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.SCHOOL
MATHEMATICS.
STUDY GROUP
.CA4CULUS
ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Part
O
Student Text
.*(Revised Edition)
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH
EDUCATIONS. WELFARE
HATION??,L INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION
T.
SMSG
P E PRO
SEN.'
OP POL
.)
Ni
.
I,
.lz
`,l_)1,,,(
,t-f)
T.
' .11
'10
",
"T r;
Tr /
yr
w,
4.
t- CALCULUS OF
ELE71)1EIVTARI.FUATIONS.:
Part I
0, Student Text
)(Revised Edition).
7
The following is a list of all those who participated in the preparation of this
volume:
.
,
.
Sarah T. Hemet
Desmond T. JAkins
C. W, Leeds, III
George R Richatdson
Don'ald E. Richmond
.
Paul C. Shields
4
. .;
1968 and 1969 by The Boiird of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University
All right reserved
.
Printed in the United States of America
..,
FOREWORD
.
x and y
In particular,
if no vertical line cameet a graph in more than one point, then the graph is
that of a function f
x -)y; that is, for .each first coordinate x of a
:
(x,y)
lies on the
We, shall
F '
low points on the graph, and in addition answer q estions about the shape of
the graph (such as illitervals of rise or fall and .ow the graph bends).
Further-
Likewise,, ry
might expect to be able to determine from the func iopal expression such/pr
perties as the average value of the function and,t e area of a region b un d ?ed
7.
.
by the function.
04.4: aim is to develop some of the concepts and techniqqes.w*ch/wi 1
of element ry functions.
6 is t
t of the
'
and
In
- particular, formulas are developed for finding the sl tes of tangent lines to
t14-graphs of various 'elemeneary functions.
Fora gi en function
In particular,
such a
f. /Values of the
' derivative give 'a 'measure q the rate of change of the graph.
f,
of
e
can be V,iven
ined by thesign
of the, derivative.
.
.
,
0
0
,-,
unctions,
namely polynomials, the sine and cosine functions, and simple power, exponential and logarithmic functions.
Chapters 1 and 2 discuss polynomial functions, with Chapter 1 Concearating on,definitions and simple algebraic and geometric properties:
The .concept
obtained.
and lbw points and intervals of rise or fall); its interpretation as velocity
;
or acceleration, and its use if gpproximationare also discussed .in Chapter 2.,
This same pattern is followed in the remaining four chapters of this volume.
Definitions and simple properties of the sine and cosine functions and the
power expohential and logarithm functions appear in Chapters 3 and 5, respec,.
tively, while Chapters 4 and 6 discuss derivative formulas for these respec,
TOWnShip High
Wayne State Upiversityt; Albert W. Tucker, Princeton University; 'and the pilot
.^
_,
teachers and students at.Cubberley, Gunn, and Palo Alto High Schools in Palo
Alto; California; St. Mark's School.in Dallas, Texas; .and Simon's Rock in
.,
considerable influence pn this text.' Many ideas and exercises were taken,
In the first pgrt ofthis text. we borrow heavily from SNSG Elemen-
tary Functions; Appendix 2 of ,this text contains Sections 2-12; 2 -6, 2 -8, and
2 -9, of Elementary Functions, Appendifes '1, 3, 4, 5,, 6,.7, and 8 wgre adapted
ft
' iv
Y.
*.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1
Foreword'
47.,""
Chaper 1.
POLYNOMIAL 'UNCTIONS
.)
C
ffntroduCtion'and Notation
1-1.
Quadratic FUnctions
_1:5.
7
24
1 -7.
RatiOna.1 Zeros
1-8..
Approximatj.ng Zeros
1-9.
39
56
.t
,75
81
82
90
22-
.,
'The Derivative
105
2.7.
Optimization Problems
2-
Rate of Change:
2 -5j,
98
. 2-1
: ..
111
123
136
e.
148
162
..-. -...
173
..
:.
'Chapter 3.
178
4,
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
"
187
)
3 -1.
3 -2.
188,
3-3.
54.
Uniform
3-5
34.
3-7.
Pure
72
2-2.
2-4:
65
2-1.
2-3.
49
,e_
1-4.
1-5.
1-6.
Chapter 2.
1-2'.
207
217
'224
Circulir Motion
.
,,.
.\.
252.
Waves
239
....
Period
247
40,
Chipter 4.
4-1:-
The
4-2:
The
,..
253
253
263
4-3.
Line
Substitution
4-4.
273
279
.
4-5.
287
0.
Chapter5.
303
Exponents
5-1.
.t.
303
5-2.
5-3.
More'About.Ratiosal Exponents
5-4.-
5-5.
5-6.
5 -7.
'i
Appendix 1.
308
313
...
319
as Powers
rs of
325
330
1.538
343
.0
343
A1-1.
Functions
A1-2.
CompositeFunctions
A1-31
Inverse Functiohs
A1-4.
A1-5.
Polar Coordinates
359
Appendix 2.
A2-1.
A2-2.
364
,n5
, ..... ..... .
.,
...... ,.
372
377
POLYNOMIALS
382
SignkficanCe of Polynomials
t
Number of Zeros
38a395
.A2-3., ciomplex.Zeros
402..
--_
------'-'04,-
Part II
, _ ..- - -
.,..- ,.
eo ,Foreword
,
_.
.-,..-
,--
:-_-,,
_-7.,--.1..
Chapter
6-2.
6-3.
-6-4.
.s
"S'*:-T51:,,t,
6-1.
6:5.
6-6.
6-7.
gri
1.
--,
t.
Chapter 7,
.....
7 -1.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4,
Properties of Integrals
7-5.
Signed Area
7-6:*
IntegrAion Formulas
C apter 8.
8'
-1.
Differentiability
8-2:
Continuous Functions
8-3.
8-4.
Products'
8-7,
Composite Functions
8-8.
''8-9.
8-10.
8-11.
Inverse Functions
8-12.
Chapter 9.
.
9-1.
9 -2.
Average Value
9 -3.
9=4.
.7_12,5.
Taylor Apprqximations
tAppendix 3.
A3 -l.,
t.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Appendix 4.
A4-1.
Substitutions of CircularFUnctions
A4 -2'.
Intagration'by Parts
:4
Definite Integral;
vii.
9
r
Appendix
A5-1.
Introduction
A5 -2.
Evaluation of an Area
It5-3.
A5-4.
A5 -5.
Appendix 6.
A6 -1.
A6 -2.
A6-3.
Epsiionic Technique
A6:4,
Limit Theorems
Appendix 7.
-t
CONTINUITY THEOREMS
AT-1.
A7-2.
Functions
A7-3.
A7-4.
Appendix 8.
A8-1.
A8-2.
Appendix 9.
A9-1.
A9-2,
,V
iO
viii
Chapter 1
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Here we An-
-i-
'
This relationships
parabola whose locatioh and general slope can be easily determined by using
the quadratic formula.
scale Change o
Syn-
tion 1-4).
In
Sections 1-6, 1-7, and 1-8 we discuss methods for locating, determining; and
.
yith oder functions; but the polynomial functions themselves will serve as
,approximations to other functions 'we shstll study.
'
1-1
1-1.
+ 8 X + 8 x
2
1
E1.4
where
+ anxn
(i = 0, 1, 2.,
3,
n)
f(x)
at the point
f(x) = a0 +a1x+
using the/symbol
f,
x:
-2
+anxn.
)1/4*
of ,f)
is given by
..
..
= 2+ x.-
(0f(x)
,.4The values
and
f(0)., f(-1)
f(0)
f(2)
+ 0-- 02 = 2
= 2
= 2 +. (-1)
f ( -)
x2.
= 2
1 2
- -
=o
(-1)2
= 2
(-2 )
.
.
5c;
for example
f(t) = 2 + t - t2,
f(2 - y) = 2 + (2 -
ti
.3y
f(a + b) = 2 + (a
A
thus ,gtregsing thlit
a +
b.y -
4tined
In (1) by
x -*2 4 x - x
2
,
tv,
1-
+ b - a2 - 2ab
= 2 +
(2)
(2. - y)2
f(x).
We frequently intro-
x -*y,
where
(3)
y =
2.+x-x2
y = x3
+x2
y = 1
y = 1 + 2x
'
Figure 1-la
The graph of a function,
(x,f(x))
as -wel.pieture
..
Exambl.o.1-1a.
is the measure of
.1
where AT
In
.x..
(4)
.V
The expresion
volume ft5totion
-1;
nr
3.
nr
r.
The
r -41T
r > 0.
.1
nr3
80- itr3),-.
3
Example.1-1b.
(5)
= 64t - 16t2.
can bnly serve as an idealized model of the physical situation over a particuliir
Since
t.
s = 0
when
t = 0
0 < t,< 4;
Or
4,
the function
the ball is in
seconds.
reach its maximum height we can (by completing the square),write the function'
.
0'
in the form
t
64
and equals
)2 '4- 64.
64
Thus
cainot exceed
only when ft = 2.
64
t = 2.
is negative unless
feet after
seconds.
.p71'.
64 ft
height of
ball after
t
seconds
feet
ground
(i)
1-1
'Exercises 1-1,
1.
radius."
2.
straight down via the same vertical path to the place on the grotind from
After
feet of the
2
,
'1'
t -41.60t - 16t2.
when
Za)
(b)
Evaluate
(c)
(d)
t = 4?
f(6),
4
seconds?
seconds?
4N
(e)
Explain on physical
grounds.
f
'(h)
.A
'
How long does it take the pellet to reach, its highest point?
How high does the pellet go?
of
32
ft.isac;
After
The distances
ft. and
x = 32t
and
y. 64t
(a)
(b)
(c)- Write
16t2.
y 'iriterms of
X.
IV
(d)
Name the curve that is the graph of your equation in part (c).-
(e)
-(f)
y = 2x
does
x2
a."
y = 0?
when x = 128?
(4)
What is
(h)
ci)
How far down the platform from Dick'does.Tom catch the ball?
I.
1J2
1-2.
is any
k,
If
fi
f : x -)c,',
to.aAd .jcl
graphed in Figure1-2a.
o4
y .0/
2,
Figu e 1-2a
X
Constant functions are quite simple, yet they occd?frequently in mathe-
re
n distance is
'32: at sea
'measured ill feet and tie in seconds, this constant is very nearly
level.
feet
tions:
%if
is known,
(?-).
then
f(x)..-. f(a)
for all
x.
f(3)
f
is also
10.
1 7
1-2
A linear function
that is,
mx + b;
all
and
f(x) = rot + b,
(2)
If
m = 0
tlen
is a constant function.
'(0;b),
m f 0.
since
i(0) = b;
b
The number
f,
\
\
/
/
/
.
-4
\ \
X(
/
-1
/
x
y sx
= 2x + 1,
y = -x + 2
x
t
Figure 1-2b
4
is linearsadd
x
1
is given by
f(x2) - f(xl)
m -
( 3)
- x
'
that is,
of
f.
(x2,f (x2)
- f(xl)
- xi
angle of inclinatibn
Figure l -2e
A
1-2
(mx 4- b) 2
- f(x1 )
b)
x2 - xi
expression (2).
Example 1-2a.
1
the
(h,k)
with slope
(1,2)
and
*4.
,8
9
3
3.-
(- F)
(1,2,
y = 2 +
'
8
-
1).
(- 7
gives the
quation
-(
y - -
Simple algebra shows that these- two equations are just d fferent forms of the
equation
8
3r/;=
x +
10
.
Figure 1-2d
9
fi
19
1-2
Slope as-relocity
For
example, suppose a man walks north alOhg a long straight road at the uniform
rate of
t = 0,
man passed the milepost located One mile northoi Baseline Road.
before this, which we shall call time, t = -1,
this
An hour
one mile south of. Baseline Road. (All hour after time
t = 0,
at time
t = 1,
(See
Figure 1-2e.)
position
at t = 1
position at
.K
t =
BASELINE ROAD
position at
t =
Figure 1L2e
In
time
,Singe he is at milepost
2t
at
he must be at milepost
hours, we seethat
f
t -of(t) = 2t + 1
The graph of
to
20
I
10
1-2
.velbcity
(in mi/hr)
distance
(in !ages)
2t + 1
\.
slope = 2
g :t
-1'
'Figure 1-2f
..Figure 1-2g'
In Figure 1-2g we plot the man's velocity versus time. For all values
g(t)
is a constant function.
t
t
ti
miles perhour.
then
2,
'of,
We shall encounter
(5)
C + 32
and the rule for converting from Fahrenheit to Centigrade is given by,tbff__
Vbrmula
(6)
32).
2i
e0
'04
1-2
6s
6) from (5).
Starting with
then divide by
we first multiply by
.io
qi we first find
F - 32
and
324 and
then
1F
5/
t'
., N a.%
,.
whence
.)/i
?
'or- -1F
9
5.
,'
Example 1-2b.
and
32
5
g
5
x 7) -(x - 32)
is
f.
= f(x)
11P
100
Y = g,(x)
47
100
Figure 1-2h
Let us make some further observations to see how the functions
and their graphs are related.
-To-n,find the value of
---failid,then add
32;
i.e.,
and
x + 32.
y = f(x) =
5
we first multiply
by
4!
re
2 x
5
1-2
more.
to get
y
y =
9- x + 32. To go from
5
back to- x
32
to get'
''.
32
We first
i.e.,
x;
y - 32,,5
r
.
P*
9 x
5
,Let
.
.x
.//.
and then
x- and
/
.
for
g.
Figure 1-2i
m /'0,
In general,
4.
The slopes of g
'g
f,
Suppose
f.
so that
d =f(c) = mc * b.
Solving for
c,
we have.
1
c=
Thus
(d,c)
d -
g.
.t
`similarly established.
g(d)
If g is the inverse of
(7)
then
(c,d). :lies
on the graph of
(d,c). lies
on the graph of
g.
f,
er
miakr
1-2
.41. /
.
.
raph of
gests the
AN.
y = f(x)
of
= g(x)
Merely-.
f.
f.
The wet ink will then trace the graph of the inverse
y = x.
from that/of
and
y = f(x)
in Figure 1 -2h.
on
of replacing x by
(x - b).
21
(b,0):
y = x - b,
represents.ths line
y = x,
which
Figure 1-2:j
4
Hence, replacing
by
x - b
translates or slides
2-4
44,
11,
units to the
1-2
M
r
y = mx,
of replacing
x
2"
by
mx,
having slope
and
2"
4
Figure 1-2k
replacing "x
Norizontal than
Thus, if
y = x
1,
while if
What happens if
2.
m > 1
by
mx
(or equivalently,
0 < m < 1
y
2" -is-ilore
m < 0?
by
(y)
mx
in the equation
of each point on
fK
Figure 1-22
t
15 ze--\c:
1-2
each ordinate is
'"stretohing each
2"
is identical,.
Y'
mation, and
by mx
2. is--c
by replacing
algebraically the stretch can be obt=iiined mereky
(or' y by 4)
m
in the equation of
2.
can be obtained
equation y = mx.+ b
The graph of any line given by the
stretching.' For example,
translation and/or
y = x by such
from the graph
may' first stretch each
ffrom y =
y 7 5x graph
of,
to obtain the
.
The equation
by replacing. x by 5x.
ordinate of, y = x by the factor 5
may
2:
shown in Figure 1-2n- Then
and its graph is 2'
becomes y.= 5x,
the equstx by x - 5 in
units to the right by replacing
be translated
tion of
2'.
26
16
1'
1-2
Y = 5(x 5 )
i or
y = 5x - 4
x.
by
by replacing
y =x by
A.4
.
a factor of
z$-
by
5x.
y = x - 4
y = 5x - 4
t
o
as
1-2
9
x
.`$
Figure 1-26*
I
Proportionality
Ns
-,
.,,
I
The concept of proportionality is very useful in physics as well as other
or
parts
y,
science.
is proportional to
To say that
y = mx
x._,The number
Note that if
doubled.
is proportional to
x,
then
doubles when
is
In science
,7
is proportional to
x.
it is usually safe to use the assumption that the velocity of a freely falling
body is proportional to the time it
28
1.8
1-2
Example 1-2c.
be falling after
,ground
then)?
sec,,we have
v = mt,
v =.64
t = 2,
we get
When
= 5,
t -) v = 32t.
velocity is
160
seconds.
Hoy
.'
Sincthe velocity
when
ft./sec. after
where
m = 32.
v = 160;
ft./sec.
VAL
19
29
seconds the
If
1-2
t -9 2t + 1?
(a)
(b)
(c)
Compare the number and units.of parts (a) and (b) with the consilant
function and vertical units of Figure 1-2g.
0
2.
(a)
t -9 32t
and
"g'
(c)
g
g
t -932t?
t -) 32t1
NO.er .
(d)
gl
t -9 32
,..14th
3.
second after 1
seconds.
42
48
feet per
x -92x + 1,
(a)
f(0)
(b)
f(1)
(c)
f(-1)
(d)
for h / 0,
f(x +'h)
(e)
for
f(x) - f(a)
x - a
find
- f(x)
5.
x / g,
x,
(a)
f(x) = 3x - 7
(b)
f(3c) . 6 - 2x
(c)
2f(x) =3 - x
(d)
3f(x) = 4x - 2
3020
1-2
6.
-2
f(1) = 4
7.
8.
9.
(b)
f(0)
( c)
i.43),=
f(8) = -3
f(0) = 4
(b)
f(2) = 3
(c)
f(5) = 5
(d)
f(6)
-13
if
/(
02,4)
(a)
P(1,1
(b)
P(-7,4), QC-5,0)
(c)
P(1,3),
Q(1,8)
(a)
P(1,9,
Q(-2,4)
e.
(-2,1)
tr
3x - 5.11,
10.
Given
x -
1'
graph of
(a)
P(0,)
(b)
P(-2,3)
(c)
1,(1,5)
-3x + 4,
(d)
11.
If
(a)
f(1) = 5,_
(b)
f(8) = -3
(c)
f(0) :714
21
31
if
1-2
12.
Q(3,-1), and
e.points. P(1,3),
Do
S(7, -9)
Q(101,39)., Find
(a)
f(100.1)
(b)
,i(100.3)
(c)
f(101.7)
(d)
f(99.7)
P(3,25)
'and ,Q(54,:19).Find
15.
(a)
f(53.3).
(b)
f(53.8)
(c)
f(54.4)
(d)
f(52.6)
Find a, linear function with graph parallel to the line with equation
x - 3y.t'4 = 0
2x + 7y + 1 = 0, arid
A(1,2),
B(5,3),
C(7,0),
x -.2y + 8 = 0.
D(3,-1),
and
shoW tha
ABCD is a parallelogram.
17.
if AC
18.
(a)
A(1,-1),
(b)
A(0,5),
If
it
B(3,4),
(a)
D(4,1)
B(1,-7),
tion
6
(t)
Find
f.
f(0)
(t
1, 3t + 1)
and ,-f(8).
_,,,
If yo
is on
x -)2x - 1.
1)
the graph of
19.
D(2,3);.,
(t -
function
t2 + 1)
f.
for real
Find
f(0)
t,
and
4 ).
32
22
1-2
20.
1 <
22:
.then
f(\xi): >
"-
y 0
__that
if
f(x2)
that m
is negative
and
p = g(q)-
and
nix + b
if' q = f(p)
+ f3
p land
q.
23.
I40 f
x -)mx + b,
24.
25.
y =
If
+ b,
/ 0,
f(2x - 1) = 4x2
'0
find
and
g,
such
f.
at the
- 8x + 3,
'find
f(2x).
tt
o
23
a.
0,5
4
1-3
Quadratic Functions.
1-3.
conventional terminology: If
f, is
11
/ 0
while-
0,
f : x -'2 - 3x + x.
has.degree
For example
n.
has degree
+ anxn,
,71-
x5
5.
(1)
x -)0.
f(x) = 0
if
f(r) = O.
For example,
x -)2x
- x
of of the
or a
is a zero of t e function
15
2x
-,x - 15 = 0,
xt
f(3) = 0.
since
If r
is a'zero of
then
the graph of
4
f;
that
x = r..
The zeros of
f:x-,c+bx+ax 2, a/0,
are given by
/2
-b + O -Itac
(2)
If b
2
- 4ac < 0
and
-b -
2a
- 4ac > 0.
34
2
-
-lac
-2a
Let
r
1 -3
If
---
ac = 0 then
b2
where
r1
to obtain
,
If b
F2 =." 2a
- 4ac 150,
then
rl
ti
(4)
,x -q(x -
r2).
Example 1-3a.
\.
Graph
In this ,9ase
+ x + x2.
a = b = c = 1,
so
2
and
doesn't
1 + x
5tnee
x)
> 0
unless
x2 =
x = -
f(x) >
+ x 4- x2)
1
2 '
we see that
- *I
-.%
'1
while
f
a
f(-
Thus the-graphof
= i..
y =
i,
touching
value
x = --
the quantity
.2.- ,
3.-
(- Dv. Furthermore,
I
large. Also as
as
increases
the
,1
Vz.'4. x)2
x = --
2:.
becomes.
) the quantity
(-1
.
)2 )2
25
r,
11
1-3
6
c6,
tpinimum(
74
'Figure l -3a..
Example. 1, Graph
In this case
and
x -41 + x + x2
x -4 4 - 4x + x2.
t=
so that
b2 - 4ac = ( -4)2 - 4
(1)(4)
b = -4,
c = 4,
x . 2.
= 0
...
and
x / 2
f(x) > 0
so that we have
if
x / 2
(\
Therefore, the graph lies above the x-axis, touching this axis
f(2) . 0.
at the point
if
(x - 2)2 > 0
The quantity
(2,0).
As
x ='2
the quantity
x - 2)
or as
,,
increases, becoming
in-Figure 1-3b.
36
O
26
173
becomes large
as x moves
to the left
becomb; larg
as x moves
to the right
(2,0)
Figure 1-3b.
x -)4 - 4x + x2
Example 1-3c.
Graph, f : x -71
x - 2x
Since
b =4'1.1,
a = -2,
we have
c = 1,
'Minimum
2
.
The zeros of
are
r1 '=
we can write
-(-1)+
The graph of
x < -1,
r2 - -(-2)4-
and
in the form
f'`
If
'multiplying by
x + 1
1
x - -f
and
and
is negative.
if
x < -1.
f(x) >0
(-1,0)
if _ -1 <x <
s,
f(x) < 0
if
x >
27
0 1
1
(IF, 0) .
Upon
1.-3
as
decreases to the'left of
-1
or increases
to the right of
as
f(x)
the ualtie
the graph of
s,
#'
0
= -2(x2,+ 2 x
2)
= -2(x
.1
= -2(x + t)! + g
.1
E.
x =
9.
(- v,v
so that
is
"
f.
y
,e-
maximum
(1, 0)
(-1,0)
far below x-axis
moves left
as
lc
or right
Figure 1-3c.
- x - 2x
2
.
Just.as any line with Ositive slope may be obtained from the graph
y
y = 14 + 12x.+ 2x2
f'
of y = x
y = 2(x +.3)2 - 4
by completing
,t
6x '+ 7)
t
= 2(X2 + 6x + 9 - 2)
= 2(x + 3)a:- 4.
a
28
1 -3
In this form, the apOopriate translations and stretches are readily determined.
2
y = x
replacing
by
.,
(x + 3).
.._...
The new
2
-5-f = (x + 3 )
. ,
i
to graph of
y
by X .
2
y = (x + 3)
by replacing
.2
'\
//
.'
-3
...
\..
Figure 1-3d
y = 2(x +
2:
2 i 1 0
/
/
/.k
e-
Figure 1-3e
'Figure 1-3f
2
x
(y + Id
2
y =x1//- x - 2x ,
would have been 'required to obtain the graph from the graph of
x +
5r= x2,
y = (x +
Com7.
by
4AV
y = x2.
in the.equation
-1
1-3
.r.
Translation
replacing
y, by
'produces
4.
the graph of
7,1
12
.
y = 2(x
by 40,
y = -2(x +
or'"clipping"
r51.
exit.
rap&
In general, ..the graph of. any'
I.
a.
quadratiC function
Hence, any
f : x
bx + c
Reflection
414
-1
1-3
Exercises 1-3
1.
2.
(a)
-a = 0,
b =0,
c #0
(b)
a = 0,
b / 0,
c = 0
(c)
a =
0,
c #0
(0)
a / 0,
b = 0,
c = 0
(e)
a / 0,
b # 0,
= 0
(f)
a / 0,
b, # 0,
ax
+ bx + c.
is,/if
t1
Aristotle claithed that the speed of a free falling object depends on the
-r
Galileo
discovered that the need of a free falling object depends only on how
lo'ng it falls, and,in particula4r, that speed -v
proportional to'time' t
(a)
:seconds.
ft./sec. after
seconds.
51..seconds?
(b) ,,,.4.11,,fe raft is dropped,from a helicopter and hits the water after
10
seconds.
ft./sec. after
any,
weight depends only on the length of, time in which it has been falling.
the `x1/1
400
Find how long it Wouid take for the ball to hit the ground
144
feet high.
(b) ,Suppose that d ball is dropped'from a television tower and hits the
ground after
10
Seconds:
4.
31
it 1
1 -3
4.
(u,v)
is on the graph of
..,,
and
(a)
v < w.
v = w,
x --)2x2
g : x -)-2x
(b)
is on the graph of
(u,w)
v > w,
1 x2
g : x -) 2x
(c)
5.
g : x
'2
-2x
6.
2
,
and
5x
2,
To x2.
y = ex2 ,
7.
42
f,: x
and
(p,q)
(-p,q)
on the graph of
Its distance
2
,
f
(a)
576 - 16t2.
Determine how many feet above the pavement the ball is after falling
the first
second_
(b)
WA/ high above'the ground is the ball after zero', seconds of;falli4g?
(c)
*WO-
t'.
(d) 'If f
(e)
t .4576
16t2,
f(4)
evaluate
Four seconds after it is dropped 'from the 47th story window, how
for
lot
= 576
and
t > O.
( f)
(g)
Determine how long it would take for a ball dropped from,e 47th
'which
32
42
1-3
.
8.
A ball ii dropped from the top of the Fidelity Union Tower in Dallas,
Texas.' :After
ground is'given.by
1
(a)
(b)
How long does it take for the ball to reach the ground:
784
feet high.
A ball
is ,dropped from the top of the Woolworth Building so that its distance
s = at
(a)
+ c.
(b)
10.
and
c.
How long does it take for the ball to reach the ground?
a > 0
y = ax
x -*ax
+ c
2
is the point
+ c
opens
y = ax
(upward,downward)
+ c
is the
point.
( ighest,lowest)
c > 0
y = ax
where
+ c,
is always a
is a, non-negative real
x -*ax2
and
units
(above,below)
-Ae>pait'bola given by
11.
y = ax2.
We know, that,after
feet of
2
.
How long does it take for the flowerpot to7hit the sidewalk at the
corner of,Lexington Avenue and Forty Second Street directly beneath
the window?
(b)
,
The distance from the 75th story windowsill to the roof of the
Chrysler Building is
22
feet.
33
Ae
1-3
*;
12.
Suppose that a ball is thrown straight up from the ground with an initial
'speed of
64
What
ft./see.
Its distance
seconds is
c';
16t2,
such that
s = f(t)k..
"
(b)
Evaluate
(c)
(d)
t(2).
3
seconds?
seconds?
s = 64t - 16t2.
13.
-16t2 + 64t?
After
ft. of the
160t - 16t2.
on the interval,
4A
15.
Suppcie that you are standing close to the edge on the top of a. building
80
feet tall.
After
feet of
=.8b +
Olt - 16t2.
(a)
(b)
,How long does it take for the ball to reach the ground?
How high above the building is the ball after one second?
after
three seconds?
(c)
The ball passes the edge of the top of the building from which it
was thrown as. it falls to the ground. ,After how many seconds does
.this occur?
16.
(d)
After how many seconds does the ball reach its maximum height?
(e)
(u,w)
(u,v)s
is on
for which
y = 3(xi- 4)2
v = w,
v > w.
y = 3(x - 4)2
(b)
y = -3(x - 4)2
17.
v < w,
y = 3(x + 4)2
1,
x -,-0x - 3)
+ 2 ,with 'that of
1
x --).-
on the
Function
(a)
Media of graph
(b)
1,
. 2
x -5 --pc - 3)
+ 2
2
.
.
(c)
Equation of axis.
(d)
(e)
,
.
113.
x -, x
1,
. 2
x -52 --kx - 3)
,
and
of coordinate axes.
+ 2
35
4;
1 -3
,
19.
(a), Using one set of coordinate aXes plot the graphs of the following.
t
y = -x2
(ii)
y = -x
(iii)
y = -x, - 2x + 3
+ 4x + 5
(b)
20.
(i)
(i)
(ii)
: x
(iii)
-x
+ 9
+ 4
+ 1)
x -*ax2
and
x -4a(x
h)2 + k.
Let
(p,q)
We know that
(a)
-(x - 2)
f(p) = q.
and
is
q =
(b)
(p + h, q + k)
of
4(c)
g. _Show that
g(p + h) _= q 4--:k.
on the graph of
point
(p + h,
on the graph of
4
..4.4en by .y = ax2
parabola given by
of the parabola
of the
+ k.
(..
,,,_
21.
Determine the coordinates of the vertex and the equation of the axis of
,---
(a)
y = 2(x - 3)2 + 4
(b)
y = -2(x - 3)2 +4
(c)
Y = (x
(d)
y = - 1(x
(e)
Y = 3(x 4- 1)2
(f)
y =
1,(x -
3)2
-
1)2 - 1
2
2)2 - 3
5,
22.
Determine th
ext
whether it4ia
36
46
1-3
.
is
(lio')
(u,w)
for which
v <
= w,
y > w.
y = 2(x - 3)2. + 6
y = 2(x - 3)2 - 6
y = 2(x- 3)2 + 6
(b)
y = -2(x - 3)2 - 6
(c).
y'= 2(x
3)2
y = 2(x-+ 3)2 + 6
24.
JA
(a)
y = x
(b)
y = 2(x2 - 6x + 9)
'(c)' y = 2x
- 6x + 9
- 12x + 18
(d)
y = 2(x2 - 6x + 9)
(e)
y = 2x2
12X+ 22----
(f)
y = -2(x2 - 6x + 9)
(g)
(h)
y = -2x
(i)
y = x. +
(j)
y = x
(k)
Y =
-2(x2 - 6x + 9) + 4
2
+ 12x,- 14
+9
-,2x + 1
I
- -2- x
+ x
x + x
(in)
y = x
(n)
+ 2x + 1
= 3X2
(0)
(p)
y = x
(q)
y =
6A + 9
2
3x + 6x + 11
2
- 44x + 4
2.-(X2
+ 4)
11
5
(r)
y =
5x
es*
11
37
47
1-3
25.
2
ax + bx + c,
f : x
a,41'
prove that if
0,
then
or$ X2 -
-b t
lac.
I
r
ti
Fd
Q.
zs,
mo
4-)
40
38
.or
1:h.
al
Problem 1.
Given a function
in its domain,
Given a function
f(
Problem 2
all numbe s
of
x 'for which
f(x) = y;
y = 0,
f.
Soon we shall also develop techniques for determining maximum and minimum
points, intervals of increase and decrease and behavior for large values of
x.
fCx)
x -,)3x
for different
'
- 2x
+ x - 6,
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.
at
f(x)
Of course,we may
obtain thtse values by dirrect substitution, doing all of the indicated multi-.
plications and additions.
Fortunately,
To under-
,.
.Example I
a.
- x + 3-'at
x = 4.
We write
f(x) = (2x - 1)x +
When x
this becomes
4,
114
(2(4)
3 = 31.
40'
r.
Multiply
(i)
product to
(ii)
x2) by
(the coefficierit-of
(the coefficient of
-1
x);
Example l-4b.
Find
given
f(3),
f(x)
as
(2x2 - 3x + 2)x + 5
or
3)x + 21x + 5:
i (2x
,
x F 3,
(i).
Multiply
.,
(the coefficient of
2
,
to
-3
x3)
by
?
andedd this product:
a>
coefficient of
x);
../
,'
,.
64
4...
The result is
f(3) = 38.
-.
,.:,.
.-Ar,
f the successive
owers, Of
ght is the pa
.n depcending
,yalueii5f, x
being
substituted.)
2
-3
cy
(0?..3)
(3 '3) =
,/
'
(11 .3) =
,/
33
38
11
.4 so
2,
We
38,
tion.
40
50
1-4
Now let us consider the general cubic polynomial
.46
lit
When x
c,
0,
we have
4
0'
'
0.
