation results
show the effectiveness and the accuracy of this microgrid model to emulate real-life scenarios.

I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the concerns of global warming, environmental pollution, and the instability of oil
prices, the development of renewable energy based Distributed Generation (DG) is moving
fast to meet the worldwide urgent needs of utilizing clean energy sources and minimizing
costs. Researchers have identified many renewable energy sources.Among these sources,
photovoltaic (PV) can be considered the most essential resource because of the ubiquity,
abundance, and sustainability of solar radiant energy. The sun radiates approximately 1.8 10 of
power that is intercepted by the Earth. One method of utilizing solar energy is through
PV cells in the form of electrical energy. A group of cells forms a PV module and a
combination of PV modules is called a solar panel, while a group of solar panels is called
a PV array. A photovoltaic system consists of the whole assembly of solar cells, connections,
protective parts, supports, etc. The advantages of a PV system far outweigh its
disadvantages. Some of the advantages include low maintenance, unattended operation,
long life, no fuel, no fumes, easy to install, and it is modular. Disadvantages are high initial
setup costs and low output in cloudy weather. A PV system together with the power conditioning
device and an inverter can be used as a micro-grid setup. Several works have focused on
developing PV model and the charge controller. Some of the research efforts also designed
power conditioning devices and their controller. This work focuses on the development of a
micro-grid model that consists of PV arrays, power conditioning devices and an inverter with
overall and individual controller. The model configuration can be tested off-grid or on-grid. The
paper is designed as follows. Section III is dedicated to the development of the overall microgrid setup and the theory behind modeling each part. This section also presents the

mathematical formulations. Section IV provides the modeling and the simulation results
using MATLAB /Simulink, and the conclusion is presented in section V.
.

PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY
Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the devices which directly
convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic effect involves the creation of voltage in a material upon exposure to
electromagnetic radiation.
The photovoltaic effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel, in
1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when
exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric
effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in
physics. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a
solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In
the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide
power aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability
was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s,
photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.
The solar cell is the elementary building block of the photovoltaic technology. Solar
cellsare made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon. One of the properties of
semiconductors that makes them most useful is that their conductivity may easily be modified by
introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. For instance, in the fabrication of a photovoltaic
solar cell, silicon, which has four valence electrons, is treated to increase its conductivity. On one
side of the cell, the impurities, which are phosphorus atoms with five valence electrons (ndonor), donate weakly bound valence electrons to the silicon material, creating excess negative
charge carriers.
On the other side, atoms of boron with three valence electrons (p-donor) create a greater
affinity than silicon to attract electrons. Because the p-type silicon is in intimate contact with the
n-type silicon a p-n junction is established and a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of
high electron concentration (the n-type side) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type

side). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the ptype side.
However, the diffusion of carriers does not occur indefinitely, because the imbalance of
charge immediately on either sides of the junction originates an electric field. This electric field
forms a diode that promotes current to flow in only one direction.
Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides of the
solar cell, and the electrodes are ready to be connected to an external load. When photons of light
fall on the cell, they transfer their energy to the charge carriers. The electric field across the
junction separates photo-generated positive charge carriers (holes) from their negative
counterpart(electrons). In this way an electrical current is extractedonce the circuit is closed on
an external load.

SOLAR CELL
The photovoltaic effect was first reported by Edmund Becquerel in 1839when he
observed that the action of light on a silver coated platinum electrodeimmersed in electrolyte
produced an electric current. Forty years later the first solid state photovoltaic devices were
constructed by workersinvestigating the recently discovered photoconductivity of selenium.
In1876 William Adams and Richard Day found that a photocurrent couldbe produced in a sample
of selenium when contacted by two heated platinumcontacts. The photovoltaic action of the
selenium differed from itsphotoconductive action in that a current was produced spontaneously
bythe action of light.
No external power supply was needed. In this early photovoltaicdevice, a rectifying
junction had been formed between the semiconductorand the metal contact. In 1894, Charles

Fritts prepared what was probably the first large area solar cell by pressing a layer of
seleniumbetween gold and another metal.
In the following years photovoltaic effectswere observed in copper{copper oxide thin
_lm structures, in lead suppliedand thallium supplied. These early cells were thin film Schottky
barrierdevices, where a semitransparent layer of metal deposited on top of thesemiconductor
provided both the asymmetric electronic junction, which isnecessary for photovoltaic action, and
access to the junction for the incident light. The photovoltaic effect of structures like this was
related to theexistence of a barrier to current flow at one of the semiconductor {metalinterfaces
(i.e., rectifying action) by Goldman and Brodsky in 1914. Later,during the 1930s, the theory of
metal {semiconductor barrier layers wasdeveloped by Walter Schottky, Neville Mott and others.
However, it was not the photovoltaic properties of materials like seleniumwhich excited
researchers, but the photoconductivity. The fact thatthe current produced was proportional to the
intensity of the incident light,and related to the wavelength in a definite way meant that
photoconductivematerials were ideal for photographic light meters. The photovoltaic effect
in barrier structures was an added benefit, meaning that the light metercould operate without a
power supply. It was not until the 1950s, with thedevelopment of good quality silicon wafers for
applications in the new solidstate electronics, that potentially useful quantities of power were
producedby photovoltaic devices in crystalline silicon.
In the 1950s, the development of silicon electronics followed the discoveryof a way to
manufacture p{n junctions in silicon. Naturally n type siliconwafers developed a p type skin
when exposed to the gas boron trichloride.Part of the skin could be etched away to give access to
the n type layerbeneath. These p{n junction structures produced much better rectifyingaction
than Schottky barriers, and better photovoltaic behavior. The firstsilicon solar cell was reported
by Chapin, Fuller and Pearson in 1954 andconverted sunlight with an efficiency of 6%, six times
higher than the best previous attempt. That figure was to rise significantly over the
followingyears and decades but, at an estimated production cost of some $200 perWatt, these
cells were not seriously considered for power generation for severaldecades. Nevertheless, the
early silicon solar cell did introduce the possibilityof power generation in remote locations where
fuel could not easilybe delivered. The obvious application was to satellites where the
requirementof reliability and low weight made the cost of the cells unimportantand during the
1950s and 60s, silicon solar cells were widely developed forapplications in space.

