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KHOA IN T NG HO
---------------------------------------------
GIO TRNH
K THUT O LNG IN
(TI LIU LU HNH NI B)
Chng 1
KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG
1.1. nh ngha v phn loi thit b
1.1.1. nh ngha
o lng l mt qu trnh nh gi nh lng i tng cn o
c kt qu bng s so vi n v.
Vi nh ngha trn th o lng l qu trnh thc hin ba thao tc
chnh: Bin i tn hiu v tin tc.
- So snh vi n v o hoc so snh vi mu trong qu trnh o
lng.
- Chuyn n v, m ho c kt qu bng s so vi n v.
Cn c vo vic thc hin cc thao tc ny ta c cc phng php v
h thng o khc nhau.
Thit b o v thit b mu
Thit b o l mt h thng m i lng o gi l lng vo, lng
ra l i lng ch trn thit b (l thit b o tc ng lin tc) hoc l
con s km theo n v o (thit b o hin s). i khi lng ra khng
hin th trn thit b m a ti trung tm tnh ton thc hin cc
Algorithm k thut nht nh.
- Thit b mu dng kim tra v hiu chnh thit b o v n v
o.
Theo quy nh hin hnh thit b mu phi c chnh xc ln hn t
nht hai cp so vi thit b kim tra.
V d: Mun kim nh cng t cp chnh xc 2 th bn kim nh
cng t phi c cp chnh xc t nht l 0,5.
1.1.2. Phn loi
1.1.2.1. Thit b o lng
C nhiu cch phn loi song c th chia thit b o lng thnh hai
loi chnh l thit b o chuyn i thng v thit b o kiu so snh.
2
(1.1)
y = yX - yk
(y0 = const)
Ti im cn bng c:
(1-6)
b o.
Trong trng hp thit b o gm nhiu khu bin i ni tip th
n
v so snh cc R vi nhau.
1.3.1.2. chnh xc v cc sai s ca thit b o
- chnh xc l tiu chun quan trng nht ca thit b o.. Bt k
mt php o no u c sai lch so vi i lng ng
trong
xi l kt qu ca ln o th
x l gi tr ng ca i lng o
10
i l sai lch ca ln o th i
- Sai s tuyt i ca mt thit b o c nh ngha l gi tr ln
nht ca cc sai lch gy nn bi thit b trong khi o:
- Sai s tuyt i chn nh gi c tnh chnh xc v yu cu cng
ngh ca thit b o. Thng thng chnh xc ca mt php o hoc
mt thit b o c nh gi bng sai s tng i:
+ Vi mt php o, sai s tng i c tnh
[ UA0] = 50 2 (V).
trong : xi l kt qu ln o th i;
M[x] l k vng ton hc ca v s ln o i lng x.
14
trong l lch qun phng hay phng sai ca sai s ngu nhin.
Ta c cng thc:
vi D l tn x.
Trong k thut ta thng dng khi nim phng sai = D v n
c cng th nguyn vi i lng cn o.
(l-14)
+ Phng sai ca sai s ngu nhin c tnh theo cng thc BessE1
n ln
xi xi
n i =1
i =1
n (n 1)
n
x = x x =
x
n
k st
(1-18)
STT
1
2
Ri
140,25
140,5
i
-0,73
-0,48
i2
0,5329
0,2304
141,75
0,77
0,5929
139,25
-1,73
2,9929
5
6
139,5
140,25
1,48
-0,73
2,1904
0,5329
1 40
-0,98
0,9624
141,15
0,17
0,0289
142,25
1,27
1,6129
10
11
140,75
144,15
-0,23
3,71
0,0529
13,7641
12
13
140,15
142,75
-0,8t3
1,77
0,6889
3,1329
Tng: 0
Tng: 23,64
17
Bi lm:
19
20
Chng 2
CC C CU CH TH
2.1. C cu ch th c in
2.1.1. C s chung
2.1.1.1. Khi nim
C cu ch th l dng c o m s ch ca n l i lng t l vi
i lng o lin tc. Ch th c in l c cu ch th c tn hiu vo l
dng in v tn hiu ra l gc quay ca kim ch th. i lng cn o s
trc tip bin i thnh gc quay ca kim ch th, tc l thc hin vic
chuyn i nng lng in t thnh nng lng c hc lm quay kin
ch th i mt gc : = f(x), x l i lng vo.
C cu ch th c in bao gm hai phn: phn tnh v phn quay.
Ty theo phng php bin i nng lng in t ngi ta chia thnh
c cu ch th kiu t in, in t, in ng, cm ng v tnh in.
2.1.1.2. Cc chi tit c kh chung ca ch th c in
a) Trc v tr
Trc v tr l b phn quan trng trong cc chi tit c kh ca cc c
cu ch th c in, m bo cho phn ng quay trn trc c gn cc chi
tit ca phn ng nh kim ch th, l so phn, khung dy.
b) B phn phn khng
B phn phn khng bao gm l so phn khng hoc dy cng hoc
dy treo. Mc ch to ra mmen phn khng.
c) Kim ch th gc quay
Kim ch th gc quay c gn vi trc quay. di chuyn ca
kim trn thang chia t l vi gc quay . Ngoi ra c th ch th gc
quay bng nh sng.
21
d) Thang chia
dWe
d
b) Mmen phn
Di tc dng ca mmen quay, nu khng c g cn li th phn
ng ca c cu s quay i mt gc ln nht c th c c. V vy
ngi ta to ra cc mmen phn t l vi gc quay nh cc b phn
phn khng l l so xon, dy cng hoc dy treo.
Ta c:
Mp = D;
vi p l h s t l ph thuc vo c im
cu to ca b phn cn du. T biu thc
trn ta thy khi phn ng v tr cn bng
th
d
= 0 , nh vy mmen cn du khng
dt
lm nh hng n kt qu o.
2.1.2.2. Phng trnh cn bng phn ng ca c cu o
Theo nh lut c hc i vi mt chuyn ng quay, o hm bc
nht ca mmen ng lng theo thi gian bng tng cc mmen tc
ng ln vt quay y.
trong :
24
2. Nguyn l lm vic
- Khi ta cho dng in mt chiu I chy vo khung dy, di tc
dng ca t trng nam chm vnh cu trong khe h khng kh, cc cnh
25
y SI =
B.S.W
= const l nhy ca c cu theo dng in.
D
Ta thy t l bc nht vi I.
3. c im v ng dng
c im:
- u im:
+ Dng c c nhy cao v khng i trong ton thang o;
+ chnh xc cao, t chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi, tiu th
nng lng t;
+ V t l bc nht vi I nn thang chia ca c cu u.
