SQL - Sas Notes PDF

What is DBMS?
A database management system (DBMS) is a software package with computer

programs that control the creation, maintenance, and the use of a database.
What is a RDBMS?
A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management
system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.
A short definition of an RDBMS is: a DBMS in which data is stored in tables and the
relationships among the data are also stored in tables. The data can be accessed or
reassembled in many different ways without having to change the table forms.
Example: Oracle, MS SQL Server, NCR Teradata, IBM DB2, MySQL,
MS Access, SyBase etc.
Most popular databases currently in use are based on the relational database model.
What is a Database?
Databases are designed to offer an organized mechanism for storing, managing and
retrieving data/information. They do so through the use of tables.
Database
FrontEnd
User
End
User
www.irctc.co
m
(or)
What are the different databases and their versions available?
Oracle 11g/ 10g/ 9i/ 8i

Teradata V2R6.0/ V2R5.0
MSSQL 2008/ 2005/ 2000
IBM DB2 9.7/ 9.5/ 9.1/8
MySQL6.0/ 5.5/ 5.4/ 5.1/ 5.0
MS Access2010/ 2007/ 2005
SyBase12/11 etc.
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What is a database schema?

Pronounce skee-ma, the structure of a database system, described in a formal
language supported by the database management system (DBMS). In a relational
database, the schema defines the tables, the fields in each table, and the relationships
between fields and tables.
Example: Sales Schema
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What is a table?
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The foundation of every RDBMS is a database object called table.

Every database consists of one or more tables, which store the data/information.
Each table has its own unique name and consists of columns and rows.
The database table columns (also called table fields) have their own unique names
and have a pre-defined data types.
The table rows contain the actual data for the columns.
Here is an example of a simple database table, containing employee data.
The first row, listed in bold, contains the names of the table columns:
Table: Employees
Column
Column
Column
Column
First_Name
Last_Name
Email
DOB
John
Smith
John.Smith@yahoo.com
2/4/1968
Steven
Goldfish
goldfish@fishhere.net
4/4/1974
Paula
Brown
pb@herowndomain.org
5/24/1978
James
Smith
jim@supergig.co.uk
20/10/1980
What is SQL?
SQL (pronounced "ess-que-el") stands for Structured Query Language.
The standard SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete",
"Create", "Alter" and "Drop" can be used to accomplish almost everything that one
needs to do with a database.
DDL Data Definition Language
Used to CREATE or ALTER Tables, Views, Indexes etc.
DML Data Manipulation Language
Used to SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE data from tables
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Selecting Data from a table

The select statement is used to query the database and retrieve selected data that
match the criteria that you specify.
Here is the format of a simple select statement:
select "column1" ,"column2"etc from "tablename" [where "condition"]; [] = optional
To select all columns, use * e.g. select * from employees.
Where clause is used to filter data.
E.g: select * from employees where last_name = 'Smith'
Creating a DB table
The create table statement is used to create a new table.
Here is the format of a simple create table statement:
create table "tablename" ("column1" "data type", "column2"
"data type", "column3" "data type");
There are different types of data type
e.g.
NUMBER
VARCHAR2
BINARY
FLOAT
DATE
Eg: create table EMP_SAMPLE
(EMP_ID number,
EMP_NAME Varchar2(30),
EMP_START_DATE DATE)
Note: If you any of the insert, update or delete statements, you must commit (means
save) or rollback (means revert).
INSERT Statement
The insert statement is used to insert or add a row of data into the table.
To insert records into a table, enter the key words insert into followed by the table
name, followed by an open parenthesis(, followed by a list of column names separated
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by commas, followed by a closing parenthesis), followed by the keyword values,

followed by the list of values enclosed in parenthesis.
Rules:
The order of values should match up with the column names order that you specify.
Strings should be enclosed in single quotes
Numbers and dates should not.
insert into "tablename" (first_column,...last_column) values (first_value,...last_value);
Eg: insert into EMP_SAMPLE (E_ID,EMP_NAME) values (101,MyName);
commit;
* If you want to enter values in all the columns of a table , then you dont have to
specify column names.
Eg: insert into EMP_TARGET values (102,MyName, sysdate)
UPDATE Statement
The update statement is used to update or change records that match a specified
criteria. This is accomplished by carefully constructing a where clause.
update "tablename" set "columnname" = "newvalue" [,"nextcolumn" =
"newvalue2"...] where "columnname" OPERATOR "value" [and|or
"column" OPERATOR "value"];
e.g.
update EMP_SAMPLE
set EMP_NAME = 'Smith',
where EMP_ID = 101;
commit;
* if you dont specify where cluase in the update statement, the value will be updated for
all the rows of that column.
e.g.
update EMP_SAMPLE
set EMP_NAME = 'Smith',
rollback;
Delete Statement
The delete statement is used to delete records or rows from
the table.
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delete from "tablename"

where "columnname" OPERATOR "value" [and|or "column"
OPERATOR "value"];
e.g : delete from EMP_SAMPLE where EMP_NAME = 'Smith'; commit;
Commit and Rollback

When DML statements like DELETE, UPDATE, INSERT are executed on a table,
data is not truly saved (i.e. committed) to the table until COMMIT is executed.
Remember to commit your data changes using COMMIT command.
If you accidentally changed data in a table using DMLs like
INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE and if you have not committed the changes yet, then
you can use ROLLBACK command to get the old data back into the table.
Never leave un-committed data in a table either COMMIT or ROLLBACK.
(Reason: Un-committed transactions create table locks!)
FROM Keyword:
This keyword is used to determines the data source at the time of retrieving data.
Eg : Select employee_id, first_name FROM employee;
WHERE statement:
This is used to filter the records from an sql statements
Syntax: Select column1, column2 , column3 .. FROM employee

Where <condition>;
Example: Select EMP _NAME, EMP_ID, from EMP _SAMPLE
Where EMP _NAME=smith;
Delete EMP _NAME, EMP_ID from EMP _SAMPLE
Where EMP _ID=102;
Here only one record will be deleted

IF we omit the where condition all the records will be deleted
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Example: Update EMPLOYEE set EMP _ID=111 where EMP _ID=102;

Commit;
*If we dont use where condition all the records will be updated.
NOTE : we can not use group function in where clause.
Eg: Select EMP_ID,EMP_NAME, count(EMP_ID) from employee
Group by EMP_ID,EMP_NAME where count(EMP_ID)>3;
*It will give error
Group by Clause:
Group By clause is used to divide the output of a query into groups.
Syntax: Select column1, column2, group _function ( column name ) from
Table name
[Where <condition>]
[Group by column1, column2];
Example: Select job from employee group by job;
Example: Select EMP_NAME,EMP_ID from EMP_SAMPLE
Group by EMP_NAME , EMP _ID;
Example: Select TO _CHAR ( HIRE_DATE , YYYY ) YEAR GROUP from
EMPLOYEES Group by TO _CHAR( HIRE_DATE, YYYY );
Rules:
Columns present in select statement must be there in group by clause.

All group by clause column list may or may not used in select clause.
Column aliases cannot be used in select statements.
Extra non group function is used in a select clause , we should not use individual
result columns.
ORDER BY CLAUSE:
Order by clause can be used to sort the rows.
Syntax: Select column1, column2. From table name
[Where conditions]
Order by columns ASC/DESC;
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ASC:
Ascending order, it displays the output in ascending order
DESC: Descending order, this command will display the output in descending oder.
Example: Select EMP _NAME, EMP _ID from EMP _SAMPLE
ORDER BY EMP _ID;
Example: Select FIRST_NAME, EMPLOYEE_ID, PHONE from EMPLOYEE
ORDER BY EMPLOYEE_ID DESC;
Example: Select emp _id, emp _name from emp _sample
Order by 2;
*It will sort based on emp _name because emp _name position is 2.
Rules:
The ORDER BY clause must be the last clause of the sql statement.
An expression, an alias, column position can be used as the sort
Condition, but the position value must be existing in the select list.
The default order is ascending order.
HAVING CLAUSE:
The having clause is used to filter data is associated with group function.
Syntax: Select [column], group _function (column)
From table name
[Where condition]
[Group by group _by _expression]
[Having having _expression]
[Order by column/alias];
Example: Select EMP _NAME, EMP _ID, count (EMP_ID) from EMP_SAMPLE
Group by EMP_ID having count (EMP_ID)>3;
NOTE: We can use count/group function in having clause, but group function
Cannot be used in where clause.
Example: select EMP _NAME, EMP _ID, count (EMP_ID) from EMP_SAMPLE
Group by EMP_ID where count (EMP_ID)>3;
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*It gives Error, we need to use having clause in place of where clause to avoid
errors.
Rules:
The column which is used in having clause must be used in group by clause.
when having clause condition false it returns no rows selected, when where
Condition returns zero.
DISTINCT keyword:
The DISTINCT keyword is used to eliminate the duplicate rows in the result.
We can specify multiple columns after the distinct keyword , it effects all the selected
columns.
Syntax : Select DISTINCT column1,column2. From table name.
Eg : select FIRST_NAME from EMPLOYEES;
CONSTRAINTS:
Constraints are used to impose business rules to DBs.

It allows to enter only valid data.
There are six types of constraints in OraclE.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
NOT NULL Constraint

UNIQUE Constraint
PRIMARY KEY Constraint
FOREIGN KEY Constraint
CHECH Constraint
DEFAULT Constraint
The Constraint clause can appear in

CREATE Table
ALTER Table
CREAT View
Level of Constraints:
1. Column Level :
Used to define constraints next in column name
Define with each column
Composite key cannot be defined
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Syntax: CREATE table table name (column1 data _type () Constraint

Constraint _name Constraint _type,
Column2 data _type (), column3 data _type ());
2. Table Level:
Defining Constraints after defining all columns
Not Null cannot be defined
Syntax: CREATE table table name (column1 data _type(),
Column2 data _type (), column3 data type (),
Constraint Constraint _name Constraint _type (column1, column2...));
NOT NULL Constraint:

Used to avoid NULL values into columns.
Data must be entered.
Duplication values allowed.
NOT NULL should be defined at column level Only.
Syntax: Create table table name (column1 data _type(),column2 data _type()
Constraint constraint _name NOT NULL,
Column3 data _type () NOT NULL);
Example:
CREATE table student(Sid number(4) Constraint sid_nn NOT NULL,
Name varchar2 (20), Gender char);
*Here constraint keyword and constraint name are optional but recommended.
UNIQUE Constraint:
Used to avoid DUPLICATE values into columns.

