Contents

page

Foreword
Chapter authors

Xll

Editorial Panel

xiii

Protection symbols used in circuit diagrams

xiv

8
8.1
8.2

8.3

Overcurrent protection J. W. Hodgkiss

Introduction
Types of overcurrent system
8.2.1
Overcurrent and earth-fault protection systems
8.2.2
Grading of current settings
8.2.3
Grading of time settings: the definite-time system
8.2.4
Grading by both time and current" inverse-time
overcurrent systems
8.2.4.1
Fuses
8.2.4.2
Delayed action trip coils
8.2.4.3
Fuse-shunted trip coils
8.2.4.4
Inverse-time overcurrent relays
Selection of settings
8.3.1
System analysis
8.3.2
Grading of relay settings
8.3.2.1
Grading for definite-time relays
8.3.2.2
Grading for inverse-time relays
8.3.2.3
Grading with 'very inverse' relays
8.3.2.4
Graphical method of grading
8.3.3
Current transformer requirements
8.3.3.1
Burdens
8.3.3.2
Variation of burden impedance
8.3.3.3
Additional burden
8.3.3.4
Significance of leads
8.3.3.5
Burden of earth-fault schemes
8.3.3.6
Effective setting

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8.4.

8.5
9
9.1
9.2
9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

8.3.3.7
Time-grading of earth-fault relays
8.3.3.8
Phase-fault stability
8.3.4
Sensitive earth-fault protection
8.3.5
High-set instantaneous overcurrent relays
8.3.6
Relay co-ordination with fuses
Directional control
8.4.1
Directional relays
8.4.2
Connections for directional phase-fault relays
8.4.2.1
30 relay connection: m.t.a. = 0
8.4.2.2
60 relay connection: m.t.a. = 0
8.4.2.3
90 relay connection
8.4.3
Directional earth-fault relays
8.4.3.1
Polarisation by residual voltage
8.4.3.2
Polarisation by neutral current
8.4.3.3
Dual polarisation
8.4.4
Grading of ring mains
8.4.5
Multiple-fed ring mains
8.4.6
Parallel feeders
Bibliography
Feeder protection: distance systems L. Jackson
Introduction
Historical
Operating principles
9.3.1
Impedance measurement
9.3.2
Derivation of basic measuring quantities
Impedance-measuring elements (comparators) and theft characteristics
9.4.1
Presentation of characteristics
9.4.2
Derivation of relay characteristics
9.4.3
Equivalent of amplitude and phase comparators
9.4.4
Basic range of impedance characteristics
9.4.5
Measuring characteristics of relay schemes
9.4.6
Mho characteristics
9.4.7
Practical polarised mho characteristic
Development of comparators
9.5.1
Induction cup
9.5.2
Rectifier bridge moving coil
9.5.3
Electronic relays: introduction
9.5.4
Comparator development
9.5.5
Practical realisation of static phase comparators
More complex relaying characteristics
9.6.1
Basis for shaped polar characteristics
9.6.2
Change of angular criterion
9.6.3
Multicomparator schemes
9.6.4
Multi-input comparators
9.6.5
Alternative characteristics
Presentation of performance
9.7.1
Requirements
9.7.2
Display of measuring accuracy
9.7.3
Display of operating time
9.7.4
Application of contour timing curves
9.7.5
Alternative methods of presentation
9.7.6
Steady-state performance presentation

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9.11
9.12

9.7.7
Dynamic polar characteristics
Switched and polyphase distance protection
9.8.1
Introduction
9.8.2
Switched distance protection
9.8.3
Polyphase distance protection
Distance protection schemes based on information links
9.9.1
General
9.9.2
Tripping schemes
9.9.2.1
Direct intertrip
9.9.2.2
Permissive intertrip-underreaching schemes
9.9.2.3
Permissive intertrip-overeaching systems
9.9.3
Blocking schemes
9.9.3.1
Distance protection blocking scheme
9.9.3.2
Directional comparison
Practical considerations in the application of distance protection
9.10.1
Fault resistance
9.10.2
Measuring errors
9.10.3
Healthy phase relays
9.10.4
Load encroachment
9.10.5
Power swing encroachment
9.10.6
Line check
9.10.7
Voltage transformer supervision
Trends in distance protection development
Bibliography