- Nhc im:
+ Ch to kh khn, gi thnh t;
+ Do khung dy phn ng nn phi qun bng dy c kch thc
nh nn kh nng qu ti km;
+ Ch o c dng mt chiu. Tht vy, khi ta cho dng xoay chiu
i = Imsint vo khung dy, ta c mmen quay tc thi theo thi gian:
26
mq(t) = B.S.W.i
2. Nguyn l lm vic
27
Vy
I1
I2
2.1.4.1. Cu to
C cu gm hai loi chnh: kiu cun y dt (c cu ch th in t
loi ht) v kiu cun dy trn (c cu ch th in t loi y). C cu
cun dy dt c phn tnh l cun dy dt cho dng in cn o i qua,
cn phn ng l mt l thp t lch tm c th quay trong khe h cun
dy tnh. Kiu cun dy trn c phn tnh l cun dy trn bn trong gn
mt l thp. Phn ng cng l mt l thp gn trn trc. Ngoi ra cn c
b phn cn du, l so phn, kim ch th
29
trong L ph thuc .
Vy mmen quay:
dL
gim theo gc
d
b) Nguyn l lm vic
32
c) c im v ng dng
c im:
- u im:
+ chnh xc cao v khng c tn hao trong li thp.
+ C th o c c i lng mt chiu v xoay chiu.
- Nhc im:
+ D chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi.
+ Kh nng qu ti km v khung dy phn ng kch thc nh.
+ Cu to phc tp, t tin.
+ Thang chia khng u (tr khi ch to wattmet).
ng dng:
+ Ch to cc ng h o dng, p xoay chiu c tn s cao hoc
yu cu chnh xc cao.
+ Ch yu ch to ng h o cng sut tc dng v phn khng.
2.1.5.2. Loi c hai khung dy ng (logomet in ng)
a) Cu to
Phn tnh gm mt cun dy c chia lm hai na. Trong lng cun
dy tnh c hai cun dy ng gn trn trc quay cng vi kim ch th,
khng c l so phn.
b) Nguyn l lm vic
Khi cho hai dng in xoay chiu i, i1, i2 ln lt chy vo cun dy
tnh v cc cun dy ng, trong lng cun dy tnh s c mt t trng.
T trng ny s tc ng ln dng in chy trong cc cun dy ng
34
c) c im v ng dng
Ging nh c cu mt khung dy ng nhng ch yu ch to
ng h o cos 1 pha, 3 pha cho li in xoay chiu.
2.1.5.3. C cu st in ng v logomet st in ng
a) C cu st in ng
Gm cun dy tnh, mch t nhm to ra t trng trong khe h
khng kh. Khung dy ng c gn vi trc quay cng kim ch th, l
so phn v b phn cn du.
Gc quay c tnh:
b) Logomet st in ng
Gm mch t c cu to sao cho to nn khe h khng kh khng
u, phn ng gm hai khung dy t cho nhau 60o v gn trn trc
quay cng vi kim ch th. Gc quay c tnh:
c) c im ng dng
- C th o dng mt chiu hoc xoay chiu. T trng qua khung
dy ln nn t chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi.
- Tn hao st t ln, chnh xc khng cao.
- Thng dng ch to cc dng c o dng, o p, cng sut v
gc lch pha.
36
2.1.6. C cu o cm ng
2.1.6.1. Cu to
C cu cm ng c cu to nh hnh 2.1 1.
Hnh 2.11. C cu ch th cm ng
1. Cun dy 1 ; 2. Cun dy 2; 3. C cu cn du ; 4. a nhm v trc quay
2 0.
Do c s tng h gia t thng 1, 2 vi cc dng in iX1 v iX2
m sinh ra cc lc F1 v F2 v cc mmen tng ng lm quay a nhm.
Ta xt cc mmen thnh phn nh sau:
M11 l mmen sinh ra do 1 tc ng ln iX1
M12 l mmen sinh ra do 1 tc ng ln iX2
M21 l mmen sinh ra do 2 tc ng ln iX1
M22 l mmen sinh ra do 2 tc ng ln iX2
Gi tr tc thi ca mmen quay M1t do s tc ng tng h gia 1
v dng tc thi iX1 l:
M1t = C1iX1
vi C l h s t l.
39
41
S thp phn
M nh phn
Y8
Y4
Y2
Y1
X0 (0)
X1 (1)
X2 (2)
X3 (3)
X4 (4)
X5 (5)
X6 (6)
X7 (7)
X8 (8)
X9 (9)
43
S thp phn
44
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
X0 (0)
X1 (1)
X2 (2)
X3 (3)
X4 (4)
X5 (5)
X6 (6)
X7 (7)
X8 (8)
X9 (9)
45
46
Bng 2.3. Bng trng thi bin i t s nhi phn sang ch th 7 thanh
S thp phn
S nh phn
X8
X4 X2 X1 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7
47
Chng 3
O DNG IN V IN P
3.1. Nhng yu cu c bn ca vic o dng in v in p
3.1.1. Yu cu v in tr
3.1.1.1. Khi o dng in
Ampemet l mt phn t c trng cho
nhm cc phn t phn ng vi dng in
nh: cun dng ca cng t, wattmet; cc
rle dng in... nn khi xt ti yu cu i
vi ampemet l xt chung cho c nhm.
Khi o dng, ampemet c mc ni tip
vi ti (nh Hnh 3.1) nn in tr ampemet
s nh hng n kt qu o nh sau:
Gi s ph ti c in tr l Rt, trc khi mc A vo mch th dng
din c tnh: I =
U
.
Rt
U
.
Rt + RA
trong : E l sc in ng ca
ngun, Rt l in tr ti, Rn l ni tr
ca ngun.
Xt khi mc volmet vo mch, in
p Uv do volmet o c s l:
50
Bi lm:
Ta c % = 1% nn = 0,01.
3.1.2. Yu cu v c tnh tn
Ngoi yu cu v in tr cc ampemet v volmet xoay chiu phi c
c tnh tn thch hp vi di tn s cn o. Lm vic ngoi di tn s
s gy sai s ph do tn s. Sai s ny phi tnh n nh hng ca
cc mch o lng i theo ch th nh Shunt, bin dng, bin p, chnh
lu, khuch i v.v. Cng v vy trong nhiu ampemet v volmet, lc cn
m bo sai s do tn s nh hn gi tr quy nh (thng l b hn cp
chnh xc quy nh cho dng c) ta phi s dng trong mch o c
nhng nhng khu b tn s. C trng hp ngi ta phi s dng
nhng linh kin c bit m bo tn s lm vic ca dng c. Trn
cc dng c o dng v p xoay chiu c ghi tn s hay gii tn s lm
vic.
