Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
AIMAL MALIK
BS (Hons) Psychology
6th SEMESTER
BACHELORES OF SCIENCES
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY OF WAH
WAH CANTT
i
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
AIMAL MALIK
ii
2
Abstract
The main purpose of this study is to examine stress level of university students according
to certain variables. The participants are students attending different classes and
departments of University of Wah, Wah Cantt. The sample includes 10 boys and 10 girls,
5 from BS (hons), BA (hons) and 5 from M.Sc, M.A, MBA, etc. The scale is Likert’s scale
include 10 items. Data is analyzed using statistical technique, namely Mean, Standard
Deviation, t-test. The result of the research shows that there are significant differences
between the variables related to educational characteristics when they are analyzed with
respect to the level of stress.
iii
3
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4 Stress level in university students using Mean, Standard Deviation, t-test
CONTENTS
4
Acknowledgments i
Abstract ii
CHAPTER-I: INTRODUCTION 1
Stress 2
Background 2
Definition of stress 2
Types of stress 3
• Eustress
• Distress
• Hyperstress
• Hypostress
• Definition
5
• Description
• Stages
1. Alarm reaction
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion
Diagnosis 12
Treatment 13
Causes of stress 15
• Environmental stressor
• Family and relationship stressor
• Work stressor
• Social stressor
Coping strategies 20
• Moving with
• Moving towards
• Moving against
• Moving away
6
CHAPTER- II: METHOD 22
Objectives 23
Hypothesis 23
Definition of variables 23
• Stress
• Coping strategies
Sample 24
Instruments 24
• Likert scale
Procedure 27
Limitations 33
Suggestions 34
Conclusion 34
REFERENCES 36
ANEXURE 37
7
CHAPTER I
8
INTRODUCTION:
Background:
In 1925 a second year medical student named Hans Selye observed that people
suffering from a wide variety of somatic (physical) disorders all seemed to have the same
or similar symptoms. For example, many of these people reported: decreased appetite,
decreased muscular strength and endurance, and lowered levels of ambition or drive.
Selye, unable to find a common disease or disorder to explain these behaviors, called this
group of symptoms, the SYNDROME OF JUST BEING SICK. In addition, he found
that these symptoms occurred whenever: the human organism needed to adapt to a
changing internal or external environment. This was the first observation and
identification that eventually led to the term STRESS.
Definition of stress:
any demand made on it; the arousal, both physical and mental, to si-
9
According to Cohen:
Eustress:
Definition:
“The optimal amount of stress which helps promotes health and growth.
Unfortunately, most humans (especially Americans) are more likely to be in
distress. When psychologists speak of controlling stress or stress management, it
usually means quantitatively reducing the amount of stress that we experience
and an active attempt to change distress into eustress”.
Distress:
Definition:
“Stress due to an excess of adaptive demands placed upon us. Thus, this is the
BAD stress. Results when the demands upon us are so great that they lead to
bodily and mental damage. Distress is damaging, excessive or pathogenic
(disease producing) stress”.
Hyperstress
Hypostress
Fight-or-flight response
The fight-or-flight response, also called the fright, fight or flight response,
hyperarousal or the acute stress response, was first described by Walter Cannon in
1915. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the
sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. This response
was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that regulates
stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.
Biology of the stress response
That route of signaling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus
ceruleus, and the person becomes alert and attentive to the environment. Similarly, an
abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or
intuitive behaviors often related to combat or escape.If a stimulus is perceived as a threat,
a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic
division of the autonomic nervous system (Thase & Howland, 1995).
These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but in order to
fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping
capture in either a physical way or in a sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to
another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are
combined in a given situation. The fight or flight actions also have polarity - the
individual can fight or fly against or away from something that is threatening, such as a
hungry lion, or fight or fly for or towards something that is needed, such as the safety of
the shore of a raging river.
It is relatively rare that a threat from another animal results immediately in fight
or flight. Usually there is a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal
interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection,
immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each
animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but
which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens
playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they are aware of each
other’s intent not to inflict real damage.
In prehistoric times when the fight or flight response evolved, fight was
manifested in aggressive, combative behavior and flight was manifested by fleeing
potentially threatening situations, such as being confronted by a predator.In current times,
these responses persist, but fight and flight responses have assumed a wider range of
behaviors. For example, the fight response may be manifested in angry, argumentative
behavior, and the flight response may be manifested through social withdrawal, substance
abuse, and even television viewing (Friedman & Silver 2007).