Accepts NULL values.
A table can have any number of UNIQUE keys
Which is not possible in PRIMARY KEY
Composite UNIQUE key is possible and always defined at table level
only.
A table can have more than one composite UNIQUE key.
An index will be created automatically.
A composite UNIQUE key cannot have more than 32 columns.
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The same combination of columns should not make both

Unique and primary key.
UNIQUE key defined at column level:

Syntax: CREATE table table name (column1 data _type() constraint
Constraint _name .UNIQUE,column2 data _type(),
Column3 data _type() UNIQUE);
Example:
CREATE table product _master (product _no varchar2 (6),
Product _name varchar2 (20) constraint pn_nn NOT NULL,
Description varchar2 (20), quantity number (8) constraint qty _un UNIQUE);
At table level:
Syntax: CREATE table table name (column1 Data _type (),
Column2 Data _type (), Column3 Data _type (),
Constraint Constraint _name UNIQUE (column1, column2);
Example:
CREATE table customer (c_id number number (4) NOT NULL, c_name
varchar2 (30) ,email varchar2(20),
Constraint name_email_un UNIQUE ( c_name, email));
PRIMARY KEY Constraint:
Used to define key columns of a table.

It will not accept Null values and Duplicate values,
When we need both NOT NULL and UNIQUE for a single column
we will go for PRIMARY KEY.
It is provided with an automatic index.
Rules:
Only one primary key or composite primary key is allowed per table.
A composite PRIMARY KEY cannot have more than 32 columns.
PRIMARY KEY cannot support in Nested objects.
Composite PRIMARY KEY cannot be defined at column level.
You cannot designate the same column or combination of columns
as both a primary key and a unique key.
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PRIMARY KEY constraint Defined at Column Level:

Syntax: CREATE table table name (column1 data _type() constraint
Constrain _name PRIMARY KEY,
Column2 data _type (), column3 data _type (). );
Example: CREATE table S _market (item _id number constraint id_pk PRIMARY KEY,
Item_name varchar2 (20) constraint name_nn NOT NULL,
item_rate number(8,2) NOT NULL, p_date date constraint dt_un UNIQUE);
At table Level:
Syntax: CREATE table table name(column1 data_type(), column2 data_type(),
Column3 data_type(),
Constraint constraint_name PRIMARY KEY(column1,column2);
*composite primary key is defined at table level only as shown in example.
Example: CREATE table product( prod _id number(4),
prod _name varchar2(20),prod_rate number(6,2),
mf_date date NOT NULL,
Constraint p_pk PRIMARY KEY(prod_id,prod_name));
FOREIGN KEY(or) REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY Constraint:
This FOREIGN KEY represents relationships between tables.
A FOREIGN KEY column values can be derived from
PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE
A FOREIGN KEY is column that references a column of same
table or another table.
The table or view containing the foreign is called the Child object.
The foreign key can be defined at column level or table level.
A composite FOREIGN KEY can be declared at table level only.
The referenced unique or primary key constraint on the parent
table or view must already be defined
You cannot define a foreign key in a CREATE table statement that
contains an AS Sub query clause. Instead, you must create the
table without the constraint and then add it later with an ALTER
table statement .
When you specify a foreign key at column level you need only
the REFERENCES clause, but when you specify the FOREIGN KEY
at table level you must specify the FOREIGN KEY keyword and one or
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more column names.

Rules:
Master table cannot be update if child records exist.
A composite FOREIGN KEY cannot have more than 32 columns.
A child and parent tables must be on same database.
Note:
FOREIGN KEY identifies the column or combination of columns in the
Child table that makes up of the foreign key.
REFERENCES identifies the parent table and the column or
Combination of columns that make up the referenced key.
CASCADE option used to remove the child table record automatically,
When parent record is removed.
Specify SET NULL if we want Oracle to convert dependent
FOREIGN KEY values to NULL.
FOREIGN KEY at column level:
Syntax: CREATE table table name(column1 data _type() constraint
constraint_name FOREIGN KEY(column1)
REFERENCES parent_table_name( column name),
column2 data _type() constraint nn constraint_type,column3 data_type());
* FOREIGN KEY(column1) is optional when defining at column level.
FOREIGN KEY at Table Level:
Syntax : CREATE table table name( column1 data _type(), column2 data _type(),
Column3 data _type(), constraint constraint_name
FOREIGN KEY( column1,column2) REFERENCES parent table(column));
*When FOREIGN KEY defining at table level FOREIGN KEY keyword is
mandatory.
[When creating a table with foreign key there must be one parent table with
Primary key or unique constraint.]
Step 1:
CREATE table DEPT(DEPTNO number(2) constraint dno_pk PRIMARY KEY
constraint deptno_chk CHECK(deptno between 10 and 99),dname varchar2(15)
constraint dname_nn NOT NULL constraint dname_ck CHECK(Dname=upper(dname)),
Loc varchar2(15) default NEW YORK constraint loc_chk CHECK (loc in(NEW
YORK,DALLAS, BOSTON, CHICAGO)));
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Step 2:
CREATE TABLE EMP(empno number(4) constraint empno_pk PRIMARY KEY,
ename varchar2(20) constraint ename_nn NOT NULL
CHECK(substr(ename,1,1)
between A AND Z) AND
ename=upper(ename)),
job varchar2(15) constraint job_chk CHECK(job IN(ANALYST, CLERK,
MANAGER, PRESIDENT, SALESMAN)),
Mgr number(4) constraint mgr_fk_self REFERENCES emp(empno) ON DELETE
SET NULL,
Hiredate date DEFAULT SYSDATE,
sal number(8,2) constraint sal_nn NOT NULL
constraint CHK(sal between 1000 and 10000),
comm Number(8,2),
deptno number(2) constraint deptno_fk
REFERENCES dept(deptno), ON DELETE CASCADE);
CHECK:
Used to impose a conditional rule on a table column.

It defines a condition that each row must satisfy.
A column can have any number of check constraints
Check constraints can be defined at column level or table level
Rules:
This cannot be include are
Queries that refer to values in other rows

References to the CURRVAL,NEXTVAL,LEVEL or ROWNUM
Calls to functions SYSDATE,UID,USER,USERENV.
Syntax: Create table table name(column1 data_type(),column2 data_type()

CONSTRAINT CONSTRAINT_NAME CHECK(<condition>),column4
data type.);
Example:
CREATE table student(s_id number constraint sid_chk
CHECK(s_id BETWEEN 1 and 60), name varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
T_marks number(3) CHECK( T_marks BETWEEN 0 AND 100));
DEFAULT:
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If values are not provided for the table column default value will be considered.
The default value can be a literal, an expression, or a SQL function.
The default expression must match the data type of column.
Syntax:
Create table table name(column1 data_type(), column2 data_type() DEFAULT
expression/value,column3 data_type());
Example:
CREATE table school(sid number PIMARY KEY, name varchar2(20) NOT NULL,
Fee number(6,2) default 5000, fee_due number(6,2));
Adding Constraints to a Existing Table:
Syntax : Alter table table name ADD constraint constraint_name
Constraint type (column names);
Example: ALTER table emp add constraint emp_pk primary key(empno);
* NOT NULL and DEFAULT added to existing column by using the MODIFY clause
Of the ALTER TABLE statement.
Example: ALTER table emp modify hiredate date DEFAULT sysdate;
DROPPING CONSTRAINTS:
We can find the c onstraint name in USER_CONSTRAINTS and

USER_CONS_COLUMNS whis is to be dropped.
Alter table statement is used with DROP clause.
The CASCADE option of the DROP clause causes any dependent constraints
also to be dropped.
When constraint is dropped, the constraint is no longer available in data
dictionary.
Syntax:
ALTER table table name

DROP PRIMARY KEY/UNIQUE (column)/CONSTRAINT
constraint _name
Example : ALTER table emp DROP primary key;

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Example : ALTER table dept DROP UNIQUE(Dname);

Note: When we Drop PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraints the related INDEX will
drop automatically.
*We can find the index_name of table by following syntax.
SELECT INDEX_NAME from USER_INDEXES where table_name= EMP;
DISABLING Constraint:
The constraint can be disabled without dropping or recreating it.
Syntax: ALTTER table table name DISABLE constraint constraint_name
Example : ALTER table emp DISABLE Constraint emp_pk;
ENABLE Constraint:
The disabled constraint can be enabled without dropping.
Syntax : ALTER table table name ENABLE constraint clause.
Example: ALTER table emp ENABLE constraint emp_pk.
Enabling a constraint applied to all the data in a table.

When an UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY constraint is ENABLED, the UNIQUE or
PRIMARY KEY index is automatically created.
VIEWING Constraints:
All constraints can be stored in USER_CONSTRAINTS table
The code that they contained is
P-primary
U-unique
R-references
C-check& not null
Syntax: SELECT owner, constraint _name, constraint _type from user _constraints
WHERE table _name= <table name>;
Example: SELECT owner, constraint _name, constraint _type from user _constraints
WHERE table _name= EMP;
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Note: When we drop the table all corresponding integrity constraints will dropped
Automatically.
INDEXES:
Index is a schema object, which a pointer locates the physical address of Data
Index is used by Oracle server ti speed up the retrieval,manipulate the rows.
Specification of INDEXES:
INDEX can be created explicitly or automatically.

INDEX is activated when indexed column is used in where clause.
INDEX Necessity of disk I/O by using an indexed path to locate data quickly.
INDEX is used and maintained automatically by the Oracle server.
When you drop a table, corresponding indexes are also dropped.
Creation Types of INDEXES:

a. Automatic Index:
A Unique index is created automatically when you define a PRIMARY KEY
Or UNIQUE constraint in a table dropped.
b. User created Index :
Users can create non unique indexes on columns to speed up access to the rows
Any number of Indexes can be created on one table.
USER_INDEXES holds the details of Indexes.
*When index is created it forms two dimensional matrix which is independent of the
table, it will hold the sorted data, extracted from table columns and address field
identifies the location of the record in Oracle Database(ROWID).
Note: The records in the index are stored in the ascending order of the INDEX column.
Rules To Create INDEX:

The table or cluster to be indexed must be in own schema.
INDEX object privilege should be available on the table to INDEXED.
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CREATE any index SYSTEM privilege must be available.

UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system privilege or SPACE QUOTA on
TABLESPACES must be available
INDEX cannot be created on columns contain data type as LONG,LONG
RAW,LOB,REF.
If INDEX is locally partitioned then the table must be portioned.
For Global Temporary table INDEX is also temporary with the same scope,as
that of the table.
Syntax: CREATE [UNIQUE] or [BITMAP] INDEX index _name

ON Table _name (column name)
TABLESPACE TableSpacename.
*TableSpacenames are Stored in USER_TABLESPACES.
CHANGING TABLESPACE QUOTQ UNLIMITED:
ALTER tablespace TableSpacename space QUOTA UNLIMITED.
Types of INDEXES:
NORMAL INDEXES:
They are default indexes
BITMAP INDEX:
INDEXES associated with ROWIDS called as BITMAP INDEX.

Specify BITMAP to indicate that has to be create with a BITMAP for each
DISTINCT KEY.
BITMAP indexes should be used only when the data is infrequently updated.
The Oracle OPTIMIZER can dynamically convert Bitmap Indexes to ROWIDs
During the query processing.
Syntax: CREATE BITMAP INDEX index _name

ON table _name(column _name);
Example: CREATE BITMAP INDEX si _ind ON student(sid);
CREATE BITMAP INDEX emp_ind ON emp(deptno);
Rules:
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BITMAP indexes should not be used for tables involved in ONLINE

TRANSACTION PROCESSING APPLICATIONS.
We cannot specify both UNIQUE and BITMAP.
COMPOSITE INDEX:
A composite index also called a concatenated index is an index created on

multiple columns of a table.
Columns in a composite index can appear in any order and need not be adjacent
columns of the table.
Example:
CREATE BITMAP INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno, sname);
UNIQUE INDEX:
Unique indexes guarantee that no two rows of a table have duplicate values in
the columns that define the index.
Unique index is automatically created when primary key or unique constraint is
created.
Example: CREATE UNIQUE INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno);

COMPOSITE UNIQUE INDEX:
Composite Unique Index is an Index On Multiple unique Columns.
Example: CREATE Unique Index Eno_ename_ind ON EMP(empno,ename);

NON-UNIQUE INDEX:
Non-Unique indexes do not impose the above restriction on the column values.
Example: CREATE INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno);

BTREE INDEX or ASCENDING INDEX:
The default type of index used in an oracle database is the btree index.
A btree index is designed to provide both rapid access to individual rows and
quick access to groups of rows within a range.
The btree index does this by performing a succession of value comparisons.
Each comparison eliminates many of the rows.
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Ex: CREATE INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno);
DESCENDING INDEX:
The order used by B-tree indexes has been ascending order. You can categorize
data in B-tree index in descending order as well.
This feature can be useful in applications where sorting operations are required.
*INDEXES are Stored in USER_INDEXES.

Global Temporary Table:
Once Transactions are commit, table will be deleted.
Example: CREATE Global Temporary Table g_id
AS
Select empno, ename, sal, d.deptno, d.dname from emp e,dept d
Where e.deptno=d.deptno.
*No data is there in this table.
INSERT into g_id(select empno,ename,sal,d.d.deptno,d.dname from emp e,dept d
Where e.deptnpo=d,deptno);
SELECT *FROM g_id;
Output: 14 records will display.
Commit;
(When we say commit the transactions will be rollback)
SELECT *FROM g_id;
Output: No rows selected, because the will be rollback from the table.
Difference between UNIQUE and UNIQUE INDEX:
Two data base objects are created at the time of UNIQUE (they are UNIQUE and
DEFAULT INDEX)
At the time of UNIQUE INDEX Only one database will be created.
UNIQUE will give the REFERENCE to the other table, where as UNIQUE INDEX
cannot give any reference.
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User _constraints and User _indexes will store the INDEXES.

DEFAULT indexes are available in USER_INDEXES and
USER_CONSTRAINTS.
But USER INDEXES are not available in USER_CONSTRAINTS.
To see INDEXES on a Table
DESC USER_INDEXES;
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS:
1. SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS
2. GROUP FUNCTIONS
SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS:
They are used to manipulate data items.
They accept one or more arguments and return one value for each row returned
By the query.
The argument can be:
User-supplied constant.
Variable value.
Column name
Expression
Syntax: FUNCTION_NAME(column/Expr,Argument1,Argument2)
Features of Single-row Functions:
Acting on each row returned in the query.

Returning one result per row
Can be used in SELECT, WHERE and ORDER BY Clause.
Can be nested.
Row Types of Single functions:

1. String/Character functions
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2. Numeric functions
3. Date functions
4. Miscellaneous functions
5. Conversion functions
String/Character functions:
Accept character input and can return both character and number values.
UPPER:
This will convert the string into uppercase.
Syntax: upper (string)
Example: Select upper('computer') from dual;
UPPER
----------COMPUTER
LOWER:
This will convert the string into lowercase.
Syntax: lower (string)
Ex: Select lower(GOLDENGATE);
Output: goldengate.
CONCAT:
It concatenates the first character value to the second character value.

Only two parameters are accept.
It returns the character data type.
Syntax : CONCAT(COLUMN1/EXPRESSION1,COLUMN2/EXPRESSION2);
Example: Select CONCAT(golden, gate) from Dual;
OUTPUT: goldengate
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Example: Select concat(concat(ename,job),sal) from EMP;

Note: The concatenation symbol is ||. This symbol is used to concat the more
than one strings or expressions.
Example: Select 'i' || ' am' || ' coming' from dual;
OUTPUT: iamcoming
LENGTH:
We can find the LENGTH of the String or expression, we may use column names
also in this function.
Syntax: length (string/expression)

Example: Select length('goldengate') from dual;
OUTPUT: 10
Example: Select Length(golden gate) fom dual.
OUTPUT: 11
* spaces in the string also treated as one character, but string should be in single
Quotes.
Example: Select Length(ename) from EMP
It gives the length of each employee name of EMP table.
RPAD:
This will allows you to pad/add the right side of a column/expression with any set of
characters.
Syntax: rpad (string, length [padding _char])
Example: Select rpad('goldengate',15,'*'), rpad('golden',15,'*#') from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
OUTPUT: goldengate*****
golden#########
When adding the character to given string it includes the no. of characters
present in the string
Default padding character was blank space.
LPAD:
This will allows you to pad/add the left side of a column with any set of characters.
Syntax : lpad(string,length,[adding character]);
Example: select lpad(goldengate,20, %) from dual;
OUTPUT: %%%%%%%%%%goldengate
Example: Select Lpad(ename,10, $) from EMP;
OUTPUT: $$$$$smith
$$$$$$john
$$$$$$king
All 14 rows will be displayed by adding $ on left side of each employee.
Example: select lpad(sal,12,@) from emp;
OUTPUT: @@@@@@@@@sal, here sal is taken as string.
LTRIM:
This will remove/cut off unwanted characters from the left end of string.
Syntax: ltrim (string [,unwanted _chars]);
Example: Select ltrim('goldengate, golden') from dual;
OUTPUT: gate
If you havent specified any unwanted characters it will display entire string.
RTRIM:
It will remove all the right most characters appear in the set.
______________________________________________________________________
Syntax: RTRIM (char, set);

Example: Select Rtrim(goldengateabab, ab) from dual;
OUTPUT: goldengate.
Example: Select RTrim(job,er) from EMP;
TRIM:
It removes the characters from both (left, right) sides.
If we specify Leading concentrates on leading characters.
If Trailing is specified it concentrates on trailing characters.
If both or none is specified concentrates on both leading and trailing.
Returns the varchar2 type
Example: Select Trim (d from goldendd) from dual;
Select Trim (Leading s from ssmithss) from dual;
Select trim(Trailing s from ssmithss) from dual;
Select trim(both s from ssmithss) from dual;
REPLACE:
This will replace the set of characters of a string by the given string.
If the replacement string is omitted or null, all occurrences of each string are removed.
Syntax: REPLACE (TEXT, SEARCH_STRING, [REPLACEMENT_STRING]);
Example: Select Replace(olden, o, go) from dual;
OUTPUT: golden, here o is Replaced with go
Example: Select replace(g o l d e n g a t e, ) from dual;
OUTPUT: goldengate, here we omitted the replacement string hence all the
Spaces are removed.
TRANSLATE:
This will Replace the string character by character.
______________________________________________________________________
Syntax: TRANSLATE (string, old_character, new_character);

Example: Select Translate(goldengate, ge, xy) from dual;
OUTPUT: xoldynxaty. Here g is replaced by x, e is replaced by y.
Example: Select translate(led, l, R) from dual;
OUTPUT: Red.
Example: Select translate(ledl, le, Ra) from dual;
OUTPUT: RedR
ASCII:
This will return the decimal representation in the database character set of the first
character of the string
Syntax: ASCII (string)
Example: Select ASCII(a) from dual;
OUTPUT: 97.
Example: Select ASCII(Ward) from dual;
OUTPUT: 87.
If we pass more than one character only one character is passed.
CHR:
This will return the character having the binary equivalent to the string in either the
Database character set or the national character set.
Syntax: CHR(number)
Example: Select CHR(65) from dual;
OUTPUT: A
______________________________________________________________________
SOUNDEX:
This will be used to find words that sound like other words, exclusively used in
where clause.
Syntax: soundex (string)