Again the steps employed in the procedure can be represented in tabulal form:
a2
a3
al
a3c + a2
c + a )c + a
(a
[(a3c + a2)c +
(a3c + a )c
a3c
a3
]e
f(c)
Example 1-4c.
Given T(x) = 3x
- 2x
+ x - 6,
14*,
-6
18
determine
f(2).
1 '2
12
Now 12
substitution:
'
24 - 8 + 2 - 6 = 12.
Example 1-4d.
that
= 0
f(2).
Given
f(x) =
3x
+ 2x - 5,
determine
f(3).
Note
-3
r5
9-
18
20
1,
60
55'
4,,oW
Thus,
often be omitted-when
1-4
f(x)
x = -3, -2,,-1, 0, 1; 2, 3, 4, 5.
,,
evaluate
convenient to write them down at the bottom of a sheet of scratcli paper and
slide this down, covering pt` each steget446he work previously done.
As suggested
above, we omit thasecond line in each evaluation and write the value of x
we are using adjacent.to the answer.' The results appear in Table 1-4a.
0
e a table of f(x) and x. Note that the
The .last Two columns now bec
.
x = 0
Table 1:4a
Coefficients of
1
-1
-4
) = x4 - x3 - 16x2 + 4x + 48
48
I- 4
16
-3
/..10
24
-2
-14
18
30
-1
48
36'
41.6
/
1
'
...3'7:'.
-2
-.---,,,-1
,1
I
-
-16
ON.,
-16
-12
-14.
-24
-10
-26
0 _
' -30
'1
- 4
-12
44
24
168
f(x)
''....
14tera3.ly means "put together," so You can see how it is that "synthetic
_$9,1)stitution".,is appropriate here; later we shall illustrate'why the process
f(x)
had,to be computed by
direct substitution.
52
..
/1.
and
by synthetic
f(x)
substiv/
1-4b.
J
Coefficients of
Table 1 -4b'
-3
-12
13
-9
15
-32
-3
-7
-2
-5
-7
20
-1
-3
-12
13
\-1
-13
-10'
-7
-3
45
it
(:c,f(x))
to be plotted are
11 WV
fi
, 1-4
f(x)
(4,45)
( 3,4)
ee
Figure 148
We are
extend
44
::
1-4
Q
Table 1-4c
Coefficients of
-3
-12
13
-8
-7
-6
-3t
-4
35
-10 -;r-
5
2
_
18
-2
4.
-13
-12
r5
5
2
20
t(x)
-7
When we fill in these points on the graph, it appears that if we connect the .
j
-3
to
4.
r,
e,
Exercises 1-4
1. Evaluate the followineggtYnomials for the given value% of x.
(a) f(x) = x 4 + x - 3;
x = -2, 1, 3
x -= -1, -3, 0, 2, 4
x=
(d)
(e)
2
1
3, 4
=2
will f(2) = 4?
3x,
(b)
(i)
x -3 2
(ii)
(iii)
(0)
x -3 2x = 7
01
x -3 2x
(c)
7 5x. 2 7
,..,
x -, 2x3
3x2 - 1.2x + 13
Ifa f X) = x3 + kX2
4.
2x3
Rx2
+ 20',
x `-3 2
x A 2x + 10
x
(iv)
(b)
2x
x -2x3
-x
3x2
- 12x + 13
ti
(c)
13
2x
+ 3x
- 12x.
1-4
6.
Plot the graph oft each of the following functions and compare eachgraph
with'the graph of
2x3
3x2 - 12x + 13
in Figure 1-4b.
7.
2x3
3x2 - 12x
x -)x3
(1>)
x )
AD
+ 4
x -)(x - 2)3
8.
9.
(a)
(b)
x -) x3 + 3x
(c)
1)2
( b)
(c)
2x3 - 12x +
4 2x3
2 12x
3)3 - 12(x - 3)
T2
47
11:
if'o i,each
.20,
(a)
(b)
(c)
x -) x4 + 2x3 -.5x2 - 6x
For
f :: x-+44 + 4X - 13x2
;
-,
'4
12.
18x3 i 9x4
.1-
f(x)
'y
-1
1 7
-304
'
44.
'.."5
'''''
-304
-4'
7. .
1,
U < ,C<' lr
-4
'
1"--1
'
44
13.
'
44
"4.
4.
f' : x-)39 -
144
640x2
10;c.) -
640x4:
48v
53'
477
,
1N.77-
1-5
1-5.
given
f(2),
x -)x3
The synthetic
7x2 + 3x - 2
-7
-2
-kp
-14
-5
-7
-16
Thus we obtain
-7x2
+3x
2x
.
-5x
1)(3
-10x
-14
2
-7x
-16
The polynOmial in _the third row tis the Sum of the two&preceding polynomials.
S1hbe
f(X) = x3 - 7x2 + 3x - 2
and
written
.
f(x) + 2x
- 10x 1. 14 = x 3 - 5x
.
- 7x.'+ 1(2)."
Solving for
4p f(x) + 2(x
f(x),
;#
i./e have
<
2_7 5x - 71-+c(2);
2)(X2 - 5x
f(X)
f(2).
The form of this expression may look fa4iar. 'It is, in fact, an
example' f the division algorithm:
Divldedd =(Divisor)(Quotien
our:example, if
(x
2)
+ Remaindel;.
q(xY=-x2
/i
49
-5 9
1-5,
is the quotient, and
is iWremdinder.
f(2)
REMAINDER THEOREM.
If
n > 0
is a polynomial of degree
f(X)
by
f(x)
and if
is
c' is
That is,
f(c).
n - 1.
is a polynomial of degree
q(x)
We shall prove the theorem only in the case of the general cubic,
Proof.
polynomial,
a3
a0
al
(83c + 82)c
(a3c + s2)
(83c3 + 8.2c
2,
+41 x
we get
+ a
c + a )x
2
+ (a
4- a
c + a )cx
+ ain + a0)
+ a cx2
x,
r-
+ 8 X
x +
a3 x3
c2 + a2c + a
(a
(a3)
we trite
f(c)
+ a2c + a )c1
c + a )x + (a 63 + a
1
+ a c + a
1
0
_
.0,
We note that the polynomial in tilt third row is the sum of the two preceding
..
+ (a c + a )x + (a
and that
is
f(x)
'
'+ a 2c +
c + a )] + f(c).
1
b
Thus we have
f(x) = (x - c)(8 x2 + (a c + a )x + (a c2 + a2c + s )] + f(c5
3
or
fr
50
60
1-5:
The process is the same for higher degree polynomials.
f(x) = (x
where
If the remainder
tient
c)q(x) +, f(c),
is a polynomial of degree
q(x)
f(c)
n - 1.
are factors of
q(x)
f(x).
It gives
x - c
FACTOR THEOREM.
n
If
then
0,
is a factor of
- c
f(x),
of degree
and.conversely..
of degree
n - 1
at
such that
-171k a
I
24-
zero of
then
f,
f.(x) 4 (x - c)ii(x),
y ,
Hence, x
is a factor of
Conversely, I
".
f(c) = O. and
4ik
is a polynomial,- q(x)
f(x),
by definition.
is a factor of
(x),
such that
f(x) =,(x - c)q(x).
we obtain
= c,
f(c) = (c - c)q(c),= 0,
and hence
is a zero of,
Example 1-5a.
f.
is divided by
=42:0 -
6x2 + x
-5
x - 3.-
Hence,
-2
q(x) = 2x2 + 1,
f(3) .= -2,
- -
and
, 2
2x3 - 6k
2x
,
+ x -
5=
(x - 3)(2x2 + 1)
51
2.
1-5
.
'
is a factor of
f(6)
q(x) = x
6x
+ x
q(x).
Here,
-6
J.1
-6
and
+ 1,
write
a / 0,
we
.
.
.ax + b .= a(x +
if and only'if
b.
f(-
-a-)
= afx - (- --)]
--)
ax + b
By the FactoryTheorem,
= 0.
f(- 12-)
f(x)
ax + b,
(Note that
= 0.
b
-
is a factor of
ax + b = 0.)
tution.
x - 1
is a factor of
faft= )2;73
we note that
,
Evaluating
x37 = 1,
f(1) = 2 - 1 - 1
f(1)
longer.
er.
;5,
8x4
(Methods, other
62
I
1-5
Exercises
Find
1.
q(x)
and
so that
f(c)
*N.N.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
- 3x
+ 5x - 2
and
C = 2
c = -3
and
c = 3
=2
2.
(a)
x3 + 4x2 - 7x - 3
(b)
x3 + 3x2 - 4
(c)
3.A If
fn(x)
is divided by
is divided by g + 2
is divided by
is divided by
remainder ,-r(x)
x - 2
3x - 2
and a
q(x)
q(x)?
of r(x)?
4.
5.
(a)
(b)
s(x) = 6x3
29x2 + 37x - 12
(a)
..(b)
qt.Ctor
ti
f : x -tx3 + 4x
f(-3), f(-2),
f(x)
+ x - 6.
and
f(3).
f(x) = 2x3 + x
6.'
and
.7.
8.
1
73.
Factor
- 5x + 2,
k(x)
is exactlyedivisible by
Determine
f(1)
if
f(x)
at
x = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
find
so that f(3),=
so that
x3 -
9.
determine
+ kx
x - 3.
f(-1) = 0
and
53
1-5
10.
Divide
(b)
Find
(c)
Determine
if
g(1)
+ 8x - 4
by
x - 1.
a, 0,
x5 + x4
x2
5x3
x5 4..x4
(a)
and
5x3
if
x2 + 8x - 4*
+ r.
(x - 1)3
(d)
Determine. A, B, C, D, E, F
x,
11.
-)
x3 - 3x.
f(x) = x3 - 3x
x - 2.
1
-3
14
2
2
8
9
4
2
1
(a)
Determine g(x)
f(2) if
and
Determine
p(x)
and
g(2)
2)p(x) + g(2).
g(x) =
'(c)
Determine
q(x)
and,
if
p(2)
if
p(2) .',
(d)
What is
q(2)?
x,
we can-write
6 454
1-5.
x - a.
We have
and
f(x) = x3
x,
41114k
(g)
f:
(h)
-)x3
3x.
4F
A,
1-6
1-6.
if
f(r) = 0.
is
the zeros of first and second degree polynomial _functions can be found by
solving linear and quadratic equations, fat which there are simple formulas.
We know how to find the zeros of polynomial functions of the first and
second degree.
If
If
x -)ax
mx + b,
2
then
/ 0,
+ bx + c,
f(-
then
0,
b.
= 0.
f(
-b t
c)
2a
Upon examining these solutions, mathematicians noticed that the zeros are
expressed in terms of the coefficients by formulas involving only the rational
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and the extraction of roots 16f numbers, and believed that it might be possible to express
the zeros of functions of higher degree than the quadratic in the same manner.
In the first half of the sixteenth century such formal expressions for the
zeros of the third and fourth degree polynomial,functions were obtained by
Italian mathematicians.
Having
maticians came to believe that perhaps the most fruitful path was to guess at
the solutions.
_ -
.:
But plotting_
..
d/
66
56
4-6
THE LOCATION.THEOREM. If
i, E7i.polynomilaffunction and if
and
f(b)
are
b.
and
from -(a,f(a))
to
and
f(a)
f(b)
are' of opposite
f(b)
sign so that
one zerebetween- a
and
b.
gtween.
makes
:zr
Example 1-6a,
x - 12x3
8x2
* 14
opposite in sign.
or
as ip Table 1t6a.
t
me'
a,
'
57
O'
1-6
_-)
Table 1-6a
-8
-21
14
12
-8
-21
14
x --)12x3
''"
Location of41.:7.-__
402ero
1 4
12
-17
-3
a.
40
12
.46
.111
36
12
28
63
203
12
-8
-21
3.4
12
-20
12
-32
15
-72
43
f(x)
WU=
The intervals that contain the real "zeros of
and
1,
are indicated
between
and
2,
and between-s2-,-,and
between
and
when
f(a)
the
and
f(b)
to have zeros
We illustrate
f(x)
Figure 1-6u
tions of the-zeros of
and .f(x)
..-41
I.
58
1-6
Example f-6b.
-.2x--- x
7 2x + 6.
We repeat a procedure similar to EVIIple 1-6a and compile Table 1-6b.-''Table 1,6b
-1
-1
- 2x
-1
2
.45
-2
2
.
2
2
'?Ib'
x --k2x
4.,;
3,
-2
1
^.
2,
-j
-5
8.
-io
.7'
19
-51
440
r(x)
-1
and
where
has degree
2,
say
ex)
Depending upon the sign of
r)9(x)
2
x + bx + c.
one repeated Veal ''zero or tw.:,) complex zeros,'. Thus,:there are fir
(1),
interval between
(2)
-1 'and
."
-2,
(3)
x,
op
59
1-6
.Possibility (4) appears unlikely for the simple reason that when we
all the entries in the corresponding row of Table 1-6b
f(2) = 14,
evaluated
were positive.
greater than
f(x)
x > 2,
a zero of
xr- 3,
the
x = 4.
'Thus
2.
by application
-2,
SuppcAel f
If
(x - a)q(x) 4-.f(a)
f(x)
a > 0.
for
is a
q(x)
are
Wethen
a
*
3 call
Proof, For
x_T - a,
q(x)?
x*.-. a,
f(a)
and
f,
x > a,
For
f.
x > a
Thus,
by hypothesis,
is not a zero of
p.
.
..../
of the
given polynomial.
....
f(3Y.
v..
f(x) = 0
is a positive root of
f(-x) '= 0,
f(-x) = 0,
...
'theilegat.t.ve roots of
f(x) = O.
f(x) = 2x3 - x
- 2x -I- 6,
we find that
f(-x) = -2x3.- x2 + 2x
6.
it will
in order
2x3
4-
.-r
10
4 :v
-1
6o
x2 , 2x.- 6.
x.
Table 1-6c
Ewalluatlig
2'
-2
-6
-2
-6
-5
'5
10
19
51
-f(-x)
44.
Occurs between
-1
and
ay
and
-2,
-f(-x)
f(x) = 0.
and gence',
Secondly,
-2
isa
f(4.:-=0
and
x(= -2
f(-2).
is substituted (synthetically) in
Notice in
gives, alternating
f(a)
a.
f(x).
alternate In
We say that
a.
section.
61
is a
-2
11
1-6
4,
_Exercises 1-6
1.
given that:
f,
f(x)
(b)
f(x) ='3x3 + x2 + x = 3
9 - x - x2 - x
(c). r(x)
2.
3x2 + 3'
(a)
(Hint:
3x 4, 1
(d)
f(x) = 3x3
(e)
(r) r(x)
3x2 + 6x - 9
(g) f(x) - x4
6x3 + x2 + 12x - 6
k
f(2).)
evaluate
f(x) = x
far which
2x
+ 3x - k
has 'at
and
and
(b)
=3.
f : x
between
-2' and
(Table 1-6b).
71
2x + 6
x2
Evaluate
(b)
Divide
(c)
(d)
x +
2x3'- x2 - 2x + 6 Eby
1
2x2
does
+ 4 = 0?
- 4
x -42x3
x2 - 2x + 6
(e)
Cr)
.72
.
.
62
2x
f : x .242x3 - x2 - 2:fe+_6?
- x2
- 2.x
5+ 6?
(a)
(i)
x -4 x
(ii)
F :
- 3x
Factor
(b)
x3 + 6x2 + 9x + 2
x3 - 3x
(Consult_Exercises
f: x
(ii)
F : x -4 x3 + bx
x3 - 3x
,
+ 9x + 2
5.
and
3.
1,,
You are familiar with the fact that for the general quadratic, equation
2 '8X + bx + c = 0,
is
6.
Use the roots of the equAion given in Number 5 for each of,the
parts:
(a)
of
(b)
x2
obtained in Number 5.
That.is, find
obtained in Number 5.
(c)
-2,
and
3,
find'
(a)
(b)
'4 tdy Using the results of (a), (b), and (c), write a polynomial
..eqtiation of 3rd degree having the given roots.
.(e)
Check your result's by using the Fablor Theorem to obtain the equation.,
63
7:3
-o
V'
1-6'
8.
(a)
Using the Factor Theorem, write in expanded form a 3rd-degree polyr1, r2, and
r3.
From the result obtained in part (a), and from the fact that any
polynomial of 3rd degree can be written in the fOrm
.
(x
a3
2 2
1
0
+ -- x, + -- x + --)
a
1
-a
,
'
9.
10.
r2, and
-1'
a0
--
in terms
of the roots
and
r3.
-1, 1,
f(0) = 12.
There is a theorem known as Descartes' Mlle of Signs that states that the
number of positive roots of
f(x) = 0
f(x).
whenever the sign of a coefficient differs from the sign of the next
nonzero coefficient.
Thus_ x
- x
+ 2x + 5
has
variations in sign.
.
fx) = 0,
f(-x) = 0
f(x) =,0
4
-
.f(-x) = 7
x3 + 2x +,5
has at4most
+ x 3 . - 2x + 5
Nts
Thus
variations in sign.
x3
x2'- 1167
(b)
x7
x4 + 3 = 0
3x4
x2
24 = 0
2x - 3 = 0
(d)
x5 - l'= 0
(e)
x5 + 1 = 0
(f)
x5 =0
64
'7
4:
1-7
Rational Zeros
1-7.
If
is a polynomial
f(x)
whose coefficients
rational zeros of
n-1
X
+
+ a x + a0, all of
n-1
1
are integers, then we may find all
anxn + a
If the, polynomial
,
(1)
/ ;(' n
f(x)
+ a
.4 . a-
and
divisor of
n-1
\-as
+ a0
+ ... +-lx
f. has a
and' if
'greater than
n-1
1), then
p4
is a divisor of
and
,is. a
an.
f(2.)
. a (E)n + a
(E)n-1
n q
n-1 q
+ a (E) + a
1 q
= 0;4
(2)
-+ a
n-
n
n-1-
aoq
= .481 p
n-1
q +
+ alpq
qn
we obtain
where
divides
a0.
n-1
= O.
n-11
pn-lg
-n-2
n-1
q
,:nc1
-2
an -1P
a whole number,
8'1(1
r.
j
is an'integer.
Hence
of times.
N,
and
and
a q
n-1
= -p[a pn-.1 + a
= pN,
n-1
65
1,
neither have
1-7
q
of
a0,
are factors of
and
is a factor
a0.
q
To prbVe that
divides
anPn = -11.a
(3)
the number
than
and
n-1
n-1
and
in the form
n-2, 4-a
and
pn.
is a factor of
+ a pq
22
Again, since
neither have
of an,
we write Equation
an.,
are factors
an.
coefficients, then the numerator of the fraction must divide the constant term
of the polynomial, and the denominator must divide the Coefficient of the
To keep things straight, we can always see how the
highest power of x.
theoremwoits for
b = 0, m / 0.
mx
4, only root is
divides
the numerator
divides
-b
m.
after the polynomial has been multiplied by a non-zero integer 'to clear of
f(x) = 0
k['f(x)] = 0
0,
,Example 1-7a.
1r
It is clear that
.1W
3x3
'
is not a root.
is a rational root, in m
diVides
2,
divides
3.
t 2,
,s
(1411 1, 3,
so that
I.
q-
4.
2_
or, +2
_3.
We test these one'by one and find that the roots of the given equation are
'1, 2,
and
3
AO.
76_
1 -7
q > 0,
,,..soP
-1
-,- -and
,' ..-...5
.
)
...
:e ra ional roots4of
4
- ox-
,f(x)
3x
=
3x
+ 2x = 0.
x(3x3
Now,
8x2 + 3x + 2).
f(x) = 0
P*41ft
x = 0
or
3x
(1+)
ox
+ 3x + 2
0.
1, 2,
and
Adding the
root: 0,
f(x) = 0
are
0, 1, 2, -
. We, can use our Rational Zero Theorem to establish a corollary for
integral ziotros.
44.
,r
If the polynomial
f(x) = x
+ a'
n-1
x +
0
a0
4 0,
0
equal to
a0.
oof.
Suppose
7F0 = f(0) / 0,
divides- 1.
.
and
/ 0.
Therefore,
q > 6
is a'zero 'Of
an4
= p
q
67
le**
f.
Since
divides
a0
and
ao.
1-7
Example 1-7c.
f: x -)x 3 + 2x
- 9x - 18.
By our corollary, the possible rational zeros are integers that divide
- 18,
, +he ?Pros of
namely
- 3, -4,
and
are
3.
we can use
By this device,
we can cut down the number of possible zeros we have to test, and sometimes
4
such that
f(x) = (x - a)q(x).
(5)
(x - a)q(x)
(x
(6)
f,
consists of
x = a
(x
or
together
q(x) = 0)
f.
Thus, if we
f'
or
GI:
f(x) = 0)
x - a = 0
f,
is a zero of 'f
q,
say
b,
in place of
for then we may
and" write
q(x)
(x
b)r(x),
and
(x
q(x) = 0) = (x :x.= b
or
r(Y) = 0)
-1.
Example 1-7a.
(7)
- 3x
tirect'calculation'show.s that
fore,
x - 1.
is a divisor of
2x
0.
- 12x + 13
.- 3x
Al2x + 13.
-3
-12
2.
71
13
-13
-1
There-
Thus
2x
- 3x
- 12X + 13 = (x - A
12x
- x - 131,
and the'solutions of
- x - 13 = O.
(1
- i5)
/1. 55)
f.15
and
areLthe
Example 1-7e.
x -'12x3
8x,2
- 21x
14.
between
and ,2,
and between
-2
and
and
1,
-1.
three real zeros, but we do not know whether they are rational or irrational,.
/
and for
are
and by
are
! 1,
But
since we already know something about the location of the zeros, we need test
0 and
and between
;2! and
69
79
1,
between
and
2,
'f
1-7
Now the possible rational zeros between
and
are
b
1
1
2
f(1) = -3,
values
1 1
,
and
and
f(-2 )
1.
and
f(0) = 14
Since
= 3.
12
is
or
.2N
and
12
x -
is a divisor of
f(x),
3
2
is
which are
17 .
-7
and
1/7
- 21 = 0,
2
,
IT
VT
'
'
o.
78
80
Exercises
1-7
1 .
'3x -
2x" -
3x
;1-4 2X3
2.
3.
4.
- 2x
(1)
x3 - 6x2 + llx
(b)
x14
(a)
x3 - 2x
(b)
x -3
x14
(a)
(b)
6x3 + llx 2 - 6x
+ 3x - 4
2
2x3 + 3x -="'4
-.2x3
-- x2
2x
-)2x4 - x3
2x
5. x -)12x3
- 40x2
19x
3x 3 - 10x2
+ 5x + 4
4x 3 - 10x
+ 5x + 6
8. x
x4 -12x
9. x
x4 - 8x2
,-,
+ 8x .4-12
16
- 5x + 5x 2 + 5x -.6
10.
11.
x -3 x5 + 3x4
x4
- 7x 2
+ x
+ 2,1
'7.
-6
5x
15x
+ /pc + 12
2
3
x -).3x 4 - es'
o x - 28x + 64x - 15
13.
is
a real
x +
1
-- =
In j < 2 .
Ni.
You are familiar with the fact that for the gdneral quadratic equation,
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
is
s
and
- .
a
71
81
. Z;
Approximating Zeros
- 1-8.
in Section 1-7.
N.
canQbe used, along with theLocation rfleorem, '''c) approximate roots (either,
rational or iTational).
<
frogram on a computer.
v.;
04
Since7'f(0):, -1 < 0
and that
x -)x
3>
f(1) =
and, 1,
namely
0,
- 1.
and
1.
and find
/
r(7).= 7 + , - 1 > Q.
t
1
Th01,thereisazerobetweellOarld,.We
average again to obtain -74
v.;
,:'
Srnce
r....--7
f(;)
1 < 0,
7r
+ 2
3
-. 7
-2
and since
.1)
(4)'=
".
we have
1 >0,
and
3
.
Since
- 0.3125
f(0.33Z) < 0
0.3125
C
41
/
72
00,
1.8
0.31
and
0.35.
0.34.
For
x >
iS DO.Fiti')V for
We could thentest
>
- 3x -1 >
0.333,
n.ive
3()- I > 0.
(7):)3
,0.332', -'8.331-,
0.330,
Does
.IP
r
S
'
I.
73r
8:3
b
1-8
Exercises 1-8
3
+ 3x - 1
1.
2.
Extend the method of repeated bisection started in this section for the
x -)x
lies between
0.3
and
0.4:
function
to locate a zero of
4._ (a)
x =ix
- ix -- 2x
x -)x
3...
2x
+ 3x - 1
between
0.31
0.5,
0.35;
0.32.
and
f,
5.
x -gx
apd
+ x - J.
(b)
(a)
Find a solution of
+ x = 3
0.1.
*.
p.
correct to one decimal place.
of.
20
the equation
x' = 20.
1-9.
1-9.
0
,
x -;a
+ a x + a x2 +
1
2
+ anxn,
an
0.
0
(0,;0).
at
(0,a0).
(p,a0).
g(x) = mx + b
f :x_)ax n
+a an
-1
a x
n-1
+ a x + a0.
0
1
".
...
Figure 1-9a
...
';;.
7 5
-111;?" '"4 f
6, on
"
1-9
is it possible that
f(x) = g(x)?
f(x) - g(x) = 0
x -,anxn + a
too**
n-1
xn-1+
In
can
111
+ a x2 + (a - m)x + (a - b) .
2
1
0
> 0,
then-
( 1 )
has at most
Since
zeros.
n 'real zeros.
14;
we know that
This means that a line can intersect a polynomial curve no more times
and -c
y = mx+ b,
where
have:
if
f has degree
n >-0,
cdn cross
times.
If
f(x)
for va
- 3x
Ix'
+ 2x2 +
x3.
x3'
f(x)
I
-/
as
+ x3 = x3 ( 1
- 3x +
c5,
4.
and
he terms
2
,
decreases so that
11
when
Ix!
L+1
x
is very large.
6'1 1/416
is close to
,
1-9
By_this kind of reasoning, J\ could show that for any polynomial function
f,
from zero.
Ix'
isfar
f(x)
of the
wil
above or below the x-axis according as the value of.this term is positive or
negative.
.,1
.
f :x -41 - 3x 4- 2x
f(0) = 1,
We know that
nates when
Ix'
+ x3.
\ ,
is large, so that forA
x
,-
,domi-.
far to the
left, the graph of
.-
f(x) < 0
for
ft and
f.
--r
(!iii)
because
fl(0)
because
4k-11
must be positive:
must-be-gzeater tha
, 77
4
(.5
f(0).
//'
1-9
( i)
(7i)
.,.
FIgure 1-7c.
.
40,
Candid8tes for trkg grapti of x :41
-.
3x + 2x2 4: x3 .
78 ,
e.
9-
I
a
Exercises 1-9
, 4x 3
- 12x
y = 3x. . +
2.
3.
+ 5.
"If
5x3
x -) x5 + "x4 -
and
x2 +. 8x - 4.
and
if and only if
f(x),= 0
(f)
4!
"(g)
(b)
OM-
(c)
Is
.4
aA
(d).
(
It
.
I
79
-:8 9
1-9
5.
f -is a polynomialfun6tc
on of degree
Suppose that
-g
(a)
x -)f(ax + b),
Is
where
and
b,
.6
e constant,
n
a
and
O.
If
(b4 If
a = 1
If
b = 0
(c)
f?
(d)
: .
graphs of f
g(x)
.
and
for general., a
and
g(X) = flax
and
Consider
b.
b).
4
tI
;1.
90
Chapter 2')
'
't
choose the
...
the graph.
P,
curve.
P. The
P.
with the precise determination of the direction Of the tangent line at any
point of a polynomial graph.
te that our use of, the:sword "tangent" here is consistent with its
meanie
es
r
.
The derivative will help us to determine the direction of such tangents, and
,'
...
--7--- \
81
10
V t'
A
.4tfr'
.*
2-1
Once we know how to determine the tangent and the shape of the graph we
shall be in a position to find any points on a polynomial graph at which the
tangent line iS horizontal ,and the graph nearby.isentirely above or entirely
below the tangent.
pectivelY.
max. point
min., point
P
inspection.
special case, and later turn to the case in which the point is not on the
From these considerations we shall obtain a general' formula for the slope
from
f,
at any point
f.
f.
12 -1.
As indicated in
with the
defined here to be the straight line most closely approximating the durve at
a. given point.
f
For a polynomial, t
degree is higher-than,on
*'
.02
'82
4
2-1
Example 2-1a
of
The tangent
y-axis 17 .P7(0,1),.
to
it
("4;
x - lx
4-
h:1,4
intt,r;;.-ct, the
tne ,:quation
y--14x
obtained ty -omitting the se' ond degree :ern::
4r
is easy to draw
Figure
-
of
is -Che gra
-41
4-
x -
y's-= 1 + x
is the.'graph of
4r
Moreover, since the omitted term
lies below T
except,
exc
-1.x-
at
.)
P .
'
v.
I.--; ,.
"-.'itreIlse
2 .*.
Ellample 2-1
The graph` G
If we
p(O,2).
it the
,,
the tangent
T . through
x2
--) 2 t
'
y = 2
x1
'
'.;:i .;:,,
fie' equa4i.on of
wecip.:!,,,1"1,...
st1.4": y7,axis+cat :,
f..
to' the x-axis..
-
1
;,,,,
Since
7i
q_ .,
..
Because
T.
.,s.
-I
0.... -.,:f
4.
G,
'4
it is called the
..
9,
milimum. point.;
-,
.83
1:%:,,
,4\4:
,,,,74'
,.
of the .graph.
1:%ex-cept
,..
x.
.0
-,
ti
Figure 2-1b.
G
The graph of
Ample2-1c.
7-4
at Q,0). T,heequation.
y=x
of the tangent at
Figure 2 -le
T
1% the graph of f : x -4 x
is the graph erf y =, x
+ x5
pictures for Exainples 2 -la., by and ce seem to indicate that the procedure of omitting, -every tbrm whose degree is higher than one does indeed
,
prodre the iequatibn of ple tangent o a polynomial graph at Its y-intercept.
T explaip 4hy,
retuzn to Exe,mple 2-1a. We obtained the equation
The
I.
.1*
2-1
1)
x 7-4l+x-4x
at 4(0,1)
-4x
showing that the.'1,,lhe obtained does represent the best linear approximation
P.
y = 1 + x
the
P. 7
t
f(x) = 1 + x - 4x2,
f(x) = 1 + (1 -16)x.
(2)
If
to
1.
making
1 - 4x
lie between
and
in parentheses is close
li-e as close to
as we please by
numerically small.
'Specifically, if we wish
-.01
1 - 4x
.99
.01,
and, 1.01,
1 -4x to be within
lie between
f and hence to
of
.01
4x
-.0035
lie'beiqween
and
.0025.
L, L1,
and
L2
through .P(0,1)
With slopes
1,41 + .01
and
1 -.01.
y = 1 + x
L .,y =
1/1101x.
L2; Y
1 4...99x
1'
L,
L
L2
L2
n .0025
.0025
A
iyare 2-1d
t
85
I
2=1'
e shown on
-.6025 < x < .0025. .dn this interval AB, the graph of
-1.4s
between
and
L2
1': x -3 1 + (1 -
,0
They were
. degigned to give
between
-r
e
and
c
-,-;
4x
..
of
lies betwee
X -'1 + (1 - 4x)x:,
f):
clo e enoughto
lie between
c = .01.
"
'''.
4x)x
two lines.
y = 1 + (1 + c)x
L
y = 1 + (1
c)x
L
Hence, tie see that
to f:x-4 1 +x- 4x
..1
1
at x=.0.'"
and L2,is
y = 1 + x.
of
gt
as
1 + x - 4x
at the point
P.
to the right of
and between
and
to a smaller part
lies between
L- and
L2
(See Figure
-9-
2-1
Exercises 2-1
1. For each of the following
.
(i)
(ii)
thaw
x>1 -
(b)
4 - x2
3x - 2x2
(c)
(f)
(g)
- x3 -.
(h)
1 + 2-x + x
(1)
x5
1-
x.
x3
"Po
(c1)
)1+x+
(e)
2.
(a)
3 + 2x +
x4
(j). x
x3
x4
For If x
+ x + x2 'show -that if -.01 < x < .01, then
.
1. -4- .99xe.:4(x) < 1 + 1.01x;
:
x >.Q,
x
'
<f0.