Also in 1954, a cadmium supplied p{n junction was produced with anefficiency of 6%,
and in the following years studies of p{n junction photovoltaicdevices in gallium arsenide,
indium phosphate and cadmium telluridewere stimulated by theoretical work indicating that
these materialswould offer a higher efficiency. However, silicon remained and remains
theforemost photovoltaic material, benefiting from the advances of silicon technologyfor the
microelectronics industry. Short histories of the solar cell aregiven elsewhere [Shive, 1959; Wolf,
1972; Green, 1990].
In the 1970s the crisis in energy supply experienced by the oil-dependentwestern world
led to a sudden growth of interest in alternative sources ofenergy, and funding for research and
development in those areas. Photovoltaicswas a subject of intense interest during this period,
and a range of strategies for producing photovoltaic devices and materials more cheaplyand for
improving device e
Efficiencywere explored. Routes to lower cost included photo electrochemical junctions,
and alternative materials such aspolycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, other `thin _lm'
materials andorganic conductors. Strategies for higher efficiency included tandem andother
multiple band gap designs. Although none of these led to widespreadcommercial development,
our understanding of the science of photovoltaicsis mainly rooted in this period.
During the 1990s, interest in photovoltaics expanded, along with growingawareness of
the need to secure sources of electricity alternative tofossil fuels. The trend coincides with the
widespread deregulation of theelectricity markets and growing recognition of the viability of
decentralized power. During this period, the economics of photovoltaics improved
primarilythrough economies of scale. In the late 1990s the photovoltaic productionexpanded at a
rate of 15{25% per annum, driving a reduction incost. Photovoltaic first became competitive in
contexts where conventionalelectricity supply is most expensive, for instance, for remote low
power applicationssuch as navigation, telecommunications, and rural electrificationand for
enhancement of supply in grid-connected loads at peak use [Anderson,2001]. As prices fall, new
markets are opened up. An importantexample is building integrated photovoltaic applications,
where the cost of the photovoltaic system is offset by the savings in building materials.
There are several types of solar cells. However, more than 90 % of the solar cells
currently made worldwide consist of wafer-based silicon cells.

They are either cut from a single crystal rod or from a block composed of many crystals
and are correspondingly called mono-crystalline or multi-crystalline silicon solar cells. Waferbased silicon solar cells are approximately 200 m thick. Another important family of solar cells
is based on thin-films, which are approximately 1-2 m thick and therefore require significantly
less active, semiconducting material. Thin-film solar cells can be manufactured at lower cost in
large production quantities; hence their market share will likely increase in the future. However,
they indicate lower efficiencies than wafer-based silicon solar cells, which mean that more
exposure surface and material for the installation is required for a similar performance.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a single
support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply
electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volt system. The current produced is
directly dependent on the intensity of light reaching the module. Several modules can be wired
together to form an array. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current electricity.
They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any
required voltage and current combination.

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF THE CELLS

The electrical output of a single cell is dependent on the design of the device and the

Semi-conductor material(s) chosen, but is usually insufficient for most applications. In order to
provide the appropriate quantity of electrical power, a number of cells must be electrically
connected. There are two basic connection methods: series connection, in which the top contact
of each cell is connected to the back contact of the next cell in the sequence, and parallel
connection, in which all the top contacts are connected together, as are all the bottom contacts. In
both cases, this results in just two electrical connection points for the group of cells.
Series connection:
Figure shows the series connection of three individual cells as an example and the resultant
group of connected cells is commonly referred to as a series string. The current output of the
string is equivalent to the current of a single cell, but the voltage output is increased, being an
addition of the voltages from all the cells in the string (i.e. in this case, the voltage output is equal
to 3Vcell).

Fig.Series connection of cells, with resulting currentvoltage characteristic.

It is important to have well matched cells in the series string, particularly with respect to
current. If one cell produces a significantly lower current than the other cells (under the same
illumination conditions), then the string will operate at that lower current level and the remaining
cells will not be operating at their maximum power points.
Parallel connection

Figure shows the parallel connection of three individual cells as an example. In this case, the
current from the cell group is equivalent to the addition of the current from each cell (in this
case, 3 I cell), but the voltage remains equivalent to that of a single cell.
As before, it is important to have the cells well matched in order to gain maximum
output, but this time the voltage is the important parameter since all cells must be at the same
operating voltage. If the voltage at the maximum power point is substantially different for one of
the cells, then this will force all the cells to operate off their maximum power point, with the
poorer cell being pushed towards its open-circuit voltage value and the better cells to voltages
below the maximum power point voltage. In all cases, the power level will be reduced below the
optimum.

Fig.Parallel connection of cells, with resulting currentvoltage characteristic.

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY
A PV array consists of a number of PV modules, mounted in the same plane and
electrically connected to give the required electrical output for the application. The PV array can
be of any size from a few hundred watts to hundreds of kilowatts, although the larger systems are
often divided into several electrically independent sub arrays each feeding into their own power
conditioning system.
MOUNTING STRUCTURE

The main purpose of the mounting structure is to hold the modules in the requiredposition
without undue stress. The structure may also provide a route for the electricalwiring and may be
free standing or part of another structure (e.g. a building). At itssimplest, the mounting structure
is a metal framework, securely fixed into the ground.It must be capable of withstanding
appropriate environmental stresses, such as windloading, for the location. As well as the
mechanical issues, the mounting has aninfluence on the operating temperature of the system,
depending on how easily heatcan be dissipated by the module.
TILT ANGLE AND ORIENTATION
The orientation of the module with respect to the direction of the Sun determines
theintensity of the sunlight falling on the module surface. Two main parameters aredefined to
describe this. The first is the tilt angle, which is the angle between the plane of the module and
the horizontal. The second parameter is the azimuth angle, which isthe angle between the plane
of the module and due south (or sometimes due northdepending on the definition used).
Correction of the direct normal irradiance to that onany surface can be determined using the
cosine of the angle between the normal to theSun and the module plane.
The optimum array orientation will depend on the latitude of the site, prevailingweather
conditions and the loads to be met. It is generally accepted that, for lowlatitudes, the maximum
annual output is obtained when the array tilt angle is roughlyequal to the latitude angle and the
array faces due south (in the northern hemisphere)or due north (for the southern hemisphere).
For higher latitudes, such as those innorthern Europe, the maximum output is usually obtained
for tilt angles ofapproximately the latitude angle minus 1015 degrees.
The optimum tilt angle is alsoaffected by the proportion of diffuse radiation in the
sunlight, since diffuse light isonly weakly directional. Therefore, for locations with a high
proportion of diffusesunlight, the effect of tilt angle is reduced.
However, although this condition will give the maximum output over the year,there can
be considerable variation in output with season. This is particularly true inhigh-latitude locations
where the day length varies significantly between summer andwinter. Therefore, if a constant or
reasonably constant load is to be met or,particularly, if the winter load is higher than the summer
load, then the best tilt anglemay be higher in order to boost winter output.Prevailing weather
conditions can influence the optimization of the arrayorientation if they affect the sunlight levels
available at certain times of the day.Alternatively, the load to be met may also vary during the

day and the array can bedesigned to match the output with this variable demand by varying the
azimuth angle.Notwithstanding the ability to tailor the output profile by altering the tilt
andazimuth angles, the overall array performance does not vary substantially for
smalldifferences in array orientation. Figure shows the percentage variation in annualinsulation
levels for the location of London as tilt angle is varied between 0 and 90degrees and azimuth
angle is varied between 45o (south east) and +45o (south west).
The maximum insulation level is obtained for a south-facing surface at a tilt angle
ofabout 35 degrees, as would be expected for a latitude of about 51oN. However, theisolation
level varies by less than 10% with changing azimuth angle at this tilt angle.A similarly low
variation is observed for south facing surfaces for a variation of +/- 30degrees from the optimum
tilt angle.