3.2. o dng in trung bnh v ln bng cc loi ampemet
3.2.1. Phng php s dng
Ngi ta s dng mt s c cu ch th c in ch to ampemet
o trong mch mt chiu v xoay chiu.
Ampemet t in: Ch to da trn c cu ch th t in, c c
im l rt nhy, tiu th t nng lng nn thng dng ch to
ampemet c cp chnh xc t (0,5 2). i vi ampemet t in, khi
nhit thay s lm cho in tr ca cun dy thay i dn ti sai s.
gim sai s ngi ta thng dng phng php b nhit, tc l dng mt
nhit in tr c h s nhit in tr m mc ni tip trong mch ca
51
54
KI gi l h s my bin dng.
Thng thng, d dng cho vic ch to v s dng, W1 ch c
mt vng, ng vi dng in I1 ch nh mc theo mt dy s u
tin no ; W2 nhiu vng hn ng vi dng I2 ch nh mc l:
I2m = 1A hoc I2m = 5A.
V d: my bin dng: 100/5 ; 200/5; 300/5...
Trong trng hp ampemet ni hp b vi bin dng in th s ch
ca ampemet c khc theo gi tr dng in I1 pha s cp.
Cn ch rng bin dng in l phn t c cc tnh, c cp chnh
xc, v phi c kim nh trc khi lp t.
3.3. o dng in nh
o dng in nh c t ra khi dng in cn o nh hn dng
nh mc ca c cu. Cho ti nay vic nng cao nhy ca dng c v
h thp ngng nhy ca dng c v cc mch khuch i l rt kh
khn, sau y l mt s phng php.
Ngi ta s dng phng php
c kh tng nhy ca cc in
k, ng ch nht l in k t
in. in k t in s dng c cu
ch th t in c nhy cao. Bin
php nng cao nhy l tng t
cm trong khe h khng kh v gim
h s phn khng ca dy treo.
Tng t cm trong khe h khng
kh bng cch dng nam chm vnh
cu c kch thc ln, tuy nhin ti nay t cm trong khe h khng
kh ca c cu ch th t in vn cha vt qu 0,1T.
Gim hng s phn khng ca dy treo, tuy nhin nu gim qu dn
56
vi:
R0 in tr ca c cu o
RP l in tr ph
U0 in p t ln c cu
UX in p cn o.
Ta c:
58
in p cn o UX c so snh vi in p b Uk l in p ri trn
in tr Rk. Rk l in tr mu c chnh xc rt cao v rt t thay i
theo nhit . Trong qu trnh so snh nu U = 0 ta c so snh cn
bng, nu U 0 ta c so snh khng cn bng hay l so snh kiu vi
sai. U c xc nh bng dng c c nhy cao hay dng c t ng
pht hin s chnh lch hay cn gi l c quan zero.
Cc loi phng php so snh khc nhau ch khc nhau cch to
i lng b Uk. chnh xc ca in p b v cc yu cu khc cng
vi nhy, ngng nhy ca dng c cn bng hay c quan zero
u do sai s yu cu ca php o quyt nh.
Sau y ta xe tm hiu mt s dng c o dng phng php so snh.
3.5.2. in th k mt chiu
3.5.2.1. in th k mt chiu in tr ln
S ca in th k mt chiu in tr ln nh Hnh 3.17.
Rk, Rc l cc bin tr, EN l ngun pin mu, Ucc l in p cung cp
cho mch, UX l in p cn o, G in k ch khng.
+ Tin hnh o in p cn o UX
Ta ng kho K sang v tr 2,2 ni in p cn o UX vo mch
o, sau ta iu chnh con trt trn in tr Rk cho n kh in k G
ch khng.
Lc ta c quan h sau:
Vy:
hiu chnh dng cng tc trong mch xoay chiu ngi ta khng
dng gn mu (v khng c pin xoay chiu) m phi chnh nh nh
ampemet c chnh xc cao. Do cp chnh xc ca in th k xoay
chiu khng th vt qu cp chnh xc ca ampemet, mt khc mun
cho UX v Uk Cn bng th phi iu chnh cn bng c v modun v v
gc pha, tc l tho mn ba iu kin l in p UX v in p Uk phi
cng tn s, cng bng nhau v tr s v UX v Uk phi ngc pha nhau.
thc hin iu kin th nht ngi ta mc in p UX v Uk vo
ngun cng tn s. Dng b ch th khng thc hin iu kin th hai
v phi tch Uk thnh hai thnh phn lch nhau 90o to UX ngc Uk
C hai loi in th k xoay chiu l:
- in th k xoay chiu to cc;
- in th k xoay chiu to vung gc ( cc).
3.5.3.1. in th k xoay chiu to cc
64
65
66
M l h cm ca w1 v w2
Ta xc nh Uk2 = I2R2 (R2 l mt phn in tr ca AB c xc
nh nh v tr ca con trt D2 trn A'B'). V Ukl = I1R1 v Uk2 = I2R2 m
I1 v I2 lch nhau mt gc 90o nn Ukl v Uk2 cng lch pha nhau 90o.
Ch rng khi tn s f thay i = 2f, nh vy khi thay i dn
ti I2 thay i v gi tr khc trn AB cng thay i. khc phc
ngi ta dng hp in tr ph Rf b cho tn s khng i (tc l Rf
thay i ph thuc vo s thay i ca tn s ngun cung cp).
Mch o l mch ch yu ca in th k bao gm ngun tn hiu
cn o UX, in th k ch khng G, cc phn ca bin tr dy qun
chun D1O, D2O'.
th biu din cc gi tr Uk nh Hnh 3.19.
iu chnh cc con trt Uk1 v Uk2 trn cc bin tr dy qun AB v
AB thng qua tnh ton ta s c tr hiu dng v gc pha ca in p
UX cn o
S gm cc khi nh sau:
+ Cp nhit in c nhim v bin i t nhit tx sang sut in
ng mt chiu Ex. Vi h thng thc thng c thm mch b nhit
u t do.
+ Cu so snh gm EP, RP v cc in p mu khc nh: R0, R1, R2,
R3, R4. Nhim v l to ra cc in p mu mt chiu vi chnh xc
cao (Trong thit b thc t EP c ly t ngun in p xoay chiu
220V qua b chnh lu, qua n p mt chiu vi cht lng cao).