Show that the results of pant (a) can be obtainers more simply by
noticinq,that except at=the 3t- intercept, the graph
f x
+ x + x2 must lig above the graph of y = 1 + x.
:
3.
as
Sa
(1 + x 2 ,)x. .
Show that
(i)
+ x3
for 0 < x
.1
87
A
_
th.,2 function
4%,*
'
(a)
axis?
f?-50'
show tat if
Ixr..< .01,
-x ) 2.99
3.01
and that
:etween
lie
fex)
3.01x
and
(c)
c.,hat.dditional refinement
ith
N.mcer 4?.
f': x
x - 1 -
+ (-2
= -1 - 1.99x.
/
(t)
/-
D.aw a figuf
'''t
7,
(a)
F.:-:r
'-'
-,
(0,3).
y = 3 - 4:998x
apd
assume?
'I
8.
If.
they bes
Thus, the
is
x, )1 - x + x2
-2x3,
-
x + x2.
(aT
of
If
compute
**"
f.
f(x) - g(X).
-r
(c)
If
(d) 'As
g =,0.01, eompute
f(x) - g(x).
f(x) - g(x)
x2
approaoh?
9.
`-.
is found by o
(a)
(1;)
Graph
x
f
near
4;
2x
- x
e(0,2).
i(x)
graph of
value,
if any, does,
As
approach?
x3
.89
99,
-3
Y.
2 -2
rgraph
f(x)
x - a.
in ascending powers.of
- 10x + 4x
Writing
f(x)
f.: x
at a
- 10X + 4x2
'
a = 1.
Example 2-2a.
in ascending powers of x.
a:10
was determined
x = 0
P(1,3).
le find
(x - 1)
A
4,
(1)
.
,
(Soon
2x +
41
as desfred.)
A
- 2x + 4x
one unit to
near
near
x = 0.
0 .1
Figure 2-2a
ti
2-2
.
Since the'tangegt to
to
x2 >
Since
y = 3 2 2(x -
k3 1 ?x + 4x
(x - 1)2 > 0
- 1) + 4(x-- 1)2
the tangent
\:
the graph or
y = 3 - 2x,
x = Os .given by a = 3 - 2x,
fo1Call x/ 0,
at
f at .x =1 is given by
x-i
for all
lies
Q(0,3).7
',theegraph of
at
x ='1.
At ,x = 1,
'Without trans-
y = 3 + 2(x - i)
,V'ried out the argument in Section 2-1 for tangents at the y-,intercept.
Writing (1) in a factored form
f(x) = 3 + [-2 + 4(x - 1)1(x
e,
however small,
that is ff
1,
1),
Ix
sufficiently
is arbitrarily close t.
-2.
In other
lies between
f(x)
3 + (-2 + e) (x - t)
and
3 +
provided that
3 - 2(x'- 1)
-2 - g)(x
1)
that,is, that
<
Ix
at the point
`Hence
near
(x)
x = 1 And
It should be noted
P 1,3)..
x - 1
in place of
x.
4
Thus, to describe the behavior of the gr ph of a function'
A
f.: x -4 13
+ blx- + b2?c2 +
only express
f(x)
c
bnxn
4 c
(x - a)
(x -
4: c
we need
,x = a
x= c.
2-1) is given by
x = a,
+ c (x -
y = c
,s'
e po;nt where
in the form
near
+ c (x - a). + c
-'a)2,
1
2(x
d so Non.
IN
91'4.'
101.
2-2
(x
ri
+ cn(x
40/
[c 1
+ c2(x
[el +
,
by
agaih.
a)
(x
c2(x
...
a) + c3(x - a)2
cn(x - lei)n-11
at\if
\ Is i
\L
2 -3,
we
4-
2 -1,
7:717
I.
indicating- that
,(2)
Now we divid
-I
(x - 1)
py
win:
'-1
t.
2
.
1)'.
' or
.7
f(x) = 3 + .1(x -
repeated division:by (x n 1) .
r(
1,0 2
92
2-2
o
/t
If
(.
f(x) were .15n exprgssion of higher degree, the process would ,be con-
tinued.
remaind4r, until
f(x)
'
(x - 1)
(x - .1).
4"74.
Example 2 -2b,
f :
11'
f(x)
in powers of
x - 2;
, ..
coefficients in
f(x) ="c
x.- 2,
is.divided by
(x - 2)
.
the remainder is
further, division of
2)V+
+ c (x - 2) + c (x -
the quotient it
..
co
.-+ c
a2.-}
(x - 2),
x - 2
by
3.-
and
+ c (x - 2)
the remainder is
2
.
d5 (x - 2)3.
A
.
c'
, 2
and
c3.
Dividing by
x - 2
-1
+1
+3
+2
-2
-2
+2
-1,
co = 4
= x2 - x + 1.
x - 2
-1
-1
12
+1
2 -6
-1
the remainder
obtained:
-5
x - 2,'
c2 = -5
the expansion of
-3
f(x)
co = 4, cl =
we ha'
-1.
x - 2
can write
f(x)
93
03
1(x - 2)3.
Thus we
2,r2
we conclude that:,
x q 2,
s'
,,(1)
(2)
(3)
4;
is
y = 4 - 5(x - 2),
and
is
" .2
y = 4 - 5(x - 2) -'5(x - 2)
thus
the graph lies below the tangent on'bcith sides of the point
under'consideration.
4't
104
94.
2 -2
MO.
Exercises 2-2
1.
(b)
'f(x)
f(x)
(x - 2).
5x:
f(x) = x3 -'7x2 + 3x + 4)
2.
?x - 2)
(4)
(c)
(d)
(x + 1)
4
1-
2.
(x +.
(b)
f.
(a;f4a)):
x -4 3 + 4x 4- 2x2 + x3,.
x -4 3 + 2x3 + 4x2,-
a = 2.
a ; -3
di
(c)
in
x - a
at -11e point
f(x)
x -4 4x3
3x2 + 2x + 1,
a =
AIP
-14
t
(d)
,f
x -4
5x4
3x2
.
3.
.
(e)
(f)-
f :
.x -4
4x3. + x2 + 3x,
x -4 2x3 + x2
a = 3
- 16x - 24,
a .-- -2
For eacli 'of the following write the' equation of the tahgent at the"
t
/
nearby.
specifilnd point and sketch the shape of the
4
(a)
x -4 4 + 3x -
(b)
x -4 3C3-
(c)
x -4 3x4.- 4x3
.(d)
7x2 4x3
at
(2,:110)
tt 1
at
(3,-109
at
(1,-1)
at
(2,-1)
_60XF
t -4-20 -
40
- 5t + 9
3x2 - 12x
14, at
(e)
2x3
(f)
s -4
2s3,- 6s2 + 6s - 1
(a)
f(x)' = x3 - 3x
(1;1)
cs
4.
at
q.
(1,1)
h
(b).
and
2.
(x 7 2) ,
x = 2.
(For
x = 2.1.)
when
x = 2.
(c)
If
(d)
x -)y = x3 - 3x
4.
05
x = 2.
00
2-2
(e)
x = 2?
(x)
(g)
(h)
(i)
x = 2
-.3x
is the graph of
+ x
and
-3x
near the
x -4x 3 - 3x,
in terms of -X-- a.
x - a.
x -*x3 - 3x
at its y-intercept.
x -4x3 - 3x
x -42,+ 9x+ 6x
Why?
(b)
point where. x = 2
(a)
x --*x
x = a + (x - a),
Write
x3 - 3x
express,
in powers.'Of
x3
3x
and resulting-quotients by
x - a.
x3
in powers of
3,t
/and
4x3
(x - a)3
when
in .close to
(x - a
a.
(e)
If
(f)
at
- 3x,
at
a.
a?
(h)
- a.
x .= a?
ft have
zero elope?
46).
(i)
(J)
What is the quadratic function that best approximates the graph of '
f
(k)
hor,izontel.
(a,f(a))?
1.0 (i 96
2-2
(i)
For each of the points found in part (i) determine Whether the
(parabolic approximation to the) graph of
f is flexeA (concave)
downward on upward.
(m)
(n)
the graph of
x2
(a,t(a))
that point.
x -)x 3
3x
does this
-phenomenon occur?
(o)
-;x3 -
I.
3x.
2-3
2-3.
function
at the point
we expressed
(a,f(a))
in terms of powers of
x - a,
the function
+ bnxn
x + b 2x2 +
as
-f-: x
+ c1(x - a) w`c'2 (x
+ c.riCx
y = c
4
+ c (x - a)
1
4"...
to the graph of
at the point
(a,f(a)).
)l''
,.
Wa tangent line.,
.
..
Let
P(a,f(a)),
and, let
P..
'"
of
',W.4.,
.
.'
Figure 2-3a
'103
98
Q(x,f(x))' *be a
is to the right of
2-3
i
:*
ands, Q
f(X) -.f(a)
X . a
" .
'
P.'
,
......
PT.
PQ
is
'.4.
.
,
on the
A '
,Q
kk.
Figure'2-3b
-TO take a speeific,,example, let
and let P
be the pant
A
2
4x
(0,1).:zThen
?2)
=_X.
c
99 109
4
2-3
The slope of
PQ
is
x - 4X2
f(x)' - f(a)
4,
P x-
Since
0,
x > 0
If
of
is greater than
PQ
To take
4'
PQ
the slope of
means to take ,x
differ from
and if
1,
1;
closer to
1 - 4x . closer to
1.
lx)
imall enough.
In ft; if x.<
where
then
r'..4,
1 - 4x >1 - vp = 1
:.,
e.
,Pthen
Siniilarly, if .x
1 - 4x < 1 - 4(- i)
PQ
+ e.
1 -4x we_conclude
is
provided that
.,'
e
-
<x
'
<
that is, if
e
11c I < V
'.
II
.......
For smaller and' smaller choices of e (> 0) the slope of the secant PQ
.
is thus brought arhitrarily close to 1. We have'learned to describe this by
ss x
approaches
In this example
Olt
or as
0.
approaches
P,
P.
x
.x
Thoaches
at the point
P(a,f(a))
.745',*-10410"16'
as
a.
100
110-
2-3
I
slim ,f(ix)
x - a
x
a
approaches,
of
a,1
f(x) - f(a)
divided .by
a."
but a different
'
pc:dr
on its graph.
,P(1',-2)
Then
f.
Let
be the ppint
(x,r(x)):
f(x) - (1)
- 1
.slope(P
(1 + x
4x2) - (-2)
x - 1
3 + x - Itx2
1
4x2
- ,x
x-
(x`- 1)(4x
= -(4x
Now
lim
x
-(11x
+ 3) = -7'
3)
[since
x A 1]
'
We, illustrate the use of our definition_ with two further examples.
I
ii
'';
of
2x - x3
a,
and
f(x)- - f(a)
(2x
is)
x - a
2(x - a) - (x3
ax - a
X= _a
- a3),
.
+ax +e ),
'
a3)
-.(2a -
x
6
101
- 1 1 it
'"
..r
/.
-4
a .
ti
2-3
As
'approaches
2 -
, 2
+ as + aa2)) = 2 - 3a
2
.
We conclude that
2,- 3a
at
P(a,f(a)).
..,
'
at the point
1 - 2x + x
- 3x
a
P(a,f(a)).
f(x)
as
2
-
3x
,x -a
,74.
a.
Ire'have,
- 2x + x
f(a)
approaches
- a
= 2(x
x - a
- k1 - 2a + a21 x - a
:3E;14:)
14:
+
:
x - a
a )
3(x x - a
2
2
i,= 2 + (x + a) - 3(x3 + ax + a x + a3
As x, approaches
a,
x + a
and
4
73(x3 +
approaches
2a
2"
a.x + a3)
approaches
-3(a3 + aa
-3
so that
i
0
tif(x) - f
x - a
approaches
No
4. I
102
2-3
"
'f
Exerdises.,2.-3
1. For each o
rte the
difference quotient
,t
'f(x) - f(a)
a.
in simplest form.
f:
(a),
-) x
7
(b) - f
(c) , f
(d)d
x -> x
2.
3.
approaches
..
Find,the slope otthe tangent to, the graph of each of the funCtions in
4.
5.
(0,0).
-Write the equation of the tangent line to, the graph' of each of the P
'
(a,f(a)).
-a.
I.
.
......
x / a
i ference quotient
r( x) - f (x)
1(a)
implest form.
Find the slope- of the. tangent to the graph of each of the 'functions in
Number 1:at the point _'(a,f(a)-)...
r(x).
4s
f : x -) mx + b-
k(b
f :
x =)Ax
A :
x -ritx
,c)
2
+ Bx 4- C
3
+ Bx
'
+ Cx + D
7.
8.
r(x).
jle point
9. Mud
pdint
of
(it)
each function in
umber 6,
.(a,i(a)). c'
apprOaches
x -)20x - 3x
at the
.
V.+
103
A.;
;4,-
2-3
IL;
10
Evaluate
lim
f :
f(z )
z
z -; x
o
approaches
(b)
Evaluate
x,
litn
x -) 1 -
f (x)
x
-
x3:
i.e., determine thel limit as
.:
i(i) !Ii..
f ( X )
z - x
f(x + h) - f(x)
h -) 0
kc)
oftWat
the point
(x,f(x))?
11.
x
x
1 + x - !ix
appropches
f(x) - f(a)
x - a
.$
at the point
(f(a))?
(c)' Find the limit as h approatches zero OF
ence quotient
,
.
'f(X" +
at the point
(x,f(x))?
1 ,.1,4b4
- f(x)
2-4
The Derivative
2-4.
L 2
(11
x -,1 + x - 4X
..
nr
the previous section we showed that the tangent line to the 'graph of
(a,f(a))
(x,f(x)1
the point
isiven by
at
at
1 - 8x.
ti
The function/
,
x 1-41. - 8x
(2)'
value .1 - 8x
at a point
the graph of
of
since its
(x,f(x)).
f
: x -,1 + x - 4x
(x,f(x))
at the pint
f'.
tive 'of
2
1 + x - 4x
is the function
1 -
f :.x
f,(4.- at a point
The value
graph of
at
(x,f(x))
(x,t(x)).
ft(x)
at- (x,f(x)).
Our purpose in this section and the next is to Ob'taina formula for the
derivative
function
f'
at the point
(3)
(a,f(a))
f'(a) =
f(x) - f(a)
lim
x
to be
x - a
a
place of
in (3), and.substitute
f'(x) =
x'
lim
(x+) -2x
If we write
in place of
a,
(x + h)
in
(S) becomes
f(x + h) - f(x)
(x
h)
oo
The name is reserved for this very special function, in spite of the
fact that there are many, functions which could be, derived in other ways from.
.
a particular function under consideration.
('
2-1p
f(x
'fqX)
/-4
-f(x)
h)
h,
f(x + hh ). - f(x)
Note that
PQ,' where P
(x + h.
ca d
..
f(x + h)),
and
(tft(x))
has coordinates
has coordinates
Figure 2-4a
TZ is
h) " ffx1
f(x
h
As in the-last section we define the slope' of the tangent to,be the limit of
-
P,
s.
expression (4), as
and calling
f'
h approaches zero.
the derivativi of
f.
piyeAsthe_function_f
find
f'(x),
_x
3x2 -2x+ 1,
use (4) to
f
at the point
(2,9).
J
f(x +
f(x) = 3x? - 2x + 1
lim
h
0
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
(2,9)
f' (x)
6x + 3h - 2
6x - 2 =''x)'.'.
'f
Is
f' (2) = 6
2 - 2 = 12 - 2 = 10.
.
2.4
Example 2-4b.
J
x -)x3
at
(1,1).
- x3
+
ft (x)\
h -*to
Hence
+ ;03. + x3 = 3x2h +' 3xh2 + h 3
,
(x +
x3
and
fqx) = 3x2
The required tangent hsis die equation
y = f(1) + f.(1)(X - 1)
= 1 + 3(x - 1)
or
y = 3x - 2.
the slope
.1
107
Thus at
(2,8),
2-14-
Exercises 2-4
Consider the function
1.
(fi)
1im
Find'
f'(3)
Firid
- 1.
f(x + h) - f(g)
11, -.0
(b)'
-2
-4x
..
Find
(c)
as
f' (3)
lim
h -4 0
and also
f(3 + hh)
f(3)
using auccessively.
..
.4;(x) =
to find
(b)
f(x) =.3x2 + 14
(c)
f(X).= 2x2 - x +
If
ax
lim
h -4 0
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
f'(x)
f(x).= x2 - x + 1_
a)
where
+ bx + c
a, b,- and.- c
2ax + b.
f': x
14.
3.
'
(d)
h) - f(j)
h.
-1:
2.
f(3
v.,
f'
(X) =
to fl.nd' --the
"f(x) = x3 + x
(b)
(c)
2
f(x) = 2x3.+ x
f(x)
deiivitive
(a)
h)
li'm
41e
6x +
5.
If
f(x) = ax3 + bx 2 + cx
6.
If
f:
(a)' f'(a)
(b)
f1(0).
(c)
fl
(2) :
2x "-
xr2
d,
,evaluate
+ 2bx + c.
-'
2-4
7.
If
x -4 I + 2x - x ,
f :
(0
(a,f(a))
(b),
(df(0))
(c)
(1,f(1))
(d)
(e) (710,ef-l0)).
.
If
(a)
x3 - 2x + 1,
find all
such that
f'(x) =
(x) =.22
(b)
tc.
9.
(c)
f'lx) = 0
(d)
ft(x) .F
Oi
,6x
X,N404.`)4
(c)
(TheWrbol/"px,"
- a
in
(x + h)6
lim
:::
(10.)
x6
v.
I z.,-(c)
It
x - a
(b)
x."
x5 lim z5z -- x
Z )X
(d)
10.
lim
(b)
x3
(x + Ax),
DX
lim
.4
`.
3.
: x -4 X ?
4
: x -4x ?
x -4 x5
(x,f(x))?
"
11.
What
is
fr
if
Find
(a)
(b)
(c)" f
-4
ff(x)
(X +
if
x -4 x6?
1)2
x -4x(3x + 1)2
:
Ant
(x2 + 2x)(3x - 1)
(vria*'
J
0,7
The Oinph of
C.
2-5
2-5.
4 bx + c
x -%ax
f': x -e2ax + b,
g
x -+ ax
+ bx
14
3ax
g': x
.,then
+ cx + d
+ 2bx + c
the function
'
x --t
5x3
7x2 - i1x + 13
".
.
aAa' d = 13,
ti(x)
. -7,
9 3(5x2)
4:?(-7x). t (-11)i'=
15*2
14x - 11. .
f
(1)
x --t bxn
f'
The-polynomial
f
ro
-4 170
b x + b x2
1
2
n-1
xr1-1 + bnxri
(2)
2b2x + 3b x
+ (n-1)b
n-1
3
;,4(
n-2
m-1
+ nb x
n
2'
general .nth
degree
.44
J2 -5
approaches zero. We shall derive (1) 'this way. Fortunately, however; we can
deduce (2) from (1) wirout a long algebraic argument by first justifying the
claim we made above, namely,that the derivative of a sum of functions Is the
sum- of theii-' derivatives.
To show
(i),
let f'
bxn.
(3)
+ hn1
and
- Pi
--
f(x +`4h -
1)(n)th -1 +ri(n
.
0-1
Note that every term in (3) except the first term, bnxn-10,, contarns II at
(
zero1 all the terms in (3)
pr
least once as a eactor. Hence, as h approaches
w,
of
.except
bnxn-1
..-
t;-
also approach zero. We conclude that .lim f(x ,;I- h)h - f(x)
h- > 0
,
unxn-1
u
is
x -+ bxn
f':.x
n-1
bnx
Now to see that (2) follows' from this rasa t we must fiiSt see why the
general property of derivatives mentioned above holds true . Suppose 's is
l
a function whose v alue s(x) eQuals fcx), 4- gx), wnere f anti' g , Eire'
functions of t x. (For exatnple, if ,f; x > 5x and :13.1 x -4 13x7, , then
s : x 5x + 13x 7.) Re may calculate the derivative.. of .s in general
5...
lira
h) - s(x)
s(x
h -40
h
s (x + ,h) = (x + h)+ g(-X
and
so
A
112
122
*40
o
...
P-,
s(x) = 1:(x + h) - f(x)+ g(x
h)c
g(x)
'-Therefore
ax
s(x + h) - z(x)
h) - f(x)
in the
lizni as
'
carthe-d.:-
b0 + b x + b x2 +
.f : x
+, briX
2-
(n d- 1)
functions.
A
1
+ -a; x
3b x2
...
4; nb'xn-l'
replace x by
x 7 a.
- 8x +
whose derivative is
f'
x -4
4x 4 8.
Let
be the function
2
g : x -42(x - a)- - 8(x - a)
a
that is,
+ 9,
40*
If a = -6,
*t4
graph Of
.313
.123
g. iS obtained by
(See Figure 4-5a.)
2-5
..
I,
.41
.
Y:
I,
,...,.4:
i
i
...
,,
St
Nlv
I
%
I.
%.-/
07-
""?
Figure 2-5a
-46
g : x
If
= 7,
becomes
X -4 2x
g : x
8x + 9
+
(2x + 6)2 =
2( X
of
6) 4 9
8(-x - 7) + 9
7)2
4
4
(See
-4-
;
Figure 2-5b
f:x
g
: X -4
2x?
+9
3.
2(x -
7)2
1114
8(x - 7) +.9.,
,
,4044111
142-5
Now under a-translation a line is carried into a parallel line, and thence, the
.
(x,g(x))
gs"
point
g
f,
(x - a ,Ox - a)).
at
(10,3)
2-54 since
is the image of
Tu
g, at the point
at tile corresponding
7)2 - 8(x - 7) + 9
at
(3,3),
ander a translation
as shown in Figure
7 Units to the
right. -
a"
Figure 2-5c
...._
(5)
.X ,t4-f(x - a),
This conclusion en
rather easily.
then
2x
o.
- 8x
o +
f': x -44x- 8
and replaci
by x - a
to obtain
4(x - a) - .8.
115
125
2-5
Pt
we have
and
.
',.
11
.
.
tient'g.
.,..
We know that
f'(x) = slim
(6)
Replacing
by
x - a
in (6) we obtain
g(x) = f(x - a)
- f(x -.a)
f(x - a +
lim
f'(x.- a) =
Nov/ if
f(x + h) - f(x)
h
we can rewrte,this as
f'(x- a) =
+ h)
limb
lim
h
g(x)
g'(x).
Hence,
fqx - a) = g'(x).
In general then,
g:x4c0+c 1(x - a)
02
c 2(x
+ c
Example 2-5a,.
a)2
+ 2c (x - a) + 3c (x
2
3
+ nc (x -
con=1
x,
3x2 - 2x + 1,
use} (2) to
at the point
at
(2,9)
is
f'(2) = 10.
10.
.Example 2-5b.
5-
Given
Sind
of
is
f(1) = -7,
- 3x
+ x - 6,
f.
'
x = 1.
The derivative
(1,-7).
4.
A -45x4- 6x + 1 '
f'
(1,-7)
f1(1) s 0.
is
the tangent
Thes
Note how74Ch easier it is.to find the equation of this tangent by using
the derivative formula (2) to, obtain its slope at
themethod of expreglang
Exam 1
y =
2-5c,
x + 1
-.4x3
f(x)
in powers of
x - 1
x = 2,
at the point
y',
so that
(2) gives
yt = -12x
's
- 7
(2'-45)
we, replace
To find
(x,y).
by
to
obtain
-12
- 7 = -55.
Example 2-5d.
For f
x --)x
2).
- 3x
and
gi(1)
4
'We have
:
X -4 3x2
so that
.
x -4
- 2)2 - 6(x - 2)
12 7
x -if(x
find
and hence
gl(1) = 3(1
2)2
- 6(1 -
J'
Example 2 ..21.
Suppose
f : x -t(x + 1)10.
(x + 1),1
tfe
10(x + 1)9
so that
1
P(1) =
10 x 29 = 5120.
1161
28
ands then
2-5
Exercises
1 (a)
Find
f'
if
(b)
Find
g'
if
(c)
Compare.
2 (a)
(b)
f'
x2
.4-
2:2
x (x + 1)2 using
(7).
and
(ii)
g 1: x
2(X + 6)2
(iii)
- 8(x. -; 7) + 9
: x -) 2x
- 8x + 9
Find the slope of the tangent to the graph of each of the functiOns
in part (a) at the point: indicated:
(c)
(i)
f 'It
(ii)
g1
at
(-3,g1(-3));
(iii)
g2
at
(10, g2(10)).
(3,f(3));
f, g1, and g2
at the
the graph of
the graph of
g1
the graph of
F : 2c-) x3 -43x
(ii)
(iii)
(b)
x -) (x
2)2 +
-p2) + 2
(0)
(ii)
ft(0)
(iii)
gt (0)
What is the equation of the tangent to 'the graph of' each of the
functions
F, f,
and
at the y-axis?
11129
4
.9(x
Evaluate:
(i)
(c)
+ 6(x
x -4 (x - 2)'
2=5'''
and
F, f,
(d)
(a)
g.
F.
(0- Determine
if
f'
x )x
+ 6x
+ 12x + 8.
f : x > (x + 2) 3.
lam
Evaluate
(c)
. h )0
,4
(d)
Evaluate
F*(1).
(e)
Evaluate
ft(-1).
(f)
Evaluate
lim
14,
(x +
2)3 -
(-1 + 2)3
x + 1
x,--> -1
5.
1)10.,
(x +
(a)
Find
(b)
Evaluate *f(0)
(c)
ft.
tt(0).
and
at the
y-axis?
ft(-1).
and
(d)
Evaluate
(e)
,where
f(-1)
at the point
x = -1.
and '.ft(-2)._
(f)
Evaluate
(g)
f( -2)
at the point
x = -2.
where
x ;(x - 2)15.'
1
f.
(a)
(b)
(c)
and
f!,t(3).
(4 ,32768).
at.the point
.D
t
f
: x )3(x + 2)2.
(a)
Find
(b)
(c)
Compare
(d)
For
(e)
f'
if
f with g,
:
with
and ,f*
g'.
F'.
G : x.>9(x + 2)2.
,
P.
.
(f)
Compare F wi
G,
and
F'
with G'.
'11
120
130
8.
Find
f,1-
cif
2
(b)
X -)
x3
"
"nt",
(Note:
from 1
+.57..
x9
x4 + x
-2
x ) 1- +
3* x 4
+
x7
31.)
(c)
-x
+.
read
8
x
"11, faCtorial,"
...
n.
.(n - 1) .n.,
11Z.
For example,
9.
(a)
k
(b)
10.
5: = 1 .2 .3 .4 .5 = 120.)
x -,2x3
9x2 - 60x + 5
is zero.
-3
x -)x
3x
+ 1
x.
2
6
(a)
(b)
Evaluate
(c)
and
fl(1)
f'
and
g2.
e(1).
11.
x7-
x = 1.
(d)
(a).
Using
7
x = (x - a) + a
x'
-.)
in.
bt
x - a.
pok.;ers of
(b)
(c)
Evaluate
lira
(d)
Determine
(10
x 7 - a7
x - a
for
'
x / a.
x7 - a
X - a
7
xfbr
& / 0..
2=5
(e)
As
increases by an amount
(x + 6x)7
'"change in
&c,
the change in
x7.
y."
Determine
is
representing.
"4,,"
OP.
ti
r
s.
y'
or
y = xer ,
'
and is often
3Y. .1
dx
,)
)
FI
122
182
2-6
2-6.
of a polynomial function-- f
,
very "Afful for
will enable us to determine exactly the int,ervari- over which the graph
of
is rising
or
44
of 'the zraph.
. .
2x
-12x-i. 2.
3x.
f'(x)
(x,f(x)).
of
In factored forin
f' (x) = 6(x -1- 1)(x - 2),
'4
from which it fpllows that
ft(x).>` 0
for
x < -1,
f'(x) = 0
for
x =
p(x)
ft (xi
and
0 for
= 0
f'(x) > 0
-1 < x < 2,
for:"
x = 2
for
x > 2.
2x
3x
- 12x + 2,
together with
these facts.
,
123
133
2 -6
i',(x)<o-4.4.1(x)
f'(x) > 0
fl(L1)
p
.
fr
(2 -18)
Figure 2 -6a
0
,,
The graph, of
.
Note that as
3
f : x -42x
- 3x
..
- 12x + 2.
....
which
f1(x) < 0.
Tat; is
41.
f,
increases through
a.
is rising as
that if
124
134
f'(a) > 0,
Figure 2-6b
:By definition,
f'(a)
lim
h -4 0
Hence, if
f'(a) > 0,
f(a + h) - ffa)
h
then
f(a h)* - f(a)-
life
> O.
-40
(1)
Suppose we take
ip (1) we have
f(a +
> f(a),.
a.
(Sea Figure'2-6c.)'
,.
125
135
2-6
1A
a + h
Figure 2-6c
f(a + h) > f(a)
for
Similarly,. if we take
h, (1)
becomes""
f(a + h)
Or
- f(a),< p
a.
iy
f
co,
f(a)
f(a + h)
a + h q.k a
..-
Figure 2-68
for
-h
126
1 .8 6
2-6
I-
If
then
fl(a),..> 0,
(a,f(a)),
rises as
x e a.
NI'S A completely analogous argument.may be carried out for the case in which
ft(a) < 0.
then
ti(a) < 0,
'
f(x)
(a,f(a)),
falls as
x = a.
(5)
only if
(a,f(a))
f'(a) =10.
(a,f(a)1,
1'1(0:
x = a,
qc
then
f(x)
is neither- increas-
Hence,
f'(a),
must
be equal to .zero.
f : x -)2x 3 ,- 3x
- 12x + 2
we note that we
could ha4e predicted its intervals of increase and decrease without having
seen the graph in Figure 2-6;.
the to
of the poZt
(-1,9)
,poin
similarly calle
The point
interval about
is increasing).
maximum of the'function
ow
f
nearby.
The point
a, relative minimum.
(a,f(a))
a
maximum of
(i)
.(ii).
,
(iii)
f'(a) .= 0
i.,(x) > 0
for
x < a
fl(x) < 0
ftir
and 'close to
..
12
is
(iV(a))1
(2,-18)
'
at that
Ixpother,,w,ords,
e)Ipoint
./
is ellela&A,
Such a point is
,01F14.r;4..
a.
The point
val about
(a,f(a))
the graph of
falls for
x < a
x > a.
In
other words,
oint
the point
(a,f(a))
(i)
f' (a') = 0
(ii)=
f'(x) < 0
for' x < a
and close, to
(iii)
f'(x) > 0
for
4 > a
and close to
a.
.
points
and
That is,l[a,b]
V.
[a,b]
(a,b),
derivative
of
f'
x -42x
- 3x2
and
such.that
a <x < b.
b.
(a,b)
- 12x + 2
(=1,2)
b,
to
Example 2-6a.
"r,
j,ft
x -4 1 - 2x - 3x
= -(3x - 1) (x +.14)
The graph of
1
x = -5
and when
x = -1.
Thus,
if
x < -1
f'(x) >'O
if
-1 < x < 1
f'(x) < 0
if
x >
decreases if
x < -1
or if ,x >
between -1
and
1
.
In particular
f(-1) = 0
is a'r'Aative minimum
and
f(4
3
.3-2-
is a relative maximum.
27,
128
1 32,-
is
,
2-6
f,
`,more taints, but Such quick sketches are often all we need to have.
falling
27),
J, 31,
a relative maximum'
rising
(-1,0)
-2
a relative
minimum
4,
falling
Figure 2-6e
400
x - x2
X -)1
Example 2-6b. *The zeros of the derivative do not always lead to relative
maxima and minima of a function. 'Consider the function:.
x3.
3x
Its derivative is
f t
x = 0
of multiplicity
(0,0)
2.
The graph of
In this ease
s'
ft(x)
f
if
f,
therefore,
(0,0).
that is,
2,
x < 0
or if
x > 0;
1.29
2-6
r.
=x3
increasing-
increasin
Figure'2-6f
This
ft) and
Example 2-6c.
Graph
+ 4x - 13x2
18x3
9x4
first by
plotting points from the table below Figure, 2-6g,andconnecting them with a
smooth curve, then by finding the critical points and intervals of increase
and decrease.
1,
X30140
4.1
(.
(3,-.304)
Figure 2-6g
'Plotting points for
f : x -) 44 + 4x - 13x
.
'
"f(x)
-2
'-1
-304
0
44
18xr -
9x
44
-304
We have plotted st,few points and connected them with a smooth curve in
f).
The graph suggests the possibility of a relative maximum point between X0,44)
and
(1,44).
f'
is
0 < x < 1.