Although the emergency measure of the stress response is undoubtedly both vital
and valuable, it can also be disruptive and damaging. In most modern situations, humans
rarely encounter emergencies that require physical effort, yet our biology still provides
for them. Thus we may find our stress response activated in situations where physical
action is inappropriate. This activation takes a toll on both our bodies and our minds.
Also, simple stresses that can be acted upon quickly are more easily overcome allowing
the body to return to homeostasis, but with the more complex stresses of modern
societies, with many factors and individuals involved, the danger may seem unavoidable
and stress may continue indefinitely, which ends up compromising the system rather than
helping the system.
Disruption of the sexual response and the digestive system are common negative
results. Diarrhea, constipation, and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal are typical
examples. These are functions which are controlled by the parasympathetic nervous
system and therefore suppressed by sympathetic arousal. Prolonged stress responses may
result in chronic suppression of the immune system, leaving the sufferer vulnerable to
infection by bacteria and viruses. Repeated stress responses can be caused not only by
real threats, but also by mental disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, in which
the individual shows a stress response when remembering a past trauma, and panic
disorder, in which the stress response is activated apparently by nothing.
Definition
Description
The first stage of the general adaptation stage, the alarm reaction, is the
immediate reaction to a stressor. In the initial phase of stress, humans exhibit a "fight or
flight" response, which prepares the body for physical activity. However, this initial
response can also decrease the effectiveness of the immune system, making persons more
susceptible to illness during this phase.
Stage 2 might also be named the stage of adaptation, instead of the stage of
resistance. During this phase, if the stress continues, the body adapts to the stressors it is
exposed to. Changes at many levels take place in order to reduce the effect of the stressor.
For example, if the stressor is starvation (possibly due to anorexia), the person might
experience a reduced desire for physical activity to conserve energy, and the absorption
of nutrients from food might be maximized.
At this stage, the stress has continued for some time. The body's resistance to the
stress may gradually be reduced, or may collapse quickly. Generally, this means the
immune system, and the body's ability to resist disease, may be almost totally eliminated.
Patients who experience long-term stress may succumb to heart attacks or severe
infection due to their reduced immunity. For example, a person with a stressful job may
experience long-term stress that might lead to high blood pressure and an eventual heart
attack.
The reader should note that Dr. Selye did not regard stress as a purely negative
phenomenon; in fact, he frequently pointed out that stress is not only an inevitable part of
life but results from intense joy or pleasure as well as fear or anxiety. "Stress is not even
necessarily bad for you; it is also the spice of life, for any emotion, any activity, causes
stress." Some later researchers have coined the term "eustress" or pleasant stress, to
reflect the fact that such positive experiences as a job promotion, completing a degree or
training program, marriage, travel, and many others are also stressful.
Selye also pointed out that human perception of and response to stress is highly
individualized; a job or sport that one person finds anxiety-provoking or exhausting
might be quite appealing and enjoyable to someone else. Looking at one's responses to
specific stressors can contribute to better understanding of one's particular physical,
emotional, and mental resources and limits.
Selye's observation that people vary in their perceptions of stressors was reflected
in his belief that the stressors themselves are less dangerous to health than people's
maladaptive responses to them. He categorized certain diseases, ranging from
cardiovascular disorders to inflammatory diseases and mental disorders as "diseases of
adaptation," regarding them as "largely due to errors in our adaptaive response to
stress" rather than the direct result of such outside factors as germs, toxic substances, etc.
Diagnosis
GAS by itself is not an official diagnostic category but rather a descriptive term. A
person who consults a doctor for a stress-related physical illness may be scheduled for
blood or urine tests to measure the level of cortisol or other stress-related hormones in
their body, or imaging studies to evaluate possible abnormalities in their endocrine glands
if the doctor thinks that these tests may help to establish or confirm a diagnosis.The
American Psychiatric Association (APA) recognizes stress as a factor in anxiety
disorders, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder
(ASD).
Treatment
Each pattern has a recommended set of skills that the patient is encouraged to
work on; for example, worry warts are advised to reframe their anxieties and then
identify their core values and goals in order to take concrete action about their worries. In
general, persons wishing to improve their management of stress should begin by
consulting a medical professional with whom they feel comfortable to discuss which
option, or combination of options, they can use.