+ B bin i mt chiu, xoay chiu c nhim v bin i in p
mt chiu U thnh in p xoay chiu tn s 50Hz. Mch ny c th l
con rung c hc hoc rung in t.
+ Mch khuch i c nhim v khuch i tn hiu xoay chiu vi
cng sut ln cung cp cho cun dy iu khin ng c KB.
Tng cui ca mch khuch i s l khuch i cng sut nhy pha
+ Hai ng c gm mt ng c khng ng b c nhim v ko
con trt trn cc bin tr RP, R0 v mt ng c ng b c nhim v
68
Qu trnh t ghi
Lc ny trn u bin tr R0 ta gn sn mt ngi ghi, ngi ghi t ln
bng giy (mt cch lin tc hoc gin on hoc bng nhit).
Trong ch t ghi bng giy c ng c ng b ko chuyn
ng vi tc khng i. Nh vy s to ra trc thi gian t.
Ta thy khi to thay i, ngi ghi s chuyn ng t tri sang phi nh
ng c KB, cn bng giy th chuyn ng vi tc khng i t
di ln trn nh ng c ng b nn ngi ghi s v trn bng giy biu
nhit theo thi gian.
Nguyn l lm vic:
Khi m my ti thi im t1, my pht xung chun qua b chia tn
khi ng my pht xung rng ca, u ra my pht xung rng ca c
Urc (Uk) i tin b so snh so snh vi in p Ux cn o u vo.
ng thi cng t u ra ca b pht in p rng ca c xung th nht
n trig v t trig trng thi kch hot m kho K cho php cc
xung mang tn s chun (f0) t pht xung qua kho K n b m v ch
th s. Ti thi im t2 khi Ux = Urc thit b so snh pht xung th 2 tc
ng vo trig v kho kho K, thi gian t t1 n t2 tng ng vi tx. T
y ta c mi quan h:
71
72
73
Vy tn s fx t l vi in p cn o Ux
ch th s ta dng phn to gc thi gian v cc kho, b m v
ch th s ging nh mt my o tn s nhng hin th theo in p. C
th b to gc thi gian l my pht xung chun T0 to thi gian
Tc = kT0 iu khin kho cho cc xung mang tn s fx qua n. S lng
xung mang tn s fx qua kho K trong khong thi gian Tc n ch th s
c xc nh nh sau:
75
Nguyn l lm vic:
Khi m my, b pht xng chun bt u lm vic, cc xung f0 n
b m 1 v kho K; sau mt tp xung f0 tng ng vi thi im t0 th
b m 1 pht xung n thng kho K, trong thi gian K thng cc xung
mang f0 qua K n b m 2 v ch th s. ng thi c mi xung f0 n
D/A s tng in p ra ca n Uk ln mt mc U (cc mc U bng
nhau). Qu trnh tip tc cho n khi Uk Ux (ti thi im tr b so snh
tc ng vo b khuch i to tn hiu kho kho K. Qu trnh o kt
thc v b phn ch th hin kt qu. Nu tt c cc mc in p U to
nn Uk liu bng nhau th s lng xung N1 s t l vi in p cn o
Ux tc l Ux Uk = N1U. y l gi tr tc thi ca in p cn o ti
thi im t1. Nu mun o Ux ti thi im khc th qu trnh o s lp
li t u.
i vi volmet ch th b qut vi i lng Uk thay i theo cc bc
thang khng bng nhau. Trong cc volmet ny cc mc bc thang U
khng nh nhau, c th to cc U theo tng hng m ca con s h
m nht nh. Do c th da vo h m nh phn, nh thp phn v
thp phn gia cng in p b Uk.
V d 3.4: Qu trnh gia cng in p b Uk theo h m thp phn.
76
in p Ux c so snh vi in p b Uk bt u t thi im t1
in p Uk tng lin tc, mi mc tng l Uk (l nhng bc thang bng
nhau) cho n thi im t2 khi Ux Uk. Xut hin bt phng trnh
Ux - Uk < Uk s kt thc qu trnh o v cho ra kt qu ch th s.
Thi gian gia cng c xc nh bi s mc lng t ln nht (Ndm)
v thi gian t ca mt mc lng t.
t0 = Ndmt
Da vo sai s lng t yu cu xc nh Ndm.
78
81
Chng 4
O CNG SUT V NNG LNG
4.1. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch mt pha
4.1.1. o cng sut tc dng bng wattmet in ng
4.1.1.1. o cng sut trong mch mt chiu
o cng sut ngi ta thng dng wattmet in ng, wattmet in
ng c ch to da trn c cu ch th in ng, gc quay ca c cu
ch th in ng c tnh nh sau:
vi l gc lch pha gia cc dng I1 v I2
S mc wattmet in ng nh Hnh 4.1.
Wattmet in ng c hai cun dy, cun dy tnh cn gi l cun
dng c cun bng dy c kch thc ln, t vng, cho dng ph ti
trc tip chy qua hoc ni vi th cp ca bin dng in, n ng vai
tr nh mt ampemet. Cun dy ng hay cn gi l cun p thng
c ni tip vi RP, c ot trc tip ln in p ca ph ti hoc ni
vi th cp ca bin in p o lng, n ng vai tr nh mt volmet.
Xt vi mch mt chiu ta c:
cos = 1, I1 I
82
K
Rp + Ru
Eb= K.pb
vi K l h s t l.
1
R rng s ch ca mV t l vi i1i 2 dt . Vn y ta cn phi
T0
o cng sut tiu th trn ti. M ta bit cng sut tiu th trn ti s
T
bng
1
u.idt .
T 0
S ch ca m s l:
vi C = 4abKr.
Tc s ch ca m t l vi cc cng sut tc dng trn ph ti b
b) Wattmet nhit in
Trn c s l thuyt nu trn, ta xy dng s nguyn l nh hnh
v
87
Tng t
vi C l h s t l, P l cng sut cn o.
Vy c th o A ri suy ra cng sut cn o.
b) Warttmet s dng phn t bnh phng - it bn dn
S c th o cng sut s dng B1, B2 nh sau:
89
T ta c:
90
vi th cp ca bin in p o lng.
- a nhm c kp cng trn trc quay, ngoi ra cn nam chm
vnh cu M, thanh dn t G v h thng c cu m.
4.1.3.2. Nguyn l lm vic
Xt khi cun dng c dng in xoay chiu i chy qua s xut hin t
thng i xuyn qua a nhm hai ln, khi t in p xoay chiu u ln
cun p s to ra dng in iu chm pha hn so vi in p mt gc 90o.