= 0'
so that
factor of ft(
.
f'
Upon, factoring
2
- 2 -3ox
A
131
x -
+ 36x - 8).,
141
we obtain
2-6
We can factor further to obtain
f
*<.,
The product of three factors, will be positive if and only if all three factors
are positive, or exactly one is positive.
fl(x) > 0
Therefore,
1
<
if
f'(x) < 0
if
f'(x) >0 if
f'
< x < 1
(x) <
<x <
x >
if
2
3
We conclude that
f
is increasing for
, t
x <
and for
< x <
while
f
is decreasing for
< x <
and for
x >
2
3
i(1))
(1,r(2)),
(i, 4).
'
and
9i(1) = 44
i is
rises again to
(2
f(2))
t,
a relative minimum.
0 <'x < 1.
in Figure 2-6h.
132
,1 42 i/
2-6
4.
I.
3
FiguYe 2-6h
f:
x "4 44 + 4x - 13x2
+ 18x3.
tr
133/
2-6
Exercises 21,6
1.
[0,1]
x -41 + x - x
2,
- x
of the
For each of the following functions locate and characterize all extrema
(maxima, and minima).
decreasing?
3.
(q
(b)
4.
4oc3
8x2
14:x4
f : x 14x2
01,
is an increasing function.
(That
xk > x22 .)
-2 < x < 2
f.a x -4x3 + 3x + 1,
-1 < x < 1
(b)
(c)
5.
(a)
'f
: x -4x4 - 4x3
8x2 + 6:,
-2 < x'.< 5
(b)
Minima?
-12x
Intervals of increase, de
f : x -42x3
3x.2
- 3x
on
[ -1,27.
eRse
op J-1,
6.
(a)
(b)
x -4-35E4 f 8x3
on
.O 3
+ ox
on J-1,31.
[ -1,3].
p.
7.
f : x
k=
8.
8
2
x
.
le.
What is'the greatest possible number of points where the tangent to the
graph of a quadratic function
x -4Ax
+ tx + C
may be horizontal?
2-6
9.
-(b)
Find
x -4 Ax
+ Bx
f'.
can have?
(d)
If the graph of
If
f have?
(e)
f'(xl) = fqx2) = 0,
determine
x2
1
2
and
.t(a)
(b)
11.
f'
(c)
10.
A / 0.
+ Cx + D,
x -4(x + 1)3(x t 2)
Suppose that
are zeros of
and. x
and
x -4Ax
+ Bx + C,
tts
A > 0. r
Show that
has a minimum at
x
x1 ,
x -0
12.
N/43x
- 12x
12x
- 4.
2 -7
2-7.
Optimization Problems
72
inches.
x -represent &-,
the width in inches of the square cross-section,,then the girth of the package is hoi: inches and its length is it most 72 - 4x iriches, accor4-ing40
the post office.
4
4'
,e
V.;
14 4
t,
2 -7
V =x
'(72:-.4x).
V : x -472x2 -'4x3,
do not restrict
as
if
x:
Note that
x < 0, V(x)
[0,18]
thiinterval
V(x)
between
and
because only in
18,
in
V : x -$72x2 - 4x3
[0,18].
The desired maximum may occur at one of the end points of the closed interval
01
1.0,1uJ,
fr
in Figure 2-7a.
18
Max. in
x = 0.
Max. in
18
[0,18]
at
x = 18.
Figure 2-7a-
,--
V(x)
interval
[0,18],
.,J
x = a
V'(a) = 0.
If
V'(a) > 0,
and if
(0;18),
then
there
ould
V'(a) < 0, th
2-7.
Thus the maximum volume for our parcel post Package occurs where
x = 0
or where
V'(x) = 0,
or
x = 18.
or -x = i2.\'
If
'
V(12)
on the,ifterval
of the most) vOluminous parCel of this sort acceptable tro the post office are
3,456
cubic inches'.
v.
.4
Example 2-7a.
12
11"-
12 - 2x
the volume V
inches.
+ 4x
Figure 2-7b'
138
'148
inches.
2 -7
We suppose that
0 < x < 6,
for otherwise
V will be negative.
Our problem
is to maximize
x -4144x - 48x
0 < x < 6.
+ 4x
The derivative is
TMe
ft
f'
2, 6.
of the points
c = 0,
= 2,
or
c = 6.
We find that
f(0) ..4f(6) = 0
lnrgedt iialue of
and
so that
f(2) '> 6,
on the'Uterval
'f
0 < x < 6.
With a
8 x 8 x 2.
f(2) = 8 x 8 x 2 = 128,
128
Example 2-7b.
must be the
f(2)
2
inch square_cut
Since
cubic inches.
yards of fencing.
(2)
A = s
Then
2
+ mir
and
( 3 )
'
S
Figure 2-7c
Solving (3) for
r:
A
sit
/12_121EN2.1. gr2
/
= (14q)r2 -
r +
Akt
139,
149
2-7
< r<
3
_
2
f
+ /4vN 2
Iv
---E---ir
o <.r < 12
2v
15v
+ 4v)r
'
2.
Solving
r +
gives
f'(
15
r -
+8
1.2
0 < f <
amt one
of the points
1
0, c -
or
+5
2o
277
f(0)
c:
14.06
e.
f(2g9 8) 7- 7.88.
1)
*.
and
4
f(224t)
sz
...;(v
+ /4v)r2
lin
15
r <
2v
Our conclusion is that the problei has no solution in the terms posed; a
square and a round flower bed together will never encompass as great an area
as a single round bed Whose perimeter equals the total length available,
,
S
1401
150
t;
2-7
44,
If
is a polynomial function
',[a,b1,
then if
and if
c,
Example 2-7c.
occurs either'at
f(x)
f'(c) > 0
f'(c) < 0
c.
v2
+ '4% N r2
(-4----ir
f'(r) = 0.
221.
r +
16-
:'.--
[0 4].
f(r)
is minimum either at
r = 0,r ,.--.
12
or
an
if and only if
15
+ 8
f'(r) = 0
are
f(0) v. 14.06
15
f (2v + 8 )1.- 7.88
f(12i)
= 17.90
.
occurs when
15
Hence, the
s =
15 yards of fencing
5
r =
= 1.05 yards and
2v + 8.
yards.
I
Example 2-7d.
the point
that is nearest
A(3,0).
(xl,y1)
2,
0,2
- x2)
(x2a2)
and
(Y1
Y2)
is
*a.
2-7
A(3,0t
to a point
P(x,x, )
on the.graph of
y = x
is
thus given by
AP = J(x - 3)2
Our prdblem is to choose
(x2)2.
is least.
(x x
minimum dibtance
.
A(3,0)
Figure 2-7d
=9 - 6x
'Which is a polynomial expression.
x4
Furthermore, if
4,x2
is such that
9 - 6x
x2
(AP)2
is
x so that
x4
The derivative of f
is
C
ft
The factor
4x
t4 -6 +
4.. 4x + 6
2x7-13
,square to 'obtain
.tr
Nx +
152';
+ 5 > 5.
2-7
Exercises LI
ti
14e
'
s =96t
seconds
later is
S'
feet
16t2.
f
over the inte'r`val
(0,181,
.
,
L.
x 4--Ix
-4-n72x
.
indicatingy/extrema.
t.
...
6: A Tectangutlarbox with square base and open top is to be made from a..0 ft. square piece' of cardboard. What is the maximum volume of such
.
'a box?
,
7.
,
tie
"
rectangular
N. -1.......termine the'
. numbers so_ that
..
.7
maximum.
9. A wire24 inches long- is cut in two; and then one part is bent into .thex shape of a circle acrd the other, into. the,shape of ,s3 square. aw
should it be cut if the sum of the area is to be a minimum?
1143
...
-.
'153
2-7
Given the requirements of Number 9, determine how the wire should be cut
10.
if the
surN
(a)
ti
114
.maximum area:
(b)
feet which
Determinetheradius and
13.
and
h.
A man has
14.
600
enclose a
3,1
theencloseddarea is to be a maximum?
pipe of cardboard is
12"
24",
by
If the
16.
A rectangle has two of its vertices on the x-axis and the other two above,
x2.
'
./e
17.
A stone wall
1Q0
Pail or all of it is to
'
260
yards
18.
to the point
(2,1).
y2 . 4x
19.
'
.a).
which is nearest
10
inches.
a,.
154
.4,44
I
/'
...
21.
Suppose that the babe of the parcel post package mentioned in the text
is taken to be stilare.
1
Ad
Find.the package of this shape which has maximum volume subject to the
postal restriction,that the sum of its length and-girth may not exceed
72 inches.
,
22.
A rectangle has two of its vertices on the x-axis and the other two
above the axis,on the parabola
y = 6 - x
2
.
If the metal is
14
shape: U
-is
10
L___1
inches wide, how deep must the trough be,to carry the most water? 0
'44144
25.
area is a square.
26: Determine' the area of the largest rectangle that
can be inscribed fn the;
,region bounded by the graphs of y 2 = 8x and x =_4.
27.
(3
4y
closer
,.,
a ..sphere,Of r,idiuS" r.
145
1,5 5
7'
in t
(
29.
400 yards, find the dimensions of the pasture with maximum area.
30.
A farmer plans to enclose two chicken yards, next to his barn with fencing,
Find
Ihs shown.
(a)
feet of
120
Barn
fence;
(b)
Chicken Yards
10,000
'labels at
decreased by
100
tons at a profit of
20
$5,00
tonsper week to
the shipment, but that the profit on all that' he ships will be reduced
250, per ton per week.
33;
10
peaches.
tons at a prof
of
tons per week to his shipment but that the profit will be reduced by
dollar per ton per week., When should he ship for a maximum profit?
I
f
11.65 (3'
2-7
35 A real estate office handles 80
apartment units.
unit is
creased
$2.00
Determine the dimensions of the rectangle with greatest area which can
be inscribed in a circle of radius R.
P
38.
36.
71
R.
>
2.47 157
44,
2-8
2-8.
ft
of a polynomial,function
(a,f(a)).
velocity.
f'(a)
foot tower.
its distance (in feet) from the top of the tower at time
it.is released.
t
Let
denote
is approximately related to
seconds).
f
feet)
e 2
s = 16t
isa function of
specifies the
t -)16t2.
2000 ft.
= 400
1500
position at
:V= 5
s = 1600
500
position at
t = 10
Figure 2-8a
5
val
seconds?
t
< t < t
-. 2
1 -
as the ratio
2-8
f(t
2
t
- f(t l)
-2
feet/second.
This is just the ratio of the distarice traveled in the time interval to.the
[4.5,5]
the
ratio is
.,.
16
,
(5)2 - 16 (14:.)
5
4.5
400
324
0.5
152.
.
0525.2]
16..5.2)
and
4.5
seconds is
152
ft./sec.
the ratio is
- 16 (5)
4 2.64
0.2
5.2. 5
'0_13.2.
,-....,
and
5.2
eeonds is
163.2
ft. /sec.
''''
,....
suppose that
the time interval'
li
..
ti
f(5
f(5)
h)
ftilsec
This is just our old friend, the difference oott t used in approximating the
-derivative.
at
='5.
the value
We therefore, adopt
after
In our example,
".
It
seconds is
seconds, s given by
f'
160
t --)32t, and
f(t),
f'(5) = 160,
is
ft(t).
ft./sec.
t a s = 16t2
t,
= 32f
t,
lilt 59
while
2-8
to time.
,,
Acceleration
flpo-
seconds is given by
\t
y = 32t.
32t,
over time.
acceleration.
4
l' 2
t2 - tl:'
I
g(t2) - g(ti)
<'
,
- t
the ratio is
32(5) - e(4.5)
5 -
1111gt
.5
32(0.5)'
32.
0.5
4.
an
,
,5/
[t,t + hi,
acceleration is
1(t
h) - -g(t).
ft
h
..,,
l
,,
44.
approaches
and,thd ratlp
gt(t),,
.
-:.veloci.:ty, function. 4As before, we therefore define-:
I
.
-e.
.4
.:,
g(t),
g'(t).
2-8
In bur example,
and
g': .t -4'32,
32
(e.g., a = 32)
A
-(e.g.,
32t)
top of
The distancefunction
f
16t2
feet.
Setting
16t2 =: 2000,
.411
i5555
=
)t
-----55.
we find
V(515) 2,357.8.
3?t,
is approximately
0
357.8
Example 2-8b.
ft/sec.
60 jmi. /hr.
(88 ft./set) when the brakes are uniformly applied until the car comes to a
complete stop.
t -4
k t - 7.-
10)%
no.
f(5) = 220
t = 5. -Since
gives
Solving
0.
and the car will stop at the point where the velocity is
ft(t) = 0
seconds is
220
feet:
.
t -488 -
88
(renamed for
g': t
88
seconds is
88
-
tO
[a,b)
in the interval
x -4f(x),
is defined to be
f(b) -, f(a)
,b - a.
of f
as tti
is
a)
(b
at the point
f1'
x = a.
tangent line at
x = a,
(a,f(a))
and hence its slope (rate of change) gives a measure of the rate of change
of f
at that points
ry
152
162
2-8
Example 2-8c.
Find
What is this
inches?
hes)
and
"inches),,we have
V=
V,
V = f(r)
when
r =
0.
r >(li n)(3r2)
vr 3 .
ft
Ltvr
4
3
r -4- vr
The,derivative of
'
the volume
f
is
4nr2.
is thus
or
C!
146 ire/ unit changy in radius.
, Speed
'velocity hes direction, because it involves not only how fast the object is
moving, but, also from where to where.
A,
it is positive if the
Example 2-8d.
64
ft./sec.
4,
2000
.
'
is
+64
ft./sec.
..
g
.
We know 'that if the rock were not a cted upon,4 gravity the pAitfon- of
64t.
AZ'
a
153
63
.:
J.
2-a
But the force of gravity acts on the rock, just'as on the ball dropped from
2
to
t.
Ot2
t -464t
-16t
and
t,
for
for
t = 2, f'(t) = 0,
and for
and
We note that,
seconds.
At
t = 1.5
At
t = 2..5
al/
and t = 2.5,
t = 1.5
speed of the rock are the same since the inittal-ve1ocitrls--164 ftisec.
-64
ft./sec. (down).
gl: t -t-32,
32
ft. /sec.
...
.,
:,,
.
4
,=
tP'
)
I.
II
158
4.
.'
%a
2=8
-4
Exercises 2-8
Determine the rate of change of the area of a circle with respelIK ,
.,
to its radius r. Compare your result with the formula for the
circiiittfriide
r.
-.
.
(b)
'r?
.4
L'4'
't =.8,
r-
L' -
z.,.11.1-
with respect
;6
to its radius
surface area
'
by the equation
r
.
We subinit tliat
f(i) = 2t 3
f the distance
is given by
39t2 + 25 t - 535,
=6t2
at time
v .at 04the
252t - 535.
Is
- 78t + 2
t -4 s = 2t
on the interval
(c)
ft
4C
-39t
5 < t <
&
ft.
M
14
(e) ' When does the ptxticle whose motion Is being describedcome to rest
--
Cy
Whenis the particle the ,greatest distance from its starting point
,on
[5471?
,
(g).,..1.114at is the greatest distance Of the patticle from its starting
point on
(h)
(5,71'1.
[5,8]
N
,
(5171
4
155
65
4's
s
2-8
When is the particle the greatest distance from its starting point
et)
[5,8]?
on
(j)
3.
(6,7]?
considered in Number 2?
60
after the brakes are applied (and held) before the car comes.to a
.
(b)
complete stop?
60
(c)
"
t = 0
Suppose at time
60
velocity
1
(a)
ft. /sect.
100
a.)
30
mph.
After
aPoveth
ground.
followin
table.
are given in
(t,$)
the
.../.4
144
256
336
384
400
384
336
10
(Guess,
of
s 'for,
or
t =11
After how many seconds does the projectile appear to have reached
its makimum helig? What seems to be the maximum height?,
156
2-8
(b)
appea
Doe's
to be a,function of
t?
,
s = f(t),
(11)
(2)
(d)
Keeping in min
(t,$)
On
(e)
s = f(t) = At
and
A,
C.
s = 160t - 16ta
over the
interVa41-. 0 < t < 10., Using a more carefully plotted graph of the
above set, connect the point whei-e
t = 2
with a chord.
If the units of
t = 1
and
Estimate
t = 2.
t = 1
v = 160 - 32t
of v
for
t = 1
and
t = 2
respectively with
pgA (f).
X767
4
2:8
ci)
and
for
an
i.= 2
compare this
average with the slope, of the chord connecting the points where
t = 1
(4).
t = 2
and
in part (f).
are
are seconds,
What
v = 160 - 32t?
launched.
After
s = 160t - 16t
ofet
(a)
(b)
(c)
seconds?
1- .seconds?
(f)
(g)
After how many seconds does the'projectile reach its maximum height?
(h)
(i)
7.
seponds?
A ball is thrown upward from the ground so that after t,seconds its
height 's
-4
f
(a)
, 2
t -4 s = 96t - lot
of the functiOn
What is the
f?
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)`
(f)
f?
5,
seconds?
168
seconds?
4,
2 -8
(g)
(h)
What is the impact velocity whep the ball strikes tha ground?'
(i)
where
t;-'
is the number,of
tion if the ball were thrown stVaight upward with an initial melocity of
96
(k)
200
where
t *4s,
G :
ft. high.
s
is the number of
tionif the ball were thrown st&ight downward with an- initial
96
velocity of
(2)
where
feet high.
s
the number of
t= t
is given by
f(t),
.
f(t) - f(to)
t - tO
as
approaches, to.
t = to.
in time
by
positive constant.
ft
,covered
2
,
wher
at
ft
is a
ody is
P which is
eet per
th initial velocf.4roof
20
eglect
a straight
pf
line.
Let
attains
f(t)
P) in feet tha
would be given by
feet e
0
f(t) = vo .
e upward with
h second, so
We knowthat.
On the basis of
.
0,
I
4
the projectile
159
169
2-8
'1"
g
f(t) = v0 t- at2 ,
where
represents
2v
--- seconds.
g
(a)
and
(b)
t = to
(in terms of
g).
Sketch the
s vs. t
v vs. t
and the
$.
axes.
(c)
(d)
(e)
30
feet
impact?
10.
V2
11.
*
V0
hand is .4
feet.,
12.
64
ft./sec.
128,
ft.
When} does impact'occur and how fadis each ball going dt the time of
impact?
13.
Determine the average velocity of a car for a total trip if,it averages
Find the velocity of an object whose location along a straight line is-deacribed.by.the.equation
s = 128t - 16t2.
s vs. t
and
v vs.
(a)
the location
(b)
s = 0?
and
160
170
when
is a maximum?
2-8
41015:
height
in feet after
32
Its
s = 32f - 16t2.
(a)
What is the velocity of the ball when its height first reaches.
12
feet?
12
feet?
(b) 'How high does it go, and how long after being thtlOwn does th,e ba
s ='64t - 8t
2
.
seconds'is
highest point it slides back along its original path to the starting
s =
- t
Here
to
is the dis-
f
(a)
Determtnejhow long it takes for the object to make the up and down
trip.
(b)
Sketch the
s vs. t
of coordinates.
71.
v vs. t
graph'.
2-9
The Second Derivative
2-9.
derivative of its
t. Hence,
twice.
derivative of
f" and
e acceleration function
the
f'
tive,.denoted by
des-
f",
f.
x -' x3 - 3x.
-4 3x
- 3,
and
Since
f"
'since
for
increases.
x < 0,
f',
then
f'
is decreasing as
the derivative of
x < 0
f,
is decreasing over
is decreasing over
.T
From the
T
2
graph of
are decreasing,
the graphza
f
4WA,
ii "bending
down."
function
3
2",
x -)x
3.
Figure ?-9a
- 3x
x < 0
increases, since
f"(x) < 0
.474a,
43.4o,
72
for
x < 0.
fr
2-9
given by
for
fqx),
f"(x) = 6x > 0
for
the slope of
x > 0,
f ,f
is increasing
x > 0.
Putting
: x -) x
- 3x
f',
f.
Figure 2-9c
The 'second derivative,
f"(x) = 6x,
x = 0, f"(x) = 0
x > 0
f':"x -) 3x
x < 0:,
the graph of
upward.
At
Aa
we conclude that
x = 1
x..,= -1
and a relative
-
minimum at
x = +1.
/
163
173
Zi4
a-9
A more rigorous interpretation of "bending - upward" or "downward" uses the
[a,b]
[a,b]
Some texts use concave upward in place of convex and concave downward in
place of concave.
x3
(1)
f"
in graphing
la,b1
for all
between
and
and
(2)
a function
f"(x) < 0
for ail
between
and
[a,b]
if and only if
then
f"(c) = 0.
nt,
Figure 2-9d
The graph of f
P.
The reader familiar with convex regions from g geometry course will
observe"that we are defining a function to be convex over the interval in
which the region above the graph of f is convex.
4,
le
2-9
crosses
at
(c,f(c))
x = c
then7'near
c.
e(x) > 0
Hence,
oh the other.
Thus,
and
for
f"(c) = 0
(see-
since a
tHen P
P,
is called a 'point ok
k.
f,
then
f"(c) = 0.
f"(c) = 0 at points
of
f.
is a point of inflection
(c,f(c))
14,
at the origip.
(See EXehises
f"
f, fel, and
f.
f"
To.
show the relationships most vividly, we illustrate the graphs in Figure 2-9e
without y-axes.
4E
Alk
165
2-9
'
maximum
1
1
1
1
point of
i flectilrom
f"(#
6x
31
Figure 2-9e
3.661:7G
>
2 -9
e(c)
< 0,
(c,f(c))
when
f'(c) = 0
and
when
at
ft(c) =$0
x
ik
add
must be.hori-_
f"(c) > 0,
s
.
When
(c,f(c))
x = c
x = c.
Example 2r9a.
, 2x
+ 1
.rooffodi,
f' :
x = -1, x = 0,
x = 1.
10 <
f'(x) < 0
for
f'(x) > 0
for
-1 < x < 0
ft(x) < 0
for
0 < x < 1
-1
(3
rises between
-1
and
0,
1 < xt
f4lfalls for
and
and
1,
x > 1.
-
f"(x) = 0
if and only if
/T=
x = I
if
(xlq - 1)
if
(x-.1-3- +
and
0
(x13- + 1)
and
- 4)(xl3- + 1)
IF
or
x = -
11-71-
f"(x) < 0
if and: only.
(x13- - 1) <00,
,167 177-
1
-
< x < 1 .
r.ft '
-.
a2 S
st),
..
2-9
0
f"(x) > 0
.10
Similarly,
- 1)
and (x5 + 1)
have the
-,..
,.
x,q+ 1 < 0
x)q - 1,> 0,
or
<', ,,-
1
mor
x >
We conclude,that
is concave
4
over the interval
'...
N.,
4.
x. > -2-
The graph of
)q
x =
since
- (I.
3.
r"
41/..
= 0
and
..
is convex on one-side of each of these
Wirst derivative of
x = =.1. and
is zero at
these intervals of
and
Finally,he graph of
x = -1,
f.
x =
6,
x =
1.
x = -
-1-
and
x =
4,T
-11,T
f(! --
,since
tion.
Figure 2-9f
f : x'73 x.
2
- 2x + 1
0
168
.
17 8
Exercises 2 -9
1.
2.
t -,2t
- 39t
+,252t --535.
Characterize the origi&for each of.the following functions (by determining whether it is a relative max. or min., or poirii of inflection):
3.
(a)
f : x
(b)
-c4
4):3
x -)4x5 + 5x4
20x3
50x .- 40x.
(a)" Find
(b)
fl(x), and
e(x).
f(-1))
as
maximum oAminimuni.
Determine fl(x).
(b)
Determine f"(x).
,f
)(
2x 3
-4
+ x
on
[-2,2).
EValuatete(-1),
(e)
on
[-2,2).
f : x -)(-x
2) (x - 2)
6.
f : x
+ 5x4
Ifrx
20x3
50x2 - 40x.
- 3x2
- 12x + 2,-
indicating relative
169
4_1 -
4'
2-9
8.
The.point
(1,1)
functions:
(a)
(b) x
9,
6x2 + 6x - 1
- 4)e,+,5
2x3
3
( c)
x -4,2x
( d )
x -*2x3
+ 12x - 10
- 3x
3x2 - 12x + 14
+ x 3 - 2x
- 3x
(b)
(c)
f?
(d)
f?
(e)
of x 3 - 6x2 + 9x
- 4
(1,0))
(2,12),
and
horizontal?
(3,-4)
on the graph
yi'=3
at '(0,3).
(A, B, C, D)
3-
(a)
Y =
(b)
Y = 3
(c) ,y = 3
,(d)
= 3'
:,4 + x2
x
-,-;
%..
'4- X3
(e)
r= 3 4-
x3
(f)
=3+
x.
(g)
= 3 4-
(h)
y . 3 +
+ x
+ x3
I-
'110111011
2-9
12.
15.
x -,(x - 2)2
(b)
x -.)(2 - x),3
(c)
x -)(x
Find an
(2,0)
2)4
x -)2x
(b)
x --)x
(c)
-2x
(d), x
/14.
12x - 7
+ 3x2
- 12x + 160
3
+ 3x2
+ 12x + 7
1)2(x + 2)
Determine
(e)
Determine
f.
f".
(0 Determine
f'(3 + k)
and
f'(3
k).
(g)
(h)
at
(3,0)?
4.
f.
f.
=
15. SIT that;the graph of a cubic function must have a point'of inflection.
16. (a)
x5 + x
5x
- x.
+ 8x - 4.
Respond to each of the following by inspec tion of your graph for 'part (a).
(b)
f?
f(4 . 0.
(d)
and
17.
X5) _ 2x
rs-
at which
,
I
'A
1
2-9
18.
-,x4
on the graph of
2x3
and
19.
+ 3x5 + 10x.
,
20.
: x -,(x + 1)2(x - 2)
and
g : x -,3(x + /)(x - 1) .
and
gr'_
(a)
(b)
and
g.
41.
(i)
C-1;0)
(ii)
(0,f(0))
(0,g(0)),
(c)
(iv)
(1,g(1))
(v)
(1,f(1))
(vi)
(z,f(z))
t4
21.
and
f : x
- 3x + 2:
f..
(c)
22.
'3
f : x -, x
- 3x
2
4..,
(a
/,
f.
y kb i
i (c)
23.
of
Bi + C,
f :
A F/ 0,---has no point of
inflection..
1
24.
graphf
-o f :
x3
+ 3x2 - 4x -'3
';
'?
4
15.
2-10
2-10.
Newton's Method
In Section 1-8 the method, of repeated bisection was presented as a means
In this section
present
This
method makes use of the derivative and is more efficient than repeated bisec-
./
tion.
Suppose''.f
r.
By inspection of the_
f,
we obtain a first-approximation of
r.
4
1
Figure 2-10a
:
If the graph of
2'
which 4s
oser to
(xl,f(x,))
r
than i
'
x
1.
(x1,f(x1))
that is,
1'
itstuningthatmo/ 0,
'
f?x
-,(4
i
\.
1
'
..1
X2,7 xl
..=1
SI
173 183
i
lh
2-10
x2 . instealdof
to obtain the
1-
new approximation
f(x2)
.x3
TTTT2Y
x2
in place of
tion
f(x I-
x3
x4
.
.
.,..
xn,
!the approximation
I'
(2)
n+1
=x 01
Example 2-10a.
by
f(x )
m)
ft(x
it
n+1
n)
.
r
.
.
.,4
.
----f
x --.0 x3 --F.
2:+
x - 2
..
141
.1
-;,-.
eLmate/
and
1.
.1;
/
A method o f CallilaIlOn which consists of the repetition (iteration)
of a basic process, especT7lly useful for writing a program for a compulkg
machine%;
...(
...
174
i
I,
/V
1,84
2-710'
Since
f(0) < 0
and
f(1)
and
1.
we know that-there is
f(0.8) < 0
and
We have
ft
and
Le'
f(0.8) = -0.048.
2
f(0.9) > 0,
at least) one
3x
+ 2x + 1,
us take
= 0.8
Since
"
we have
f'(0.8) =
whence formula (1) gives the second estimate '
)
-...
= 0.8
olts
= 0 81.
% .47?7
...
ft(6.81) = 4-.5883.
replaced by
x2,
x3 =-0.81 -
o.81o5..
Example 2-10b.
f, is
0.81.
313.
f : x
approximation.
3.
The derivative of
xl = 1.5
as our first'
is
No-
3x
f"
2
f
A
(i.5)3
x2)%x1
1.5
,3(1.5)2
f'FT,c3.,,,,-,
t 1.444 z 1.44.
Using :1.44
,k
/75
--1
A11
2-10
'4(1'44) tt 1.442.
f't1.44)
- 1.44.
..-
1/
1.44'
f4
1.
Exercises 2-10
t,
(b)
at the point
(0.8, -0.048)?
point
(0.18, -0.048).
(c)
f ,at the.,point
(0.8, -0.048)
intersects the x-axis at a point close to the place where the graph
f
line?
2.
x -.x3
0.375).
( -.5,
at
(1;5, 0.375)?
,
(c)
the x-axis.
3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Use Newton's me
od to approximate
Consider tkii\function
(a)
f : x
and
If
to three deci
such that,
0 < r < 1.
ti
lb)
Find
(c)
Evaluate f(0)
(d)
fl.
4
and
fl(0).
h:
x
2
if
xi = 0
ni
(e)
and.
es.
x3 - 12x t 1.
2.
x' - 2?
o dhow that
4).040512
.e
f ( x2) =
.L5
9,308.
- ;
'f(xl)
9.xl
f(r) =.0
2-.10
(f)
Use Newton's Method and the results of parts (a) through (e) to
compute the zero of
.5.
between
and
6.
and
+ 2.
3. -.
+ 3x = 7
Suppose
(a)
If the derivative
f'(x)
f(r) =
5, < r <I5'.
r.
situation.
,
(b)
(c)
If
f "(x)
[a,b],
then even if
f'(x)
fail.
Sket
In vid
Newton's method?
il
SS
I
'
'14
''*7
4,
2.al.
by the symbol
In graphing
f'.
we often write
f,
so it Is natural to write
y = f(x),
I
f'
at
x.
is
f : x -4ax2 + bx + c
if
f'(x) = tax + b,
then
'^by'writing
2
D(ax
+ bx + c) = 2ax + b.
The symbol
R
sLY
dx
bj
14(x),,is suggested
10.have defined
'
If we replace
f'(x) =
by the symbol
lim
0
h
f(x + h) - f(x)
"Ax"
Th
ressio
coordinates, so we write
+ 6x) - f(x)
6x
bx
Ax
= LI.L4
dx
f(x).
The-sym
dv
/-
is not a ratipl
*r.
c:Iyeyer,
732
f"(x)or", D2f(x),
dx
a2
`-'=-,Y=
.
dx
"'dx)
bx
.
.
..
d(c(ii)
we write
,
d(dy)
or
dx
dx dx
.1
..
..
*-
in theshort-
,
,
2,
dx
x+ a2x + .
.
x -)a
+ a
. + a ijY''-'
F.'
'
.
.J.,
..
of the symbols.
(.
-,:
f '"(x),
.,
de
11
..
'
'
'4
t'.rivatf4e.bf-f
'r.''
14(.
*.
4N
'
. y ditfer,entiatinf.he
;;,....
higher derivatives.
.1.r1W
Geometrically, we have seen that
of the tangent to the graph'of
,f
f'(x)
_.
at the point
(x,'1"
of
f.
'
I
lc
179`,89
,11.1,
2-11
x+a2x 2.+a3x
f:x-4a.0
(1)
3:
f(0)-7 ao-.
x -4a
+ 2a x + 3a x
2
we observe that
ft(0) =.a1.
We. differentiate
ft
f"
2a.
,
+.2
3a .x;
0.
If we difTereptiate
f",
`k
a
f"7 x -4 2 -.,3a
In this ease
fm(0) = 2
We summarize:.
f :x-4a
th
3a3.
tiv s
ft,,f",
and
by the-formuIab:
ft"- ateo-x = 0,
0
1
= f(0)
= ft(0)
a, = 7 f"(0)
a3
r75- ft"(0).
180
1,9
a
2-11
Now we express
in terms bf powers of
x - a:
4
(2)
b0, b
b2,
and
1,
'b
are given by
-b
= f(ael.
bjc- ft(a)
(3)
f"(a)
alb
V
To show that
= f(a),
--1
fom(a).