To get a handle on stress, you first need to learn how to recognize it in yourself.
Stress affects the mind, body, and behavior in many ways— all directly tied to the
physiological changes of the fight-or-flight response. The specific signs and symptoms of
stress vary widely from person to person.
Some people primarily experience physical symptoms, such as low back pain,
stomach problems, and skin outbreaks. In others, the stress pattern centers on emotional
symptoms, such as crying jags or hypersensitivity. For still others, a change in the way
they think or behave predominates.
Causes of stress
The potential causes of stress are numerous and highly individual. What you
consider stressful depends on many factors, including your personality, general outlook
on life, problem-solving abilities, and social support system. Something that's stressful to
you may not faze someone else, or they may even enjoy it. For example, your morning
commute may make you anxious and tense because you worry that traffic will make you
late. Others, however, may find the trip relaxing because they allow more than enough
time and enjoy listening to music while they drive.
The pressures and demands that cause stress are known as stressors. We usually
think of stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky
relationship. However, anything that forces us to adjust can be a stressor. This includes
positive events such as getting married or receiving a promotion. Regardless of whether
an event is good or bad, if the adjustment it requires strains our coping skills and adaptive
resources, the end result is stress.
Causes of stress include:
• Environmental stressors – Your physical surroundings can set off the stress
response. Examples of environmental stressors include an unsafe neighborhood,
pollution, noise (sirens keeping you up at night, a barking dog next door), and
uncomfortable living conditions. For people living in crime-ridden areas or war-
torn regions, the stress may be unrelenting.
• Social stressors – Your social situation can cause stress. For example, poverty,
financial pressures, racial and sexual discrimination or harassment,
unemployment, isolation, and a lack of social support all take a toll on daily
quality of life.
Not all stress is caused by external pressures and demands. Your stress can also be
self-generated. Internal causes of stress include:
• Uncertainty or worries
• Pessimistic attitude
• Self-criticism
• Unrealistic expectations or belief
• Perfectionism
• Low self-esteem
• Excessive or unexpressed anger
• Lack of assertiveness
1. Spouse’s death
2. Divorce
3. Marriage separation
4. Jail term
5. Death of a close relative
6. Injury or illness
7. Marriage
8. Fired from job
9. Marriage reconciliation
10. Retirement
Stress in humans results from interactions between persons and their environment
that are perceived as straining or exceeding their adaptive capacities and threatening their
well-being. The element of perception indicates that human stress responses reflect
differences in personality, as well as differences in physical strength or general health.
Risk factors for stress-related illnesses are a mix of personal, interpersonal, and social
variables. These factors include lack or loss of control over one's physical environment,
and lack or loss of social support networks. People who are dependent on others (e.g.,
children or the elderly) or who are socially disadvantaged (because of race, gender,
educational level, or similar factors) are at greater risk of developing stress-related
illnesses. Other risk factors include feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, extreme fear
or anger, and cynicism or distrust of others.
The stress response consists of a cascade of neural and hormonal events that have
short- and long-lasting consequences for brain and body alike. A more serious issue is
how an event is determined to be a stressor. One view is to define a stressor as an
environmental event causing a negative outcome, such as a disease. Another approach is
to view stressors as virtually any challenge to homeostasis and to regard disease
processes as a failure of the normal operation of adaptive mechanisms, which are part of
the stress response.
The effects of human activity on natural ecosystems have increased the risk of
extinction for many animal and plant populations. Human activities have caused an
increase in stochastic fluctuations in population sizes, changed the interactions between
predators and their prey and led to changes in the genetic structure within and between
populations.
These factors could potentially result in inbreeding and/or out breeding depression
and loss of genetic variation (Crnokrak and Roff, 1999; Frankham, 2005). For these and
other reasons, a fitness decline has accelerated during the last decades in many
populations and this process is likely to continue in the future. To set conservation
priorities, it is important to assess the relative threats posed by the different factors
causing fitness declines.
Coping strategies
The German Freudian psychoanalyst Karen Horney defined four so-called coping
strategies to define interpersonal relations, one describing psychologically healthy
individuals, the others describing neurotic states.
1. Moving With
2. Moving Toward
The individual moves towards those perceived as a threat to avoid retribution and
getting hurt. The argument is, “If I give in, I won’t get hurt.” This means that if I give
everyone I see as a potential threat what ever they want, I won’t be injured (physically or
emotionally).