Dng iu sinh ra t thng u. T thng u gm hai thnh phn:
+ up ch khp mch qua mch t cun p gi l t thng ph;
+ uc xuyn qua a nhm gi l t thng lm vic.
i v uc s cm ng trn a nhm nhng dng in xoy. Theo
nguyn l ca c cu ch th cm ng, a nhm s chu tc dng ca
mmen quay c xc nh:
92
T th vc t ta thy:
* Trng hp thc t
Cc t thng ny u chm pha hn so vi dng in kch thch
tng ng mt gc no (tuy kh nh). Ta c th vc t nh Hnh
4.10
Ta xt gc:
93
94
(4-24)
vi Cm l h s nh mc ca cng t.
Kt lun: Nh vy ta chng minh c rng s vng quay ca a
nhm t l bc nht vi nng lng in m ph ti tiu th qua cng t.
4.1.3.3. C cu m v cc thng s c bn ca cng t
- C cu m: Gm h thng bnh vt, trc vt, cc con ln v cc
bnh rng ch th s.
- Thng s c bn ca cng t:
+ H s truyn ti ca cng t
chia t thng hoc vng ngn mch khng i xng (cha th hin trn
hnh v).
- Khi iu chnh v tr vng ngn mch khng i xng hoc vt chia
t thng ta s b c ma st (tuy nhin nu iu chnh qu sang tri
hoc sang phi th cng t s t quay thun hoc quay ngc khi khng
c ti).
b) Chng hin tng t quay ca cng t
Khc phc hin tng t quay khi mmen b ln hn mmen ma st
ngi ta ch to b phn chng t quay bng cch trn mch t ca
cun p v trn trc quay ngi ta gn hai l thp non T1 v T2. Khi a
nhm quay ti thi im hai l thp i din nhau th chng s tc ng
tng h v to ra mmen hm (tuy nhin ch vi mmen kh nh).
c) iu chnh gc lch pha 1 gia 1 v I
Ta c:
Mong mun rng
S ch ca wattmet l:
97
98
Theo th vc t ta c:
Ta c:
99
101
102
103
Hn na ta c:
Thay vo ta c:
Tng t
Vy: M men quay tng t l vi cng sut phn khng trong mch
ba pha nn s ny thng c dng o nng lng phn khng
trong mch ba pha. Nu vi mch ba pha khng i xng th c sai s
nht nh.
4.2.5. V d s o m cao th
Thc t c rt nhiu s o m cao th: Tc l s kt hp BU,
BI v cng t ba pha o nng lng tc dng v phn khng cho mch ba
pha cao th.
105
Chng 5
O GC PHA V TN S
5.1. o gc pha v h s cng sut cos
5.1.1. Phng php o cos gin tip
5.1.1.1. Phng php V - A - W
H s cng sut cos quan h vi dng in v in p trong mch
qua cng thc:
Do :
vi gc:
Vy
thay i do t s
I2
khc hng s nn s c sai s. khc phc, nh
I1
Gc quay ca c cu l:
108
Ch :
+ Trong s ny, cc cun p u ni tip vi in tr R nn
khng ph thuc tn s, hay
I2
= const.
I1
Vy
Ta xt tr hiu dng ca u:
V vy bit U, o U ta xc nh c gc .
5.1.3.2. Phazomet in t
Ta a ra s n gin ca phazomet in t nh sau:
109
110
111
112
113
vi Tn =KT0.
Vy s xung N t l vi gc lch pha x
Nhc im :
- Nu tn s nh, v Tx cha trong khong Tn nh, do vy ta phi m
rng Tn.
- Nu tn s ln, dn n sai s lng t ho trong khong Tx tng
ln, dn n sai s tng.
Thng thng lm vic trong khong mt vi Hz n vi MHz, c sai
s = 0,1 0,2%.
5.2. o tn s
5.2.1. Phng php gin tip
Dng volmet, ampemet, wattmet kt hp vi in cm mu, ta c th
xc nh c tn s:
Bit L0, cn c vo s ch ca cc ng h o, ta xc nh c tn
s.
114
115
5.2.3. Tn s met in t
5.2.3.1. Nguyn tc chung
Tn s met loi ny da trn
nguyn tc chung l s dng phng
php m xung n gin bng cch
phng np mt t in C t mt
ngun in p khng i U0 no .
Tn hiu cn o c tn s fx c
a vo khng ch mt kho in t
K, kho ny c thit k sao cho trong mt chu k ca in p uk, kho
K ng t 1 sang 2 mt ln.
Xt khi kho K v tr 1, in tch np vo t tnh nh sau:
q = C.U0
in tch np vo t trong thi gian mt giy l:
Q = q.fx = C.U0.fx.
in tch ny chy qua ch th khi kho K v tr 2 to ra dng in
trung bnh
(K1 = const)
ITB c ch bng c cu t in G. Thang chia c khc trc
tip theo n v tn s v ta c th c ngay tn s trn ch th G. Mun
m rng gii hn o, ta thay i gi tr ca t C.
5.2.3.2. Tn s met in t
Tn s met in t c thit k nh Hnh 5.12. Kho i ni K thc
hin bng mt n bn dn T. in p ux cn o tn s c a vo cc
gc ca T.
na chu k m ca in p Ux (so vi cc gc ca T), n T kho,
t C c np t ngun U0 qua D1, qua ch th g cho ti khi Uc = U0.
na chu k dng ca in p Ux n T m, t C phng qua n,
qua D2 cho ti khi UC = UB.
116
in tch m t in np trong mt ln ng m ca T l:
Lng in tch phng np trong thi gian mt giy chnh l dng
in i qua ch th
5.2.4. Tn s k ch th s
Nguyn l: m s xung N tng ng vi s chu k ca tn s cn
o fx trong khong thi gian gi l thi gian o T0.
Trong khong T0 ta m c N xung t l vi tn s o fx. S
khi ca mt tn s k ch th s nh sau:
Mch to xung c nhim v bin tn hiu hnh sin hoc tn hiu xung
c chu k thnh mt dy xung c bin khng i (khng ph thuc
vo bin ca tn hiu vo) nhng tn s bng tn s ca tn hiu vo.
My pht xung chun f0 = 1MHz.
B chia tn s vi cc nc c h s chia l 10n. Tn s chun f0 =
1MHz c chia n 0,01 Hz. Ngha l u ra ca mch iu khin
theo 10n (n = l,2,,8) ta c th nhn c khong thi gian T0 = 10-6,
10-5, 10-4, 10-3, 10-2, 10-1, 1, 10, 100s.