Fig.Percentage variation of annual sunlight levels as a function of tilt angle and azimuth angle.
The calculations were carried out for the location of London using Metronome Version
3.0.The final aspect to consider when deciding on array orientation is the incorporationin the
support structure. For building-integrated applications, the systemorientation is also dictated by
the nature of the roof or faade in which it is to beincorporated. It may be necessary to trade off
the additional output from the optimumorientation against any additional costs that might be
incurred to accomplish this. Theaesthetic issues must also be considered.
SUN-TRACKING/CONCENTRATOR SYSTEMS

The previous section has assumed a fixed array with no change of orientation
duringoperation. This is the usual configuration for a flat-plate array. However, some arraysare
designed to track the path of the Sun. This can account fully for the sunsmovements by tracking
in two axes or can account partially by tracking only in oneaxis, from east to west.
For a flat-plate array, single-axis tracking, where the array follows the eastwestmovement of the Sun, has been shown to increase the output by up to 30% for alocation
with predominantly clear sky conditions. Two-axis tracking, where the arrayfollows both the
daily east-west and north-south movement of the sun, could provide afurther increase of about
20% (Lepley, 1990). For locations where there are frequentovercast conditions, such as northern
Europe, the benefits of tracking are considerablyless.
It is usually more economical to install a larger panel for locations with less thanabout
3000 hours of direct sunshine per annum. For each case, the additional outputfrom the system
must be compared to the additional cost of including the trackingsystem, which includes both the
control system and the mechanism for moving thearray.For concentrator systems, the system
musttrack the Sun to maintain the concentrated light falling on the cell. The accuracy oftracking,
and hence the cost of the tracking system, increases as the concentration ratioincreases.
SHADING
Shading of any part of the array will reduce its output, but this reduction will vary
inmagnitude depending on the electrical configuration of the array. Clearly, the outputof any cell
or module which is shaded will be reduced according to the reduction oflight intensity falling on
it. However, if this shaded cell or module is electricallyconnected to other cells and modules
which are unshaded, their performance may alsobe reduced since this is essentially a mismatch
situation.
For example, if a single module of a series string is partially shaded, its currentoutput will
be reduced and this will then dictate the operating point of the wholestring. If several modules
are shaded, the string voltage may be reduced to the pointwhere the open-circuit voltage of that
string is below the operating point of the rest ofthe array, and then that string will not contribute
to the array output. If this is likely tooccur, it is often useful to include a blocking diode for string
protection, as discussedearlier.
Thus, the reduction in output from shading of an array can be significantly greaterthan
the reduction in illuminated area, since it results from

 The loss of output from shaded cells and modules;

The loss of output from illuminated modules in any severely shaded strings thatcannot maintain
operating voltage; and
The loss of output from the remainder of the array because the strings are notoperating at their
individual maximum power points.
For some systems, such as those in a city environment, it may be impossible toavoid all
shading without severely restricting the size of the array and hence losingoutput at other times.
In these cases, good system design, including the optimuminterconnection of modules,
the use of string or module inverters and, whereappropriate, the use of protection devices such as
blocking diodes, can minimize thereduction in system output for the most prevalent shading
conditions.
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
A PV system consists of a number of interconnected components designed to accomplish
a desired task, which may be to feed electricity into the main distribution grid, to pump water
from a well, to power a small calculator or one of many more possible uses of solar-generated
electricity. The design of the system depends on the task it must perform and the location and
other site conditions under which it must operate. This section will consider the components of a
PV system, variations in design according to the purpose of the system, system sizing and
aspects of system operation and maintenance.
SYSTEM DESIGN
There are two main system configurations stand-alone and grid-connected. As its name
implies, the stand-alone PV system operates independently of any other power supply and it
usually supplies electricity to a dedicated load or loads. It may include a storage facility (e.g.
battery bank) to allow electricity to be provided during the night or at times of poor sunlight
levels. Stand-alone systems are also often referred to as autonomous systems since their
operation is independent of other power sources. By contrast, the grid-connected PV system
operates in parallel with the conventional electricity distribution system. It can be used to feed
electricity into the grid distribution system or to power loads which can also be fed from the grid.
It is also possible to add one or more alternative power supplies (e.g. diesel generator,
wind turbine) to the system to meet some of the load requirements. These systems are then
known as hybrid systems.

Hybrid systems can be used in both stand-alone and grid-connected applications but are
more common in the former because, provided the power supplies have been chosen to be
complementary, they allow reduction of the storage requirement without increased loss of load
probability. Figures below illustrate the schematic diagrams of the three main system types.

Fig.Schematic diagram of a stand-alone photovoltaic system.

Fig.Schematic diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system.

Fig.Schematic diagram of hybrid system incorporating a photovoltaic array and a motor

generator (e.g. diesel or wind).

The PV array characteristic is described by the following:

[ (

i pv=n p i p hn p irs exp

q v pv
1
k T c A ns

(2)

In (2), is the unit charge, the Boltzmans constant, the p-n junction ideality factor, and T c
the cell temperature. Current irs
is the cell reverse saturation current, which varies with temperature according to
3

i rs =irr

[ ] ( [

Tc
q EG 1
1
exp

T ref
kA T ref T c

])

(3)

In (3), Tref is the cell reference temperature, the reverse saturation current at Tref. and EG
the band-gap energy of the cell. The PV current i ph depends on the insolation level and the cell
temperature according to
i p h=0.01 [ i scr + K v ( T c T ref ) ] S

(4)

In (4), iscr is the cell short-circuit current at the reference temperature and radiation, K v a
temperature coefficient, and the insolation level in kW/m . The power delivered by the PV array
is calculated by multiplying both sides of (2) by vpv.

[ (

PPV =n p i p h v pvn p i rs v pv exp

q v pv
1
k Tc A ns

(5)

Substituting iph from (3) in (4), Ppv becomes

P pv =0.01 n p [ i scr + K v ( T c T ref ) ] S v pv

[ (

n p i rs v pv exp

q v pv
1
kT c A n s

(6)

Based on (6), it is evident that the power delivered by the PV array is a function of
insolation level at any given temperature. Since the inverter employed in the PV system of this
paper is of current-source type, the power-versus-current characteristic of the PV array has to be

examined. Fig. 2 illustrates the power-versus-current characteristic of the PV array based on the
parameters listed in the Appendix for insolation levels of 0.25, 0.5, and 1 kW/m . Fig. 2 shows
that can be maximized by control of ipv, based on an MPPT strategy [9].