Example: Select *from Emp where soundex(ename)=soundex(smith);
SUBSTR:
This will be used to extract substrings.
Syntax: SUBSTR (String, starting _position(m),no_of_characters(n))
If m is 0, it is treated as 1.
If m is positive, Oracle counts from beginning of character to find the first
character.
If n is omitted, returns all characters to the end of character.
If n is less than 1 or 0, a null is returned and floating points passed automatically
converted to integers.
Example: Select substr(goldengate,1,4) from dual;
OUTPUT: gold
Example: Select substr(goldengate,3,6) from dual;
OUTPUT: ldenga
Example: Select substr(goldengate,-4,3) from dual;
OUTPUT: gat
INSTR:
It returns the numeric position of a named character.
Syntax: INSTR (Column/Expression, character, [M], [N])
It searches for a character in a string/column from its Mth character and Nth
number of occurrence it displays the position of character.
______________________________________________________________________
M can be positive or negative, if negative it searches backward from the end of

column/expression.
The value of N should be positive.
The default value of both M and N are 1.
If search is unsuccessful, the return value is zero.
Example:
Select instr('goldengate','g',1,2) from dual;
INSTR ('GOLDENGATE','G', 1, 2)
--------------------------7
Select instr('goldengate','g',2,2) from dual;
INSTR ('GOLDENGATE','G', 2,2)
--------------------------0
Select instr('goldengate','g',-1,2) from dual;
INSTR ('GOLDENGATE','G',-1, 2)
---------------------------1
INITCAP:
It returns a string with the first letter of each word in upper case, keeping all other
in lower case.
Example:
select initcap('golden gate') from dual;
INITCAP('GOLDEN GATE)
----------Golden Gate
SELECT upper('goldengate'), lower('GOLDENGATE'), initcap('golden gate') from dual;
UPPER ('GOL LOWER('GOL INITCAP('GO
---------- ---------- ----------GOLDENGATE goldengate Golden Gate
DECODE:
______________________________________________________________________
Decode will act as value by value substitution. For every value of field, it checks
for a match in a series of if/then tests.
Syntax: decode (value, if1, then1, if2, then2 , . else);
If the number of parameters are odd and different then decode will display
nothing.
If the number of parameters are even and different then decode will display last
value.
If all the parameters are null then decode will display nothing.
If all the parameters are zeros then decode will display zero
Examples:
SQL> select decode(1,1,3,2,2,5) from dual;
DECODE (1,1,3,2,2,5)
------------------3
SQL> select decode(2,2,5,1,1,3) from dual;
DECODE(2,2,5,1,1,3)
------------------5
SQL> select decode(2,3,5,5) from dual;
DECODE(2,3,5,5)
--------------5
SQL> select decode(2,3,5) from dual;
DECODE(2,3,5)
------------SQL> select decode(3,4,5,6,7,4) from dual;
DECODE(3,4,5,6,7,4)
------------------______________________________________________________________________
4
SQL> select decode(3,4,5,6,7) from dual;
DECODE(3,4,5,6,7)
----------------SQL> select decode(1,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,5) from dual;
DECODE(1,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,5)
------------------------GREATEST:
This will give the greatest string, number from the given strings, numbers.
Syntax: greatest (strng1number1, string2/number2, string3/number3 stringn)
Example:
Select greatest (10, 20, 12, 30) from dual;
GREATEST (10, 20, 12, 30)
--------------------30
SQL> select greatest (12, 35, 23, 32) from dual;
GREATEST (12, 35, 23, 32)
--------------------35
SQL> select greatest ('golden','hyderabad','india') from dual;
GREAT
----india
SQL> select greatest ('golden, gate') from dual;
GREATE
______________________________________________________________________
-----golden
SQL> select greatest ('gate, golden') from dual;
GREATE
-----Golden
If any of the parameters is null it will display nothing.
LEAST:
This will give the least string/number
.
Syntax: LEAST (strng1/number1, string2/number2, string3/number3 stringn)
Example:
SQL> select least('smith','john','scott') from dual;
LEAST
---John
SQL> select least (121,111,123,321,234,431,102) from dual;
LEAST (121,111,123,321,234,431,102)
---------------------------------102
COALESCE:
This will give the first non-null string/expression.
Syntax: coalesce (strng1, string2, string3 stringn);
Example:
SQL> select coalesce('ab','xy','rt'),coalesce('','as','xy') from dual;
COALESCE COALESCE
-- -------ab
as
SQL> select coalesce(100,null,120),coalesce(null,100,120),coalesce(null,'aw','fh') from
dual;
______________________________________________________________________
COALESCE (100,NULL,120)COALESCE (NULL,100,120)COALESCE(NULL,AW,FH)

---------------------- ------------ ---------------------------- -----------------------------------100
100
aw
NUMBER FUNTIONS:
These functions accept number input and return numeric values.
Many functions that return values that are accurate to 38 decimal digits.
ROUND FUNCTION:
Syntax: ROUND (m,n)
It returns m round to n places right of the decimal point.

If n is omitted n is rounded to 0,places.
If n is negative round of the digits left of the decimal point.
n must be an integer.
Example:
select ROUND (123.34,1) from dual;
ROUND (123.34,1)
--------------123.3
select round (-122.236,2) from dual;
ROUND (-122.236,2)
-----------------122.24
Select round(345.37,1) from dual;
ROUND (345.37,1)
--------------345.4
select round (237.385,-2) from dual;
ROUND(237.385,-2)
----------------200
TRUNC:
______________________________________________________________________
This will truncate digits of precision from a number.

Syntax: TRUNC (VALUE, PRECISION)
Example:
SLECT TRUNC (123.23, 2) FROM DUAL;
TRUNC (123.23, 2)
--------------123.23
Select trunc(113.343,2) from dual;
TRUNC (113.343,2)
---------------113.34
Select trunc(3234.22341,3) from dual;
TRUNC (3234.22341,3)
------------------3234.223
Select trunc (-324.3456,2) from dual;
TRUNC (-324.3456,2)
------------------324.34
Select trunc(-345.3456,-2) from dual;
TRUNC (-345.3456,-2)
-------------------300
ABS:
Absolute value is the measure of the magnitude of value.

Absolute value is always a positive number.
Syntax: abs (value)

Example:
Select abs(5),abs(-6),abs(0),abs(-7.34) from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
ABS (5)
---------5
ABS (-6) ABS (0) ABS (-7.34)

---------- ---------- --- ------6
0
7.34
SIGN:
Sign gives the sign of a value.
Syntax: sign (value)

Example:
Select sign (-5), sign (6), sign (0), sign (null) from dual;
SIGN (-5) SIGN (6) SIGN (0)
------------------- ----------1
1
0
SIGN (NULL)
----------
SQRT:
This will give the square root of the given value.
Syntax: sqrt (value)
Here value must be positive.
Example:
Select sqrt(4),sqrt(12),sqrt(16),sqrt(28) from dual;
SQRT(4) SQRT(12) SQRT(16) SQRT(28)
---------- ---------------------------2
3.46410162
4
5.29150262
Select sqrt(1),sqrt(null),sqrt(0) from dual;
SQRT(1) SQRT(NULL) SQRT(0)
---------- ---------- ---------1
0
MOD
This will give the remainder.
Syntax: mod (value, divisor)
Ex: select mod(7,4), mod(1,5), mod(null,null), mod(0,0), mod(-7,4) from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
MOD(7,4) MOD(1,5)
------------ ---------3
1
MOD(NULL,NULL)
---------------------
MOD(0,0)
----------0
MOD(-7,4)
-------------3
NVL
This will substitutes the specified value in the place of null values.
This is used to convert a NULL value to an actual value.
Syntax: nvl (null _col/exp1, replacement _value/exp2)
Exp1: Is the source value or expression that may contain NULL.
Exp2: is the target value for converting NULL.
Select nvl(100,200) from dual;
NVL (100,200)
-----------100
Select nvl(null,100) from dual;
NVL (NULL, 100)
------------100
Select 1000+null from dual;
1000+NULL
---------Select 1000+nvl (null, 0) from dual;
1000+NVL (NULL, 0)
---------------1000
POWER
Power is the ability to raise a value to a given exponent.
Syntax: power (value, exponent)
select power(2,5),power(-2,3),power(0,0),power(1,1) from dual;
POWER (2,5)
POWER(-2,3)
POWER(0,0)
POWER(1,1)
-------------------------------------32
-8
1
1
EXP
This will raise e value to the give power.
______________________________________________________________________
Syntax: exp (value)

Select exp (0), exp (1), exp (-1), exp (5) from dual;
EXP (0)
---------1
EXP (1)
---------2.71828183
EXP (-1)
---------367879441
EXP (5)
---------148.413159
LN
This is based on natural or base e logarithm.
Syntax: ln (value)
Here value must be greater than zero which is positive only.
Select ln(2),ln(5) from dual;
LN(2)
---------.693147181
LN(5)
---------1.60943791
Select ln(0) from dual;

Error Argument '0' is out of range
LOG
This is based on 10 based logarithm.
Syntax: log (10, value) -- here value must be greater than zero which is positive only.
Select log(10,100), log(10,2), log(10,1), log(10,null) from dual;
LOG(10,100)
LOG(10,2)
LOG(10,1)
LOG(10,NULL)
---------------------------------------2
.301029996
0
CEIL
This will produce a whole number that is greater than or equal to the specified
value.
Syntax: ceil (value)
Select ceil(5), ceil(5.1), ceil(-5), ceil( -5.1), ceil(0), ceil(null) from dual;
CEIL(5) CEIL(5.1) CEIL(-5)
CEIL(-5.1)
CEIL(0)
CEIL(NULL)
______________________________________________________________________
--------5
----------6
----------5
------------5
-------0
--------------
FLOOR
This will produce a whole number that is less than or equal to the specified value.
Syntax: floor (value)
Select floor(5), floor(5.1), floor(-5), floor( -5.1), floor(0), floor(null) from dual;
FLOOR(5)
----------5
FLOOR(5.1) FLOOR(-5)
-----------------------5
-5
FLOOR(-5.1) FLOOR(0) FLOOR(NULL)

---------------------------------------6
0
BITAND
This will perform bitwise and operation.
Syntax: bitand (value1, value2)
select bitand(2,3), bitand(0,0), bitand(1,1), bitand(null,null), bitand(-2,-3) from dual;
BITAND(2,3) BITAND(0,0) BITAND(1,1)
BITAND(NULL,NULL)
----------------------------------------------2
0
1
-4
GREATEST
This will give the greatest number.
BITAND(-2,-3)
-------------
Syntax: greatest (value1, value2, value3 valuen)

Select greatest (1, 2, 3), greatest (-1, -2, -3) from dual;
GREATEST (1, 2, 3)
GREATEST (-1,-2,-3)
-----------------------------------------3
-1
If all the values are zeros then it will display zero.
If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.
LEAST
This will give the least number.
Syntax: least (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
______________________________________________________________________
Select least (1, 2, 3), least (-1, -2, -3) from dual;
LEAST (1, 2, 3)
-------------------1
LEAST (-1,-2,-3)
-----------------------3
If all the values are zeros then it will display zero.
If all the parameters are nulls then it will display nothing.
COALESCE
This will return the first not null value.
Syntax: coalesce (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
Select coalesce(1,2,3), coalesce(null,2,null,5) from dual;
COALESCE(1,2,3)
--------------1
COALESCE(NULL,2,NULL,5)
----------------------2
DATE FUNCTIONS:
Oracle stores the dates in an internal numeric format.