117
vi
fx l tn s cn o (Hz)
Ta thy rng sai s ca php o tn s t l nghch vi ln ca tn
s o.
5.3. ng dng my hin sng in t trong o lng
5.3.1. M u
My hin sng in t hay cn gi l dao
ng k in t (electronic oscilloscope) l mt
dng c hin th dng sng rt thng ng. N
ch yu c s dng v dng ca tn hiu
in thay i theo thi gian. Bng cch s dng
my hin sng ta xc nh c:
+ Gi tr in p v thi gian tng ng ca tn hiu;
+ Tn s dao ng ca tn hiu;
+ Gc lch pha gia hai tn hiu;
+ Dng sng ti mi im khc nhau trn mch in t;
+ Thnh phn ca tn hiu gm thnh phn mt chiu v xoay chiu
nh th no;
+ Trong tn hiu c bao nhiu thnh phn nhiu v nhiu c thay
i theo thi gian hay khng.
119
chuyn i y c nhim v to
ra tn hiu in tng ng vi i
lng cn o, v d nh cc b cm
bin m thanh, nh sng, cng,
rung, p sut hay nhit
Cc thit b in t thng c
chia thnh hai nhm c bn l thit
b tng t v thit b s, my hin
sng cng vy. My hin sng
tng t (Analog oscilloscope) s
chuyn trc tip tn hiu in cn o thnh dng electron bn ln mn
hnh. in p lm lch chm electron mt cch t l v to ra tc thi
dng sng tng ng trn mn hnh. Trong khi , my hin sng s
(Digital osciloscope) s ly mu dng sng, a qua b chuyn i tng
t/s (ADC). Sau n s dng cc thng tin di dng s ti to li
dng sng trn mn hnh.
3. Bt ngun.
4. Xoay Y-POS iu chnh im sng
theo chiu ng (im sng s chy ngang
qua mn hnh vi tc chm). Nu vn
TIME/DIV ngc chiu kim ng h (theo
chiu gim) th im sng s di chuyn
nhanh hn v khi v tr c s trn mn hnh s l mt vch sng thay
cho im sng.
5. iu chnh INTENS thay i chi
v FOCUS thay i nt ca vch sng trn
mn hnh.
6. a tn hiu chun kim tra chnh
xc ca my.
a u o ti v tr ly chun (hoc l t my pht chun hoc ngay
trn my hin sng v tr CAL 1Vpp, lkHz). Vi gi tr chun nh trn
nu VOLTS/DIV v tr 1V/DIV v TIME/DIV v tr 1ms/DIV th trn
mn hnh s xut hin mt sng vung c bin nh mt trn mn
hnh v rng xung cng l mt trn mn hnh (xoay Y-POS v XPOS m mt cch chnh xc).
Sau khi ly li cc gi tr chun trn, tu thuc ch lm vic m
ta s dng cc nt iu khin tng ng nh s ni phn tip theo.
5.3.3.2. Cc phn iu khin chnh
a) iu khin mn hnh
124
5.3.4.2. o in p
Vic tnh gi tr in p ca tn hiu c thc hin bng cch m
s trn mn hnh v nhn vi gi tr VOLTS/DIV.
V d: VOLTS/DIV ch 1V th tn hiu cho hnh trn c:
Vp = 2,7 x 1V = 2,8V
Vpp = 5,4 x 1V = 5,4V
Vrms = 0,707Vp = l,98V.
127
Ta c:
129
130
Chng 6
O CC THNG S CA MCH IN
6.1. o in tr
6.1.1. ngha v yu cu ca vic o in tr
a) ngha
in tr l mt thng s rt quan trng ca mch in v cc h
thng cung cp in, tuy nhin phn ln cc gi tr ca chng thay i
theo nhit theo iu kin mi trng. V vy khi lp rp, vn hnh cc
mch in, khi th nghim, nghim thu cc mch in, cc h thng cung
cp in, cc h thng t ng ho... ta phi tin hnh o v kim tra cc
gi tr in tr.
b) Phn loi
in tr thng thng c phn ra thnh ba nhm:
+ in tr nh l cc in tr c gi tr R < 1;
+ in tr trung bnh l cc in tr c gi tr l 1 R < 0,1 M
+ in tr ln cc in tr c gi tr R 0,lM
c) Yu cu khi o in tr
+ Khi o cc gi in tr nh cn tm mi bin php loi tr nh
hng ca in tr dy ni, in tr tip xc, sc in ng tip xc.
khc phc mt phn, trn cc in tr mu ngi ta phn thnh cc cc
dng v cc p ring.
+ Khi o cc gi tr in tr ln cn trnh s nh hng ca in tr
khi v in tr b mt.
+ Khi o in tr ca cc vt c m cao ngi ta thng dng
ngun xoay chiu trnh hin tng in phn.
+ Khi o in tr ca cc vt liu rn ta nn dng ngun mt chiu
trnh s nh hng ca in dung k sinh.
6.1.2. o in tr bng phng php gin tip
6.1.2.1. Phng php dng ngun mt chiu
131
Nguyn tc
Dng ampemet v volmet o dng v p trn in tr ri suy ra Rx' =
UV
thng qua hai s :
IA
Yu cu :
+ Ngun in p th nghim phi tht hnh sin;
+ Cc ng h V, A, W phi m bo iu kin v sai s ph v sai
s gin tip.
in tr Rx c xc nh nh sau:
vi Pw v IA ln lt l s ch ca wattmet v ampemet.
133
S b : in tr o v in tr mu mc song song
Dng in qua in tr mu l I0, dng qua in tr o l IX. Vi
in p cung cp n nh ta c:
134
vi Rx l in tr cn o, R0 l in tr trong ca c cu.
Vy = f(Rx) nu U.CI = const;
+ S mc song song nh Hnh 6.5.
Khi o ta ng kho K. Ta c gc quay
135
Khi o, ta c:
Vy:
Thng thng
R1
l bi s ca 10 v thng bng (0,001; 0,01; 0,1;
R3
1; 10; 100)
Cn c vo v tr ca con trt trn R4 ta xc nh c Rx.
Nhn xt: Cu n c mt nhc im l khng loi tr c in
tr dy ni nhng c u im l d cn bng.
6.1.4.2. o in tr nh bng cu kp
Cu kp v d nh cu P333 ca Nga theo s bn dy thng
dng o cc in tr ln hn hoc bng 5m. Cc in tr nh hn cng
c th o c nhng s tng sai s.
137
S cu kp nh Hnh 6.8.