Fig. 2. PI characteristic of a PV array for s=0.25, 0.5, and 1 kW/m2.

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Maximum Power Point Tracking, frequently referred to as MPPT, is an electronic system
that operates the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows the modules to produce all
the power they are capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that physically
moves the modules to make them point more directly at the sun. MPPT is a fully electronic
system that varies the electrical operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to
deliver maximum available power. Additional power harvested from the modules is then made
available as increased battery charge current. MPPT can be used in conjunction with a
mechanical tracking system, but the two systems are completely different.
The problem considered by MPPT methods is to automatically find the voltage VMPP or
current IMPP at which a PV array delivers maximum power under a given temperature and
irradiance. In this section, commonly used MPPT methods are introduced in an arbitrary order.
A. Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage
The method is based on the observation that, the ratio between array voltage at maximum power
VMPP to its opencircuit voltage VOC is nearly constant.

This factor k1 has been reported to be between 0.71 and0.78. Once the constant k1 is known,
VMPP is computed bymeasuring VOC periodically. Although the implementation ofthis method

is simple and cheap, its tracking efficiency isrelatively low due to the utilization of inaccurate
values of theconstant k1 in the computation of VMMP.

B. Fractional Short-Circuit Current

The method results from the fact that, the current atmaximum power point IMPP is
approximately linearly relatedto the short circuit current ISC of the PV array.

Like in the fractional voltage method, k2is not constant. Itis found to be between 0.78 and 0.92.
The accuracy of themethod and tracking efficiency depends on the accuracy of K2and periodic
measurement of short circuit current.
C. Perturb and Observe
In P&O method, the MPPT algorithm is based on thecalculation of the PV output power
and the power change bysampling both the PV current and voltage. The trackeroperates by
periodically incrementing or decrementing thesolar array voltage. If a given perturbation leads to
an increase(decrease) in the output power of the PV, then the subsequentperturbation is generated
in the same (opposite) direction. So,the duty cycle of the dc chopper is changed and the process
isrepeated until the maximum power point has been reached.Actually, the system oscillates about
the MPP. Reducing theperturbation step size can minimize the oscillation. However,small step
size slows down the MPPT. To solve this problem,a variable perturbation size that gets smaller
towards the MPP.
However, the P&O method can fail under rapidly changingatmospheric conditions.
Several research activities have beencarried out to improve the traditional Hill-climbing and
P&O methods. A three-point weightcomparison P&O method that compares the actual
powerpoint to the two preceding points before a decision is madeabout the perturbation sign.
Reference proposes a twostagealgorithm that offers faster tracking in the first stage andfiner
tracking in the second stage.
D. Incremental Conductance
The method is based on the principle that the slope of thePV array power curve is zero at the
maximum power point.
(dP/dV) = 0. Since (P = VI), it yields:

The MPP can be tracked by comparing the instantaneousconductance (I/V) to the

incremental conductance (I/V).The algorithm increments or decrement the array
referencevoltage until the condition of equation (4.a) is satisfied. Oncethe Maximum power is
reached, the operation of the PV arrayis maintained at this point. This method requires
highsampling rates and fast calculations of the power slope.
To understand how MPPT works, lets first consider the operation of a conventional (nonMPPT) charge controller. When a conventional controller is charging a discharged battery, it
simply connects the modules directly to the battery. This forces the modules to operate at battery
voltage, typically not the ideal operating voltage at which the modules are able to produce their
maximum available power. The PV Module Power/Voltage/Current graph shows the traditional
Current/Voltage curve for a typical 75W module at standard test conditions of 25C cell
temperature and 1000W/m2 of insulation. This graph also shows PV module power delivered vs
module voltage. For the example shown, the conventional controller simply connects the module
to the battery and therefore forces the module to operate at 12V. By forcing the 75W module to
operate at 12V the conventional controller artificially limits power production to 53W.

Rather than simply connecting the module to the battery, the patented MPPT system in
aSolar Boost charge controller calculates the voltage at which the module is able to produce
maximum power. In this example the maximum power voltage of the module (VMP) is 17V. The
MPPT system then operates the modules at 17V to extract the full 75W, regardless of present
battery voltage. A high efficiency DC-to-DC power converter converts the 17V module voltage

at the controller input to battery voltage at the output. If the whole system wiring and all was
100% efficient, battery charge current in this example would be VMODULE VBATTERY x
IMODULE, or 17V 12V x 4.45A = 6.30A. A charge current increase of 1.85A or 42% would be
achieved by harvesting module power that would have been left behind by a conventional
controller and turning it into useable charge current. But, nothing is 100% efficient and actual
charge current increase will be somewhat lower as some power is lost in wiring, fuses, circuit
breakers, and in the Solar Boost charge controller.
Actual charge current increase varies with operating conditions. As shown above, the
greater the difference between PV module maximum power voltage VMP and battery voltage,
the greater the charge current increase will be. Cooler PV module cell temperatures tend to
produce higher VMP and therefore greater charge current increase. This is because VMP and
available power increase as module cell temperature decreases as shown in the PV Module
Temperature Performance graph. Modules with a 25C VMP rating higher than 17V will also
tend to produce more charge current increase because the difference between actual VMP and
battery voltage will be greater. A highly discharged battery will also increase charge current since
battery voltage is lower, and output to the battery during MPPT could be thought of as being
constant power.

DC-DC CONVERTER BASICS

A DC-to-DC converter is a device that accepts a DC input voltage and produces a DC

output voltage. Typically the output produced is at a different voltage level than the input. In
addition, DC-to-DC converters are used to provide noise isolation, power bus regulation, etc.
This is a summary of some of the popular DC-to-DC converter topologies.
BUCK CONVERTER STEP-DOWN CONVERTER
In this circuit the transistor turning ON will put voltage V in on one end of the inductor.
This voltage will tend to cause the inductor current to rise. When the transistor is OFF, the
current will continue flowing through the inductor but now flowing through the diode.
We initially assume that the current through the inductor does not reach zero, thus the
voltage at Vx will now be only the voltage across the conducting diode during the full OFF time.
The average voltage at Vx will depend on the average ON time of the transistor provided the
inductor current is continuous.