The default display and input format for any date is DD-MON-YY.
We can change the default format to our desired format by using the following
command.
Alter session set nls_date_format = DD-MONTH-YYYY;

But this will expire once the session was closed.
SYSDATE:
It is a date function that returns current date and time.
Select SYSDATE from dual;
Date arithmetic:
______________________________________________________________________
As database stores dates as numbers, it allows to perform calculations using arithmetic

operators.
We can perform the following operations..
Date + number date adds a number of days to a date.

Date Number Date subtracts the number of days from date.
Date + Number/24 adds a number of hours to date
Example:
Select sysdate from dual;
Select Sysdate, Sysdate+48/24 from dual;
CURRENT_DATE
This will returns the current date in the sessions timezone.
select current_date from dual;
CURRENT_DATE
-----------------25-NOV-11
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
This will returns the current timestamp with the active time zone information.
Select current_timestamp from dual;
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
-----------------------------------------------------25-NOV-11 03.42.41.383369 AM +05:30
SYSTIMESTAMP
This will returns the system date, including fractional seconds and time zone of the
database.
Select systimestamp from dual;
SYSTIMESTAMP
-----------------------------------------------------______________________________________________________________________
25-NOV-11 03.49.31.830099 AM +05:30

LOCALTIMESTAMP
This will returns local timestamp in the active time zone information, with no time
zone information shown.
Select localtimestamp from dual;
LOCALTIMESTAMP
-------------------------------------------25-NOV-11 03.44.18.502874 AM
DBTIMEZONE
This will returns the current database time zone in UTC format. (Coordinated Universal
Time)
Select dbtimezone from dual;
DBTIMEZONE
---------------07:00
SESSIONTIMEZONE
This will return the value of the current sessions time zone.
Select sessiontimezone from dual;
SESSIONTIMEZONE
-----------------------------+05:30
MONTHS_BETWEEN FUNCTION:
Syntax: Months _between (D1,D2)
It gives the difference between D1 and D2 in number of months.
If D1 is later than D2, the result is positive, else negative.
Select months_between(sysdate,'25-DEC-04') from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,'25-DEC-04')
----------------------------------83
Select months_between('22-DEC-2010',sysdate) from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN('22-DEC-2010',SYSDATE)
-------------------------------------11.128056
NEXT DAY FUNTION:
Syntax: Next_day(D,Char)
It returns the date of the first week day named by char, that is later than the data D.
select next_day(sysdate,'wed') from dual;

NEXT_DAY(
--------30-NOV-11
select next_day(sysdate,'sat') from dual;
NEXT_DAY
--------26-NOV-11
LAST DAY FUNCTION:
Syntax: last _day (D)
It returns the date of the last day of the month that contains D.
Mostly is used to determine how many days are left in the current month.
Select last_day(sysdate), last_day(sysdate)-sysdate daysleft from dual;
LAST_DAY
--------- ------30-NOV-11
DAYSLEFT
--5
______________________________________________________________________
ROUNDING OF DATES:
Syntax: Round (date, format)
Returns date rounded to the unit specified by the format.
If format is omitted, date is rounded to the nearest day.
select round(sysdate,'month') from dual;
ROUND (SYSDATE.
--------01-DEC-11
TRUNCATING DATES:
Syntax: Trunc(Date, format)
Returns date with the time portion of the day truncated to the specified unit.
Select round (sysdate,'DAY'),Trunc(sysdate,'DAY') from dual;
ROUND (SYS TRUNC (SYS
--------- --------27-NOV-11 20-NOV-11
Select round (sysdate,'MONTH'),trunc(sysdate,'MONTH') from dual;
ROUND (SYS TRUNC(SYS
--------- --------01-DEC-11 01-NOV-11
CONVERSION FUNCTION:
The conversion functions convert a value from one data type to another.
Conversion in Oracle is two types.
Implicit conversion.
It works according to the convention specified by the Oracle.
______________________________________________________________________
CHAR to NUMBER conversion succeed only if the character string represents a valid
NUMBER.
CHAR to DATES conversion succeed only if the character string represents the default
format of DD-MON-YY.
Explicit conversion.
SQL provided three conversion functions to convert one data type to another.
The explicit conversion functions are
TO_ CHAR To Character function.
TO_DATE To Date conversion
TO_NUMBER To Number conversion.
TO_CHAR Conversion:
This function is used in two ways.
1. TO_CHAR (Number Conversion)
2. TO_CHAR (Date Conversion)
TO_CHAR(Number Conversion):
1 . Decimal Indicator: D99D99

It returns the specified position of the decimal character.
The default decimal delimiter is period.
SQL> select 1234,to_char(1234,'9999D99') from dual;
1234 TO_CHAR(
---------- -------1234 1234.00
127864 TO_CHAR(
---------- -------127864 ########
______________________________________________________________________

12345 TO_CHAR(1
---------- --------12345 123450
2. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION INDICATOR: EEEE9.9EEEE
Returns the numeric value using scientific notation.
SQL> select to_char(3247,'9.9EEEE') from dual;
TO_CHAR(3
--------3.2E+03
3 . GROUP SEPARATOR: G9G9999
Returns the specified position of the group separator.

Multiple group separators can be specified.
SQL> select to_char(123987,'9G9999G99') from dual;

TO_CHAR(12
---------1239,87
SQL> select to_char(3426354,'99G99G999') from dual;
TO_CHAR(34
---------34,26,354
LOCAL CURRANCY INDICATOR : L L999 or 999L
It returns the specified position of the local currency symbol.
SQL> select to_char(1234,'L9999') from dual;

TO_CHAR (1234,'L
--------------______________________________________________________________________
$1234
SQL> select to_char(23765,'L99G999D99', 'NLS_CURRENCY=IndRupees') from dual;
TO_CHAR (23765,'L99G9
-------------------IndRupees 23, 765.00
TRAILING MINUS INDICATOR: MI9999MI
It returns negative value with a trailing minus sign -.

Returns positive value with a trailing blank.
SQL> select -10000, to_char(-10000,'L99g999d99MI') from dual;

-10000 TO_CHAR (-10000,'L99G
---------- --------------------10000
$10,000.00SQL> select 12000, to_char(120000,'9g99g999d99MI','NLS_CURRENCY=IndRupees')
from dual;
12000 TO_CHAR (1200
---------- -----------12000 1, 20,000.00
NEGATIVE NUMBER INDICATOR: PR9999PR
Returns negative number in <>.

It can appear only as trailing declaration.
SQL> select to_char(-10000,'L99g999d99pr') from dual;

TO_CHAR(-10000,'L99G9
--------------------<$10,000.00>
SQL> select to_char(12000,'L99g999d99pr') from dual;
TO_CHAR(12000,'L99G99
--------------------______________________________________________________________________
$12,000.00
ROMAN NEGATIVE INDICATOR:
RNreturns upper roman number
rn returns lower roman number.
The value can be an integer between 1 and 3999.
SQL> select 12,to_char(12,'RN'),to_char(12,'rn') from dual;
12 TO_CHAR (12,'RN' TO_CHAR(12,'RN'
---------- --------------- --------------12
XII
xii
HEXADECIMAL INDICATOR: XXXXX
Returns the Hexadecimal value of the specified number of digits.

If number is not an integer, Oracle rounds it to an integer.
Accepts only positive or 0.
SQL> select 2000, to_char (2000,'xxxx') from dual;

2000 TO_CH
---------- ----2000 7d0
GROUP SEPARATOR: 9,999
Returns a comma in the specified position.

Multiple commas can be specified.
SQL> select 20000,to_char(20000,'99,999.99') from dual;

20000 TO_CHAR (20
---------- ---------20000 20,000.00
DOLLAR INDICATOR:
Returns value with a leading dollar sign.
______________________________________________________________________
SQL> select 200000,to_char(200000,'$9,99,999.99') from dual;

200000 TO_CHAR (20000
---------- ------------200000 $2, 00,000.00
ZERO INDICATORS:
Returns lading OR trailing Zeros.
SQL> select 10000,to_char(10000,'09999999'), to_char(10000,'0999990') from dual;
10000 TO_CHAR(1 TO_CHAR(
---------- --------- -------10000 00010000 0010000
ISO CURRENCY INDICATOR: CC9999
Returns specified position of the ISO currency symbol.
SQL> select 8000,to_char(8000,'C9999.99') from dual;
8000 TO_CHAR(8000,'C
---------- --------------8000
USD8000.00
Date format Models:
The date format models can be used in the TO_CHAR function too translate a DATE
value from original format to use format.
DATE FORMATS
D -- No of days in week
DD -- No of days in month
DDD -- No of days in year
MM -- No of month
MON -- Three letter abbreviation of month
MONTH -- Fully spelled out month
RM -- Roman numeral month
DY -- Three letter abbreviated day
DAY -- Fully spelled out day
Y -- Last one digit of the year
______________________________________________________________________
YY -- Last two digits of the year

YYY -- Last three digits of the year
YYYY -- Full four digit year
SYYYY -- Signed year
I -- One digit year from ISO standard
IY -- Two digit year from ISO standard
IYY -- Three digit year from ISO standard
IYYY -- Four digit year from ISO standard
Y, YYY -- Year with comma
YEAR -- Fully spelled out year
CC -- Century
Q -- No of quarters
W -- No of weeks in month
WW -- No of weeks in year
IW -- No of weeks in year from ISO standard
HH -- Hours
MI -- Minutes
SS -- Seconds
FF -- Fractional seconds
AM or PM -- Displays AM or PM depending upon time of day
A.M or P.M -- Displays A.M or P.M depending upon time of day
AD or BC -- Displays AD or BC depending upon the date
A.D or B.C -- Displays AD or BC depending upon the date
FM -- Prefix to month or day, suppresses padding of month or day
TH -- Suffix to a number
SP -- suffix to a number to be spelled out
SPTH -- Suffix combination of TH and SP to be both spelled out
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month yyyy hh:mi:ss am dy') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD MONTH YYYYHH:MI
---------------------------------------------------24 december 2006 02:03:23 pm sun
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd month year') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDMONTHYEAR')
------------------------------------------------------24 december two thousand six
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd fmmonth year') from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD FMMONTH YEAR')