Khi o ta iu chnh cho cu cu cn bng, tc kim in k ch 0,
dng qua ch th bng 0, ta c:
+ Dng qua Rl, R2 l dng I1, dng qua R3, R4 l dng I2.
+ Theo vng 1 ta c:
+ Theo vng 2 ta c:
Vy:
Vi iu kin:
138
Th
microampemet
Gi s cn o in tr cch in gia lp v bc dy dn v dy dn
ca dy dn kim loi ng trc c v bc bn ngoi.
Dng in i qua microampemet bao gm hai dng in l dng IV
v dng Is. Dng in IV l dng in i qua lp cch in, cn dng Is l
dng r i qua b mt ca dy dn v lp cch in.
Do vy in tr xc nh c thng qua volmet v ampemet Rd l
in tr ca khi ca lp cch in v in tr r b mt mc song song:
140
141
143
T (6-12) v (6-13) ta c:
145
Thng thng RA, RB >> Rv lc dng qua volmet chnh l I1, I2.
V vy:
dng ba volmet
Khi cch in bnh thng s ch ba volmet l nh nhau. Khi cch
in mt pha no gim th s ch ca cc volmet thay i theo h thc
(6-14) trn
148
Vy
Nu php o chnh xc ta c: lx + ly = l.
6.1.7. o in tr tip t
6.1.7.1. Cc khi nim
Thut ng "tip t" hay "ni t" y c hiu ng ngha vi
vic ni mt mch in hoc thit b in xung t. Cch ni nh vy
c s dng cho vic bo dng thit b in khi in th ca chng
bng in th t, v i vi nhng hin tng t nhin nh st, t c
tc dng lm ng phng in nhm trnh hin tng b in git v
trnh h hng thit b ti sn.
in tr tip t bao gm tng in tr ca dy dn ni t, b u
ni, cc ni t v phn t tip xc vi cc cc ni t.
V in th cm ng do s c h thng in vi mch vng qua t,
in tr tip t nh s lm gim in th ny v trnh nguy him cho
ngi cng nh trnh cho h thng in b h hng.
Trn l thuyt, duy tr in th chun cho thit b an ton, bo
v an ton in tr tip t phi bng 0. Trong thc t iu ny khng th
t c. Tuy nhin tu theo mc quan trng ca cng trnh v thit
b in th in tr tip t tun theo cc yu cu ca TCVN, NEC,
OSHA v ca nhng tiu chun an ton in khc.
6.1.7.2. in tr cc tip t
Hnh 6.25 m t cc tip t. in
tr tip t ny bao gm nhng thnh
phn sau:
+ in tr ca bn thn cc v in
tr tip xc ca phn u ni;
+ in tr tip xc ca t xung
quanh cc;
+ in tr ca t bao st xung
quanh cc tip t hoc in tr sut ca t. y l thnh phn quan
151
trng nht.
Cc cc tip t thng lm bng kim loi (ng hoc m ng) vi
tit din thch hp in tr l khng ng k. Nh vy thnh phn cn
li chnh l in tr ca t xung quanh. C th coi cc c bao quanh
bi nhng lp t ng tm. Tt c nhng lp ny c dy nh nhau.
Cc lp gn cc c din tch nh hn cho nn c in tr ln hn, cn
cc lp xa th din tch ln cho nn in tr s nh hn. Cc lp xa
cc qu s khng nh hng n in tr t xung quanh cc.
in tr cc t n c tnh theo cng thc do H.R.Dwight ca
Vin k thut Massachusetts a ra nh sau:
c:
AD = DE = EB ( 20m)
trong vng DE in th hu nh khng i: E = D = 0.
Ti on AD:
BE:
UAD = A D = A ;
UBE = B E = B.
V vy ta xc nh c in tr ni t ca cc A:
v in tr ni t ca cc B:
vi U, I l ch s ca volmet v ampemet.
Ch : V mt l thuyt, in tr t ca h thng ni t phi c
o khong cch v hn k t cc ni t. Tuy nhin i vi mc ch
thc hnh, hiu ng hnh tr ca t th khong cch gia cc cc gn
nhau bng hai ln di.ca cc cn o in tr l . Ngun cung cp
cho mch o l ngun tn hiu xoay chiu dng sin hoc xung vung.
Chng ta trnh dng ngun mt chiu do nh hng ca in phn s
lm tng sai s do in th in cc. Nu dng in li ca in lc th
phi dng bin p cch ly trnh nh hng ca dng trung tnh (nu c
do in th li mt i xng) v cc t ca dy trung tnh.
6.1.7.4. o in tr ni t bng dng c chuyn dng teromet
S cu to teromet chuyn dng loi M1103 ca Lin X c nh
Hnh 6.27.
Ngun cung cp nh my in xoay chiu tay quay. My bin dng
TT, cun th cp ni vi Rns; c cu o l c cu t in ni vi cun
th cp my bin p UT qua b chnh lu.
154
Qu trnh o:
Khi dng cho my pht lm vic cc cc A, B, C ni nh hnh v.
Lc ny c dng I1, qua s cp bin dng in qua cc A, qua t v cc
B tr v my pht to nn mt st p trn Rx cn o l:
Mt khc st p trn Ru do dng I2 ca my bin dng in TT sinh
ra:
in tr ca cc ni t ph ny c gi tr rt nh so vi gi tr in tr
ca cc ni t cn o v gi tr o c coi nh in tr ni t. V d
nh ngi ta tin hnh o in tr ca cc ni t n cho to nh khi
vic ng thm hai cc ph l kh khn, th ng ng nc c th s
dng nh cc ni t ph c gi tr in tr nh c 1. Gi tr ny tng
i nh so vi in tr ca cc tip t n. Gi tr o c l tr s ca
hai cc ni tip nhau. in tr ca cc dy dn ni s c tr vo kt
qu o c. S phng php ny cho trn Hnh 6.28.
6.2. o in cm
6.2.1. o in cm v h s phm cht cun dy (Q) dng cu xoay
chiu
6.2.1.1. iu kin cn bng cu xoay chiu
Cu xoay chiu l dng c da trn cu n o in cm, in
dung, gc tn hao v h s phm cht
Q.
Ngun cung cp l ngun xoay
chiu tn s cng nghip (50 60Hz),
m tn hoc cao tn t my pht tn.
Ch th zero l dng c xoay chiu
nh in k in t, my hin sng...