Buck Converter

Voltage and current changes

To analyze the voltages of this circuit let us consider the changes in the inductor current
over one cycle. From the relation

. (1)
The change of current satisfies

. (2)
For steady state operation the current at the start and end of a period T will not change. To
get a simple relation between voltages we assume no voltage drop across transistor or diode
while ON and a perfect switch change. Thus during the ON time V x=Vin and in the OFF Vx=0.
Thus

. (3)
Which simplifies to
(4)
or

(5)
And defining "duty ratio" as

. (6)
The voltage relationship becomes Vo=D Vin Since the circuit is lossless and the input and output
powers must match on the average Vo* Io = Vin* Iin. Thus the average input and output current
must satisfy Iin =D Io These relations are based on the assumption that the inductor current does
not reach zero.

Transition between continuous and discontinuous

When the current in the inductor L remains always positive then either the transistor T1
or the diode D1 must be conducting. For continuous conduction the voltage V x is either Vin or 0.
If the inductor current ever goes to zero then the output voltage will not be forced to either of
these conditions. At this transition point the current just reaches zero as seen in Figure (buck
booster boundary). During the ON time Vin-Vout is across the inductor thus

(7)
The average current which must match the output current satisfies

(8)

Buck Converter at Boundary

If the input voltage is constant the output current at the transition point satisfies
(9)
Voltage Ratio of Buck Converter (Discontinuous Mode)

As for the continuous conduction analysis we use the fact that the integral of voltage
across the inductor is zero over a cycle of switching T. The transistor OFF time is now divided
into segments of diode conduction ddT and zero conduction doT. The inductor average voltage
thus gives
(V in - V o ) DT + (-V o ) d T = 0

(10)

Buck Converter - Discontinuous Conduction

(11)
for the case

. To resolve the value of

consider the output current which is half the

peak when averaged over the conduction times

(12)
Considering the change of current during the diode conduction time
(13)
Thus from (6) and (7) we can get

(14)
Using the relationship in (5)
(15)
And solving for the diode conduction
(16)
The output voltage is thus given as

(17)
Defining k* = 2L/(Vin T), we can see the effect of discontinuous current on the voltage ratio of
the converter.

The above figure shows Output Voltage vs Current

As seen in the figure, once the output current is high enough, the voltage ratio depends
only on the duty ratio "d". At low currents the discontinuous operation tends to increase the
output voltage of the converter towards Vin.
BOOST CONVERTER STEP-UP CONVERTER

The schematic in Fig. 6 shows the basic boost converter. This circuit is used when a higher
output voltage than input is required.

Boost Converter Circuit

While the transistor is ON Vx =Vin, and the OFF state the inductor current flows through the
diode giving Vx =Vo. For this analysis it is assumed that the inductor current always remains
flowing (continuous conduction). The voltage across the inductor is shown in Fig. 7 and the
average must be zero for the average current to remain in steady state

(18)
This can be rearranged as

. (19)
And for a lossless circuit the power balance ensures

.. (20)

Voltage and current waveforms (Boost Converter)

Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage must always be higher than the
input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the output voltage.
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

Schematic for buck-boost converter

With continuous conduction for the Buck-Boost converter Vx =Vin when the transistor is
ON and Vx =Vo when the transistor is OFF. For zero net current change over a period the average
voltage across the inductor is zero.

Waveforms for buck-boost converter

.. (21)
Which gives the voltage ratio

(22)
And the corresponding current

.. (23)
Since the duty ratio "D" is between 0 and 1 the output voltage can vary between lower or
higher than the input voltage in magnitude. The negative sign indicates a reversal of sense of the
output voltage.
CONVERTER COMPARISON
The voltage ratios achievable by the DC-DC converters is summarized in Fig. 10. Notice
that only the buck converter shows a linear relationship between the control (duty ratio) and
output voltage. The buck-boost can reduce or increase the voltage ratio with unit gain for a duty
ratio of 50%.

Comparison of Voltage ratio

CUK CONVERTER
The buck, boost and buck-boost converters all transferred energy between input and
output using the inductor, analysis is based of voltage balance across the inductor. The CUK
converter uses capacitive energy transfer and analysis is based on current balance of the
capacitor. The circuit in Fig. below (CUK converter) is derived from DUALITY principle on the
buck-boost converter.

CUK Converter
If we assume that the current through the inductors is essentially ripple free we can
examine the charge balance for the capacitor C1. For the transistor ON the circuit becomes

CUK "ON-STATE"
And the current in C1 is IL1. When the transistor is OFF, the diode conducts and the
current in C1 becomes IL2.

CUK "OFF-STATE"
Since the steady state assumes no net capacitor voltage rise ,the net current is zero

(24)
Which implies

.. (25)
The inductor currents match the input and output currents, thus using the power conservation
rule

(26)

Thus the voltage ratio is the same as the buck-boost converter. The advantage of the CUK
converter is that the input and output inductors create a smooth current at both sides of the
converter while the buck, boost and buck-boost have at least one side with pulsed current.
Isolated DC-DC Converters
In many DC-DC applications, multiple outputs are required and output isolation may
need to be implemented depending on the application. In addition, input to output isolation may
be required to meet safety standards and / or provide impedance matching.
The above discussed DC-DC topologies can be adapted to provide isolation between input and
output.
Flyback Converter
The flyback converter can be developed as an extension of the Buck-Boost converter. Fig
(a) shows the basic converter; Fig (b)(replacing inductor by transformer) replaces the inductor by
a transformer. The buck-boost converter works by storing energy in the inductor during the ON
phase and releasing it to the output during the OFF phase.
With the transformer the energy storage is in the magnetization of the transformer core.
To increase the stored energy a gapped core is often used.
In Fig (c) the isolated output is clarified by removal of the common reference of the input
and output circuits.

(a) Buck-Boost Converter

(b) Replacing inductor by transformer

(c) Flyback converter re-configured

Forward Converter
The concept behind the forward converter is that of the ideal transformer converting the
input AC voltage to an isolated secondary output voltage. For the circuit in Fig. (forward
converter), when the transistor is ON, Vin appears across the primary and then generates

(27)
The diode D1 on the secondary ensures that only positive voltages are applied to the
output circuit while D2 provides a circulating path for inductor current if the transformer voltage
is zero or negative.

Forward Converter
The problem with the operation of the circuit in Fig above(forward converter) is that only
positive voltage is applied across the core, thus flux can only increase with the application of the
supply. The flux will increase until the core saturates when the magnetizing current increases
significantly and circuit failure occurs. The transformer can only sustain operation when there is
no significant DC component to the input voltage. While the switch is ON there is positive
voltage across the core and the flux increases. When the switch turns OFF we need to supply
negative voltage to rest the core flux. The circuit in Fig. below shows a tertiary winding with a
diode connection to permit reverse current. Note that the "dot" convention for the tertiary
winding is opposite those of the other windings. When the switch turns OFF current was flowing
in a "dot" terminal. The core inductance act to continue current in a dotted terminal.

Forward converter with tertiary winding

BOOST CONVERTER:
A boost converter (step-up converter) is a power converter with an output DC voltage
greater than its input DC voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply
(SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least
one energy storage

element.