2x 3
we let
x = a
f(x)
to
obtain
(a - a)3 =.bo
a)2 4-1)
3
We'differentiate/f
to obtain
the derii/ative
A
,
a'
a). 2 ,
'kx
'
whence
ft(a) = b
'Differentiating -f'
+ 2b (a - a) + 3b (a - a)
= b
1,
we obtain
ftt
Therefore,
.3b (x
4have
,r(p) =
f'
"
(a) .
Another differentiation
't.
gives'
f'": x --)
3b3
r
so tht
fni(a) = 2 .3b
7
3-
int(
1
wt 1
'2-11
x -' b
+ b
- a) + b (x
a)3 + b (x -
b (x
we could obtain
10
b
b
0
1
(4)
'2
b
3
b
4
whereftf"
f*.
of
= fea)
= ft(a)
Vi(a)
2 ,
=
1
2 X 3
fm(a)
" 1
2 >-
fins (a)
f;
tihglt is,
It is common to write
;
(4)
,
,'
for ihe fourth deritrative of
f;
...,
.
*ea'
..
....*
0! = 1.
i
0
N
..-
(5)
(6)
where.
and
(6 )
It is also Common
(5)
.10
!..
'
1 f(k)(a),
k!
2-11's
/
Example
x + 1.
EXpress
f ;
in terms of powers of
1 .
- (-1)7
-2 + 28x3,
f'
f"
x --)84x2,
f:(4):
x = -1;
fen
Since
3 - 2x + 7x
168x,
X -4 168.
we have
f(-1)
fl(-1)
12;
b0 =
-30;
b1 =
84;
b2 =
f"(-1)'f
0!
1
1,
X,(-30)
-30
x 84...42
ft"(-1) = - 168; b3 =
J4)(-1) = 168; b4 =
X 12 x- 12 ,
x (-168) ._-28
1.-
x (168)
= 7
cs,
ti
183
193
2-11
Cs.
Ecercises 2-1a:
fi
1.
hai/e?.
2.
degree,pdlynomial functibn'
n-th
x b0
then
= k
'b
f(5)(a)
a)5,
5
k?
5
3.
e,
f : x -+X 3 , 3x.
f(x)
thetic Divisions of
73
'2
1-
-1
l'
1.
8
9
(a)
Determine
g(x)" and
f(2)
if
f(x) = (x,
(b)
Determine
p(x) and
g(2)
g(x) = (x
(c)
Determine
p(2)
and
q(x)
2)g(x) + f(2).
if
2)p(x) +.g(2):
if
(d)
(e)
What is
q(2)?
x,
we can write
Using the results of parts (a) through (e) of this problem determine
A, B,.C,
and
x,
1
-x3 73x.
'1
(h)
TI,vluate
(1)
Evaluate
0'.
(.3)
f'(2)
'
f"1(2).
ftst(2)
f"(2)
and
.3!
'
a
.
.- 3x
x3
42
-42 + 9(x - 2)
x -42
-,-.9tx
x -4
+ 9(x
- 2)
+ 6(x
+ 6(x
2)2/
2)2
+ 1:(x
2)3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
x3
3x.
x = 2?
).
near
=2?.
x = 2.1.
(e)
x = -1?
5. F.'ind
(O.
(C)
x.
xx
1
,5
3
#
7.!
x4
X2
4,x
14
9
xx 11
+ 9!
x6
11?
x10
.e
6.
.(a)
Of' powers'of
+ 1.
47x4
- 2x
+3
in terms
Example 2=11ab.
.185
195
w.
.4
,
Write the functions which give the best lineal:, quadratic and cubic
k
7
apprdximatiohs to the'graph of f : x -Ox - 2x + 3 near the point
(c)
.
.,
(-,1,12).
(d)
us
7.
..
At the,Point
the graph.of
Is
rising or falling?
x -->ax
-'
/
p 0
+ bx t c,
'
.90
tb
196
is
Chapter 3
4
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
Functions
Each complete turn of the 4heel brings it back tp the position it held at the
beginning. After a point of the,,wheel traverses a certain distance in its
path about the axle, it returns to its initial position and retraces its
course again.
The di
unity of time.,
times, the Fotidn becomes periodic in time as well and the wheel can be used
as a a1 ock .4
The model of a wheel rotating provides a basis for our definitions of
the sine and cosine functions, whose values are defined as the second and
first coordinates', respectively, of points on a circle of radlus one.
'
These.
('such as rotating wheels) in Section 334.d The basic addition formulas are
e
These
'Rre
applied in the next section to the study 6f pure_weves, the simplest type
.
..
vof periodic motion, 'While the final section points toward some of the ways.
114044 lle. lrcular functions can be used to analyze more general periodic
phenomena*.
se.
3:87
.
tg
197
3-1.
We assume that.you have0some familiarity with the sine and cosine functions, so that much of the material in this chapter is review.
previously defined-
angles.
We prefe
length on a circle.
. Our
first, we
can easily read off many properties of sine and cosine from pr,,pperties, of the
circle;
second and more important, our choice of scale will simplify our
dtZferentiatiOn formulas.
2
u-
+.17
m
The circumference, of the unit circle is
= 1..
21t
units.
We measure 'x
nate of P
(u,v)
x.
u, +
= I.
P with
14
ii
ylgore 3-la
14.
40 3'
3-1'
Figure 3-lb
Two functions, cosine and sine (abbreviated
cos sand
as follows:,
cos
: x
sin
(i)
The values of
sin
and
P.
cos 0 = 1
and .sin 0 = O.
2v
vf4110
2v
units
= sin( -2n)' = 0.
'74.!
This point
has coordinates
'(l4)
(1,0)
To meahlre 2v units
around fran- P, returns
us to P.
Figure 3-1c
189
199
3-1.
thro'gn
2y
2
x = - we'have
units. -Thus-if
'
with coordinates
(0,1),
at
so
a
Ise
cos
x =
if
- then we get
P2
cosy(*
(See Figure371d.)
sin
= 0, sin(-
sO that
T -1.
A Figure 3-1d
d
0 .
1
The sine and dosine are often defined in terms of ratios of sides of
right triangles.
defined by
AB
sin LAOB 2
opposite
hypotenuse
cos LAOB'-
ad acen
_,OB'
OA
hypoten se
OA
(2)
hypotenuse
opposite
adjaceht
.4,
Figure 3-le
are
3-1
44.
u and
trom:,R(1,O)' to
P' are
P.
The coordinates of
Figure 3-1f
Whether
OA > OP
(as shown)or
OA < or,
ccsr-x = OQ a
.0B
cos aoB
and
AB
OA
.
Ms the angle
AOB
LAOB.
f
and
cos x
and
are respectively
sin x
cos LAOB
and
sin LAOB.
AOB must always be between the zero angle and aright anglerthat-is, the
arc length -x- must be between
and
x.
and
cos x
1..
3-1
"N.
Angular Measure
It is also common practice to measure angles in degrees`.;
Degree measure
360
includes
1
;.
LAOB
X 3600 = 60
ti
Figure 3-1g
In Figure 3-1g angle
.
+ v
= 1.
We say that
a measures
units.
illustrate an angle of
.1
Figure 3-1h we
radian.
).
No 'measures
radian.',-
oMINowli
Figure 3-1h
192
202
A moment's'''tchaug
measure.
measure also.doubles.
etc:
of an angle a is
Thus.
M = kx
."'
where
Since M= 360
is constant:
when
x = 2n
we have
;360 = k(2n)
l70
Thus
It
We thus
180x
radials corresponds to
(3)
degrees.
scale.
.
(4)
'
180 ,
--- a 57.296
radian corresponds to
lib
degrees
r"
11
radians.
example,
S.
11
corresponds to
we measure
radians.
745 X'990
90 0, 45 0, etc.
sin 00.
Evaluate
t ,990
11
a counterclockwise direction.
= (27t) '47
If we
3a
2
plus a
the point
Thus
sin 9900
'.
ni
3-1
-
Example 3 -lb.
If
n'
is any multiple of
determine 'COS x
and
sin x.
3- '
Solhion.
to an angle, of
OQP
The arclength 60 .
7 th
- and
has length
OR
PR
ioQ
and
herd length.
p (_._
it
p (.1
1 2'
-1,0)
- 12
(
2' 2
Figuge 3-1k
Figure 3-1J
s'fb.?
Thus
P (1,0)
has coordinates's,'
cos
Measurements of
2n
TY
3n
.a
1.
4n as
and An
,;
f 7 f QJ f
P2
P3, P4,
13
5)
n.
find
cos(-111),
we obsel..ve that
.,.
.-
-1n
-
57(
3'
We measu
point
P2.
Thus
cos(
1.6fn
-)
1
,
2.
f. ( 9
298 4
J
I;
3-1
A
Exercises 3-la
1.
8g
2.1-r
(g)
18g
(b)
(c)
(h)
-27t
(a);
-
(e)
4
2v
(r)
270-
'(b)
.30o
(g)
810-.
(h) :190
(C)
135 f
(a)
(i)
18
la
{-3)
o.4
60:
195
(k)
1620
(f)
-105
(2)
180
of a'rectangle?
0
(b)
Given:'4'a polygon of
The smaller of the two angleS between the hands of a clOck at:
11:30
(d)
sides.
has a-measure of
in. 15 'minutes?
in
25
minutes?'
.e
(e)
sweep out in 1
2 ,
in
hrs.
50. Min.?
e
195'
205
it
.,
hours?
3-1
44
3000
'(c)
.(a)
A
(b)
12000
15g
(d)
5.
.
(a)
0 and
between
radians.
2g
16
13 g
4
(b)
7 g
11
17
(d)
3n
(--,-/.
6.
o4
terms of
(i)
(iii)
n (2g)' +
integer,
lal < 2g
n (g)
+a
integer;
kd <
n (2)
+a
integer,
jai <
2
28g
241v.
'5
In
,
7..
1..
(a)
2gg
12
lN
30-60-90P
and
sin x
for
x,
by drawing a
multiple of
2
-coordinates
For
91, Q2,
9i2
(similar
to,ngure 3- lk)."
O.
'eco
(b)
IL
in Figure 3-1k?
3
(c)
.,
multiplies of
Qi, Q2,
9.
.44
196
.2013
411.2
3-1
Since
(d)
is midway between
and
cos ;
and
cos
y
?
' Can you make a general statement about reading off values of such
-A
functions fromthe drawing
it
91
it
cos
41 &)S
3
4 -,
ta)
45-45-90
cos x
sin x
and
a multiple of
1.d
triangle,
for
x,-
by drawing
cc.
(cos x, sin x)
coordinates k
,Ki, K2,
for
eee, K8.
(b)'
sin 4:1
(2)
cos
1-1-
(3). sin 41
JAI. _cos
(5)
(6)
cos 135
(7)
sin 315
(8)
-cos (-225) .
72
sin ( - 21f-).
it 0 7
./
3-1
a
&51
sin
sin
cos
COS
COS
v
;
14-
v.
.
sin
ir
sin -5
sin
v
IT
cos
V
.
and
v
cos ;.1?
and
cos
&/-..
In this first qpadrant, what is the sign of the sine? of the cosine?
(b).
sin
5v
of
sin iT,,
an1_ d_of
sin 7 ;
of
cos
and,of
cos'--
5n
cos 7-6-
2v
3n
,-3n
7
2v
3
of the
cosine?-
sin
7v
of
0.
5v
sin --17
4
andof
sin T ;
of,:
cos
of
4v
cos
ofithe
11v
sin -g- ,
cos
11v
,
of
sin
of
cos
7v
,,,
7n/
5v
and of
sin
and of
cos --i-..
t. 57(
',
198-
203
3-1
(e)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
sine n gative?
cos ne negative?
positive?
both
negative?
10.
(a)
P,
of
(b)
l?' 2?
R?
1:47::T?
2?
7?
radian has
radians
radian has
1;
x?
R;
xR.
the radius, or
s = Rx
9V 9
3-1
60 ?
inches long:
inches.
15
Approximately ho\
minutes?
72 0?
AB
measure of
is
AB
is
in.
in.
(ii)
3
(iii)
10 in.
(iv)
(v)
(e)
3x .in.
(f)
in.
of AI
x?
is
If an arc of length
2x?
12.
is
x,
lOx?
has a measure of
of an arc of a semi-circle?
Al,
14 ,
sectors 0
a,
x
'
AOB =
2x
R x
Ir
Li
C
2002:14),
..
, r
3-1
(a)
AB
.1
or
A = kx,
k,
is
where
that'is,
2
ac
2? 4?
(b)
1?
Ih a circle of radius
a,
m,
what is
(d)
measure is doubled?
halved?
tripled?
AOB
AOB
sector
What is this
constant of proportionality?
(e)
(f)
(0
inches long?
tripled?
inches if
How is the area of the sector affected-if the arc length is doubled?
halved?
13.
12
18
= cosix.
ShoL that
sin (x . +"2n
= Sin x
where
an integer.
20r-
-4-
4.1
and
up to
,x
1.60
cos x
than
(The number
x,
arc length
terms of degree measure and tables for converting from radian to degree mea.
t,
The ,following,examplesindicate some of the ways of using these tables:
Example" 3 -lc.
and
cos .73.
.6669
Exarti le 3-1d.
sin 6.97
Find
cos 6.97.
and
6,97,
we do knew that
t
and
Using
6.28,
'11e. have
cos 6.97
Exam
e 3-1e.
Find
41
sin
,
Using
v ss 3.142
we have
v
ei
0 .524.
202
.2 i 2 d;
3-1
.5003.
sin
Therefore,
30 0
tin i
_1
- 2.
.3
'4
Example 3 -1-f.
Find
x.--r..1<-1 that
0 < x <
and
sin x
.885o.
sin 1.08 ;4
.8820
and
Interpolating we get
x
Example 3-1E.
Find
1.08 +
30 ,
(.01)
1.0865
sin 2:
14,7!.
q sin (3.14 - 2)
= sin 1.14
.9086
'Figyre 3 -lm
203
.
3-1
sin 100.
Find
divides
7=
"
guess that
2v p_6.21g3
Since
100.
100
In, fact'
lo.
16 x 6.283 m 100.528,.
16 x 2v
100 = l6 x 2v - .53.
P
-that point
so that
sin
100'
100
is
we
.53
units short of
16
-653.
revolutions.
Find
Example 3-1i.
plus
.2.p
We have
2000 = 5 x.360 +
0
360
cos 2000. -
;-
x 360 + 20.
o.
-cos 20 m -.914C).
To use our
.35. (approximately)
s6 that
cos 2000
-0.9394.
.,,
o-
o.
204
21,4
e
'3-1
Exercises 3-lb
For problems 14 2, 3, 4
Find sin x
1.
(a)
0.73
(b)
-5.17
when
is equal to
x
41
(c)
1.55
(d)
6.97
2y .1 6.28)
(Hint:
and, .
(a)
sin x
0.i098
(c)
sin x
(b)
cos x a 0.9131
(d)
cbs'x v. 0.5403
Using
3.
cos x
Find
2.
and
0.6518
necessary.
11
(a)
s;in
-37
(c)
sirf 11.5'
(b)
cos :IT
5
(d)
cos 417
Find' x
where
(a)
sin x = 0.2231
--,-(c)
sin x = .8714
Cb)
cos x = 0.7135
(d)
cos x =..1759
.
,-:.
5.
in degrees, .Sin'x
and
dos x
sin x
Pi
and
90
cos x
and
cos x
hen x
0
and
is given
459,
are
For example,
4
4444016,
2sinc'x
0
COS' x
00.
50
10
150
20
Yr
0.000
1.000
0.087
0996
0.174-
0.985
0.259.
0.966
0.342
0.940
":"
25.
0.423
300
0.500
35
0.574
40
0.643-
0.766
45
0.707
0.707
''01.90e
o.866
vt
Using.4the table above find the valiteof the following:
6.
(a)
sin 75
(c)
sin .!;80?
(b)
cos 140
(d)
cos( -460)"
in degrees
lin x = 0.574
(b)
cos x = 0.643.
sin x = -0.8194
(0I
A/
\
\
4
.4
a
11.
2'06
ro
VI*
!%
3-2
'3-2.
+ v
cosiie
= 1.
by-measuring
perties.
v
....,
sine,
a few of these
and
and
P(cos x, sin x)
sin x
,%2',.
-1-1,
. 1
on 'the circle
must
u
(1)
.cos
+ sin. x =1
4
This identity will often be useful.
We have followed the usual convention
'of writing
(cos x)
2 '
,
cos
in
Figure 5-2S
x
x
rathen.then
rather than
(sin x)2.
< cos2
x,
NI- sin
and
sin
x < cos
x + sin
x.
. cos
x < 1
and
sin2 x < 1,
Ns
(2)'
(3)
2c2
x2
2
-e
3-2
o
*4,
To establish (3) we uses the familia_r distance, formgla to get (in Figure
sin2
- cos /C)
As.
....
Figore 3-2b
'''.3."`
...(
.;
lx10,
'
Scluating
/(1 1 cos x)
'
/- t
4.
gives;
2
2
2 cos x 4- cos x 4- sin x < x2,
-" 2 cos'
' x < x2 .
2%-
4111* 0.41400
Di
0< 1
2
2, we get 1 - cos x < 7 ., jioting tkt cos x <
xviding
by
(3)
..
X2
0 < 1 -- CO s X <
-7 2
2082
s8
and hence
--,
auk
...
3-2
Periodicity and.Related Results
t.
sin x
at different points.
and
'
cos x
For example, if
units,
+ v
= 1
2g.
has circumference
Thus we have
Figure 3-2c
-Functions which repeat their values at equal intervals are said to be
periodic.
stichthat
o
'21c.
a.
x?
sin
sin (x + 2g)
=sin x
and
.
sin (x - 2g) = sin ((x - 2g) +'2d)
= sin x
.In-fect, for.-any'integer
4:7
sin (x + 2ng) = sin x
(5)
cos (x + 2nd) = cos x.
Other useful formulas can be "read qff" from the properties of the unit
circle given by
+ v
,
,
= 1.
Apnd *(u,-v)
that
209
(u,v)
3-2
has coordinates
(cos X, sin x)
Q has coordinates
(cos(-x), sin(-x))
Figure 3-2d
Using the unit circle we can also derive the two familiar formulas:
,g
sin(- - x) = cos' x
2
(7):
cos(1 - x) = sin x
2
P(u,v) an
related so that
OQS."
Q(u1,v1)
U = v1
and
OPR
is
(Why?)
are
y= 91
It follows that
cos x = Oi = QS 7sin (i - x)
and
'
'210
229
Ji
3-2
The useful formula
cos x = sin (x +
.
Q
Here we
(- ;-x)]
= sin (x +
We have given but a sample of the relationships which can be derived' from
the unit circle.
ti
221
211
3-2
, Exercises 3-2
1.
Using
f(31)
(a)
and
x cos x,
.1
find
f(?-567-1)
(e)
f(171c).
(f)
f(_ 121.c.)
2; If
3.
xj
'f
(if'any) will
(a)
sin x = cos x?
(b)
sin x = -cos x?
(c)
(a)
0,,m401101(
Hint:
unit circle.
4.
(a)
of
cos e
csc e
and
sec e
sec e - csc e
(b)
sec 6 and
is identically equal to
sin
tan e
A#
is
(1)
sin e
cos 9
and .cot e
tan e + sec e
sin e c6t.8
can be changed
1 + sin e
cos
show that
to
tan 9.
4
(ii)
is the reciprocal of
1 + cot e
csc e
1 + tan e
sec e
and
show that
sin e csc e,
cos 8 sec e,
and
tan 9 cot e
1.
212
222
a
3'-2
5.
(a)
Formula (1)
sin
e + cos
relationship,
show thdt
cos2 e
sin2
can be written as
2 cos
- 1
or _1- - 2 sing 0;
(ii)
show that
(iii)
shOW that'
2 csc
1 - cos e
can be expressed as
1 +- cos e
and
0;
(iv)
show thEZt'Qth
cot
csc e
and
cos 61
sin
(b)
is simple to prove
sec 8 - cos e
and
6.
(a)
(i)
(1 -;lin2 0)seC2 e = 1
(ii)
(1 - cos2 e)csc2 e = 1
(iii)
(iv)
eq2 e (1
cos2 e) = tang e
Starting
with the relationship
.
cally that
(b)
1 + tan
e = sec
sin
e + cos
2
e.
DW
213
223
e = 1,
prove analyti-
3-2
(c)
analytically that
(d)
1 + cot
proVe
sing e + cos2 e = 1,
2
e = csc
e.
to the
(ii)
establish that
sec
(iii)
show that
identically
ct
1;
+ csc
is equivalent to
sin
e kl
(1 + cot
9) + cos
Okl + tan
2
e)
is
2.,
sin(x + h)
(b)
'tan e
cot e
sec
e csc 2 0
always
(a)
sec e
cos 0
(1)
- sin(x) <1h1 .
P(cos x, sin(x)
and
are
right.
(a)
Q;
i.e., prove
cos(x + y) = -cos x,
sin(x + y) =
(b)
and
x.
Similarly, prove
cos(y - x) = -cos x,
sinfy
x) = sin x.
214
224
and
3-2
9.
(a)
to show that
Q'
cos(x
= -cos x,
sin(x
(b)
y) = -(sin
and
x.
and
(ii)
10.
to show
sin(x +
,cos x.
f4
11.
(a)
prove
(b)
prove
(i)
- x) = cos x,
cos(
- x) = sin x,
cos(x+ 2) = -sin x;
cos(x + y) = -cos
and
(ti) sin(x + y) = -sin x;
(c)
prove
(i)
cos(x
411
y) = cosky,- x)
-cos x
P3-5
225
-sin x
and.
phis- /section.
0 < 1 - cos x
(3) in
x,
let
Using the table which gives the cosine of angles expressed in radian
measure, complete the following table.
X
1 - cos x
cos x
(in radians)
0.1
0.15
0,36
0.5
'
0.6
Q.7
0.8
0:9
1.0
1,42
1.5
2
6
i
this
cos x -and
sin 2x
(12)
sin --x
2
(c)
cos 4x
(d)
cos 2.x
2v.
2v.
x -4
14.
sine
and
cosine
216
226
Ars,
3-3
3-3.
r Functions
by- ua,+ v
f these f
1.
Fortunately
we can make use of the results of the previous section to simplify pur procedures.
.y = sin x,
0 < x < A.
'sin x
section.
Table 3-3a
,Values of
y = sin x
y = sin x
ir
1,
2
A
--ig-
= '71
If
74.,
3:
rt
2A
.17
3g
'V
2A 3A
-3
2.1!:
b
87
2..
,e
I--
17
..11
.71
"7
5A )*'::
1.
*-6-
Figure 3-53a.
Values of yt sin X) 4
plotted from Table 3-3a.
0
If we connect these points
with a smooth curve we obtain the graph shown in
Figure 3-3b.
A more com-
Figure 3-3b
217
t
)9
.3-3
Now we can make use of the properties obtained in the previous section
0 < x < yr.-The, identity
11
.(2)
',
_,-
is' the
tells us,thatthe graph is symmetric with respect 1.o_the origin;_that
(Such a functionAl also
if it contains --(x,y).
graph contains (-x,-y)
,
Equation
re 3-3b.
-n
Figure 3-3c.
(3)
x,
nits'
2ny
.
7'
to obtain the
tive integer).
't.
Figure 3-3d.
218.
y = sin x
228
n lea posi-
{Arr.^ 4,
3-3
for we knowthat
(4)
----44-........=..=-J--- -,0,,,,.,,
.
cos x = sin (x + 2) .
x
2
units to
cos
sin'
Figure 3-3e
The graph of
-y = sin (x + C)
where C
of
y = sin x
33d)
ICI
on the x-axis.
units to
y =
sin
y = sin
x,
3,-=
in (x + 2) *and
by an appropriate translation.
,.
r
219
.2 6
= qin(x + 2)
.....
.0"
....
Figure 3-3f
In Figure 3-3g we picture the graphs of
y = sin x,
y = 2 sin x,
and
y = sin 2x.
y =sin x
y = 2 sin x
y = sin 2x
"o
er-,---
Figure 3-3g
y = 2
An
y = sin 2x
factor of
2,
M3-3
The graph of
y = A sin (Bx + C),
(5)
y = 3 sin (2x + i)
we observe that
sin (2x + ir) = sin (2(x + V)
1
frorn'that of
y = sin x
5;16= 3 sin 2x
y = 3 sin 2x
by shifting the
can be obtained
2.
y = sin x
y = 3 sin 2x
1
y = 3 sin (2k + .11)
2
Figure 3-3h
ti
221
231.
.........
and
3-3
-
Exercises 2:1
For egth of the following, sketch the graphs bf the three equations on
2.
3.
4.
5.
'7.
0 < x
y = 2 cos x
(0)
y = 3 cos x,
(c)
y= 2
(a)
y = cos 2x
(b)
y = cos 3x
O < x < 2v
(c)
Y = cos
(a)
y = cos (x
(b)
Y = cos ()
< x < 3v
(c)
y = cos (x +
(a)
y = -cos x
O < x < 2v
(b)
y = -2 q.b,rx
O < x < 2v
(c)
y = -cos 2x
-(a)
y = -sin 2x
O <x<2n
0< X < 2v
COS X
0 < x < 2v
(b)
y = -2 sin 4x
(c)
y =-
sin
< x < 2v
O < x < 2v
ye= -cos (x -
O < x <.47(
O<x
Y = 6os (x + 2)
O < x <_47(
(a)
y - 1 = cos x
(b)
y + 2
=sing
(c)
y +
1t'in I
2x
< 476.
CJ
132
'V
2v
(a)
0,
3-3
8.
,P
(a)'
y = Isinxl
(b)
y o=
(c)
y = iisin
(a)
ilsin 2x1
4
5 xl
'
.9.
O <x <2n
= -Icos xl
.
'(b)
y = Isin (x - i)I
0 <.x
_ < 2v
10.
(c)
y = !sin (x - 2)1
(a)
y = sin
(b)
y = cos
2
2
(c)
y = sin
IcOs xl
0 < x < 2v
0 < i < 2v
x + cos
0 < x < 2v
2
0 < x; < 2v
.s.
.
I
CO.
..;;:'
.J
tf
41,
A-
-'233
3-4
3-4.
units pr second.
After one second
seconds
after
point
(r,0).
2s
and similarly
P0;
st units
which is
P(u,v),
after
is
will be an arc-distance
P.
We let
will be an arc-distance
seconds I)
from P
+ v
= r
2
.
Figure 3-4a
x
u
2
+ v = 1
of
(u,v)
r < 1.)
and
x
'k?
directly proportional to
if
crosses
instead of
x.
What
What is
t.
OP
The line
happens to
r > 1,
in Figure 3-4a.
and
x -*sin x
in terms of values of
when
It follows that
224
23i
x.
st
is
is directly proportional to
3-4:
t;
that is, if
is a constant,
u2
x = 2o
we have
2
v
= r
When
x = kt.
then
st = 2or;
units).
2o
Tthes.we have
,2or.
'2y = kk---),
s
st
2o
we get
x = kt,
Since
kt
2n
st.
2or,
k =
(u,v)
at any time
'and
s.
v = r sin ()t.
k = r
the measure of
w =
In
t, seconds
moves an arc-distance of
P.
POOP
central angle
units.
If we let w =
wt
as
we can write
u = r cos wt'
v = r sin wt.
When wt = 2y,
the point from Po
Po
Po.
This motion of
The time inter-
val during .which a cycle occurs is called theperiod; in this case, the
perivd is
21
225
3-4
Example 3-4a.
.radius
3
Suppose that
in the uv-plane.
w'=
Since
u = 2'cos (i)t
2g
TT
the period is
2g
P(u,v)
and
around a circle of
units
are given by
'v = 2 sin (i)t;
.4;7
on the v-axis:
As
paper is drawn from right to left at a constant speed, then the feribil will
trace a curve, something like Figure.3-4b.
4-
Figure 3-4b.
Wave MotiOn
such that
y = f(t),
y = cos wt
of
y
t,
y = sin at;
1:
A I.
3-4
p = A sin at
where
positive.
andthe constants
and
A
p,
are
!o
is exactly in
the form of one of the equations of (1) even thoUgh no circular motion is
involved; all that ocwirs is a fluctuation of the pressure at a given point
df space.*
a)
a)
is pro-,i,
the more
the sum
+,p
pl + p2.
If
pl
pi
and
If two instruments
p
Let us suppose, for example, that two pute tones are produced with
individual pressure waves of the same frequency, say
u = A cos mt
v = B sin at
,where
A, B
by reducing the problem to two simpler problems, that is, of kraphing (3) and
(4) above.
For each
t,
graphs, ,since
227
37
3-4
u + v.
w;
A, B
let
A = 3,
B = 41 vw =n.
(5)
u = 3 cos itt,
(7)
v = 4 sin nt.
By drawing the graphs of (6) (Figure 3-4c) and (7) (Figure 3-4d) on the same
set of axes, and by adding the corresponding ordinates of these graphs at
each value of
t,
You will
These are points which are either easy to find, or which have some
special interest.
'
;,.
0
2g
-2"
Figure 3-4c.
311
Figure 3-4d.
Graph of
211'
Graph of '
v = 4 sin.gt.
u = 3 cos itt.
228
238
3-4
The points
(0.29, 5 )
(1.29,-5)
u = 0
and
or
and zeros of
The points
v.-2.0.
are easy to
'(2,3)
(0.79, 0)
ipmplves:the use of, tables and herice we shall put off a dis-
cussion of this matter until Section 3-6, although a careful graphing should
produce fairly good approximations to them.
V
,/
p,u,v
6-
(0.29, 5)
5-
(9.514)
4
ee
and
0.3)
(2,
%
%
3(
%
%
1-
%
%
\'
i
%
%
i\
0.791
,
,
,
.r%
(1,-3)
/2
il
/
\.
-3-
(1.79,0)
/A
1%
/11
-45,-4)
- 5(1.29,--5)
s. .
-6-
Tr
Figure 3-4e.
211
Dashed curve:
u
Full curve: p =
are not the same
in order to shoW
229
239
3-4
1.
Exerciges 3-4
Sketch graphs A' each of the following curves over one complete cycle;,
. and state what the period is, and what the range is, if you can.
(a)
y = 2 sin 3t `
(b) 7 = -3 sin 2t
2.
(c)
y = 4 cos
(d)
y = 3 cos (-x)
(e)
y = 2 sin x - cos x
(a)
(b)
(1)
t = 4
(ii)
tom= 2
Fora given w
t = to
(iv)
r = 5
(ii)
r =
if
t = 6
IIN
rs= 3,
3.
(iii)
r = 10,.
(iv)
r = R
if
t = 3
- *
/
(d)
(e)
doubled?
,...
(ii)
(iii-)
..
--
5-
(iv)
if
W ''.ia'doubled?
J.)
).
quadrdpied?
. _..
-i
:.
(a)
y = -
(b)
y = 2 cos
221 sin 2x
(c)
y = 2Icos
.0
42-.
If theotime is given and the circle fixed how is the length of the
arc affected if
cIS = g
(f)
r = 10:
0
.
(i)
4
-; 230-,
240-
,),
3-4
4.
(a)
On one set of axes, using the same scale over the interval
(b)
(i)
y = sin X
(ii)
y = cos x
(i)
Using the sketches and the scale in part (a), sketch on the
same graph
(ii)
sin x + cos x.
y = sin x + coS'x,
(d)
(i)
Sketch y = I cos(x
(ii)
Sketch y =
sin(x
tt,
to.
231
241
3-,5
3-5
and
t.-4 sin it
at each valve of
of
f
0 < t < 2.
nt
t -) p
more
in the form
In this section we shall derive formulas Which will enable us to show that,
for all real values of
t,
A = 5,
sin a =
The formulas that we shall derive will also hepo us to discuss tangent
lines to the graphs of 4trcular functions and areas beneath them.
We begin by deriving the basic formula
cos (a - 0) = cos a cos 0 + 'sin a sin 0. .
Q(cos a,sin a
cos 0,sin
o
"
V
AEI
4
To begin our deriva-
P to
"
_ _
is
c-
p.
232
2.4
3-5
(2)
444
We now use the principle that arplengthon a circle"depends only upon the
unit of measure and not on the choice of axes.
If we choose the
(1,0)
and
u'
and
v'
has
Q(cos
0) sin(a
- 0))
P(1,0)
Figure -3-5b
to
is
PQ = 141 -4os(a
(3)
-,
0)12:
11
(cos2 0 + siri2 0)
',1,4-JcOs26Z -
sin (a -
233.