------------------------------------------------------24 december two thousand six
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddth DDTH') from dual;
TO_CHAR(S
-----------24th 24TH
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddspth DDSPTH') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPTHDDSPTH
-----------------------------------------twenty-fourth TWENTY-FOURTH
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ddsp Ddsp DDSP ') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPDDSPDDSP')
-----------------------------------------------twenty-four Twenty-Four TWENTY-FOUR
TO_DATE
This will be used to convert the string into data format.
Syntax: to_date (date)
select to_char(to_date('24/dec/2006','dd/mon/yyyy'), 'dd * month * day') from dual;
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('24/DEC/20
-------------------------24 * december * Sunday
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'i') from dual;
T
1
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'ww') from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
TO
-48
AGGREGATE/GROUP FUNCTIONS:
Group functions operate on set of rows to give one result per each group.
Group functions can appear in select lists and in ORDER BY and HAVING clauses.
Syntax: group_function(distinct/all column);
Rules:
The data types for the arguments can be CHAR, VARCHAR2, NUMBER, or DATE.
All group functions ignore null values except COUNT (*).
Average function:
It returns the average value of column.
It ignores NULL values.
Syntax: avg(distinct/all column)
select avg(sal), avg(DISTICT sal) from employees;
Sum Function:
It returns the SUM value of column.
Syntax: sum(distinct/all Column)
Select SUM(comm.), SUM(distinct comm) from employees;
Maximum Function:
It returns the maximum value of column
Syntax: max(distinct/all column)
Select max(sal) from employees;
Minimum Function:
It returns the minimum value of column.
______________________________________________________________________
Syntax : min(distinct/all Column)

Select min(sal) from employees;
Count Function:
It gives the no of rows in the Query.
If * used to returns all rows, it includes duplicated and NULLs.
Syntax: Count (distinct/all column)
Select count (employee _name) from employees;
Select count (*) from employees;
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS:
UID:
This will returns the integer value corresponding to the user currently logged in.
select uid from dual;
UID
---------319
USER:
This will returns the logins user name.
select user from dual;
USER
---------------scott
VSIZE:
This will returns the number of bytes in the expression.
Select vsize(123), vsize('computer'), vsize('12-jan-90') from dual;
VSIZE(123) VSIZE('COMPUTER')
----------------------------------3
8
VSIZE('12-JAN-90')
---------------------9
______________________________________________________________________
RANK:
This will give the non-sequential ranking.
Select rownum,sal from (select sal from emp order by sal desc);
ROWNUM SAL
---------- ---------1
5000
2
3000
3
3000
4
2975
5
2850
6
2450
select rank(2975) within group(order by sal desc) from emp;
RANK(2975)WITHINGROUP(ORDERBYSALDESC)
--------------------------------------------------------4
DENSE_RANK:
This will give the sequential ranking.
select dense_rank(2975) within group(order by sal desc) from emp;
DENSE_RANK(2975)WITHINGROUP(ORDERBYSALDESC)
----------------------------------------------------------------3
OPERATORS:
Arithmetic Operators:
Arithmetic operators can be used to create expressions on NUMBER and DATE data.
Arithmetic operators are +, - , *, /.
Operator precedence *, /, +, Arithmetic operators can be used in any clause of SQL statements, except the FROM
clause.
Select empno, ename, sal,sal+500 from employees;
______________________________________________________________________
HANDLING NULL VALUES:
Null value is unknown value, undefined value.

Not equal to 0 or blank space.
It represented with null keyword.
No operations allowed on null,(if performed any arithmetic operations it returns
null only)
Select 1000+null from dual;

1000+NULL
---------Select 2500*null from dual;
2500+NULL
------------NVL FUNCTION:
Syntax: NVL (Exp1, Exp2)
Exp1 is source value or expression that may contain NULL.
Exp2 is target value for converting NULL.
Data type of Expression1 and Expression should be same.

SQL> select 1000+nvl(null,0) from dual;
1000+NVL(NULL,0)
---------------1000
SQL> select nvl(100,null) from dual;
NVL(100,NULL)
------------100
SQL> select nvl(null,100) from dual;
______________________________________________________________________
NVL(NULL,100)
------------100
NVL2 FUNCTION:
Syntax : NVL2(exp1,exp2,exp3)
If exp1 is NOT NULL, NVL2 returns exp2.

If exp1 is NULL, NVL2 returns exp3.
Exp1 may any data type.
The data type of return value is always same as the data type of exp2, unless
exp2 is Character data type.
SQL> select nvl2(null,0,1000) from dual;

NVL2(NULL,0,1000)
----------------1000
SQL> select nvl2(100,250,300) from dual;
NVL2(100,250,300)
----------------250
SQL> select nvl2(null,200,null) from dual;
NVL2(NULL,200,NULL)
-------------------
NULLIF FUNCTION:
Syntax: NULLIF (exp1, exp2)
Compares two expressions and returns null if they are equal.
Returns first if they are not equal.
select nullif(100,200) from dual;
NULLIF(100,200)
--------------______________________________________________________________________
100
SQL> select nullif(300,300) from dual;
NULLIF(300,300)
--------------SQL> select nullif('smith','smith') from dual;
NULLI
----SQL> select nullif('smith','john') from dual;
NULLI
----Smith
Relational or Comparison operators:
<>, ^=,! = these three are not equal operators.
>, >=
<, <=
=
Select ename,sal from employees where sal>2000;
Select ename,sal from employee where sal<=1500;
Logical operators:
A logical condition combines the result of two component conditions to produce a single
result.
Three logical operators available in Oracle
AND Operator:
It returns FALSE if either is FALSE, else returns unknown.

It returns the result based on two or more conditions.
Select ename,sal,job from emp where (sal>=1500 and sal<=5000) and

job=MANAGER;
OR Operator:
______________________________________________________________________
It returns TRUE if either of component conditions are TRUE.

It returns FALSE if both are FALSE, else returns unknown.
Select ename,job,sal from emp where sal>=2000 OR deptno=20;

NOT Operator:
It returns TRUE if following condition is FALSE.

It returns FALSE if following condition is TRUE.
If the condition is unknown, it returns unknown.
Select empno,ename,sal from emp where NOT empno=7788;

The default precedence order is
ALL Comparison operators
NOT Logical condition
AND Logical condition
OR Logical condition
SQL OPERATORS:
BETWEENAND:
This is used to display the rows based on a range of values.
The declared range is inclusive.
The lower limit should be declared first.
Select empno, ename, sal from EMP where comm. between 200 and 800;
IN Operator:
This operator is used to test for values in a specified list.
The operator can be used upon any datatype.
Select empno,ename,sal from EMP where job in(MANAGER,CLERK);
Select empno,deptno,sal from EMP where deptno in(10,20,30);
NOT IN:
Select empno, ename,sal from EMP where deptno NOT IN(20,30);
______________________________________________________________________
LIKE Operator:
Use the like condition to perform wildcard.

The LIKE operator searches of valid search string values.
Search condition may contain either literal or numbers.
The available wild cards are

% it represents any sequence of zero or more characters.
_ It represents the any single character, only at that position only.
Select ename,empno from EMP where ename LIKE M%;
It displays the employee details whose name starts with M
Select ename,empno,sal from EMP where ename LIKE _O%;
It displays the employee details who contains O as second letter of names.
NOT LIKE:
Select empno,ename,sal from EMP where ename NOT LIKE M%;
It display the employee details not starting with M.
IS NULL, IS NOT NULL Operator:
The operator tests for NULL values.

It is only the operator that can be used to test for NULLs
Select ename,empno,sal from EMP where comm. Is NULL.

Select ename,empno,deptno where mgr is NOT NULL.
SET OPERATORS:
The set operators allow you to combine rows returned by two or more queries
The number of columns and the column types returned by the queries must
match, although the column names may be different.
All set operators have equal precedence, if a SQL statements contains multiple
SET operators, the Oracle server evaluates them from left(top) to right(bottom) if
no parentheses explicitly another order.
______________________________________________________________________
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SET OPERATORS:

UNION Operator.
UNION ALL Operator
INTERSECT Operator
MINUS Operator.
Whenever theses operators are used select statement must have
Equal no of columns, similar data type columns
Operator
Description
UNION ALL
Returns all the rows retrieved by the queries, including duplicate rows.
UNION
Returns all non-duplicate rows retrieved by the queries.
INTERSECT
Returns rows that are common to both queries.
MINUS
Returns the remaining rows when the rows retrieved by the second
query are subtracted from the rows retrieved by the first query.
Examples:
1) Select job from EMP where deptno=10;
UNION
Select job from EMP where deptno=20;
2)
selct deptno,job from EMP where deptno=10;

UNION ALL
Select deptno,job from EMP where deptno=20;
3) select job from EMP where Deptno=10;

INTERSECT
Select job from EMP where deptno=20;
4 ) select job from EMP where deptno=10;
MINUS
S ELECT JOB FROM EMP where deptno=20;
JOINS:
When data from more than one table in the database is required, a join condition
is used.
______________________________________________________________________
A join is a query that combines rows from two or more tables, views, or
materialized views. a join is performed whenever multiple table appear in the
quires FROM clause.
Join Conditions:
A column in the join condition need not be part of the SELECT list.
When writing a SELECT statement that joins tables, precede the column name
with the table name for clarity and to enhance database access.
EQUI JOIN or Simple Join:
Based on equality condition tables are joined.

Only matching records are displayed.
Joining tables must have at least one common column with same data type and
same values. ( not column name same).
Syntax:
Select col1,col2,col3. From <table1>,<table2>
Where <table>.<common col name>=<table2>.<column col name>
And..
Example:
Select empno,ename,emp.deptno deptno,dname from emp,dept

Where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
Using table aliases:

Select e.empno, e.ename, d.deptno, d.dname from emp e,dept d
Where e.deptno=d.deptno;
Non Equi Joins:
Between operator is used in non equi joins, it called as between join.
Syntax:
Select col1,col2. From <table A>,<table B>
Where <table A>.<col1> between <table B>.<col1> and <table B>.<col2>;
______________________________________________________________________
Example:
Select e.ename,e.sal,s.grade from emp e.salgrade s
Where e.sal between 1000 and 3000;
SELF JOIN:
It indicates joining the table to itself.