Filters

made

of capacitors (sometimes

in

combination

with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple.

Power can also come from DC sources such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and DC
generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC
conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the
source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it steps up the
source voltage. Since power (P = VI or P = UI in Europe) must be conserved, the output current
is lower than the source current.
A boost converter may also be referred to as a 'Joule thief'. This term is usually used only
with very low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal'
the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise be wasted since a normal load
wouldn't be able to handle the battery's low voltage.*

This energy would otherwise remain untapped because in most low-frequency

applications, currents will not flow through a load without a significant difference of
potential between the two poles of the source (voltage.)

Block Diagram
The basic building blocks of a boost converter circuit are shown in Fig.

Magneti
c

Voltage
Source

Switch
Control

Switching

Output

Element

Rectifier
and

Fig. Block diagram

The voltage source provides the input DC voltage to the switch control, and to the
magnetic field storage element. The switch control directs the action of the switching element,
while the output rectifier and filter deliver an acceptable DC voltage to the output.
Operating principle
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current. When being charged it acts as a load and absorbs energy (somewhat like a
resistor), when being discharged, it acts as an energy source (somewhat like a battery). The
voltage it produces during the discharge phase is related to the rate of change of current, and not
to the original charging voltage, thus allowing different input and output voltages.

Fig: Boost converter schematic

Fig. The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S.
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure ):

in the On-state, the switch S (see figure) is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor
current;

In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This result in transferring the
energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.
The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure. So it is not

discontinuous as in the buck converter and the requirements on the input filter are relaxed
compared to a buck converter.
Continuous mode
When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor
(IL) never falls to zero. Figure shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a
converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of
an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behavior) operating in steady conditions:

Fig: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous mode.
During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input voltage (Vi) appear
across the inductor, which causes a change in current (IL) flowing through the inductor during a
time period (t) by the formula:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the
switch is on. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we
consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain
constant, the evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of

energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a
commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:

So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the commutation cycle.
This means the overall change in the current (the sum of the changes) is zero:

Substituting

and

by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

Which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be?

From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is always higher than the
input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically to
infinity as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a stepup converter.

Discontinuous mode
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through
the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described
above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see
waveforms in figure ). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage
equation. It can be calculated as follows:

Fig: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous mode.
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value
t = DT) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after T:

Using the two previous equations, is:

(at

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4,
the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current
can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as flow:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output
voltage gain not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage,
the switching frequency, and the output current.
APPLICATIONS:
Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However,
sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space.
Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two battery-powered
applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems.
The NHW20 model Toyota Prius HEV uses a 500 V motor. Without a boost converter,
the Prius would need nearly 417 cells to power the motor. However, a Prius actually uses only
168 cells and boosts the battery voltage from 202 V to 500 V. Boost converters also power
devices at smaller scale applications, such as portable lighting systems. A white LED typically
requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step up the voltage from a single 1.5 V
alkaline cell to power the lamp. Boost converters can also produce higher voltages to
operate cold cathode fluorescent tubes (CCFL) in devices such as LCD backlights and
some flashlights.

4 Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms

4.1 An overview of Maximum Power Point Tracking
A typical solar panel converts only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar irradiation into electrical
energy. Maximum power point tracking technique is used to improve the efficiency of
the solar panel. According to Maximum Power Transfer theorem, the power output of a circuit is
maximum when the Thevenin impedance of the circuit (source impedance) matches with the load
impedance. Hence our problem of tracking the maximum power point reduces to an impedance
matching problem. In the source side we are using a boost convertor connected to a solar panel in order
to enhance the output voltage so that it can be used for different applications like motor load. By
changing the duty cycle of the boost converter appropriately we can match the source impedance with
that of the load impedance.
4.2 Different MPPT techniques
There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the most popular
techniques are:
1) Perturb and Observe (hill climbing method)
2) Incremental Conductance method
3) Fractional short circuit current
4) Fractional open circuit voltage
5) Neural networks
6) Fuzzy log
The choice of the algorithm depends on the time complexity the algorithm takes to track the
MPP, implementation cost and the ease of implementation.
4.2.1 Perturb & Observe
Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one sensor, that is the voltage
sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence easy to
implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very close to the MPP it
doesnt stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing on both the directions. When this happens the algorithm
has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait function
which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm. However the method does not take
account of the rapid change of irradiation level (due to which MPPT changes) and considers it as a
change in MPP due to perturbation and ends up calculating the wrong MPP. To avoid this problem we
can use incremental conductance method.
4.2.2 Incremental Conductance

Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to sense the output
voltage and current of the PV array.
At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0.
(dP/dV)MPP=d(VI)/dV (4.1)
0=I+VdI/dVMPP (4.2)
dI/dVMPP = - I/V (4.3)
The left hand side is the instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When this instantaneous
conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is reached.
Here we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due to change
in irradiance is eliminated. However the complexity and the cost of implementation increases.
As we go down the list of algorithms the complexity and the cost of implementation goes on
increasing which may be suitable for a highly complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb
and Observe and Incremental Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms.
Owing to its simplicity of implementation we have chosen the Perturb & Observe algorithm for
our study among the two.
4.2.3 Fractional open circuit voltage
The near linear relationship between VMPP and VOC of the PV array, under varying irradiance and
temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional VOC method.
VMPP = k1 Voc (4.4)
where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k1 is dependent on the characteristics of the PV
array being used, it usually has to be computed beforehand by empirically determining VMPP and
VOC for the specific PV array at different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has
been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k1 is known, VMPP can be computed with VOC
measured periodically by momentarily shutting down the power converter. However, this incurs
some disadvantages, including temporary loss of power. [15].
4.2.4 Fractional short circuit current
Fractional ISC results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, IMPP is
approximately linearly related to the ISC of the PV array.
IMPP =k2 Isc (4.5)
where k2 is a proportionality constant. Just like in the fractional VOC technique, k2 has to be
determined according to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to be between
0.78 and 0.92. Measuring ISC during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has
to be added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that ISC can be
measured using a current sensor[15].

4.2.5 Fuzzy Logic Control

Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over last decade. Fuzzy
logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise inputs, not needing an accurate
mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity [15].
4.2.6 Neural Network
Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for microcontrollers is
neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers: input, hidden, and output layers.
The number nodes in each layer vary and are user-dependent. The input variables can be PV
array parameters like VOC and ISC, atmospheric data like irradiance and temperature, or any
combination of these. The output is usually one or several reference signals like a duty cycle
signal used to drive the power converter to operate at or close to the MPP [15]

4.3 Perturb & Observe Algorithm

The Perturb & Observe algorithm states that when the operating voltage of the PV panel is
perturbed by a small increment, if the resulting change in power P is positive, then we are
going in the direction of MPP and we keep on perturbing in the same direction. If P is negative,
we are going away from the direction of MPP and the sign of perturbation supplied has to be
changed.