243
2 cos(a
- 0) .
3-5
x,
sin
x + cos
we have
x = '1,
cos(a + 0),
Replacing
by
-$
in (1) we have
*.t
...
cos(-0) = cos 0
Sine
..
( 4)
(5)
and
x,
cos x = sin
- x).
- (a + 0)]
cos
a)
*CP
13]
St,
= cQs
- a)co
0 + sin (2 - a) s in' 0
4
ox
)
(6)
,Replacing
by
cos a sin O%
A
,ExamPie 3-5a.
cos
(8)
2 .
x,
1 + cos 2x
2
to obtain'l
2
2
cos 2x = cob x cos x - sin x sin x = cos ,x - sin x.
1
Since
cos
x + sin
2
x '= r,'
11
3-5
cos 2x = cos
cos2 x
Solving for
x -
cos2 x) =2 cos2 x - 1.
we ,get (18).
Example 3-5b.
sin (x- +
(9)
= sin x + cos x
a=
x,
to obtain
0 =
sin ,(x +
+ sin x cos,
) = cos x sin
r.
Since
x
n
cos '' = sin -.=
we get
cos, x t sin x
sin (x +
sin x + cos x =
Thereforej
).
as
Example 3-5c.
(11)
cos
11.
sin
5'
a=
a, b,
and
(10)
We let
'where
= ax
and
f5 = bx
to obtain
sin((a + b)x) = sin (ax +1'bx) = cos ax- sin bx + sin ax cos bx.
go
sin((a - b)x) 4 sin (ax - bx) so sin ax cos bx,- cos ax sin bx.
'Dividing by
we obtain (10):
235
: 245
fi
3 -5
Exercises 2:21.
sjn
(a)
sin 2x- = 2
(b)
cos 2x = cos
x cos x
x - sin
= 2 cost x - 1
= 1 - 2 sin
(c)
2.
si,2.
n x
Sketch
(a)
1. - cos 2x
2
if
cos x- + sin x =
sin (x
+ Ii) =
1ff cos (x -
*(b)
c os
if cos (x + p = -4
cos x - sin x =
4.
sin(x
li)
-741)
-I)
= ,r2 s in (x + 341)
3.
tan
.
(b)
(c)
tan
(a
r3)
(a
4.-43'
tan
14.
tan
a
2
=-
1 L tan
+ tan 0
tan (3
a
tan2 a
2 tan
1 -
(d)
tan a - tan 13
1 +'tan a tan (3
tan 2a -
(6), (7)
1 + co
1 -'cos
sin a
sin a
1 + cos
a, b,
(3).
and 'x
.01
(a)
sin ax sin bx =
c
2-1 cos(a,-
1.
(b)
236 6
2 4:
,tt
4:.
b)x)
fi
it
"J
6.
(b)
;COS
(Hint:
12.
12
,0
21'
1
fl
lig
..
cos .15-
(d)
Tr.
ir
(a)
..
.
7.
Using Iiriy of the formulas delloped in this chapter, show that for all
(a)
tan e + sin e
2 tan e
tos2 31 e
2
(b)
1
1
%2
(sin -a
+ cos -a
2
,
(c)
1 + sin a =
(d)
(e)
sin 2e _
2 tan e
+ tan
+ cos e
sin e
()
8.
= 1 + sin 2e
sin e
1.+ cos e
sin
cos 2x = 2 cost x
Solve this for
(a)
cos
function of
1.
thus expressing
cost x
as a linear
2x.
Consider
(b)
cos4 x
as
(cost x)2
cos . x = 5.0 +
x:
.
1-
(''''''
..-,_._..,
Thin
(..
,..
cos 2x = 1 - 2 sin
sin
._
1,
,.
or
f,
237
4.7
T
3-5
10.
"
that is, they are true for all
sin 2e co
(b)
sin(x -
(c)
'(d)
cos e
.7.
("0sin3 6
(f)
sin 13 tan 2e
d<
x - cos 5x)
cos 36
cos 20
3e)
114(3isin
144
1_
1 + sin 2x
1 - sin 2x
Aft
.4
238
48
Pure Waves
3-6.
.P = 3 cos nt + 4 sin nt
(1)
in the form
(2)
We apply the formula'(6,of Section 3-5) for the sine of the sum of two
numbers to (2) to obtain
A sin (wt +
A cos a = 4. .
.a
To find
L2
2,
N.
A ksin a + cos
a) = 25,
.
A2%., 25.
.
(14)
cos
a=
"A
we can write
t,
b
(5).
fr
o'
...
r
.r
.:
...
where a .1:
.6143.
:.'
,.
We can use the same procedure which we have followed for' our articular
.
(6)
in the foria
(7)
ti
,y = A sin(wt.-.)
sin(wt + a)
A sin v = B,
r
4.4
A cos a = c,
,
?39.,
r
:4
"
d.
(8)
d
A'=
choosing a
so that
(9)
cos a.= -
sin a =
-A
that
2_
'=
(1A-3)
t.
that
2
P
+,v
= 1.
is
13 %
(- ,-)
A A
by
with coordinates
(1,0);
so
(9) hOTds.
Consider thefunCtion.
(10)
where
A > 0
and
The graph of
'
The amplitude
MiniOnvaque.of
(9r minima)
(11)
the amplitude;
2y
to,
and
the period,
-A
is the
f.
y = A sin (w(t
4.
C.
Fr,om this,we see, that the graph-9f (10) can be obtained from, the gr&ph'Of
(12)
y= A sin cot.
.w
,
1.rated in Figure 3-6a for the graph of
la = 5 sin4(Itt + 0, where 4a
.643.
sc
4
.
a
1,*
24.0;
r
12 ti
maximum
Maximum
44
minimum
Figure 3-6a
.643
We have seen that ingeneral thgre Ts a better way to sketch the graph
4
.
y = B cos wt
and
y = C sin at.
To discuss a fUnctiOn
.defined by
4
4 aV4
y = B cos wt + C sin ut
expediently aid to be-able to graph it quickly, we can write
y = A sin (at + a).
If we write the function in this form we can tell by inspection the period
(-1),
the amplitude
(IA1),
(tIAI).
Since
y = A sin wt
_units to the
a
w
is,positive or negati.
ve
22 1,-,1
41-,
.44
y = B'cos wt + C sin wt
0).
in
Example 3-6a.
y = 2 sin It
(13)
- 3
cos*2
t .
a.2
cos a+ A cos
t sin a.
we require that
A sin 3 t cos
it
3
+ A cos t sin a = 2 sin 3
- 3 cot
3t
2
whence we get
that the point
A =
A7.
a + sin
a) = (2)
+ (-3)
.=
il3
a
ID
242
252
4'
4.
We/now find
Figure 3-6b
a'
our.talaes we get
at
so that
7,1
.98.
cos a/ =
2
'---
and
sin a/ =
From
wehave
.831.
5.30.
- _14
Y4,71.447 sin it
a),
where a *60.
att.
241.
the amplitude
3.
2
is
1/1.5,
the phape is
5.30.
"3
214'3
9. 5 3
Figure 3-6c
Graph of
y = 2 sin 3. t
2
- 3 cos 21t =
where a L. 5.30.
'nercises
1.
'
= 2 cos 3t
(a)
,y
(b)
y =2 cos (4)
(c)
y = 3 cos (-2t)
(d)
y = -2 sin
(e)
y = -2 sin (2t + v)
(i-)
244
t,
2 4
3-6
4,
2.
a,
eadh.
(a)
(b)
) ---
y =
si:;*\3t
'
+ cos 3t
i,:
,,,
(c)
y = 2 sin
(d)
y = 8 cos
t - 2 cos lt
2
+ 6 sin ICI
3
(e)
y = 6 sin
(f)
y =
2t
4'1',
- 2
cos
cos
2.1iL
- 4 sin
57rt
Express each of the following equations in the form of. y = A sin (x + a),
(where
4.
0 <'a.< 2n):
(a)
y = sin x + 1/
(b)
y = -sin x + cos x
(c)
y =
(d)
y = sin x---cos x
sin x - cos x
cos x
y = A cos (x + a),
by two methods:
by the use of
- (p),
etc.
may be put into the. form of any one..of the following '(0 < a < 2y)
H
(i)
y = A sin (at + 0)
(ii)
y = A sin (wt - a)
y = A cos (wt + a)
r.
:r the amplitdde
A,' and
3-6
,6.
and
y = A pbs (nt - a)
a. -
y = 4 sin nt - 3 Cos nt
7.
3 cos nt
( c )
y = -4 sin /ft
(d)
y = 3 sin Tut
4 cos rut
(e)
y = 3.sin /ft
Ycos nt,
and a
and
the coefficients
can be d---rmtwi...frO
sin at
a,
and
of
cos at
B cos at + C sin at
is made eq
'1 to
Compute
a,
and find the maximum and minimum values of each expression, and its
period.
in 2t + 4 cos 2t
(a)
'3
(b)
(c)
7sin
ce
+ cos (2)
B cos (at - p)
A cog (at - a)
and
such that
(g # 0),
y = A cos (at - a)
where A
246
25G
1
3-7
3-7.
Period
2v
We.have seen that the superposition of two waves, each with period
--
y = B cos at
and,
y ='C sin at
(1)
.
The period of
sin 3x
is
av
--
the period of
cos 2x
is
2a,
f.
?1(
-- = v.
2
At this
is...a period of
two
I)
2v%
,27(
In particular, we have:
so that
2v
2v.
2v
sin -3x
The number
and
and
2v
v.
247r,
z. 5'T
cod 2x?-
*-
ow.
3-7
y = A sin (at + a) + P si
(2)
bt +. (3).
9
If
,a = b,
a
period
. If
a /.-
then
v,-
as a
27t
but th t
,2t
and
'4 a
and
(3)
m and
such that
2n
= n
b
2n
M = 3,
n = 2
is not periodic.
a = 3,
2n
.
This
0 = - 2, ,b = 2
and
so that
2rt
tic
m a
n 17
2n
(2n)
- en,
2n
a
2n
and
y = sin nx + cos x
notp ;periodic.
v = 3 cos 2x
4
The result is shown by the three curves in Figure 3-7a,
u = 2 sin 3x,
and
y = u - v.
As
2 5,, 3;
* 3 -7
Al
y, u,v
I
1
v =3
I
u =2
'At
1
2 'TT ?(
v=-3
t%
Figure 3-7a
u = 2 sip 3x,,,,y = 3 cos 2x
y = u - v = 2 sin3x -
-cos 2x,
of period
f(X)
AO + (Al cos
211x
+ (A2 cos
a
`oi
o
47tx
+ B
2
sin ax)
a
..
Spicifically,
2eX '
+ Bi
(1)
+ (A
a.
44g+
cos
2n7tx
2nxx.
n a
e
+ B
cos *--).
4.
.--1
259
21'
-n < x <11
function
This
0, ife = -n
=
we define
if i= 0
0,
1,
-n < x < 0
if
1:00
f(x)
(2)
if 0 < x < v.
.r
f(x) .by the, periodicity condition.
(3)
11'
sin 3x
sin 5x
sin(2n - 1)x\.
'
2n - 1
0
qi
Figure
3-7b
0,
x =
if
0,
-1,,
Fourier series.
f(x +
x = 0
if
= f(xr..
if -v < x r 0
4 s n x
iinja
sin 5x
....4..,.sin(2n
1)xN.
2n - 1
y = f(x).
Q.
250
260,
-
f(x)
by
"
.S:1
-,
.
...
---NN,
Exercises 3-7
,
:-
1.
Without setcfling,
find the periods,of the functions defined by the
.
following expressions
.
'
ti
.
-
(b)
(c)
cos i -,sin
-sit; 71- gx -
cos ItX 1r
.
j cos 12x,- 2 sin* 3 x
1."1
(e)
...(f)
1 - 2 sing x + 2 sin
Icos xl + sin
cos
x
2
rr
(g)
(h)
41simp4
11cos 4v xl:
2.
sin x + sin 2x
(b)
.
1x1 < v,
sin x
n
y = - sin x
n
sin 3xN
+
4 sin x
= ...(_-_
__ +
v
1
.
-,
'
3. ,
5
6
'4.
(a)
sin ..x
0$
sin 3x
,.
(b)
sin 5x
5
1.
'
40
I
.251
261.
.
.
3-7
5.
The symbol
[x]
x -,[x].
x --4x - [x].
(i)
where tx)
x -4(x),
Indicate_
(ii)
x -4(2x)
and
x -,(nx)?
6.
Ca)
(b)
0 < t < 2.
The function
rational
0, x
irrationala
Why ? -
f(x) =
4'
'r
AK
Chapter 4
14
arguments we shall show that the derivative of the sine function As the cosine
function and the derivative of the cosine function is the negative of/the sine
function.
x = 0,
Later
4-1.
at the point'where
X0,1).
x = O.
Since
We conjecture (from
*,,
(1)
y = cos x
at the point
253
g63
(0,1).
Figure 4-1a.
cos x < i
(2)
and hence the curve lies below the line given by y = 1 .in the interval
0 < x'<
2.
We now wish to show that near the y-axis the curve lies above
where
EX
Y =
(3)
E
I,
y = 1
I
Figure 4-lb
Obr
Y = cos x
*111-
254
264
4-1
(4)
1 - cos x <
than
For
x2
2
the quantity
x / 0,
is larger
so we have
if
if
x / 0;
0.
(5)
cos x > 1 - x
2
,
that is,
It 0 < x < e,
if
x / O.
then we have
+ (-x)x > 1 - ex;*
cos x > 1 - ex
for
0 < x < e.
where
is the smaller of
and
y = 1
is indeed
at- (0,1)-.
established.
y = 1
Conjecture (1)-is
graph of
at
(0,0),
its
.y = x
y = sin x
y = sin x
is tangent tq the
at the point
(0,0).
..
,
255
265,
.10
sin
Figure 4-1c,
(0,0);
0 < x <
in particu-
..
D(1
sin xc
cos x
sin x
cos x
cos X
IA
. Figure 4-1d
?66
to
is
x,
sin x
AB.
to A
and
BC
and
OC -are--
respectively; therefore
and . cos x,
(8)
sin x < x.
This means that, in Figure 4-1c, the graph of the sine function lies below
y = x
to the right of
as we have indicated.
(0,0),
again, weychoose
dicular to
radius
OA..
sin x
be ----- .
cos x
and
so that
must be
Sidce
OA).
Referring to .Figure
EA -is perpen-
(the measure of
-1d
'
D must
xl
(9)
2
"cos xl.
2(1)/sin
24010(AD)
OAB
x;
that is
is'constant.
To deter-
OAB
is proportional to
mx,
where
is given by
mine
m,
x = T.
OAB
is.one-eighth of
i
1
.2.
8(71(1) )
jso that
m =
OAB
OAB
is
OAB
2 x.
Ot
x < 1 sin x
2 cos x
0 < x <
so we have
then
2
.
(u)
tihst
area of the' sector is less than the area of the triangle; that
1
Since the.
for
257
2d7'
0 < x < 12 1-
= sin x
y = x
(0,0).
at
If
< E
and
0 < x < 2 ,
1 - x
then we have
> 1
E.
Therefore, we get
when
y(1 - e)x.
and
and
(0,0)
0 < x <lp
and as'_
must lie
The graph
lies in here.
s.,
2.*
X"
Figure 4 -le
x < 0
y = x
and
(x, sin x)
any points
y = (1 - e)x.
258
268
sin(-x) = -sin x,
4-1
Figure 4-1f
We have now ettablished both conjectures:
(10: the.line given by
to'the graph of
(7)
y = cos x at
y = x
(0,1);
y = sin Z
'296.9
0).
Exercises
1.
,a,
(a)
f
y = cos x
at
(0,1).
(b)
y = cds x
at
(0,1)?
(c),
2.
(a)
lim
h -40
Determine
at
(0,0).
(b)
y = sin x
at
(0,0?
(b)
3.
aim
(a)
h -40
sin r(0 + h)
lim
h -40
Determine
and
cos h - 1
h
- sin (0)
to determine
sin h
(a)
the graph of
near
y = cos x
x = 0.
where
6)
curve where
.2,
x = .5,
.4,
.3,
'
of !!Q1' PC42;
the table provided.
PQ6 U
y = b + mx,
is y-intercept and
the
Had
Cos
Sin
.5
.87758-
.47943
.4
.92.106
.38942
95534
29552
..2
.98007
09983
.999995
.ol000
A
whard b
PQ (i = 1, 2,
.01
4).
,.
4-1
5.
(a)
sin x,
near
x = 0.
.P
where
x = 0;
= 1, 2,
..., 6)
curve where
.01.
of
Fi9dthe slope
PQ1, PQ2,
PQ6.
Use
(b)
1 - dos x <
()
cos x#>'1 - x2
(8)
(10)
sin x < x
,.
xcos x < x
1 - cos x
x
<
x
2
(b)
1 - Cos
(ii)
>
x > 0
x <0
xi <,s
(iii)
(c)
(d)
sin x > x -
sin x
-
x3
7-
o<x<
ti
.1
261
271
1
lx1 <
4-1
4t
7.
0 < 1 - cos
h < 7
for
0 < h <
show that
1 -
8.
<
sin h
h
for
h / 0.
'
9.
10.
h = 0.01
and
sin h
and
1 - c os h
r
h
h = -0.001.
(a).
h --,0
(b)
lim
cos h
h --)0
II
27142
4-2
ik
4-2.
'1
The deriyatives of the sine and cosine fundtions are, res pectiv4l1, the
iCe
obtained by first finding the equation bf tangent lines to the graphs'of the
sine and cOsihe".functions and then discovering the slope functions (derivetives).
askmit;'of
x -) sin
f'
given by
sin x
sin (3. + h)
h
as
approaches zero.
f,
(x,f(x))
(x
slope = doses
tangent
line
s
slope
sin; (x + h) - sin x
iv)
x + h, sin (x + h))
Figure IP-2a
j63
10
2 73
on the
y;
0:
1+.2
r-.4.
.
.i.
(2)
sin kx
-..,
h)
- sin x
h -)0
- cos x.
iThis c n. be shown:13y arguing (as we did in Section 4-1 for,x = 0) that the
graph of the sine function lies inside any given welge about the tangent when
is small enough.
ilif
.
Wa caniwrite
Il
,cos h - 1%
sih
n h
) + cos x
h
= sin.xk
7,
.
cos X.
lim
h--) 0
..
cos h - 1.0
h
'a 'nod
lim
Lii....12,
h -i0 4,
7 1.1
t
y.= cds x
y =i1
at
is
(0,1).
to the graph of
y = cos x
is zero, we have
lim
x = 0
of
h -) 0
Therefore,
. lim
cos h - 1
h -40
- o.
y ='sin x
at
y = x
is thg best
c,
1 ke of
y = sin x
at
sin (0 + h) - sin 0
x'= 0
1.
is one, We have
.44-2
sin (k + h) - sin x
lim
(2)
cos x;
h -) 0
(3)
D(sin x) = cos'x.
The derivative of the cosine function at any point
(x ,cos x)
can be
approaches zero.
to sivi; that
D(co; x) = -sin x.
...,0000m0.000
Example 4-2a.
sin h
as
11, evaluate
sin 2h
lim
h 40
sin h
for small
a 1
1h1,
.
it follows that
J
sin 2h
2h
ts 1
if
-is small.
12h
We can write
sin 2h
h
- 2
sin 2h
2h
g.
4
If
Ihl
is so small that
Ighl
sin 2h
a 2.
h
\
-sin 2h
.
- 2
2(1)
= 2.
s
sin 2h
h t40
h -to 0
lira
/
Example 4-2b.
It
'when
(a , sin a),
7t
7(
a =
We can write
so that
x =.a + (x - a).'
(6)
addition formula
of Sect
sin x =sin [a
(x - a)].
Using
n 3-5 we get
If we let x
approach
cos (x - a)
and
by 1,
sin (x - a)
and
fore, as we let
approximition t'o.
,
siiit (x
then
- a)
by
x..approach
sin x
x -
,approaches zero.
We can replace
(7)
a)
There-
is
at
the
point
(a , sin a)
is
When
When
F.
7,t71
e,
tangent is
y=1;
that is, -the tangent to the sine curve at
a =
It
,1)
is horizontal,
When
C'
1
266 \
`7;
4-2
It
57t
16
3:k
y = 1
sif
7 + 7`x
I
y =
5y.
1/
Td_7,--
...
the tangent,at
the tangent at
the tangent' at
Figure 4,2a
y = sin.x.
o,
and
-AO
.-.-
15
2
respectively.
p;
262 7
Exercises 4-2
1.
(a)
Use Addition formula (4) of Section 3-5 to show that the difference
quotient
cos (x + h) - cos x
doo.,
2.
sin x(2411).
(b)
Show that
(a)
and a
0 = x.
e?
Show that
3.
f3
(b)
(a)
Isin (13).
D(sin x) = cos x. L-
0.
Prove;cos(x+0-cosx=-2sin,kx+-h9sin
2.
.
(b)
I
1
.s/
D(cos x) = -sin x.
c
4.
sin (.01)
1,. estimate
.011
1(b)
1;
cos (-.00 1)
0005,
cos. (-.001).
2
5.
.(a)
(b)'
Using the i
quality
(i)
sin ( 1)
(ii)
sin ( 01)
(iv)
1 -
cos (.1)
)1.
estimate
Isi n h
< 777- < 1,
).
...
'sin (.0001)
2
h
cep i.01)
(1-v)
estimate
cos (.001)
cos G0001)
28
(
278
sin (.01).
estimatq
6.
hi
11
(a)
a)
Using
ILL'
<
11 -
the value of
h t 0,
for
(i).
h = .1;
(ii)
h = .01;
h = -.1
h = 7.01
(iii)
h = .001;
(iv)
h = .0001;
h = -.0Q1 4.
"h = -.0001
eS
2
(b)
1 - 11 <J-222-1 < 1,
sih h
--,E-- and
decrease.
!hi
h = .1;
(ii)
h = .01;
h = -.1
h.= -.t/
)
sin h
h:
(iii)
h = .001;
(iv)
h = .0601;
h = ;.001
h = -.0921
,,
--rs- as
t symbolically as
illustrate that
lim
h -)0
't
sih
n h
lim
LE 2I
x -4 0
li
.Find the
1.
by two methods:
.
(a)
by u se of the inequality
(b)
by direct applicatioh
8.
1 -
sin h
h-- < lo
sin 11
lim
- 1
h -) 0
/)
.
lim
h 40
1 - cos h _
lim
and
- 1
h 40
'
0
lim
(a)
(b) -'lim
x -)0
lim
e
lim
sin 2t
lim edot 2e
' sin h ,-
sin
lim
(f)
t- 02t2 +t
e
lim
(i)
'x
h
tan 2x
lim
sin x
X -4 0
sing x
Jam 1,
(d)
1 - cos, e
lim
X -4 0
7x
sin 3x
cos e
F
e
cos 7X
cos 3X
tiM
lib
(2)
x 40
269
279
sin 5x - Isin
xl
.44
r--
4-2
9.
Evaluate
(a)
lim
x
(b)
sin x - sin a
x - a
lim sxX_1.
0
10.
(a)
y = sin x
at
X =
(ii)
(iii)
x =
IT
3
3v
(iv)
X = V
(y)
X =
(vi)
x = 0
graph of
(a)
a)
at
y( = sin x
(b)
y = COS X
at
(i)
(iii)
(iv)
x =0
21
(ii)* x
Write ari equation of the line tangent to the graph of_ y,=- cos x
(b)
,
12.
does the,graphof
(a)
y ='sin x
have a
ft
tange t line?
.fiorizonta
4 '',S1
%
'r
For what
(b)
alueso
y = co: x
have a
(a)
For w
.tange
by
line given by
or a
y = x'
y = x?
sin x
have the
( )
/b)
14.
t values` of
qubstion/for 'the:graph of
I
4
t
y = bin x
have the
y = -x
y = cos ,x;
270
280
y = cos x.
,
15.
(a)
16.
(a)
If
f : x -+ sin x,
f!(-200% - i)
(b)
If
g : x -)cos x,
(a)
If
(b)
If
f'
then
Find
x -, cos x.
and
x -o sin x,
: x -o -sin x.
g'
e( og -
x 11n x
S x.
tt
f' (640n),
0(600n),
iL).
'f' = h
show that
x -o cos x
Find
and
h' = -f.
g' = j,
f'..7 h,
show that
h = -j'.
h' = j / and
(a)
,then
y =
f' (60n - 4) .
g'(-200n - g.),
18.
2y = x
(b)
17.
4.2
In the interval
what values of
function,
< 2n
lx1
for
does the
I
x
x -0 cos x,
-2n
increase?
-n
2n
-1
Sketch f
and
(on
f'
x
-y
-27t
2:t
your answer.
-1
TO?kAshich
< v.
, -
.'g43.
(a)
Extend th
(b)
-0 cos 2x.
e4
20.
In the interval
erval
values of
ILI
x -0cos(2x
increases and
,,
(a)
(b)
.
I
I
,
x -* cos(2x +
n%
2
0
4
\ 271
'r281.
21.
0 < x < 2y
do the'sine func-
do
d < x < 2y
do the following
all decrease?
23.
0,
(b)
(c)
x -) sin 2x
increasing?
(a)
f : x
ax - sin x
24.
x -sin x
at
x = .4
by showing that at
x = .3
and at
x = .4.
at
x = -.4
by showing that at
x = -.3
and at
0.
'282.
j
+VP
4-3
4-3.
Linear Substitution
Now we" urn to the problem of determining the derivative of a function
is,
= sin x
ax + b,
and
by
Using addition formula (6) from Section 3-5, we can express the n
r of
the difference quotient as,k sin {ax + b) cos (ah) + k cos (ax + b) sin (ah) - k sin (ax + b).
0(cos Tah) - 11
o[sin (ah)1.
change (suggested by Example 4-2a and Ex rcises 4-2, No. 8) n the form of
t/
e difference quotient:
l
rcos
14,.
Ell -.1
ah "
,
.,-0(sin (ah)1
l + ak cos (ax +
As
approaches .zero,
ah
(ah)
cos (al - 1
approaches zero and
(ah
sin (ah)
(ah) 411
approaches one.
.i
We conclude that
1D(k sin ax +
ah).
h
in(ax+ b)
0 + Eik
sirx(ah)
cos(Eix;+b)
n's
(, ah)
1
*go
= ak cos(ax+b) .
./
213 2 8 3
eq.
4-3
6
if
then
14)
k cos (ax +
3.<
(2)
cly
Using
sin (ax +
then ,gt :
curve directly.
Eiample 4-3a.,
If
find
3 sin 2x,
=6
ft
f' (n)
cos-2x
so that
f' (n)
Example 14-3b.
cos 2n
= 6.
at tti9 point'
.ty = cos (x +
=6
2).
Using
y'
alt"
.
(37i- ,2)
At the point
-sin
(fik +
= -sin i = -
I-3-
L,
II
'
.e>
Id'
Ir.
I.
y =, cos (x.4
Example .4-3c.
(3)
.)
and
y = cos.
to give one
(See-s-Exerciees 4-35
NO. 8.)
cos x = sin
- x)
and
/?.
We ha e from (3)
cos:
'x
k = 1, a = -1,
cos':
and
Exarftple 4-3d.
.1
The function
x -4 sin x
sometimes written
o-
we carp express
x -) sin
is the siile of
degrees.
Since
..
2y
x
300
x,
radians,
as
icos
fit x
x).
sin x
in terms-o'fferc length
4:..
n x = ,cos x
4 .6.%'1
If we had used,degree
4
formula
.
,
...
r
silof
Scos4
l): =
'
.." \
...-,.,..
.. .:',
,
.o.
.
11
Cif:
10*
4-3
Exercises 1111
Using formulas (1) and (2), find the following.
(a)
D[sin (3x -
(b)
D[-2 cos,
(a)
Dr5 -cos (i
(e)
;I)).
D[-Ain (
(c)
2.
)]
3
) ]:
+ 721)]
(f)
(i)
77(
x = - -- ,
3
(ii)
x -4 -sin (2x -
(iii)
f :
(iv)
3 cos
1
x = g ,
X=
+ 2x),
sin (
3n
2
x.
-
x = 0;
)
72-
(b)
\....
.
.6
If two functions
there is a ,constant
..,
.
,
and
such that
g(x) ...cf(;)
1
(a)
(b)
'
f(x) =
sin
2x,
and
4.
(a)
(i)
of x
0 < x < 2n
linefr
g: x
;
,7
+ 'a.. cos
Aih 4 ;
3 ccs (2x +
4
1
2+6
does
-4-3
5.
Show that if
f : x -"k cos (ax + b)
then
f'
lix,-ksin (ax
.+ b)
6.
and
sin x = cos (i
x.
x)
derivative of
k cos (ax + b),
given that
_
.
(a)
(b)
(a)
On one set of
and
1:))
8.
as a -'approaches zero..
coOrdinatir
x -)cos x.
x -)cos,x
x -)cos (x + r
Show that th
(11- 'f0))
at the poi
(12
at the point
he graph of
g(21-),
12-r,
(a)
lim
h -)0
(b)
li
cos x
cos
lice
cos (3,
(c)
+ h) 1 cos 3x
h
W."
witot
I
.5
4-3
-3
sin
4,4-
lim
* (d)
+ h) + 3 sin
2
(n
sin
lim
nl
x + n
h -4 0
(e)
+ k)
k
sin (i)
COS
h) 4. cos
lim
(f)
2h
k
o4
6
10.
val' [
-n,n].
y = siryx
(a)
y = sin (x -
'(b)
y = -sin x
y = sin
-
Y = cos x
Leos (x -
(g)
11.
- x)
sin
(e)
4-x)
(h)
y = cos (JX)
(i)
y = cos (
Find
..-."
dx
y = sin x
(b)
y = sin (x
(c)
y = -sin x
4
(d)
(e)
(9
(-x)
y
=
- x)
sih,
Olt
y = cos x
.1A
(.,g)
(h)
= cos (x
y = cos
-"y = cos
(-xt
(12-1
..'*
II`
721)
- x)
278,
'
If lobint
is moving'
(See
1.
;
Jr;
countercloCkwise _starting at
A(1,0)
he
't = '0
of
at time t
are
x
(1,6)
0 cot Q *
A ( -1 , 0 )
X = cos t
y = sin t.
fir
11
When
increllvs.
0 to
moves from
back to O.
t =
has reached
At' t = 2n,
P ,hasqenhed .
As
0.
to t =
t = n
Er'om
2
As we see,
is back at A.
increases from
moves
to
n,
from
AT
oscilla/es back
point
at any time
at time
2n.
To-do this
(1)-
t -) cos
derivative of
(2)
"4
At
As 4e know, the
t.
t.
is
t.
'n),
t = 5-
then
Q = 0,
' absolute value of the Velocity, has its maximum value when. t =
During the qecond half - revolution
fg h t
(31) = 1
2
at
the
is moving td.the
ao,
2789
A.
4-4
at an3/ time
t?
f.
f"
f': t
(2)
(3)
bl
t -4-cos t.
'
decrease of
is negative but
f"
the.fi.rst quarter-revdlution,
During
is also negative.
f'
f'
in:Speed.
Between
Hence,
Between
t = *
is positive;
f"
to
f'
is
positive.
-1'-to
increases from
10.
sin t
t = 21
and
cos t
t =
and
t = -2
'
that both
t
0 to 1.
f'
and
are positive.
f"
f"
is negative and
f'
is positive K, that
xample 4-4a.
Show thp't
In what quadrants is
f"
(a} positive?
'
(b)
negative?
.
f"(t1 = -cod t
Since
f"(t)0= -f(t).
f(t
and.
cos t.
fi(t) = -f(t)
,
(more briefly,
fu
_f).
f"
is negative when x
is negative, that.is, in
is positive; that is, in iva-
280
290
r".
.
Example 4-41o.
t =
wheri
pn of
Wes have
3
)
.
cos
f'(3) = -sin
% f
Henee, after
lc
(n)
- --". -0.86'
2
-.cos -5
is at xf
90-
,/".
left at
--
The
h acceleratlon is
.1 .
distance
2
units per second each second, which means that the velocity 1.-s decreasing at
.
c
1
the date of
unit per second per second.
(The speed is increasing at this
2
2
...
rate.)
4%.
diatine4
in ,to seconds.
4 -.4b.)
Let
AOP in
'radians.
(See Figure
be th4,Meisure of angle
Then
kt'
r
e =
so that
ci)
1;'
The coordinates of
are
x = r- cos at
Y = r sin wt.