Gi thit tng tr phc cc nhnh
c vit nh sau:
156
Khi cu cn bng ta c:
vi:
b) o in cm bng cu in cm Maxwell
Trn thc t vic ch to t in chun d hn nhiu so vi vic to
cun dy chun, do vy ngi ta s dng t in trong cu Maxwell
o in cm
158
Khi cu t cn bng ta c:
trong :
T tnh c
cht cao.
Ta c:
Khi :
160
Ta c:
1
jC
Cx, Rx l nhnh t in cn o;
Cm, Rm l nhnh t mu iu chnh c;
R1, R2 l cc bin tr thun tr.
Khi cu cn bng ta c mi quan h:
vi:
Vy:
Gc tn tht in mi l:
162
Cu cn bng ta c iu kin:
ZxZ2 = Z1.Zm
vi:
Do vy ta c:
163
Gc tn tht in mi l:
Sc in ng E2 l:
Do vy ta c:
Cho nn:
Ph lc 1
H n v o lng hp php
(cc n v thng dng trong k thut in)
S
th
n v trong h hp php
Tn i lng
Tn
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Chiu di
Mt
Khi lng
Kilogam khi
Thi gian
Giy
Cng dng in
Ampe
Lc
Niutn
Tn s
Hec
Jun
Cng sut
Ot
in tch
Culng
in th, in p, sc in Vn
10
ng
Vn trn mt
11
Cng in trng
m
12
in tr
Simen
13
in dn
Fara
14
in dung
Henri
15
in cm
Ampe trn mt
16
Cng t trng
Tesla
17
T cm
Vebe
18
T thng
Ampe vng
19
Sc t ng
166
K hiu
M
Kg
S
A
N
Hz
J
W
C
V
V/m
S
F
H
A/m
T
Wb
Avg
Ghi ch
Bi s v c s theo n v tnh
K hiu
H s chuyn
n v
10-12
Nano
10
-9
Mili
10-3
Micro
10-6
Xenti
10-2
Tn
Pico
Tn
K hiu
H s chuyn
n v
Deci
10-1
Hecto
100
Kilo
1.000
Mega
xM
1.000.000
167
Ph lc 2
K hiu quy c dng c o lng in
v cc b phn b sung
K hiu quy c trn
thang chia ca
Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung
dng c
K hiu theo nguyn l tc ng ca dng c
Dng c in t phn cc
Dng c in ng
Logomet in ng
Dng c st ng
168
Logomet st ng
K hiu quy c trn
thang chia ca
Dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung
dng c
Logomet cm ng
Logomet cm ng
Dng c cm ng t
Dng c tnh in
Dng c c h thng rung (li rung)
Dng c nhit (c si nung)
Dng c c thanh kim loi kp
K hiu b sung theo hnh thc bin i
169
600 Hz
Mt chiu
xoay chiu (1 pha)
Mt chiu v xoay chiu
Dng in ba pha (k hiu chung)
Dng in ba pha vi ti trng khng u cc
pha
Dng c vi c cu o mt phn t
t mt chia nm ng
nghing ca mt thang chia t nghing
mt gc xc nh so vi mt phng nm
ngang, v d 60o
Hng ca dng c theo t trng ca Tri
t
500 Hz
Tr s tn s nh mc
400 - 500 Hz
Vng tn s nh mc
20 - 50 - (120)
Tr s tn s nh mc v vng m rng tn s
171
Ph lc 3
H phn b Student theo gi tr xc sut
N
0,900
0,950
0,980
0,990
0,999
2
3
1,000
0,816
6,310
2,920
12,700
4,300
31,800
6,960
63,700
9,920
637,000
31,600
0,765
2,350
2,350
4,540
5,840
13,000
5
6
0,741
0,727
2,130
2,020
2,780
2,570
3,750
3,360
4,600
4,030
8,610
6,860
7
8
0,718
0,711
1,940
1,900
2,490
2,360
3,140
3,000
3,710
3,500
5,960
5,400
0,706
1,860
2,310
2,900
3,360
5,040
10
0,703
1,830
2,260
2,820
3,250
4,780
12
0,697
1,800
2,200
2,720
3,100
4,490
14
0,694
1,770
2,160
2,650
3,010
4,220
16
0,691
1,750
2,130
2,600
2,990
4,070
18
20
0,689
0,688
1,740
1,730
2,110
2,090
2,570
2,540
2,900
2,860
3,960
3,880
25
0,684
1,710
2,060
2,490
2,800
3,740
31
0,683
1,700
2,040
2,460
2,750
3,650
41
0,681
1,680
2,020
2,420
2,700
3,550
61
121
0,679
0,677
1,670
1,650
2,000
1,980
2,390
2,360
2,660
2,620
3,460
3,370
0,674
1,640
1,960
2,330
2,580
3,290
172
MC LC
Trang
Chng 1 KHI NIM CHUNG V O LNG........................................... 2
1.1. nh ngha v phn loi thit b............................................................... 2
1.2. S cu trc thit b o lng............................................................... 5
1.3. Cc c tnh ca thit b o...................................................................... 9
1.4. Gia cng kt qu o lng..................................................................... 14
Chng 2 CC C CU CH TH.................................................................. 21
2.1. C cu ch th c in ............................................................................ 21
2.2. C cu ch th s .................................................................................... 39
Chng 3 O DNG IN V IN P ..................................................... 48
3.1. Nhng yu cu c bn ca vic o dng in v in p...................... 48
3.2. o dng in trung bnh v ln bng cc loi ampemet ....................... 51
3.3. o dng in nh................................................................................... 56
3.4. o in p trung bnh v ln bng cc loi volmet ............................... 57
3.5. o dng in v in p bng phng php so snh ............................ 60
3.6. o in p bng cc volmet ch th s................................................... 70
Chng 4 O CNG SUT V NNG LNG ......................................... 82
4.1. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch mt pha ................................. 82
4.2. o cng sut v nng lng trong mch ba pha.................................... 97
Chng 5 O GC PHA V TN S ......................................................... 106
5.1. o gc pha v h s cng sut cos .................................................... 106
5.2. o tn s .............................................................................................. 114
5.3. ng dng my hin sng in t trong o lng................................ 119
Chng 6 O CC THNG S CA MCH IN .................................. 131
6.1. o in tr ........................................................................................... 131
6.2. o in cm......................................................................................... 156
6.3. o in dung v tn tht in mi ca t in bng cu xoay chiu .. 161
6.4. o h s h cm ca hai cun dy ...................................................... 164
Ph lc 1 H n v o lng hp php ......................................................... 166
Ph lc 2 K hiu quy c dng c o lng in v cc b phn b sung.. 168
Ph lc 3 H phn b Student theo gi tr xc sut ........................................ 172
173