3. Moving Against
4. Moving Away
METHOD
Objectives
Definition of variables
Stress
Stress can be defined as a process in which environment demands strain an
organism’s adaptive capacity, resulting in both psychological as well as biological
changes that could place a person at risk for illness (Cohen et. al., as cited in Depuse,
1999).
In the present study, stress has been identified as a particular pattern of disturbing
psychological and physical reactions in any situation as rated by the individual on Likert
scale.
Coping Strategies
Coping is not a single strategy that applies to all circumstances. People cope
differently with hassles, loses, dangers and challenges. And the technique they use change
over time and circumstances, depending upon the nature of stressor and the particular
situation (Carver, Scheier & Terry, as cited in Riaz, 2002).
In the present study the coping strategies has been identified as particular
behavior patterns or reaction to stress or a problem either to solve it or adapt to it.
Sample
A sample of 20 students was randomly selected from University of Wah, Wah
Cantt. The sample consisted of both male and female students, (10% male and 10%
female), were taken from BS (Hons) and M.Sc classes of different departments of the
university. The age range of students was 18-28 years.
Instruments
Likert scale
An important distinction must be made between a Likert Scale and a Likert item.
The Likert Scale is the sum of responses on several Likert items. Because Likert items
are often accompanied by a visual analog scale (e.g., a horizontal line, on which a subject
indicates his or her response by circling or checking tick-marks), the items are sometimes
called scales themselves. This is the source of much confusion; it is better, therefore, to
reserve the word 'Likert scale' to apply to the summated scale, and 'Likert item' to refer to
an individual item.
1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Agree
5. Strongly agree
Likert scales may be subject to distortion from several causes. Respondents may
avoid using extreme response categories (central tendency bias); agree with statements as
presented (acquiescence bias); or try to portray themselves or their organization in a more
favorable light (social desirability bias). Designing a scale with balanced keying (an
equal number of positive and negative statements) can obviate the problem of
acquiescence bias, since acquiescence on positively keyed items will balance
acquiescence on negatively keyed items, but central tendency and social desirability are
somewhat more problematic.
On the other hand, often (as in the example above) the wording of response levels
clearly implies a symmetry of response levels about a middle category; at the very least,
such an item would fall between ordinal- and interval-level measurement; to treat it as
merely ordinal would lose information. Further, if the item is accompanied by a visual
analog scale, where equal spacing of response levels is clearly indicated, the argument for
treating it as interval-level data is even stronger.
When treated as ordinal data, Likert responses can be collated into bar charts,
central tendency summarized by the median or the mode (but not the mean), dispersion
summarized by the range across quartiles (but not the standard deviation), or analyzed
using non-parametric tests, e.g. Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney test, Wilcoxon signed-
rank test, or Kruskal-Wallis test.
Data from Likert scales are sometimes reduced to the nominal level by combining
all agree and disagree responses into two categories of "accept" and "reject". The Chi-
Square, Cochran Q, or McNemar-Test is common statistical procedures used after this
transformation.
Level of measurement
The five response categories are often believed to represent an Interval level of
measurement. But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points
correspond to empirical observations in a metric sense. In fact, there may also appear
phenomena which even question the ordinal scale level. For example, in a set of items A,
B, C rated with a Likert scale circular relations like A>B, B>C and C>A can appear. This
violates the axiom of transitivity for the ordinal scale.
Rasch model
Likert scale data can, in principle, be used as a basis for obtaining interval level
estimates on a continuum by applying the polytomous Rasch model, when data can be
obtained that fit this model. In addition, the polytomous Rasch model permits testing of
the hypothesis that the statements reflect increasing levels of an attitude or trait, as
intended. For example, application of the model often indicates that the neutral category
does not represent a level of attitude or trait between the disagree and agree categories.
Procedure
In the first step of the study, an exercise was done to find out the cultural relevance
and comprehensibility of level of stress in adolescents. For this purpose 4 male and 4 female
students of University Of Wah were asked to rate the items. The response showed that the
In the second step, Instructor approach was used for the difficult item after using
Instructor approach items no. 3, 7, 10 were rephrased and modified and then scale was
finalized.