Figure 4-4b
We 'let
46
(.4)
r cos wt.
6
o
-If
P.
..1-_
tion of
..()
1:.
and
t..
(6)
4--
..
281
29I
c_
r"
4'4
.'
Now
respectively,
and
A' (-r,0)*
The time
requtred, for One os,cillation back and forth.is obtained by. .....
using the circum.
T\\.:the 'period
this
We
call
ths
time
ference 2nr Ids the arc, so that kt'=
.,
r
2nr"
2n
%ff
.
Note that
f" =
(7)
(I
Example 4 -4c.
is
- \,
t -410 cos
f'
'and
10
.i,
t"
5'
=:72
k-
.,
sin
For
t = 5
cos t
we'have
f(5) = 10 cos
1:=
-1.68
fe(5) = -2 sin 1
0 (5) =
cos 1...;z
since
`cos 1 tt 0.54
and
sin 3.
When
t = 5
seconds, cQ
1.68
0.22
ft./
0.84.
ft./sec. approximately.
O. .It'is
5.4
is about
Eli speeding
.
t:
.,
r,
..
"Ow
fr kr
282
909
-.
4-4
Let
AI
(Figure 4-40.
The point
is at,
y = r sin 8 = r sin'cut..
.If
is the functiOn
g.
(8)
then
4'
rm cop
(9)
and
2
(10)
=no
g11-: t
sin cot.
v
The point
.
starts at
= 0
A
at the point
and. oscillates up
*.11
'
It completes an oscillation
2n
V.gure 4-4c
Note that
"
g"(t)
?ej
-tc2 g(t)
or more briefly
..c02
g"
in Figure
and
g' (t)
ft(t)
Q and
indicated
'11
\,
4Q\
%%ZI
..
, '
itself.
-i.,
Notice that
Ilkkt
IF
;
A
r
r
Figure 4-4d
04.
283
293
14-
4( ,,
.
g'00 = co f(t)
,,'
-,4
,
4-4
.4.
-
are giAn'by.
at time4 t
and of
R
o g(t) = r sirr cat
'
The actua
Sngle
PQ
velocity 'of
0'0
is feund
. .
liff'(t)12.4-,[gt(t))2.
42[g(t)I2t+ 2[f(t)
cbi g(t) )2 -4-(f(t))2
cur.
Since
k
a.) =
at "which
,t
motion Of
OP,
so.that the
compoli
of acceleration
accelerpton
of P
'
=If"(t))2
= 14-032i(t)]2 +
)2
g(t1)2
irf.t) 12 4= [g(t)?
car'
and that the dire
0.
f
.P284'
2'
-Exercises 4,4
e
1.
Suppbse
Ii
. It
acpeiti-ation when the following values 'are &reit tM Adius and time.
,
r = 1
(a)
.
.
',
..
'
(I) i
t = 0
(ii)
t = 1.
iii)
t ,-- 1.,
iN0
t = 2
% )
'
(t),
r = 2
,,
(c)
010%.
(i)'
t =0
(ii)
t ='rl
(iii)
t = 2
(iv)'
t = 4
6 ,
't
t =0
(iii)
(iv)
t = 3
and the vertical Alocity, and the horizontal and the vertical acceleration of the following if
(a)
(b)
r =2 and
(C)' IL= 6
3.
t =
anis
f.N.-1;.
and
ana
t = 0,
r'
(b) TS irk.=
2.
at
t = 0
(i.e.,' at
t = 0
and at 't = 2)
and at' t = 4)
,
{61
,
4.
r = 6.
(i.e.o;
at
t = 0' and at
t =.12)
Show that the square rOptIof the ,sum of the 'squares. of the acceleration
where
.t
.e
I
'
28
35
rC's
11,
1,
--.
5.
wall
spring
mass
surface
-"'
GD
4
.
on the scale.
..
s.
Pit
f(t) = A cos
where
and
the cart.
./.
(b)
how that
(c)
f'01 = 0;
is zero.
(d)
Show thj
f"-(0)_
(e)
Show that
(g)
Show-that at title
t = li
ms
f" =
(h)
,
i
1
At
again?
''..)
4'
,
6. Draw a figure to justify the,atatement that in the case of 'uniform motion
4.0.
28t
296
P.)4
II.
4-5
%*
,..
polynomial function.
x.
lar function, since the derivative Of'a circular function is a circular function.
_/:
''
0,
sin,x
we get:
at -4 cos x
Of
x -' -cos x
,
and
derivative x -4 -sin x
l t)pe `second
x -4 sin x.
As was the case for polynomial filnctions we can write ...Q9 = f', D 2 f = f",
f4,
fiv,,D5f
fv,
=
=
=
etc.
The Roman superscript notation becomes
..
cumbersome for high orders and it becomes more convenient to use-Hindu-Arab i'4
13
,.
order
, -
derivative of
as'
f,
e
...
,,
;,',
ft
X --4 cos x
1
f"
(1)
x -4 -sin x
fm: x -0 -cos x
(4)
f_
x .4
sin x.
%.,
Since the fourth derivative is the original function wecan see the pattern
,
4?
Dny =
(-1:) y = --2.
dx
n
dx
we write
.4
' .
287
(13)
- numerals parenthetieally as D f = f
. ,Thus the nth derivative* of f
a
Ls written n-DfFf (n) ., (It is also a, usIful convention to define the zero-
"
(n)
',
when' we mean
n'''
D y.
',-
4
4-5
f.= ff(4) = f
f=
0
---
(8Y
f(5) 2 p(9)
-(1a)
f(10)
f(6)
f (7) = f (11) =
flit
etc,
4
This result is sdnetimes summarized by saying that each function
here
or
-cos x
equation
.
(0
y/(4)
where
(4)
= Y,
x --vy
is a poly-
then
(4.1)
n
e--
(3)
f(x)
Y.
,= O.
The first derivative can be interpreted as the slope of,a tangent line
Approximations
We want to find a polynomial,function which approximates the sine faction.
whose firstand higher derivatives "fit" the sine function near zero.
precisely for each positive
polynomial function
'//integer
More
11
(4)
(b)
*
,,,,..
p(0) = 0 = sin.0
derivatives, of
x = 0.
a0, a
a2,
l',
'
p(x) = a
(5)
.
',.
for
+ a v+ a x- + ..; + a
1,
x!t.
288
,298
ti
only shold
. we need
p(n) (0),
P(x)
-in
(5). ",
First try .to' approximate the sine functioK by. a first degree polynomial
function;.
i.e
we suppose that
n = 1
p(x)
so that
+ a x
1
.
-7 a
0.
and
p' (x) = al
Therefore, we have
%ow
(6)
and
p(0) =a0
al.
pt (0) 7
1
,For f: x ---) sin x,
f(x).= sin x
and
cos x
f 1(x)
we hate
ft(0)-=
f(0) = 0,
(7)
.
If tthe polynbbial function" p
require that
,,,
'
p(0) = f(0)
and
fig).
p'(o)
and
al
of degree
= 2 ' so that
p(x) = a0 + a x + a2x
,.
2
.
and
pi (x) = al + 2a'2x
ph..
(x)
= 2a2
,.
,p,0
that
'p(0)
(8)
Sitice
x -+ sin x,
ao,
p'(0) = a-1 ,
p "('9)
289
299.
2a
2 -N
p(x) = x.
3
.
f(x) = sin x,
f"(x)
fl(x) = cos, x,
so that.
fq0)= 0,
.k)
If p
.
f"(0) =
f'().= r,
(10'
p? (0) = ft (0)
f(0),
p( 0)
we require that
= f" (
p" (
Combillingthe reqUArements of
=
Et
The cases
p(x) = x.
n = 1
0,
= 1, .and 2a
n = 2
,and
'
2
p
given by
Now
x = 0.
.p(x)
= 8
+.8 X
1
8 x
n = 3;
given.by
+ 8 xJ.
Differentiating, we get
.pt(x).= a
p"Tx) = 2a
et(x) =
and
For
x = 0
(11)
+ 2a2x + 3a x2,
+ 6a x.
3 4
6a3,'
we' hale
p'(0) = a
p(0). = a0,
p"(0) 7 2a2,
1,
x = 0
"1(0) = 6a.
and
w,p obtain
'.
f'(0) = 1,
.,f(0) = 0,
"k
fill)) 's 0,
Comparing these values with (11) under the requirements of (4)., we get
1 .
a
= 0,
= 1 2a 2
and
= 0,
= -1.
6a
3
of degree
,
3
p(k) = x
'
,kt = 1
'
3 ...k
290.
'3 0 0
V
and
Of = 1.
'4-5
.
A
p(x) = a
+ alx + A2x
n
+- a nx
then' we have -
=(09a0
p(0) =
p'(0) = al = (11)al
Z4b
,
-p"(0) r 2a2
(29a2
p"(0) = (2
3)d3 = (3)
(4)(
0) = (2 .3 ,4)a: = (40a4
"
= (2 .3
p(n) (0)
f.: x0--,sin x;
If
= (n! a
da0 46f10) = f
rt)a
1 =)ft OCI,
_i
(4)
N
(0) = f (8) (0/
= ;.
.
(5)
1
(0/
= f (9)
'
(01
,..;
(6)
'0 = f(p) = f
(01 = ji())(0) '. ..
-.,
,.....1..!
0-1 = f'''.(0)
..--,
To satisfy
fkm-479Noryfk,1
4) we must have
.,
(0) =
(13)
of evenIdegree are
0..
(14)
a3 =,-
1
,
a, =
'
p ,of degree
10
p(x) =
= x
tx3
X5
A. "5(9
- -37 +51- - 71,4-t
x3: x5
x7
'x9
120:: 5E76 + 362,880
n
la,
to
andits f
st
n.
4-5
derivatives agree
n. derive-
x.=
tives.
The polyp
ials
-1
factiod:
'
it
x
1
1,
-2:'
x4
41'
2:
you
Approimation Error
.
.
4
-
The.approximations,
y = x,
y 7 x-
x3
,
y = x -
x3
x5
+ 5T ,
y = x
Y = x
.
Qt
to' y = sin x
.
x5
x7
,
and
x3
,3
x9
x3-;1
,t5
x7
-r
7
5.
-7 + -T
9.
3.
7.
,,
the Taylpr approximations become better in the sense that subsequent approxi,
mationsdmprove the "fit" near zero and also give better approxictions
further away from zero.
0 10
292
302
Jr
)
Y1
-pi
y., = x
x5
x3
x9
x
x7
.
/
1
--
' ;4
II.
/
I
y = sin x
S .... ...."
t.
3.
\\
'
\\
\
X
3
X
Y
Y2 'x
3t
\\ ,
\
.\
X3
X5
X7
'51.
7!
+ --- -
--
Figure 4-5a
large and
small.
ti
-ix.> sin x,
-.
'
x3"
x - -- < sin x,
3.
.
x -
x3
x5
> sin x,
Hence, the error made in using any oneof:these approximations is easy tcs
estifate.
x,-
In practice
5
since there is no need to compute values of sin x to /.
x -is.less than
X
>
1,
4.
.. .
e?
.*+.
.
x5
x3
' k
'
3'.
t
x
we can approximate
sin x
7 when
large
enough!
x < 1,
'
-k
..
'
1,
'It
to
cos x
x > 0,
2:
< cos x,
4
FF+ u>,cos x,
1 -
mo9
.
fir
1 -
2
2:
,
is between
x4
Example
4ta.
sin 0.5.
which gives
x3
.0.125'
0.020833...
x3
"\;
we obtain
x5"
0.03i2 5
Tr. =
120
decimal place accuracy
2914N
0.00026.
in 0.5 Z_10.479.
4-5
2
Example
4-5b
,x
for
cos x. to estimate
2'.
cos 0.2.
(0.2)2'
cos 4.2 %. 1 .
,27
o.o4
7 0.
0. 0016
0.000067:
'
R.
Pot
example,,
3',
sin x =yx
lo
where
and
0 < R<
2
co s x =
'
31-- +
4
< RI < rx
where
4.
Example
4-5c.
To find
lie
x-->0
We can write
sin
x
and
1 - cos x.
lip
x.
x-0
sin x = x - R,
3t
Asin x,-
1 -
"x
0 <
Since
R'
x2
---
2:
we conclude that
approaches '1.
Similarly;
.
cos x = 1 -
+ R',
<
2
Hence,
1 '- cos
x
x= Tr
4
r
29g 0.5
0,
R'
Since
1 - cos x
x
-and
2i
and
R'
x
1
-x,
lim
x
0
lim
To find
Example 4-5d.
x
.
1 - cos x
sin x
0%
x
cos x = 1
Since ,
1 - cos x
- 0.
x
+ IV
' .
'.
(0 < R <
sin x = x 7 R,
and
,
x2
-- - R'
x -
sin x
R'
1 - '
1 -
cos x
2-
and
sin x = x.
ti
Therefore,
_,,X2\
which approaches
as
x2
2/, _
x
approaches
0.
re
296
30
1.
(
-.
1 - cos x
'sin x
2'
Hence,
4-5
This example may be done in still another way.
1 - cos x = 1-- cos x
simx
1 - cos x
x
sin x
approaches
approaches
sin x
We can multiply these two limits to obtain the required limit.
We may write
and
It can be shown that the Taylor approximations are the best polynomial
approximations near zero.
For example, if
f : x -'sin x
an
then
f(x)
p(x)1',.
as
approaches
and
0;
approaches
or less
x3
it
4-5
I
Exercises 4
(b)
(i)'
(ii)
f(1)(x)*
(x)
(ii,i)
.(iv)
-) Cos
Given:, g
(i)
determine
x,
8(31)(x)
g
-2.
(.1)
determine
-' sin x,
(a)"
(42).
(
x)
fr,
f
(35). xi'
(18) (x)
(20)
thin find
),
g(14),
then find
(x)
g(101)(x)
'
x,
(i)
(iii)
fm(ii)
(iv)
(ii)
(b)
Given:'
(i)
3.
(a)
(0
given:
(10)
5g.
(-6-)
gt(i)
(iii) 011(1)
8"Pir-)
(iv)
f : x
A sin ax,
(ii)
f"(X)
(iv)
x-4B
cos bx,
(4)- 5g
(--(7)
find
(iii)
'Given:
(4)
find
x -) cos x,
f'(x)
find
81(;)..(ii)
(a)
(i)
-"
r(i)
Given:
(iv)
g"(x)
f
(it)
g
,
(*)
find
(i)
ft(x)
(iii)
fftl(x)
(ii)
e(x)
(iv)
fiv(x)
g*(x)
(iii)
gm(x)
g"(x)
(iv)
giv(x)
Giventz .g f
2 cos 2
(i)
298
1047
4-5 .
5.
If
-) 3 sin (i +
f(0)
(al
ft(x)
(b)
(c)
(d)
'
(e)
6.
If
find
(i)
f"(x)
(i)
fm(x)\
(i)
f(4)(x)
g-
4a)
-2 cos (2x +
'find
g(Q)ti
().) 7,(,i)
g'(x)
(:k1(1)
e
811-(:)
(d)
ii). g"'(x)
(e)
(1.-)
04)
g'(v)
(ii)
g"(-
(ii)
g'"(0)
12
8()*
(x),
-
7.
8.
. x --t
x2
2!
2!
cos x
are given: b3
+-7
and, in general, by
1
where
is even,and
9.
(a)
9,
k xn
(4'1)
n!,
k =
$N
.1
For Numbers
Calculate iin(0.2)
= 4.
sine
aria...t
s-.
1.
1.
(b)
`.
10.
(a)
Calculate pos(0.2)
(b)
using
n
.
r
4
k-
.299
309
cosine.
;,
cos
using'
n = 2
(i)
'(iii)
r-
=4
=6
cos
1
a .
Show that the sine function is not equal to a polynomial function onlpany
.
a < b
p,
such that
there is a number
.,
11
a < x"< b
sin x = p(x),
Suppose
(Hint:
and
sin x #
a < x < IS
p(x).,
and differentiate 'several
times .)
approaches
0.
(a)
X
sin x
2
-
x6,
(b).
4x2 .sin. 4x
(c)-7
te
x2 =
{Let,
4x2
),0) /
6
3x - sin 3x
(Let
(Let ....3x .= t)
6x
2
1 - cos .x
x
1
x3
Ps,/
(f)
".
300
I .
14.
cos x
and
---
sin'x
cos x
''''''-'
lim
(a)
x -4 0
lim
(b)
7-
cos x - sin
x
x -4 0
P
V
lim
(c)
4.4p+
4x )0+"
(Note:
15.
means that
approaches
0.
sue_
x
(a).
x_
sin x
- cos x
(b)
nt
x
i
sin
x
t-
(c)
cos X)2
(1
16.
17.
by
2x
Taylor approximations at
(a)
xl )sin 2x
x.
n,
such that
deg p
(i)
a /,0
nomia4
can be obtained by
(iii)
the first
values at
x = a
derivatives of
as the first
derivatives pf
x 1-4sin x.
(c)
g'n a
p(x)
'
si n a
2!
(x, -.a
4
'
f"(a)
* f (n) (a)
2
(x - a). +
(x.. a)n.
it
501
A
J
''
-1
3 1 I
t
5-1
41,
Chapter 5.
the preceding four chapters we studied polynomial and circular functions, the former being defined algebraically, the latter in terms o& arc
lelith bn the unit circle.
x
,.,
Peview of thailaws of exponents..To assist us Pin our discUssion`of exponential functions, we Show in Section 5-2 how.the function x -uN2x _serves as a
increases as
2x
4 where,it is noted that laws of exponents for arbit*ry real numbers hold and
that the graph'of the resulting function x -42x is rising and has no gaps.
These facts are used in Section 5-5 to obtain-the definitions and propertiet
of the general exponential function.
-1.
'
Exponents '
Since, how-
ever, we shall need to use them extensively, it seems wise to put our know-,
ledge of theM in order.'
Le
2,*2 X 2, 2 X 2 X 2, 2 x2,x 2 x 2,
...
which we abbreviate as
(1)
,using thel'exponents1 1
1
,
3
,,o2s
.4
, 2
I.
3,01
-1
-2
,
2/2, 22/3, t
or to
equal factors or
-2
equal
4fdtors0
If
to the exponent
results in a multiplication IL
24
Thus
2.
result which is
Thus,
23 = 1(24),.2.2 = 1(23),
2
in
We can get to
represent?
20
What number
20,
by subtracting
we should have
2
]..;
.=
-t
Subtitcting another /
2
-1
0
1
= -fke
-2
=3
2 ,
-4
1
=
=
g1
= 7,
'
and generally'
2
-n
1
=
1
2n
1/2
2
n.
.
%w7
With integer expoffents this prin-
a ratio o,'
2.
r.
Then
.
304jQ
(.1
1
?
Let A call
5-1
.
t
t t
21/2 ='
+1/2
2i1
and
r 2 = r 1 = r
r
21/2 +1 /2-
/But
1/2-_ r2
r
916
21
61.
Hence:
4
r.,,
and
1.-
....
-
.,
'>
'
= /E.
.
r = -1/
grapild
Po.
4.4
FigUre 5-1a
Powers of
2
,
22/3 .
andso on.
3.
2=
p /4
12 /75
where-,p
and
1%0
We can reverse our principle and say that every time we st.lberact a given
amount from the exponent we divide theaiiimbelby a fixed amount.
clude that
.3953
t
i4
Then we con-
5-1
-1/2
1
=
-2/2
, 1
ig
JE
-3/2
'
1*
: 27-..:::--
'2
end so on.
.
,,
`--
ac
..,
and
are_.any
two tational numbers then
--a
g
..
2r
'
2s = 2
r+s
'
and
(2r)s
More geprally, if ,a
2rs.
4
is any positive number and if 'r
(2),
eras = a
r+s
and
(3),
c(ar)s.
arS.
4,0''s
are two
Elercises,5-1
Write each of the following as a positive power of one number
1.
(a)
x5
x.?
(a3/5)5/3
(b)
'
(g)4 ;TLIU
10-7
.169
62/3
(c)
a3 /5.
a5/3'
(h)
3 .2
1/2
32
32
2 24
(d)
2 (73-).
(11
-- o
1/2
ti
22
i(i)
(e)
1.1
814/3'
23/4
r.
2.
if:
14m-r _442/3;
= (23)2;
(a)
8rn
(b)
8m .=
(c)
2(45) = 16m;
(a)
(24)5 = 16m;
2(32);
/
if)
571
= 0.2;
(g)
(pm
(h)
17m = 1
I;
O
.
Eva
'3.
100018-2/3)
ex.
3(9)-3/2.
5.
(1)=riti;
..
Show that if
x =
22 ..7
then 7x = 4
2-3,
(2 -2/9)9
10,--7,-
.,.
.
.
(45/2)0-1),
6.
31/4
(b)
4-3 =
41/31.
43
(c)
2:1/2
500"
307
31G'
'41
-2
5-2.
In this and the next three sections we shall be concerned with assigning,
a meaning to
where
a > 0
and,
This
'where
is a constant
The number
kax
function.
./
the food holds out, the time required for the number of bacteria to double
His
does. not seem to depend on the time at, -which he starts the experiment.
hypothesis is that .the time required for the bacteria to double does not
depend upon the time when the initial count is made. 'This is one instance
of a general growth principle which 'is important in social, phytic0s, and.
biological science.
(
N0
bacteria
presentsand that the number of baoteria doubles every day,' Then there will be
2N0
,twice
the number
or
23..2,:.
After
v
of bacteria present will be given by.tne';qs,tat'ion
N(n)
2 N.. ;or
days
ti
0
N(n) = No2
(2)
__where
n
,
is a positive integer.
any given day,,ye might want to determine how many bacteria are present
after the s
1
2 .f
II*
1-f
day
was made.
where
expressions as
to
and
J5.
271
If such
308
3j7
-r
5-2
where
Let As suppose that (3) serves as a model for the growth of the bacteria
colony.
Can we 44duce from this growth equation that the time required for
the bacteria to double doesn't depend on the time. the initial count is made?
only, when
is
days later:
x and
Here
From,(3) we have
N(x + t) = NO2x4t.
-
m-Seet-i-on-5-1,-_tlie_exponent la
'r
,(2r +s
= 2 2
for- -r
and
rational)
gives
N(x + t) = N0 2x
Replacing
by
N 02
N(x)
(4)
414
we obtain
N(x + t) = *2tN(x).
In words, if 1N(x)
number N(x + t)
The factor
of bacteria after x + t
does not depend upon
t,
x,
days
is
2s times as great.,
For example, suppose that there are one million baiteria ruSent initi,a1g4r;
i.e.,
N0'= 10
6
.
106(21/2)
=10
N(p.... 106(23/2)
r= 106 (21,2)
r-%
= 200 6Y2)
= 2 N(t)
309
318
d
1'
5-2
Assuming that the conditions of growth were the.same prior to the initial
count, we Stu:mid expect, that the number of bacteria one day before the' initial
-1
= 500,000.r
a_
each day, we
N(x + t) = at N(x).
We see that it is also true in the general case that the growth factor
depends only-upon the length of the time interval
observation time
(x).
3100
(t)
(at)
4,
LI
Exercises
N(n) = 106(2n),,
where N,(n)
days.,
(The unit chosen for the vertical axis may be one million.)
7-*
2.
3.
n + 5
n + 2
Onp week after the inftial count was made the number of bacteria present
experiment began?
4.
If there are
;.00
200,000
Compute:
days.
(a)
(b)
days;
1
days;
(c)
bacteria pFesent
806,000
bacteria present.
Hint:
the. experiment is
a N0
24
6.
If t
reewere
bacteria
fl.t after
days is given by
N(t) = 105
days?
(a)
(b)
2 -days?
2t.
count?
.
(d)
ti
,311
320
N(2)
to
one-half day
N(- 2)?
5-2
7:
la with
Use the/for
a =
1
,
a = 1, . and
be-smeller tlian
a =
t.
1?
Calcula
41,
N(t'+ 1)
NM'
77.7,
N(t + 2)
N(t + 3)
N(t + /) ' __N-(t f 2)
(c)
(d)
Suppose that
MItr + n 4,1) 9
N(t +..n)
,
N(1) = 105
and
N(2) = 106.
Find _N0
'
.....
and
a,;/
8.
/present,
N(t)A
.,--
at time
formula as growth:
N(t) = N at,
0
where- a
(a)
t = 0?
(b)
(c)
t + 1
than
exceed
1?
to the
1.
No
lttt
JO
312
0 2
.7-
...
_
'5-3
1
where
a > 0
and
a = 2;
r ) 2r,
r
and
( 1)
For
rational.
r,
2r2s
+s
(2)
0-4_6
2rs
(2r)s
< 2
if
and
r <-'s.
if
(3)
a > 1,
where
then
> 1, a 3 > 1,
4.., a
> 1,
is a positive integer.
.r:
a = 1;
if
/'
then -an = 1,
and
0 < a < 1,
if
(5)
which is false.
m/n
1,
> 1
then
and
m and
n.
'If
Now let
0 < an < 1.
1,
1, .then,...(5..)
Since
2m/fl
is
1.
r < s.
In conclusion we have
Then
d
/
2s
-r
. 2
m/n
2r(2s-r)
2s > 2r.
32.3
3.22
> 1
2r
r -)2.,, where
Is rational,
unc ion.
is aryfcreasing
... /
'
If
Ailk
is very large.
Estimates
'
2n
of the size of
n >
12 +
1) In -2
All of these terms are positive, so if we cmit any terms we can-only decrease
ms we
In partibUlar, omitting all but the first and second
the size.
obtain
>
2n = (1 + 1)
6,(6)
+ n.
y = 2x,
(7)
rational
fact that the, negative x-axis is an asymptote fot the graph of (7); that is,
k negative and
Ix!
large..
,
:(8)
Since
-n
r and since
= -2
.0
1 + n
2**
approaches zero as
Inl
increases, then
1 + n
y,= 2x
1-:.g.
approaches zero as
x < 0
and
!xi
y = 2x,
(0,1),,
and
x > 0.
.;---.tr.
314
323
*.
5-i
.'
r,
4
-
) 2-r
.001
1.000 693 4
.005
1.003 471 7
.01
1.006 955 6
..02
0.999 307 1
0.99
54o 2'
)1
1:01 3 96
.03-
1.021:01 -
0.979 42
.64
1.V 11
0.972 66
..05
1.106
.10
o
.15
26
0.965 94
1.071 77
,0.933 03
1.109 57
0.901 25
1.148'70
0.870 55
to
-"J
.20
.25 .
1:189 21
0.840 9b
.30
1.231 14
0.812 25
.35
1.274 56
0.784 58
.40
1.31951
0.757 86
:45
1.366 04
0.732 04
1.414. 21
...0.707 11
.50
.55
1.464 08.
0.683 02
.6o
1.515 72
0.659 75
.65
1.569 17
0.637 28
1.624 5o
0.615 57
1.681 79...$
0.594 6o'
.70
.75
.1
.8o
1.741 lo
_85 -
1.862 5o
0.554 78
.9o-
1.866 07
0.535 89
.95
1:931 87
0.517 63
a.
1.00
Rational Values of
2-.00o 00
0.574 35
-6.560 00
2r
'
2.
Ordinarily it is sufficient.to
"a.
>
3!S2 4
5-3
21'68.
de
We note that
2(1 +
21.68
=
1.
1..1
Find
Example 5-3h.
--
2r
0.65
000,
4 .03)
20.03
20.65
21
2(1.569)(1.0021)
0.57
write
+.0.63
2-0.31 =
2...(2o.6o oro.03)
11213.6o)
0.03)
'U*516)(1.021)
2
Note that.
22,
0.774
43'21.
so that
"43.21
22x3.21
(22)3.21
26.42
26
20.02>
21374o
64(1.320(10314) = 85.663.
general positive
a,
2.)
ax, tfor
.
316
325
4.
.
fi'
5-3
Exercises 2:2
1.
(a)
.(b)
2.
5 4
2-/
Calculate
by noting that
2514 = 2
21/4
= 2 .
21.15
.y.65
(c) 20.58
(d)
3.
4.
2-Q.72
(a)
(b)
0.25-0:83
Table 22 (extended)
Values of
2r
2r.i
'
-3.6
-3.2
-2.8
-2.4
r..
-2.0
-1.6
-1.2
ft
..
1.4
'1.8
2.2
'
'
?6
3.0
e
Ak
(x
2x)
shown in
1%.,._
e
(a)
increasing?
decreasing?
r -tar
constant?
317
32G
is the function
5-3
(b)
is the function
0r
increasing?
(c)
z.
we.
constant?
decreasing?
is the function,
-r 2
f
increasing
(d)
If
decreasing? constant?
for what values of
+3
r '-
.ShowAhat if
n > 2
is the function
(2b + 3)r
then
2
>
MO.
nkn - 1)
2
I'
(b)
constant?
decreasing2
increasing?
(a)
(a)
'
99
100 > 2 r
210,000
116,000 >
(ii)
(e)
As
9, 99
2
2"
n
become large?
Justify your'answer.
ti
3.
318
327-
5-4
onents
Arbitrary Real
In the preceding
for
rational.
irrational.
ax
and
is
n,
3
x
x;
2x
a = 2.
x.
general positive
a,
in terms of powers of
(X
ax,
for
2.
so
Geometricqlly,
2X)
then we just connect these points
x,
2 2
(2,4)
(0,1)
if
Figure.5-4a.
Finding
"holes" in
by filling in the
x 742x,
319
rationat.
'
s/
and in general
2x
for irrational
x.
if
u < v,
then
'2u <*iv.-
In fact, there is only one increasing function which has the values
all rational numbers
r.
u+r '= 2 u 2 v
and
and
for
(2u)v,= 2uv
(rational or irrational).
The graph of
(3)..
(2)
this function
such that
y,
there is an
2x = y.
is so defined that,
(2) and '(3) are true and examine the consequences of these
assumptions.
and
s,
r<
we must-have
8,
(5)
...
2F < 2
< 2s.
4'.
,-
and
s;
we know that.
'
,
1
)..4
1.401,
.
fit
'
_1.411121
< If
<1.41422
and so qn.' The iriequa ities (4) and (5) then show that
'4
320
-
5-4
1.4.
< 2
21..41
< 3
1.414
< 2
21 4142
If
if
< 2
if
< 2
1.42
1.415
21.4143
21rf
1.41421
1.5
< 2
if ) 1.41422
2
< 2
<
and so on.
estimates for
if
1.4
2.639 <
2.657 < 2
2.664.< 2
2.665 < 2
and sa'nn.
2
if
< 2
1.41
< 2
1.414
If
< 2
< 2
<
1.4142
< 2
,/,"f
< 2
1.5
1.42
1.415
1.4143'
< 2.829
< 2.676
< 2.667
< 2.666
decimal places,
ff
= 2.665
if
is indicated
in Figure 5-4b.
V
1.4142
1.41
1.41
1.415
21
.
4 2
1.42
21
4,
.2.6
2:7
2.8
Figure 5-4b
,,
Pinching down on
TI:0 generalize to any real number
Yn,
decreaSing sequence
than X
x,
2'6.
r l'i
3?).
'i-t
and any
330
,
r1
sequence of numbers
,
intervals
< y
1
,
3
,
r2
r,
and the
, 2 J, ..., 2 n,
,-2
..., 2 n,
sn
.
s3
2 q-
pinching down on
2
x
r
crowding in on x.
41,
fi
rn
r
s2 sl
n
Figure 5-4c
Pinching down on' 2x.
confined by
and
he number
2x.
choice
n"
of
the sequences
rn, ...
;..
3223
and
r'113 "-*
1
SHIM
... ....
OS.
.....
..............
::: ::::::::::::
SS
MSS
......
SS
OS
S OY
113
sass
.....
11
1.1
Is
r1
-...
T:fin:2112
SEIM
.... ....
::: :
MEWL.
31U.
..........................
....
WRENN
111
COO
NA
.....
..
.......... . :
'11::..... SS .........
:
I
I
WIN
e:
........
1:11:313:13
L..13:1111'11..
....... elas
..............
Wan ...............
%SS
.........
SW=
...........
....................
e.
3111:1-'13111111:11:11
................
/Il :
i..
....... ............
....................
00
...
00
.....................
Of ......
..... ........
.......................................
..........................................
II ............................. g
........
.........................................
.......... :
RS
........................................
II
......
1/8
5-4
4 Exercises 2:4
1.. Use the graph of
2
2
2
x --)2x
1.15
2.65
0.58
2-*72
2.