The same table appears twice in the FROM clause and is followed by table
aliases.
The table aliases must qualify the column names in the join condition.
It is used on same table the table must have at least 2 column with same,
datatype, values
Syntax:
Select columns from table1 t1,table1 t2
Where t1.column1=t2.column2;
Example:
Select e.ename employee name,m.ename manager name from emp e,emp m
Where e.mgr=m.empno;
OUTER JOIN:
Is used to retrieve all the rows from one table but matching rows from other table.
An outer join extends the result of a simple or inner join.
It is use an operator (+), it called join operator.
(+) used with table which missing the data.
Syntax:
Select table1.column, table2.column from table1, table2
Where table1.column (+) =table2.column;
Rules:
(+) operator can appear only in the where clause.
(+) used only with one table.
Example:
______________________________________________________________________
Select e.ename,d.deptno,d.dname from emp e , dept d

Where e.deptno(+)=d.deptno ORDER BY e.deptno;
Here from emp table only matching record will display, where as in dept table all
the records will display.
LEFT OUTER JOIN:
This will display the all the records from the left side table and only matching
records from the right side table
To perform a left outer join, the WHERE clause is,

WHERE table1.column1 = table2.column2 (+);
Example:
Select empno, ename, job, dname, loc from emp e left outer join dept d
On (e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
Select empno, ename, job, dname, loc from emp e,dept d where
e.deptno=d.deptno (+);
RIGHT OUTER JOIN:
This will display all the records from right side of the table and only matching
records from left side of the table.
To perform a right outer join, the WHERE clause is,
WHERE table1.column1(+)= table2.column2;
Example:
Select empno, ename, job, dname, loc from emp e right outer join dept d
On (e.deptno=d.deptno);
Or
Select empno, ename, job, dname, loc from emp e,dept d where
e.deptno(+)=d.deptno;
FULL OUTER JOIN:
______________________________________________________________________
This will display the all matching records and the non-matching records from both
tables.
Note: Full outer join=left outer join + right outer join;

Example:
select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e full outer join dept d
on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
CROSS JOIN:
This will return a Cartesian product from the two tables.
Example: select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp cross join dept;

NATURAL JOIN:
Natural join compares all the common columns.

If several columns have same names but data types do not match, the natural
join can be used.
Note: natural join not accept a alias names.

Example:
select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp natural join dept;
INNER JOIN:
This will display all the records that have matched.
Example: Select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp inner join dept using(deptno);

USING CLAUSE
Example: select empno,ename,job ,dname,loc from emp e join dept d using(deptno);
ON CLAUSE
______________________________________________________________________
Example:
select empno,ename,job,dname,loc from emp e join dept d
on(e.deptno=d.deptno);
SUBQUERIES:
Nesting of queries, one within the other is termed as a sub query.
A statement containing a sub query is called a parent query.
Sub queries are used to retrieve data from tables that depend on the values in
the table itself.
Root query: the query which is not depend on any other query for its
Conditions value.
Or
Independent query .
Example:
Select ename,sal from emp where deptno=10;
Parent query: the query which depend on any other query for its condition value.
Sub query:
The query which provides conditional values to its parent query.

Solve the problem by combining the two queries, placing one query inside the
other query.
Two clauses of comparison conditions are used in sub queries
1. Single-row operator
2. Multiple-row operators
1. Single-row operator:
A single-row subquery is one that returns either zero rows or one row to the outer
SQL statement.
A subquery can be placed in the WHERE clause of another query.
______________________________________________________________________
Example: select * from emp where sal > (select sal from emp where empno = 7566);
we can use other comparison operators, such as <>, <, >, <=, and >=,
with a single-row subquery.
Example:
SELECT product_id, name, price FROM products
WHERE price >(SELECT AVG(price)FROM products);
If a sub query is placed in FROM clause these types of sub queries are called as
INLI NE views, because the sub query provides data in line with the FROM
clause.
Example:
SELECT product _id FROM (SELECT product _id FROM products

WHERE product _id < 3);
A sub query may not contain an ORDER BY clause. Instead, any ordering must
be done in the Outer query.
Example:
SELECT product _id, name, price FROM products WHERE price > (SELECT
AVG (price)FROM products) ORDER BY product_id DESC;
2 . Multiple-row operators:
A multiple-row sub query can return one or more rows to an outer SQL
statement.
To handle a sub query that returns multiple rows, outer query may use the IN,
ANY, or ALL operator.
IN Equal to any value in the list.

ANY/SOME Compare value to each value returned by the sub query.
ALL Compare value to every value returned by the sub query.
Example:
______________________________________________________________________
1. Select ename,deptno from emp where sal IN(select max(sal) from emp group
by deptno);
2. Select ename,ename,sal,deptno from emp where
1sal <SOME(1250,3000,2500);
3. Select ename,job,sal from emp where sal<ANY(select sal from emp where
job=CLERK);
4. Select ename,job,sal from emp where sal>ANY(select sal from emp where
deptno=10);
Note: < ANY/SOME Means less than the maximum value in the list.
>ANY/SOME Means more than the minimum value in the list.
Example:
1. Select ename,job from emp where sal>ALL(select sal from emp where
deptno=30);
2. Select ename,job,sal from emp where sal<ALL(select avg(sal) from emp group
by deptno);
Note: > ALL means more than the maximum in the list.
< ALL means less than the minimum value in the list.
Sub SELECT statements:
These are SELECT statements declared as part of the SELECT list.
Example:
Select ename,sal,(select sum(sal) from emp total salary,(select MIN(sal)
from emp) lowest salary from emp;
Co-related Sub query:
It is another way of performing queries upon the data with a simulation of joins.
Syntax:
select column1,column2 from table1 alias1 where column1 operator(select
column1,column2 from table2 alias2 where table1.column operator
table2.column);
______________________________________________________________________
Example:
Select deptno,ename,sal from emp e where deptno=(select deptno from dept d
where e.deptno=d.deptno);
* can nest subqueries inside other subqueries to a depth of 255.
VIEWS:
A view is a database object that is a logical representation of a table. It is

delivered from a table but has no storage of its own and often may be used in the
same manner as a table.
A view takes the output of the query and treats it as a table, therefore a view can
be thought of as a stored query or a virtual table.
It can be defined as an stored select statement.
It will not hold data or store data by itself.
It is a logical table based on one or more tables or views.
DML, DESC, SELECT allowed on views.
ADVANTAGES:
Provides high security while sharing data between users.

USER_VIEWS hold the details of views.
Syntax:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE| NOFORCE] VIEW view _name[(alias name)] as
Sub query/select statement [with (check option/read only) CONSTRAINT <constraint
name>;
OR REPLACE: Re creates the view if it is already exists.
FORCE: creates a view even the base table does not exists.
______________________________________________________________________
WITH CHECK OPTION: specifies that only rows accessible to the view can be
INSERTED or UPDATED or DELETED.
WITH READ ONLY: Ensures that no DML operations can be performed on this view.
TYPES OF VIEWS:
1. Simple view
2. Complex view
1 . Simple view: A simple view can be created on single table.
Example:
1. Create view emp_view as select *from employees;
2. Create view student_view as select name student name,sid studentid, marks
from student;
2 . Complex view: The view which is created with following clauses
Join condition
Group by
Having clause
Set operators
Distinct
Group function
Example:
1. Create view emp_info as select e.empno employeeno,e,ename name,d.deptno
departmentid,d.dname from emp e,dept d Where d.deptno=e.deptno order by
d.deptno;
2. Create or replace view select e.ename,e.job,d.deptno from emp e,dept d where
e.deptno=d.deptno
UNION
______________________________________________________________________
Select ename,sal,com from emp where deptno in(10,20);

Modifying a view
Example:
Create or replace view emp_view as select ename,job from emp where deptno=20;
View with column declarations:
Example:
Create or replace view empv(id_number,name,sal,department-id) as select
empno,ename,sal,deptno from emp;
DROPPING VIEW:
Dropping a view has no affect on the tables upon which the view is created.
Syntax: DROP VIEW View_name;

Example: DROP VIEW emp_view;
VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT:
Example:
Create view stud as select *from student where marks = 500 with check option
Constraint Ck;
- Insert possible with marks value as 500
- Update possible excluding marks column
- Delete possible
VIEW WITH READ ONLY OPTION:
Example:
Create or replace view empview (employee_id,employee_name,job_title) as
Select employee_id,last_name,job_id from employees where department_id=10
wuth read only;
SNAPSHOT:
SNAPSHOT is a database object.
______________________________________________________________________
It is a static picture of data.

SNAPSHOT has Structure and Data
NO DML possible on snapshot, only SELECT is possible
Syntax : create SNAPSHOT <snapshot name

AS
Select *from <username>.<objectname>@<databaselink>;
Example:
Create snapshot sn as select *from scott.emp@orcl.
It is static when we do any change on base table there is no effect in snapshot.
When we delete base table snapshot data will not be deleted.
These are created by DBAs.
MATERIALIZED VIEW:
It is same as snapshot.
Syntax : create MATERIALIZED VIEW <view name>

[refresh on commit]
[enabled query rewrite]
As <select statements>;
Example:
Create materialized view emp_info enabled query rewrite
As select deptno,sum(sal0,count(empno) from emp group by deptno;
To create materialized view we need privilege.

Grant query rewrite to <user name>
Alter session set QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED=TRUE;
We use this option to read the changes of base table.
______________________________________________________________________
HIERARCHICAL Queries:
These are executed upon tables that contain hierarchical data.

To execute the hierarchical queries, we need the following queries
START WITH: it specifies the root rows of the hierarchy.

CONNECT BY: It is used to specify the relationship between parent rows and child
rows of the hierarchy.
WHERE: it is used to restrict the rows returned by the query.
Rules:
They cannot be used to perform joins.

They cannot select data from a view, whose query perform a join.
If order by clause is used rows can be returned based on order by clause.
Example:
1. Select ename,empno,mgr,job from emp CONNECT BY PRIOR empno=mgr;
2. Select ename,empno,mgr,job from emp START WITH JOB= PRESIDENT
CONNECT BY PRIOR empno=mgr;
PSEUDO COLUMNS:
The available pseudo columns are
CURRVAL
NEXTVAL
LEVEL
______________________________________________________________________
ROWID
ROWNUM
Currval and Nextval:
These are applied upon the SEQUENCE schema object.