In the third step for the purpose of collection of data students were approached
individually, after getting consent they were informed about the research purpose and then
questionnaire was handed over to them. The instructions were given verbally to the
participants, and written instructions were also available. They were asked to attempt all the
questions. The participants were allowed to ask if there was any confusion. The participants
were assured that the information provided by them would be kept confidential and will only
be used for research purposes. At the end of data collection all participants were thanked for
their cooperation. Data collected was statistically analyzed and the inferences were drawn.
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
The data of the present study was analyzed to identify the levels of stress
and coping strategies among university students. The t-test was computed for male
and female students. The results are shown in the form of tables showing Mean,
Standard Deviation, and t-test analysis between males and females.
Table 1
Table 1 shows no significant between male female scores on Likert scale. The
score of male (M = 35.8) and female (M = 34.2). The t-values show no significant
difference (p < 0.05). Results show that there is no significant difference between
male and female scores. The findings reject the hypothesis no. 2 that female
students will score higher on scale than male students.
Table 2
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
The present study was aimed at exploring the relationship of general life stress,
levels of stress and stress coping strategies among university students. The study further
investigated the gender differences, educational differences and age differences on stress
and coping strategies among university students.
For conducting this study and measuring the variables Likert scale was used
(Rensis Likert), contains 10 items to measure coping strategies.
The first hypothesis of this study was that students will show high levels of stress,
but results show that 100% confidence level, which is significant and have high levels of
stress. The result supports the first hypothesis of the present study. In one research it was
found that very less number of students showed stress and it was in very less amount
(Fuatae & Soon, 2001). The results of the present study give support to the earlier
researches.
The second hypothesis was that the female students would score higher on stress
as compared to males. The results showed that there is no significant difference between
scores of males and females. There were no differences in the mean scores of male was
(M = 35.8) and mean score of female was (M = 34.2). The results did not support the
hypothesis that females will have higher levels of stress and will score higher on Likert
scale than males. There are inconsistent findings regarding gender differences on stress
scale (Likert).
Limitations
Like others researches in the social sciences, present research has also encountered
with some limitations.
The area of stress in university students has not been explored in Pakistan, in this
regard, the present research calls attention to overall need for further research in this area.
There is need to encourage the researchers to explore this important area, which has a
great influence on students level of stress, and coping strategies.
Suggestions
1. In the present study only levels of stress among university students ere explored.
The research can be more meaningful if the process of stress coping strategies is
also studied. Because it will provide a better understanding of the underlying
causes of stress.
3. In order to make the research more focused the small sample of students can be
taken.
Conclusions:
With the result of present study it was concluded that level of stress is high among
university students as compare to other levels of education. These findings point out
towards the causes of stress present in university of stress that must be coping by
removing the problems of students. So, university student must be given the opportunities
to cope and use a wide variety of measures to maximize stress and overcoming those
problems which create stress.
REFERENCES
Ron de Kloet, E; Joels M. & Holsboer F. (2005). "Stress and the brain: from adaptation to
disease". Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6 (6): 463-475. PMID 15891777.
http://www.thehealthcenter.info/teen-stress/types-of-stress.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response
http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI
=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/general_adaptation_syndrome.jsp
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coping_strategies
http://www.macses.ucsf.edu/Research/Psychosocial/notebook/coping.html
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/spae/2004/00000093/00000006/art00021
http://parenthood.library.wisc.edu/Berkowitz/Berkowitz.html
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/330/7486/301.
ANEXURE
LEVEL OF STRESS IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
INSTRUCTIONS:
This questionnaire is designed to find out “the level of stress in university students”. The
statements in the questionnaire describe the level of stress. The each question is five
levels Likert item which describe different responses. Please fill self information. Data is
collected only for research purpose.
PERSONAL INFORMATION:
NAME: …………………………………………………………………
AGE: ……………………………………………………………………
EDUCATION: ………………………………………………………….
LEVEL: ………………………………………………………………...
UNIVERSITY: …………………………………………………………
SPECIALIZATION: ……………………………………………………
AREA: ………………………………………………………………….
SEX: ……………………………………………………………………
QUESTIONS:
7. Is a university student will show higher level of stress because of fewer resources?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.
8. Is university students with higher level of stress acquire bad ways to cope?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.
10. Is future career thoughts are the biggest reason for the stress in university
students?
• Strongly disagree.
• Disagree.
• Undecided.
• Agree.
• Strongly agree.
_________________________________