Figure 4.1 : Solar panel characteristics showing MPP and operating points A and B [16]
Figure 4.1 shows the plot of module output power versus module voltage for a solar panel at a
given irradiation. The point marked as MPP is the Maximum Power Point, the theoretical
maximum output obtainable from the PV panel. Consider A and B as two operating points. As
shown in the figure above, the point A is on the left hand side of the MPP. Therefore, we can
move towards the MPP by providing a positive perturbation to the voltage. On the other hand,
point B is on the right hand side of the MPP. When we give a positive perturbation, the value of
P becomes negative, thus it is imperative to change the direction of perturbation to achieve
MPP. The flowchart for the P&O algorithm is shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 : Flowchart of Perturb & Observe algorithm

4.4 Limitations of Perturb & Observe algorithm

Figure 4.3 : Curve showing wrong tracking of MPP by P&O algorithm under rapidly
varying irradiance [16]

In a situation where the irradiance changes rapidly, the MPP also moves on the right hand side of
the curve. The algorithm takes it as a change due to perturbation and in the next iteration it
changes the direction of perturbation and hence goes away from the MPP as shown in the figure.
However, in this algorithm we use only one sensor, that is the voltage sensor, to sense the PV
array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence easy to implement. The time
complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very close to the MPP it doesnt stop at
the MPP and keeps on perturbing in both the directions. When this happens the algorithm has
reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error limit or can use a wait
function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm
4.5 Implementation of MPPT using a boost converter
The system uses a boost converter to obtain more practical uses out of the solar panel. The
initially low voltage output is stepped up to a higher level using the boost converter, though the
use of the converter does tend to introduce switching losses. The block diagram shown in Figure
4.4 gives an overview of the required implementation

Figure 4.4 : Requisite implementation for M

II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND MATHEMATICALFORMULATION

The main objective of this paper is to model, analyze, and conduct case studies on a PV
based micro-grid. The basic configuration of the system is shown in Fig. 1. The
following subsections describe each block in the figure.
a. PV Generator
A PV generator consists of a PV array comprising of PV modules. Modeling details of PV
modules and PV arrays are discussed next.

Fig. 1. Block Diagram of a PV Micro-grid

A. PV Cell
A solar module is defined as the individual piece of equipment that encompasses
numerous solar cells that are connected in parallel or in series. By putting solar cells
together as a module, the current and voltage properties of a module increase. A solar cell can
be designed as a p-n junction device where no voltage directly applied across the junction. It
converts photon power into electrical power and delivers this power to a load [4]. The p-n
junction is fabricated in a thin wafer of semiconductor, usually silicon. In the dark, the p-n
has the characteristics of a diode and blocks the flow of the current which results in no
voltage. A solar cell equivalent circuit model is shown in Fig. 2. This model is called a
single-diode model which includes a current source, a parallel diode and a series resistor Rs.
The value of the source current depends on the light falling on the cell. A stronger
light results in a higher electric current. The nonlinear I-V characteristics of the cell are
determined by the type of used diode

The photocurrent, IL , produces a voltage drop across the resistive load which forward biases
the p-n junction. The forward-bias voltage produces a forward-bias diode current, Id . The net
current is the difference between the photocurrent and the diode current as represented by
the following equation:

(1)
Where is the saturation current, is electric charge, !is the voltage across the cell, "is the
diode ideal factor, #is Boltzmanns constant, and $ % is the temperature of the cell. A plot of the
I-V characteristics of a PV array for a certain temperature is shown in fig. 3

Fig. 3. Typical I-V Characteristic Curve of a Solar Cell

A. PV Modules and Array
The schematic shown in fig. 4 illustrates how solar cells are connected within a solar module.
The output power from a single PV cell is relatively small (approximately 0.5 W) [5]. To
maximize voltage and power, a solar array is required. A PV array consists of numerous
solar modules that are combined in series and parallel to form panels, and these panels are
connected together to form the entire PV array. So, in a micro-grid, there may be
numerous connected solar arrays to provide the required power to a load. The connection
configuration is shown in fig. 5.

Fig. 4. PV Array with NSA Series Branches and NPA Parallel Branches

Fig. 5. PV Module with NSM Series Branches and NPM Parallel Branches
The equations used to solve the module current are presented below, where the
superscripts: & represents the solar cell, represents the solar module, and 'represents the
solar array. Each solar module contains a manufacturers data sheet that contains parameters
for standard operating conditions. The parameters used can be related to the datasheet to
test and validate the model as well. The cell maximum power is

(2)
The cell open circuit voltage is,

(3)
The cell short circuit current is,

(4)
The cell thermal voltage is,

(5)
The module open circuit voltage is,

(6)
The fill factor is,

(7)
The fill factor at standard conditions is,

(8)
The equivalent series resistance is,

(9)
The cell serial resistance is,

(10)
The cell input parameters of operating conditions are VM, Ta, Ga and the irradiation Parameters
are included in the following equation,

(11)

The short circuit operating current is,

(12)
The cell working temperature is,
(13)
The open circuit voltage is,
(14)
The cell thermal voltage is,

(15)

The calculated solar module current using cell parameters can be expressed as

(16)
The module short circuit current is,
(17)
The module open circuit voltage is,
(18)
The cell equivalent serial resistance is,
(19)
The module thermal voltage is,
(20)

The module current is,

(21)

The module voltage is,

(22)
The module power is,
(23)
The array currents and voltage are calculated from the equations below
(24)
The array total current is,
(25)

The array simplified total current is,

(26)
B. PV Charge (MPPT) Controller
Renewable sources, such as solar arrays, produce varying power output. When the PV arrays are
interconnected with the electric power grid and to the loads, a constant and consistent
power is required. Solar power varies with irradiation (sun power), temperature, and
shadowing. A proper working power point should be maintained for both the grid and the
loads. So to extract the required power from the PV array, it is important to operate at the
corresponding maximum power point (MPP). The MPP is unique for each solar module, it is
not a fixed point, and it may change based on the required current for a particular load.
The Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is required to match the PV output to load
demand. The electrical tracking of the MPP is accomplished through power switching
converters. These converters are controlled to provide a matching between the load and the
source impedances[2]. In the case of this paper, no load is connected, so the current does not
vary unless the irradiation or temperature is changed [6]-[7].
For the model presented in this paper, an algorithm is used which works on a simple
concept known as perturb and-observe (P&O) algorithm. The P&O algorithm is a
commonly used MPPT algorithm. It is used for its simplicity and ease of
implementation. However, there are some limitations with the P&O method, such as,
oscillations around the MPP in steady state, slow response speed, and tracking in the
wrong way under rapidly changing conditions like weather [8]. This method works best
for slow changing or constant weather conditions. However, as long as the power increases,
the voltage increases or decreases. Once the power decreases, the process is reversed. The
algorithm flowchart is shown in fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Perturb and Observe Algorithm Flow Chart