CURRVAL returns current value of sequence.
NEXTVAL returns next value of the sequence.
These can be used only in
The SELECT list of SELECT statement.

The values clause of INSERT statement.
The set clause of UPDATE statement.
Syntax: sequencename.currval returns current value of sequence.

Sequencename.nextval returns next value of sequence.
SEQUENCE:
A sequence is a schema object that can generate sequential values.
For sequence in other schema the qualifying syntax is
SCHEMANAME.SEQUENCENAME.CURRVAL
SCHEMANAME.SEQUENCENAME.NEXTVAL.
Creating sequence:
CREATE SEQUENCE <SEQUENCENAME>
[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
______________________________________________________________________
[MAXVALUE n|NOMAXVALUE]
[MINVALUE n|NOMINVALUE]
[CYCLE |NOCYCLE]
[CACHE n|NOCACHE]
ORDER/NOORDER;
If the above parameters are not specified by default
START WITH will be 1
INCREMENT BY will be 1
SEQUENCE is NOCYCLE
The CACHE value will be 20
SEQUENCE is ORDER
Example: Create sequence deptno
INCREMENT BY 10
START WITH 10
MINVALUE 0
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
Modifying a sequence:
Alter sequence <sequence name>
[INCREMENT BY n]
______________________________________________________________________
[MAXVALUE n|NOMAXVALUE]
[MINVALUE n|NOMINVALUE]
[CYCLE |NOCYCLE]
[CACHE n|NOCACHE];
Example:
Alter sequence deptno
INCREMENT BY 10
MAXVALUE 500
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
*You must be the owner or alter privilege for the sequence to modify it.
START WITH option cannot be changed using alter sequence statement.
To see the present value of sequence after creating currval execution not possible,
atleast one time nextval statement must be execute on the sequence.
Select dept.currval from dual;
It will give error;
Select dept.nextval from dual;
Now we can see the current value.
DROPPING sequence:
Syntax: drop sequence <sequence name>;
DROP sequence dept;
LEVEL:
This LEVEL pseudo column returns 1 for root row,2 for a child of a root,and so on.
______________________________________________________________________
To establish the hierarchical with level we need

START WITH Clause
CONNECT BY Clause
Example:
1. select ename , job, MGR ,Level from emp;
2. Select level,ename,empno,mgr,job from emp start with job=presidentConnect by
prior empno=mgr order by level;
Select Nth highest value from table
Syntax : Select level,max(colname) from <tablename>
Where level=&levelno
Connect by prior colname>colname
Group by level;
Example:
select level,max(sal) from emp where level=&levelno connect by prior sal>sal
group by level;
ROWNUM:
The Oracle engine assign a ROWNUM value to each row is it is retrieved.

The first row select has a ROWNUM 1,the second has 2,and so on
When order by clause follows a ROWNUM ,the row will be re-ordered by order
by clause.
It can be used in SELECT,WHERE,GROUP FUNCTION,HAVING
Example:
1. select rownum,empno,ename,deptno from emp;
2. Select rownum,empno,ename,sal from emp where rownum<=5;
3. Select rownum,ename from emp group by ronum,ename having
mod(ronum,2)=0;
ROWID:
______________________________________________________________________
ROWID is an exact physical address of row.

ROWID is used by oracle to locate any row
The ROWID value is assign by oracle itself;
ROWIDs are unique identifies for a row in a table
The ROWID can never be INSERTED,UPDATED and DELETED manually.

The ROWID pseudo column can be used in SELECT and WHERE clauses.
Example:
1. select rowed,empno,enamefrom emp;
2. Select max(rowid) from emp;
OLAP features in ORACLE:
ROLLUP:
It is used with group by clause to display the summarized data.

ROLLUP grouping produces subtotal and grant total.
Syntax : GROUP BY ROLLUP(col1,col2..)

Example:
1. select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(deptno,job);
2. Select job,deptno,sum(sal) from emp group by rollup(job,deptno);
CUBE
CUBE grouping produces a result set containing the rows from ROLLUP and
cross tabulation rows.
It is extension similar to ROLLUP.
Syntax: GROUP BY CUBE (col1, col2...)

Example: select deptno,job,sum(sal) from emp group by cube(job,deptno);
LOCKS IN TABLE:
Locks are the mechanisms cued to prevent destructive interaction between users
accessing the same resources simultaneously.
A resource can either table or a specific row in a table.
______________________________________________________________________
Thus locks provide a high degree of data concurrency.
Locks can be acquired at two different levels:

1 . ROW LEVEL LOCK(for specific row):
In row level lock ,a row is locked exclusively so that other users cannot modify
the row until the transaction holding the lock is committed or rollback.
Example: select *from emp where empno=7788 FOR UPDATE of hiredate;
2 . TABLE LEVEL LOCK:

This will protect table data.
Table lock can be in several modes
a. Share lock
b. Share update lock
c. Exclusive lock
Syntax : Lock table <table name> in <share or share update or exclusive mode>;
a. Share lock:
A share lock locks the table allowing other users to only query but not
INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE rows in a table.
Example: lock table emp in share mode;
b. Share update lock:
It locks rows that are to be updated in a table.
It permits other users to concurrently query,insert,update or delete even
lock other rows in the same table.
It prevents the other users from updating the row that has been locked.
Example:
lock table emp in share update mode;
c. Exclusive lock:
______________________________________________________________________
when it is issued by the user ,it allows the other user to only query but not
insert,delete or update rows in a table.
It is almost similar to share lock but only one user can place an exclusive
lock on a table at a time, where as many users can place a share lock on
the same table at the same time.
Example: lock table emp in exclusive mode;
Note: locks can be released by issuing either rollback or commit;
ROLES IN ORACLE:
It is a named group of related privileges that can be granted to the user.
Rather than assigning privileges one at a time directly to USER, we can CREATE a
ROLE, assign PRIVILEGES to that ROLE, and then GRANT that ROLE to multiple
USERS and ROLES.
Syntax : CREATE ROLE <rolename> IDENTIFIED BY <password>;
Example: create role sales_manager identified by manager;
Note: we can alter the ROLE for password and new password;
Granting Role to user:
Example:
Grant sales_manager to Scott;
Granting multiple roles to another ROLE:
Grant ROLE1,ROLE2. TO <target rolename>;
Revoking ROLE:
Revoke sales_manager from scott;
______________________________________________________________________
Dropping a ROLE:
Syntax : Drop ROLE <rolename>
Example: drop role sales_manager;
SYNONYMS:
It is a database object, which acts as an alternate name for an existing object,

Next to view.
The create synonym privilege is necessary to create a synonym.
DML, description, select allowed on SYNONYM
Synonyms are two types:

PRIVATE:
Created by user.
Used by specific users which have permission.
Syntax : create [public] synonym <synonym name> FOR
<username>.<objectname>[@database link];
Example: CREATE SYNONYM empdet FOR emp;
Create synonym emp_syn for scott.emp;
To see synonyms:
Select synonym_name from user_synonyms where table_name=emp;
PUBLIC SYNONYM:
Created by Data Base Administrors.
It can accessed by all USERS.
Example: CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM empdet FOR scott.emp;
Synonym is created for tables,views,procedures,functions,package
DROPPING SYNONYM:
Syntax : Drop SYNONYM <synonym name>;
______________________________________________________________________
Example: DROP synonym empdet;

If table is dropped, the synonym created on the table become as invalid.
______________________________________________________________________

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What is DBMS?

A database management system (DBMS) is a software package with computer

What are the different databases and their versions available?

Oracle 11g/ 10g/ 9i/ 8i

What is a database schema?

The foundation of every RDBMS is a database object called table.

Selecting Data from a table

by commas, followed by a closing parenthesis), followed by the keyword values,

delete from "tablename"

Commit and Rollback

This is used to filter the records from an sql statements

Syntax: Select column1, column2 , column3 .. FROM employee

Here only one record will be deleted

Example: Update EMPLOYEE set EMP _ID=111 where EMP _ID=102;

Columns present in select statement must be there in group by clause.

Ascending order, it displays the output in ascending order

Constraints are used to impose business rules to DBs.

There are six types of constraints in OraclE.

NOT NULL Constraint

The Constraint clause can appear in

Syntax: CREATE table table name (column1 data _type () Constraint

NOT NULL Constraint:

Used to avoid DUPLICATE values into columns.

The same combination of columns should not make both

UNIQUE key defined at column level:

Used to define key columns of a table.

PRIMARY KEY constraint Defined at Column Level:

more column names.

Used to impose a conditional rule on a table column.

Queries that refer to values in other rows

Syntax: Create table table name(column1 data_type(),column2 data_type()

We can find the c onstraint name in USER_CONSTRAINTS and

ALTER table table name

Example : ALTER table emp DROP primary key;

Example : ALTER table dept DROP UNIQUE(Dname);

Enabling a constraint applied to all the data in a table.

INDEX can be created explicitly or automatically.

Creation Types of INDEXES:

Rules To Create INDEX:

CREATE any index SYSTEM privilege must be available.

Syntax: CREATE [UNIQUE] or [BITMAP] INDEX index _name

INDEXES associated with ROWIDS called as BITMAP INDEX.

Syntax: CREATE BITMAP INDEX index _name

BITMAP indexes should not be used for tables involved in ONLINE

A composite index also called a concatenated index is an index created on

CREATE BITMAP INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno, sname);

Example: CREATE UNIQUE INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno);

Composite Unique Index is an Index On Multiple unique Columns.

Example: CREATE Unique Index Eno_ename_ind ON EMP(empno,ename);

Example: CREATE INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno);

Ex: CREATE INDEX stud_ind ON student(sno);

*INDEXES are Stored in USER_INDEXES.

User _constraints and User _indexes will store the INDEXES.

Acting on each row returned in the query.

Row Types of Single functions:

It concatenates the first character value to the second character value.

Example: Select concat(concat(ename,job),sal) from EMP;

Syntax: length (string/expression)

Syntax: RTRIM (char, set);

Syntax: TRANSLATE (string, old_character, new_character);

Syntax: soundex (string)

M can be positive or negative, if negative it searches backward from the end of

Syntax: decode (value, if1, then1, if2, then2 , . else);