10

Feeder protection . pilot wire and carrier-current systems

9.8

9.9

9.10

10.1
10.2
10.3

10.4

10.5
10.6

10.7

10.8

F.L. Hamilton, L. Jackson and J. Rushton

General background and introduction
Some basic concepts of unit protection for feeders
Basic types of protection information channels
10.3.1
Pilot wires
10.3.2
Main conductors
10.3.3
Radio links
Types of information used
10.4.1
Complete information on magnitude and phase of
primary current
10.4.2
Phase-angle information only
10.4.3
Simple two-state (off/on) information
Starting relays
Conversion of polyphase primary quantities to a single-phase
secondary quantity
10.6.1
General philosophy
10.6.2
Interconnections of current transformers
10.6.3
Summation transformers
10.6.4
Phase-sequence current networks
Elementary theory of longitudinal differential protection
10.7.1
Longitudinal differential protection with biased relays
10.7.2
Phase-comparison principles
10.7.3
Nonlinear differential systems
10.7.4
Directional comparison systems
10.7.5
Current sources and voltage sources
10.7.6
Nonlinearity and limiting
Pilot-wire protection

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10.9

10.10

10,11

10.12

10.13

10.14
11
11.1

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Basic principles
10.8.1
10,8.2
Practical relay circuits
10.8.3
Summation circuits
10.8.4
Basic discrimination factor
Typical pilot circuits
10.8.5
10,8.6
Typical systems for privately owned pilots
10.8.7
Use of rented pilots
Typical systems for use with rented pilots
10.8.8
10.8.9
V.F. phase-comparison protection (Reyrolle protection)
Some aspects of application of pilot-wire feeder protection
10.9.1
General
10.9.2
Current transformer requirements
10.9.3
Operating times
10.9.4
Fault settings
10.9.5
Protection characteristics
Power-line carrier phase-comparison protection
10,10.1 Introduction
10.10.2 Types of information transmitted
10' 10.3 Basic principles of phase-comparison protection
10.10.4 Summation networks
10.10.5 Modulation of h.f. signal
10,10.6 Junction between transmitted and received signals
10.10.7 Receiver
10.10.8 Tripping circuit
10.10.9 Starting circuits
10.10.10 Telephase T3
10.10.11 Contraphase P 10
10,10.12 Marginal guard
10.10.13 Checking and testing
Problems of application of phase-comparison feeder
protection
10,11.1 General
10.11.2 Attenuation over the line length
10.1 1.3 Tripping and stabilising angles
10,11.4 Fault settings related to capacitance current
10,1 1.5 C.T, requirements
Directional comparison protection
10,12.1 General
10,12.2 Basic principles
10.12.3 Basic units
10.12.4 Directional relays
10.12.5 Fault detecting
10.12.6 Change of fault direction
Power supplies
I 0.13.1 General
10.13.2 Station battery supply
10.13.3 Separate batteries
Bibliography

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274

Overvoltage protection L. Csuros

Overvoltage phenomena in power systems
1 1.1.1
External overvoltages (lightning)
11.1.2
Internal overvoltages

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11.2

11.3

11.4

11.5

11.6

11.7

11.8
11.9
Index

Travelling
11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3

waves
Wave propagation along a transmission line without losses
Reflections at the end of the line
Discontinuities in surge impedance and junctions with
infinitely long lines
11.2.4
Effect of waveshape and of finite length of lines
Insulation co-ordination
11.3.1
Fundamental principles of surge protection and
insulation co-ordination
11.3.2
Basic requirements
11.3.3
Insulation and protective levels
11.3.4
Relation between overvoltage tests and service conditions
11.3.5
Practical choice of insulation levels
Protection against external overvoltages
11.4.1
Shielding of overhead lines and substations
11.4.2
Surge protection by effective system layout
11.4.3
Voltage limiting devices
Protection against internal overvoltages
11.5.1
Protection against switching transients
11.5.2
Protection against sustained internal overvoltages
11.5.3
Protection against internal temporary overvoltages
Practical aspects and some special problems of insulation
co-ordination and surge protection
11.6.1
Effect of system neutral earthing on insulation requirements
11.6.2
Choice of surge arresters and derivation of basic impulse
insulation levels
11.6.3
Clearances to earth between phases and across isolating gaps
11.6.4
Standard insulation levels, clearances with recommended
co-ordinating gap settings, or surge arrester ratings, or both
11.6.5
Effect of rain, humidity and atmospheric pollution
Probabilistic or statistical approach in insulation co-ordination
11.7.1
Statistical aspects of overvoltages and insulation strength
11.7.2
Application of statistical distribution to insulation
co-ordination
Economic aspects
Bibliography

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