C. DC/DC Converter
A boost DC converter is a necessary power electronic device to control DC voltage by
boosting and maintaining an appropriate value for a load. In theory, a boost converter is made
of at least two semiconductor devices such as a diode and transistor. Capacitors are added to
reduce voltage ripple. The following equations are basic equations for a capacitor current and
inductor voltage respectively:
(27)
(28)
The circuit schematic of a boost DC/DC converter is shown in Fig. 7. When the switch
is in position 1 (duty cycle 0.5), the following two equations are used to find IL and Vout:
(29)
(30)

Fig. 7. Boost Converter with Ideal Switch

In position 1, the inductor will charge and it is used as a storage element. When the switch
changes to position 2 (duty cycle 0.5), the following two equations are used to find IL and
Vout:
(31)
(32)
In position 2, the inductor releases energy to the load and the capacitor is used as a filter to
reduce the voltage ripple. The duty cycle is computed by having a reference voltage Vref
and using the following equation:

(33)
Finally, the efficiency of the DC/DC converter is computed using the following equation:

(34)
D. DC/AC Inverter
A DC/AC inverter is a device that converts electrical power from DC to AC. The resulting
AC power can be of any voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers,
switching and control circuits. The inverter schematic circuit is shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Inverter Circuit.

From the inverter circuit, the switch is in position 1 during DTs and in position 2 during
(1-D)Ts. The following equations represent VL ,iL, and Vin based on switch position
respectively. In position 1,
(35)
In position 2,
(36)
The inductor voltage can be represented as follows:

(37)
This results in the following integral:

(38)
To control the output of the inverter
must be in phase with vac.
Amplitude Im or Irms must be adjustable to control power delivered to the AC line. The
following equations show

and

calculations.
(39)
(40)
(41)

The reference current is given by

below:

The inductor current IL is always within

. In each position IL is referenced as

. This represents the current ripple

which is
:. In Fig. 9. the circuit model represents the
equivalent inverter circuit utilizing a transformer.

Fig. 9. DC/AC Inverter Equivalent Circuit Model

The following equations represent the power output and input resulting in the efficiency of the
DC/AC inverter.
(43)
In the above equations

is the inverter frequency, usually 60Hz.

(44)
The ideal efficiency of the inverter is around 95%.At high power levels, conduction losses
due to G are dominant while at low power levels, efficiency drops due to switching and other
fixed losses.

E. Micro-Grid set up with Island and connected mode

In the micro-grid set up the grid islanding mode and connected modes are evaluated. On
each mode, the PV microgrid model, IL, Vs and are calculated as follows.

(45)
(46)

(47)
(48)
Where PL is the real power of the load, and

II. MODELLING AND SIMULATION RESULTS

The modeling of the PV components is developed using Simulink . At first, PV modules are
developed based on the equations developed earlier. Then a PV array is developed. Fig. 10 shows
the developed PV array model. This model is integrated with a DC/DC converter and inverter
models. Fig. 11 shows an overall model with load connected and a feedback controller. Figs. 1213 show sample plots for the power and voltage-current with respect to constant
temperature and irradiations. Solar modules are affected by both the irradiation and the
temperature values. Increasing irradiation causes a rise in current and voltage, thus
resulting in an increased power. Increasing temperature causes a rise in the voltage, while
current stays constant and power increases slightly.
The plots shown in Figs. 14-15 illustrate voltage, current, and efficiency obtained from the
DC/DC converter respectively. The efficiency is high at the beginning and end of the plot, but
very sporadic. At these values, irradiation and temperature are low which drive the voltage of
the PV array to be higher level. The efficiency is high because the voltage doesnt have to be
boosted too far.
The DC/AC inverter was built and tested. Irradiation was simulated from 100-1000W/m2 and
the temperature was simulated from 20-25C. Since in real time low irradiation values would

only power small loads, small P,Q loads were simulated. Real power, P, was simulated from 0400W, and reactive power, Q, was simulated from 0-80var. Fig. 16 illustrates the
irradiation and temperature ranges that are used as an input to test the micro-grid.

Fig. 10. PV Array model

Fig. 11. Load Connected Inverter Model

Fig. 12. Power Curve TC = 25C

Fig. 13. I-V Characteristic: Ga=1000W/m

Fig. 14. Plot of PV Voltage and DC/DC Converter Voltage

Fig. 15. Plot of DC/DC Efficiency, Irradiation, and Ambient Temperature

Fig. 16. Plot of Irradiation and Ambient Temperature The PV voltage is dependent of the current
being fed into it. As the load increases, the voltage increases. After the inverter stabilized,
it can be observed that the phase voltages are 120 degrees out of phase which is expected
(fig.17). PV current f is the same current that is being fed from the inverter. After
stabilization, a steady currentis delivered to meet the load demand. Fig. 18 illustrates the
PVcurrent and the output current from the DC/DC converter. The inductor current
illustrates the opening and closing of the inductor. Fig. 19 illustrates the plot of inverter line
current and the feedback current (It) based on the load current. When connected to the
load, the converter efficiency is above 99% while the inverter efficiency kept above

90%. This can be seen in fig. 20. Both plots in fig. 20 are of a small sample of the
efficiency model. Overall, the efficiency stays very high except during stabilization.The
developed model is tested for various load conditions as a micro-grid. One such case is as
shown in fig. 21. From the plots, the actual P,Q output obtained from the inverter is slightly
less than the desired P,Q demand. This result is consistent with the practical systems
developed and tested in a laboratory set-up.

Fig. 17. Plot of 3-Phase Line and Phase Voltage

Fig. 18. Plot of PV Current and DC/DC Output Current

Fig. 19. Plot of Inverter Line Current and Feedback current

Fig. 20. Plot of Converter and Inverter Efficiency

Fig. 21. Plot of P,Q demand vs P,Q out

I. CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented an overview of PV systems, the mathematical formulation and the
modeling of all components involved. The model consist of mathematical design and
development of PV module and arrays, power conditioning DC/DC converter and the
inverter set up. Further, a PV charge controller based on Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) has been developed for the control of PV arrays. These designs are then integrated
with an inverter controller that controls the voltage at a power system bus. The developed
designs are modeled using Matlab and Simulink. For validating the models, real-life
systems are used and the comparisons are evaluated. The complete system is used as a
micro-grid set up connected to a power grid. Testing and evaluations of the micro-grid is
then conducted using off-grid and on-grid studies. Simulation results show the effectiveness
of and the ability of this micro-grid model as it could emulate real-life scenarios.