Exercises 5-3
3.
se the graph of
(a) 2
(b)
x -)2
17 f
2g
(c) -.2-g/4
4.
for which
= 0?
answer.
5.
x -)2x
r.
to estimate the vilify of
if:
(a)
(b)
23c
= 6
'II.
(d)
2x = 3
(e)
0:7'
,4
!I
= 0.4
(c)
iim
--'
= 3.8
= 2.7
*a
6rL
Fl
324
5-5
as Powers of
x -)2x.
You are now familiar'With its graph andhave worked with a table of its Values.
We shall now study the function
f
where
x -)a
as lie proceed to
2,
show:
o
The graph of
right.
Also,
x -)2
f(x) = 2x'
sufAficiently ,far
to the right on the real number line, and arbitrarily close to zero for all
..
a,
increases
will be encountered
for which
a=
(1)
a
Figure 5-5a
Graph of x
Con-
showing that
325
334
= a.
2.
x,
say
**)
5-5
We can find the value of a
Table 5-3.
1.11 = 2a.
1.11
or
Exam le
Welhave
3.25
Example
-7c.
The result is
6.
(approximately).
6 = '22(1.5).
2a.
21.70.
21 (20.70)
2(1.625)
On the graph of
ordinate
3:251in.the form
Express
'
as a power of
2j
4- first write
20.58 m 1.50.
Therefore a Z 2.58,'
by itterpolation.
The expression. a
for
o= 2
!fence,
irrational and
x = 0.55
2 . 0.5 8).
A 2.58
0..50) ,S4'2 k2
4 d
2.
a / 2
defined.
ax when
is irrational.
the function
x -,ax
by
x
{2)
ax
where
a =115.
ax
axa"and
( x)Y = PxY
will have no g p
13)
a >1,
thee X-*ax
a <'0
(for 'if
then
that is,
2a < 1).
Thus tf
a > 1
x < y
y.
E9. < a
is increasing.
32d3
= 2'
then ax <ay
where
a > 0,
so that
(5-5
The graph
a;
where
a'= 2a.
= 2,
end
a = 2a,
then
For example, if
a = 4
scale by a factor of
Roy changing
so that
0 < a.< 1
x
In this case the graph ,of x -*a
will be negative.
x -,2x
If
2.
These considera-
(i)x
x -)2x
Figure 5-5b
,
The following examples illustrate the use of formula ,(2) Table 5-3 in
0
calculating
ax.
'
'
4 4 4.
i,
.
(0
.
To
3.7
as epower of
0.7
2,
'
;:d
'
-\.
5-4d.).
'30.7
Now
(21.58) 0.7
*106
21.11
a
.
m 2
(1+0.10+0.01)
= 2 (2
0.10
m'n1.072)(1.007) = 2.159.
)(2
0 01
,'
327
3 3.6
." p
5 -5
Example 5-5e.
(6.276)0.4.
We note that
//
6.276 = 4(1.569)
22(1.569) z 22
22.65
=
Hence,
2(2.65)(0.4)
(22.65)0,.4
(20.65)
(1+0.05+0.Q1)
= 2
21.06
20.05
2(1.035)(1.007) = 2.084
20.01
2
(approximately).
Exercises LI
1.
Express
2.
Write
"A
of
2.64
in the form
2.64 = 2a
(2.64).3.1
.
3.
4.
(5.2)2.6.
5.
ShoW that if
6.
0,< a <%.,4
and
v > u,
then
x -o 4x
(b)
(c)
x -3 (5.736)'
(d)
x -3(0.420)x
aV < au.
QX
.
(3.66)x
328
337
5-5
oV.
7.
a ,and
Suppose
Consider the
1.
two functions:
x
and
ax
bx
'
If
(b)
Su pose
a < b,
_,2ax
and
b.
Is
close to
and
(3.
Illustrate your
(3?
8.
2.0/.44
2-.3
---.1
ax
ax = 2
Given:
ax
(D)
(b)
If
(c)
ShoW that
Igt
a?
a?
is independent of
f(xf,(+x)1)
x.
.)
If
(1)
10t
> 0,
'
(ii)
(d)
'
9.
(a)
If
a > 2,
If
what can we ;c
z,
q ,< 0,
Where, does
a ,,
(2
he graph_of
e.
,44-1
xs:,
:show that
.for
> 0.
`*
Does
,..,
(b)
%;
c ',t'
J. '
i-
."
(c)
a?
.7
W,
.'..
--)
aZ and
.x
x -, 2(2a) .
.
I.
if any, of the
.!
,,
f ,,4 %,
.
.,..
two graphs:
es.
r.
,..
(where
St
x -,b(ba)X
u.
.
and
and
x -> b
n.
,x
Om)
I.:
-:'
.'-
5-6
5-6.
y = b
where
x -02
b > 0.
be-
large.
In particular, if
x > 0,
negative And
such that
...
JO%
2y =x.
This 'number
by
log2 x.
log2 x
log2 : x
x > 0
is defined-only fkz.
With base
2.
(1)
2d = c.
'
x -4kog
then
(2)
(d,c)
and conversely.
X' --'2x
As was tha case for other functions and their inverses that we have
studied, the graph of
x -32x
x --olog2 x
y = x.
139
-.
5-6
Calculations involving
log2
we know thAX
log2 8 = 3;
and since
-6
2
1
"we have .log2(.alo= -6.
also give.4tUes of
log2.
will
.20
= 1.14870
so that
log
1.14870 2:
log2
ti
-331
'140
.--"
(a)
(3)
log2 1 = 0
(b)
1og, 2 = 1
(c)
log2
((i)
log2 x > 0
(e)
is an increasing function
x > 1
if
0 < x < 1.
Y1 = log
Suppose
y0 = log2 x0
For
and
so that
If yo
= 2Y
yl
and
= 2 1.
we would have
y0 > yi
2y0 > 2
y1;
y0 > yl.
Since
is an
implies that
.
,)
.,
so we are
contradicts the assumption that x < x
0
1
This
log
is an
log2'x0
<
log2
xl.
This
proves
that
forced to conclude that
that in,
5:
0 ?
x1.
increasing function.
\,..
x y
= 2 2
and
(255Y = 2xY
(b)'
log2 xY = y log2 x.
(4)
b = log2 x,
a = log2 xy,
(5)
4g,
so that
2c.
2b,
Observe that
xy
so
= 2b
2c =
2b +c
so that
0}
b+c
= 2
332
3 41
5-6
Wp.conclude that a = b + c;
'
Example
Find
log
3,25.
3!25
doesn't.
4T
.appear.
3.25 =2(1.625)
so that
log2 3,?5 = log'114,+ 16g2 1.625.
'
Reading from t.he second .column to the first column in Table 5-3 we obtain
log2 2 = f,
log2'1.625 r. 0.70,
so that
log2 3.25 z 1.70.
. The next example shows how inequalities for the logarithm to the base
lbg2 n < n.
-)
Since.
and log2
log2 2n >.log2 n.
Formula (14b)
gives
-,
log2 2n = n log
Since
log 2 = 1
2
we must have
n > log2 n.
-tr
--333342
5-6 ,
Example 2-6c.
The function
1
can write
f :
is defined for
LI
x -elog2 1-2(x - VJ
in four steps.
: x -elog94 - 2x
1 - 2x >0;
'''
)J.
'
by
We
g :-x -elog2 x
Second, replace
Third,
The graph of
First,
x < 5
1.,
-
thatj s, for
2x...
x = 0.
(the y-axis)
2/
1 og2
4
log2 (-px)
es
Figure 5-6b
5-6
2.6
Exercises
1.
log2(X)
that
log2(x
0,
-x1-)
= 0,
and hence.
= -log2 x.
x2 > 0,
x
1
log2 (x2) = log2, x1 - log2 x2.
.log2xY = y log2 x
4.
.(a)
is
log2 x
.(-10,)
is
y=
log2
(iv)
(ii)
y=
log2 (-x)
(v)
y=
log2 (x
5.
1)
less than
less than
(i)
(iii)
114,
(vi)
0?
greater than
0?
= log2 (1
y=
1og2(gx
= log2
greater than
0?
0?
x)
- 3)
(3 -
Graph the following functions on one set of axes over the interval
-5 < x-< 5.
r
ea
X -4
6.
lipg
X -4 log2 (1 - x)
x -4 log2 (-x)
x -4 log2 (x + -1)
x,-+Aog2 (x
x -4
- 1)
log2g-(1 + x)1
On one set of axes sketch the graph of each of the following functions
< x < 8.
log2 x
log2 (2x)
-4 log2 (-2i)
log
x -0
(31)
lg2 (-
<x< 8
(b)
x -4 log2 2x
-4 log2 (2x - 2)
(c)
x -4 log2 (2x
(d)
x -4 log2
335
34
(7
- 7)
- 2x)
-6'
(b)
3 log2 x = 5k
(d)
;2 log23 = -t
(a)
2x,=
(b)
4k =
logarithmic form:,
2.
(c)
(2)-3 = mn
{,d,)
= xy
10.
(a)
log2 2
(e)
log2 1
(b)
log2 4
(e)
log2
(c)
log2 8
(8)
log2
(d)
log
(fi)4
log2 g
1
T;
1
7-
4
1
16
11.
.-
log2 11 < 4,
(e) 1082 S.
t( i)i
since
23,< 11 524).
log2 31
.
ti
(a)
t:.
(b)
log2,5,
(j)'
idg2 34-
log2 6.
(k)
log250 ..
(.0,
log2 99
'
e)
(d)
ldg2
gip
(m)
(f)
(n)' log2(i)'.;
(g) log2 13
(h)
12.
r;
.(eY 1-82 2
log2 10
log
18
2
(o)
log2 (4)
(p)
log2 (0.18)
Table 5-3.
(a)
lOg2
(b)
log2, 5
(c)
/
log2 131,
336.
3'4 5)
5 -6
13.
=3
log2 72 = 1og2(23)(32)
2+
loge
3z
2 log2
6.28)
each of
the following.
,(a)
(b)
(f)
log2 12
2
-(c)
log2
24
'.(d)
log2.
(e)
14.
1282
(b)
1282 54
(h)
log2 36
log2 27
Log2 x = 0
log2 x =
(c) slog2 x = -1
15.
..(g)
log2 52
log2 169
Show that, if
log2 x
(e)
log2 x
ti >. 1,
1
2
1
log2 x =
then
log2 n(n
(Hint:
(a)
1) < n + 1.-
( n(n - 1)
>
;s
'
4
set
3,37
:3 4
5-7
o.
'5-7.
If
is defined analogously to
loge,
denoted by.'
and
log2.
Thus
log
ay
= x.
is defined onl
for
(1)
if
The techniques and ideas of the previous section extend easili to this more
general case.
loga x
y = x.
(2)
(a)
loge 1 = 0
(b)
log 'a = 1
a
if
(c)
then
0 < a < 1
a > 1, loge
is decreasing.
loge
axay,
(ax)y
axy%
log
.(a)
my = log
(3)
log
a id'
(b)
_
x + log
x ).0
and
y,> 0
x,
= y, log
for , x > 0.
a,
Logarithms tp the
for
y,;
base 10
are of increasing importance due to the use of the binary/' system in computors
base e,
where
is the symbol./.
2.72.
and
).
-logc b
r.
(4)
logab
log
e-
logc; b
so that
338
S
CI A '7
CY 4k
1 --then
If
5-7
a
= b.
of each side.
This gives
loge ax = loge b.
Formula 3(b) gives
loge ax = x loge a
ea that
Unce loge a / 0
If
and
logb a
then
Exercises
log,5
(a)
(d)
(e)
16
(f)
32
7..",
2 logn3
(b)
(c)
log 2
1/2 loga3
log54.
3.
If
ath. =
(a2)m,
hence
5.
Prove that
'
s,
x -if
52-= 4x?
loga(x
= 0,, and
-loge x.
log
(N
x
2
= log x - lo r wa-x
a I
2'
'339
5-7
loge a = 1.
6.
Show that
7.
8.
(a)
log10 35 = y
(b)
log2 25 = x
(c)
2 log10 5 = x
find
128%
logio.5,
9.
logla(-5).
(a)
3 17
(b)
10-2 = 0.01
(c)
274/3 = 81
(d)
'0.043/2 = o.o08
= 5
(e)
log6 (x + 9) + log6 x r: 2
in terms o,
r, s, "p,nd
t,
ig
A
r = log10 2, s
(a)
logia 4
(b)
to o
(c)
logio4
(d)
loglo
lOgio 10
= log10 5.
(e)
(f)
1og16 2.5
-kJ
(h)
log10 8 3,6535
.11
ov
14
-51-7
log10 1000
(f)
(b)
log0.01 0.001
(g). log2
23
(h)
logio Ar)
log4
(i)
log81 27
(,j)
log2
(d)
32
(e)
13.
logo.
(a)
,(0.0001)
log 5
log '5
(a)
10810
x.
log 3c
- 2 log10 (x - 1) = login 3
log 5
x
14.
=5
-(c)
,
.1.5'.
10810 x = 0
10810 X*+ 1 = 0
10810 x = 1
t'.
(0)
log
(e)
logio, ?c + 3 = 0
(f)
log10 (2x - 1) + 2 = 0
10
(x - 2)
=3
(a) :loge x= 0
(b)
logx x = 1
(c)
logic
= c
3.0gx 2x =-2
16.
17.
(a)
Show that if
(b)
Show that
(a)
(b)
18.
Use
then
0, < a < 1,
log
then
is an increas.ing function.
x -4 logs X,
x -'loge x
and
is a decreasing function.
logb x
related?
(10.)
Prove formula
(5)
of the.text:
not equal to
1,
then
if
a > 1,
log
if a
and- b
1-
logb a ,
t
341
'o/
,A1-1
,'1
Appendix 1.
A1-1.
Functions
a set called its range, and a way of selecting a member of the range for each
member of the domain.
defines a function.
The domain of this function is the set of all integers; the range of the
function is the set of all even integers.
from A
to
andthe set
B.
C
B,
The set
assigned to members of A
built fromthese.
c.:
The range
B,
343
351
4
B.
Inany case,
.7"
A1-1
g,
f,
associates with
x.
AUSTotion
at
f,
or simply
x,"
"f
takes
"f
function
into
relation between
and
x,'
takes
takes
or
9,
defined as follows:
Thus, if
takes
is an element.of the
associates
with
3.
Coltcisely
f,
lat
lik
x:
it
x;
into
into
x.
x. ")' An aiics.,C,cs
f(x }.
In general, if
f(3) = 9,
then
of
is an
C9nsider a function
Example Al-lb.
f(x)
or "f
with
(other
f(x)
(Read for
f(x)
f(x)").
or the element
tten
'at
(read
used). If x
0,
h,
-7-
F,
er, f
f(x) = x
or
2
.
If t
If
-we choose the set of all real numbers as domain, then a different function-is
defined, even thipigh the rule of,associationis the same; in this case the
1
Observe that a function from A
reverse association from B
and
and!,-3
f(-3) = 9,
to
to
to
9,
function maps each eldm4ntof its domain upon.one and only one element of its
In t1is vein,
range.
f(x)
x---(x)
maps
x
upon, f(x)";
is called a
and range
4,
r.
341;
'52
'
Al-1
A.
A
f
Figure Al-le
Note that 'each element. of the domain is mapped into a unique element of the
range; i.e., each arrow starts from a different point in the domain.
This is
the requirement of our definition, that with each element of the domain there
is associated exactly one element Of the l'ange4
7.
for
xample,
f(x) = 3x
5;
The notation
f(x)
is particul
-t
We illustrate
x--- -0-3x
2
-
;.(x)
f(-2)
a + 1/17
=,3(-2)
Then
5,
= 3x2
5 =
f(0) = 3(0)2
and if
5 = -5,
A-N 2
5:
I
,r
345
353
Al -1--
We note, since
3x2
25
> -5,
less than
and hence
e range of
-5.
a
As mentiviii earlier, a function is not completely defined unless the
lh
assume that the domain includes all real numbers for which the formula
describes a real number:
function
-1x2,
domain is
-2
(x.
to
2x
f :
ti
-= 9
and
-3.
Similarly, if
from
inclusive.
and
for each x
in their domain.
The graph of
is in the domain of
y = f(x).
tr
(x,y)
for which .x
'
x --spy =
47-7x7
is
of what the function is doing to'the elements of its domain, and we can,
moreover, usually infer from the graph any limitations on the domait'and range.,
Thus, it is easily determined from Figure Al-lb that the domain of
is the
sdt of all
that
such that
0 < y < 5.
-5 < x.<:'5
such
Al-1
j
Figure Al-lb
We remind you of the fact that not every curve is the'graph of a fundtiOn.
this means that the graph of a function does not contain the points( (xl,y1)
and '(x ,y ) if y
y
1
1
2' i.e., two p nts having the same abscissa bat .,
diffeient ordinates. This is the a' s fJer the "vertical line test":
if in
xy-plane 'we imagine _41 possible lines which are parallel to the ylvis,
'and if any of,,thete lineS'cuts the graph in more than onepoint, then the
Conversely, if every
line parallel to the y-agis intersects a,graph in at'most.one point, then the
graph is thet,of a function.
,
t -
Example Al-le.
radiuS
5'
interval
The equation x
an
(3-4)
On ike open
Specifically,
,(3,4>,
..,
1#.
the y-axis and intersecting the 'circle intwo points, thus illustrating that
t'
he circle is the graph.oft.
the
latioh that is not a
1
.)
- .. 4 5.--
(Example Al-ld)
and
tc
127577
....
'",)
'-'i
o
'
^.
ft.
'
-1,
'
,,.
mi
'
x and 'y.
Specifically, if
c'
f. ls therfunction
.
.,
,,-,.
..
a'
*
,..
-- = f(),
: x..?
'
,...k..
14
.----.4!
r
e
TT
.347
,
3 5 Lit
4_
'74
od ,
'
A1-1
.
then
and
f,
In many textbooks
in the domain,
in the
is called
For the most part this language is not used in this textbook.
. r
If
f :
the value
b,
The graph of
is a line parallel
icl
in A,
...
...
A,
More generally[.for /any domain such a function is called the identity function.
is the.
y = x.
\.
_ TT
,
*
-function associates-its absolute value- :,.
._..
'1
.
x for.
f'
x > 0
...
....
ili
f 4 x---....1x1 .
-x
for
X <'0;
Alternative definitions:
x
f
f
X --. Ixi =
x..
3118
5.13
A'
A1-1
.
The-graph o
Figure Al-lc
The Integer Part FunCtion.
Eve
al number .x
and a real
can be represented as
such that
110-
x = n +
and
r < 1.
1
,
For example,
5.38 = 5
+.38,
3 =.3
O.
-. +
We call nthe integer part of
.6
and denote it by
it follows
[x] = n ;
Ix] < z <[x] + 1.' Tliwe see that to each real number
that
[x],
there.
0$
/t
*
Sometimes called the greatest integer function.
I
"/
349
3 57 v
ff`
A1-1
Figure Al-ld
The Signum Function.
+1,
-1.
sgn x.
0,
Thus
1, x
0.0
S gfl X
0,
1 0,
x = 0 ,
-1
x <0.
x.
Let
The function
f(-x) = f(x).
-x
even since
The function
functiOn
said to be odd if
f(,
is odd. since
for' all x.
350
es
35
.4
t4
Figure Al-le
Functions having this property are called periodic; included in this important
class are thg circular (trigonometric) functions, to be discussed in Chapter 2
3.
and
A function
x + p
p # 0,
p,
f(x + p) = f(x).
(1)
of
I;
bripgs usback to
f(x)
For example,
again.
f(x + 2p) = f
(cxi p) + 4
= f(x
p)
= f(x),
and
f(x - p) = f ((x - p) +
= f(x).
is also a per
that is,
'f(X + np)c:_f(x)
f
it is obvious that' f
111'
351
0
359
'1D,
since
A141
,
'It can be. shown that for nonconstant periodic functions (continuous at
a function.
44'
Example Al-lf.
x-----wx - (4
x = n + r
*
,part,
then
If
where
o
n
..-;t
f(x) = f(n + r)
= (n + r) - [n
r]
=n +'r - n
= r,
and
= n + 1 + r - (n + 1)
= r.
1,
-- Figure Ai-lf rf
x,
this 'function
352
36.0
.t,
A1-1
Exercises Al-].
1.
This also
Note that
no particular variable has to be the domain variable, and also that some
of the relations may give rise to several functions.
(a)
the number
the number
7.
r.
2n - 5.
ti
(c)' Assign to the number
(d)
10
(e)
Y = -3
(f)
x = 4
(g)
x + y =4""2
(h)
y = 2x2 + 3
(i)
y2 - 4 = x
(for all
x)
(for all
and
z)
y"< 2x - 1
(k)
f(x)
,x2
1/217
y2
I
16-
-2.
3.
A function
f(x)
4'.
'
-311
13
(a)
Describe th
(b)
If
x2 + 3x
4,
_f.
'find
f(I)
(a)
f(0)
(b)
f(2)
(e)
f(2 -
(c)
f(-1)
(f)
f(f(1)
(Hint:
of
ti
X353
.316
f(1).)
A1-1
-
If
5.
2x
find, if possible,
4-77
(a)
g(0)
(d)
g(2)
(b)
g(1)
(e)
g( -3)
(f)
g(15).
*(c)
6.
(a)
(d)
(c)
7.
number, are
x7-....
..,
and
x
x
8.
and
(it.)f : x I- 2x
10:
and ,g : x--0.
( 6)
x---1- x2
--:-11.
x - 2
Why or why not?
If
a : x--. Ix - 41
(e)
0 : x----[x]
Which of the following statements are always true for any function
-asgumingthat xl
and
x2
(a)
If
(b)
If
(d)
If
xl = x2.
(d)
If
f(x1),/ f(x2),
xl / x2.
then
x ,is
(d)
N.,
(b)
is a real
9.
If
1'6 2
fi
f,
A1-1
numbers
t?
and
1(x2) =
f(x)2
(e)
(f)
(g)
t : x
(h)
x---4-x3 + 4
.
'.(b)
(c)
2x2 +
2
x--..-x
- 4x + 4
x-x3
- 2x
(d)
x=---..-
'
2x,'+ 1
...
13.
(a) ;
I-Y
(c)
-0
r
(b)
6
3363
(f)
14.
Suppose that
x--e-f(;)
15.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
A function
is defined by
for
x /
for
x =
f(x) : {1234
0
ir
f : x
(b)
(c)
f: x--.- il - xi
(i
(d)'
C : x--1- 1 -- lx1
(j)
f :_sx--..x[x]
(k)
(/)
Fc2
ixi
(g)
(h)
sgn, x
St]
f: x ---o....Ca
x-,,,
(e)
(f)
.f.
2 xo- ixi - x
.f
356
3 t'S
x--4-1x2 - 2x:- 31
4240,
: xo- 11 - x
x21
Al-I
)
2x2
EA
f-:
2x2
42]
18.
x -
[c -
2x2 - 2[X]2
(a). f
ax
4f
a > 0
Ca)2
[2x]
Dx].
x(1/5' + 1) -
.1 + sgn x
2
[x]
(c)
(d)
f4
(F)
20.
.(g)
If
x--44.11(x)
x
:
H(x,- 2)
(x - 2)2
4i(X)
H(x2
and
2.)
.f
+ H(x - 2)
(f) f : X
Ah
21.
m and
n.
m and .n,
respectively
than both of
Ir
2)]x2
Give
f g.
What can you say about the evenness or oddness of the product of:
(1),
an,eve!T'function by an even.fUnction?
(c)
ontains
-x
whenever it
an odd function./
357
365
22.
Find functions
f(x)
satisfying
2,(x)
Suggestion:
23.
f(_x) = 1
Use 21(c).
functions.)
(Note:
el
358:
a t3
4:2
A1-2.
Composite Functions
and
and
f+g
x--;---.-f:),17.((.)x)
which has for dotain those elements contained in the intersection.of the
domains of
f and g.
Similarly there are definitions for the difference,
product, and quotient of two functions; there is, in fact, a whole algebra
In this algebra of functions there is one operation that has no counterpart in the algebra of numbers:
This operation
Old
2x + 1 4"
--4-x
2.
We observe that
g(l) =, 3. and
f(3)
g(2) = 5
f(5) = 25,
and
at
g(x)
is
by fg,
is called a composite of
and
g.
fg, by
at
and denoted
g(x).*
3 6 7:
A1-2
An immediate question arises as to the or in which two functions are
composed:
general, are
that
gf(x)
fg(2) = f(5)
fg(x)
arid
equal?
and we calculate.
= 25,
gf(2):
fg(2)
gf(2) = g(4) = 9
fg
and
gf,
generally
are composed.
gf(x) # fg(x).
and
is in the domain of
and
The number
fg(x)
is
4(x)
f.
For example, if
f(x)
and g(x)'43x - 9,
= -Li'
then
fg
for which
3x - 9
is
x > 3.
and
g,
we have
(x.
The composite
fg
of two functions
fg
The domain of
of
fg
for which
and
fg( x) = f (g(
g(x)
is the function
g.
x
f.
in the domain'
The operation
Thus, if
and
f, fig,
fgh
6
In order to evaluate
h(x),
fgh(x) =
fgh(x),
we first find
f
at
(g(h(x)))
.h(x),
gh(x).
36o
368
(l
at
te
,-
-r:
% Al-r2
.
0
-,
Exercises, A1-2
a.
Given that
x---. -x
and
': x---x
.
-,
'
(e)
find
x,
"
f(x) .4.4.rgSx')., :
l*
(b)
g(2)
f(2)
:(f) ff(x)
ro
g(x).
.
.,
2.
3.
fg(2).
(g)
(d)
gf(2)
(h)... gf(x)
If
f(x) = 3x + 2
(a)
fg(x).
(b)
gf(x).
and
fg(x) (and
..
find
g(x). = 5,
f(x) = 2x +1 and
If
(a)
gf(x).
'
-fex)
(c)
x,
g,
and
and
gf(x)
equal?
fg,
( a)
g: x
x
1
(b)
(c)
x
x
2x - 6
'
: x-x2
x-
- 4
'
ir
(a)
x\--;.. x2
(e)
f :
x2
(f)
f x 5(2- 1 ,,.g
g : x
x A - x
g, :
16C
5.
Given that
f(x) = x2-+ 3
and
g(x).= 1/)77.7,
'fg(x) = grflx).
Describe functions
g(x)
and
(a)
3(x + 2) - 4.
-%
(b)
(c)
(2X
5)?
'
(a)
(e)
- 41,
(42;
2x - 5
am=
J
361.
.a6 9
<o
,0
.
' and, gf
.f
and
Also,
r.
sketch the,graph of each, 'and give the period (fundamental) of those
(a)
x---4sgn(x - 2)
4,
x----s-IXI
(b)
-9.
What can yoou say about the evenness or oddness ofthe composite.of
an, even function of an even function?
(a)
At(b)
10.
(c)
(d)
If the function
and,
and
gf
gf
and
and, g
tions
fg
an+1
an,
.,
and
g?
f(an), n = (i) 1) 2, 3,
wher
and
is a given number.
a0
If
ao = 0
.then
al
f(a0)
11
a2 = f(al) = ff(a0) =
12717
an < 2
(b)
N.
> 2
.2
n-1 '
n > O.
4'
I
*.f
th
A1-2
13.
e0
If c+1 = gan); n = 0, 1, 2,
of
and n,
g
f
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
g,
find
,n
a's a function.
a + bx.
(a)
xm.
irxT:
z
-
x)-1.
ti
se.
..1.4
363
all
V
A1-3
A1.3.
Inverse Functions
Recall the vertical line test for the graph of a function (Section.A1 -1):
and (ii) illustrate graphs of functions, (iIi) is the graph of'a relation that
is not a function.'
1
(i)
(ii)
Figure A1-3a
This figure also illustrates an important distinction between two classes of
functions:
for graph (i
which intersects the graph in more than one point; this is not the case for
graph (ii).
'
each element in the domain is mapped into one and only one image
functions:
iii the range, and each element in tl* range corresponds to one and only one
a'one-to-one correspondence between the domain and the range of the function:
,
A function
is one-to-one if w enever
xi = x2.
Note the distinction between the definition of function and this defirli-
tion.
xl.,,='x
2'
.function
f(xl) = f(x2)
if and only if
xi. =-x2. .
of ihis
class we can specify a function that, in a, loose way of speaking,
,
.
-----.
II.-
04 ri,
g; i
.
is the
0.1
3-1
4,
,
,
,,
364
3 7 2
7,--
......k
104
C],
....
.:..,
.
;,
A1-3
function which maps each real number onto its double, then there is a function
g,. called 'the inverse' of
If a. function
g
x,
f,
2x;
f(x)
y
2,
1
the inverse of
is called
f,
f.
The functions
and
is the domain of
inverse is
It
f; Furthermore,
f.
is the range of f
If
maps
x;
''gf(x)= g(y) = x,
f(x),
into
then
then
y,
maps
and
back
x = E(y). Fgrice,
for all
for all
y in the range of
in the domain of
f,
and
0 fJ
fay) = f(x) = Y.,
1\
Example Al -3a.
Here
must add
3,"
<,
in thd domain of
1(x)
g' is the inverse of
f.
into
f.
in the domain of
as expected.
f(x)
(2x - 3) + 3
= g(2X - 3)
'
-I--
g `maps
.4
By substitution,
fg(x) .'f(2472) -
for all x
f.: x--0. 2x - 3;
for all
f%
g%
Hence,
'
365
3 73
Al -3
graph of
f.
If
maps
of a function
into
then.g maps
b,
(a,b)
is on the graph of
is on the graph of
h of a function
f,
It
a.
,e,
if and only if
f,
g..
into
A
(b,a)
(1,-3), (2,1),
and
by intercha 1140/P
of coordinates, on the graph of
g.
y =1g(x)
= x
4
-Ye
(1,2)
= f(x).
/,
(4,2)
-4
-3
-2
(2,1)
-1
// 0
-1
-2\
o.
(1,-3)
-3
Figure A1-3b
FroM this figure we see that the points
with res ect to the line
y = x;
(a,b) k and
the reflection of
(a,b)
(b)a)
are symmetric,
inthaline 1y
y = x. We call
..= x.
,
mt5,
Example Al-;
g :
2
x ---)..x ,.- 2.
The function
xi> 0
as it stands.
(Figure A1-3c).
51
is
: x
and
.X2
g' a'e
- 2,
fg
fg(x) = Ax2 - 2) + 2 =
x > 0;
gf
gf(x) = (477)2
x >c2.
- 2.= x,
T./
, Y
/
x > -2
x2 - 2
x > 0
-1
/ -1
//
O
` Figure Al -3c
(1?,a)
in the line
= x
and the
suggests a formal
that the in
exists.
Example A1-3c
'Consider2the function
4
f ; x
y = 3x + 5
x.
Yf 'we ,d4tercigginge
and
.
-,
(3.)
in the equation
y = 3x 4. 5,
, r
.
we obtair7
1'
(2)
x = 3y + 5.
f"
(a,b)
(l), a pair
(b,a)
n defining -implicitly
441
in terms of x
and obtain
.1
367
0'17 r
t)
s)
A1-3
The inverse of f
is, therefore,
g :
gi(a) = a
fg(b) = b.
Example Al -3d,
for any
3 5
for any
(range of
in the domain
in the domain of
f,
f).
and
are more
involved.
2
f
+ 2x + 3
function fl
fl
is
(r
to the domain
(-1,2)
(x
x > -1),
gl.
The range of
gl.
If,
We are given
+ 2x + 3,
y = x
+ 2y + 3.
-= :pc = y
We now solve-foi y
+ 2y + (3 - x) = 02
obtaining
or
y"'=. LI + )x -52
y = -1.-IT72 .'
;e4
0
ation
gl?
Since
,-
here represents
any element in tile range of the inverse func'tiox, and'sinde the rage must be
as
t he domain of J fl,
ig
required. 'Hem
4111
ggf
a.
/4
pEN=1=1.
.
A1-3
y = -1 + 167:7
defines the inverse function
whosedomain
is
(x :x > 2).
fi;)
more clearly
as many diffe
you may_see4
function.
f,
(See'
;(
r.
r.
369
377
A1-3
ercises
/
1.
ria e
line
y = f(x) = 3x
in the line
y :-..
x?
f.
",/'
et
2.
What is the
(a)
(a,b)': to
Prove that th
(b)
(a)
(b). y = 0?
'(e)
to
y = x.
(b,a). is bisected by the
in thl line
(1,1)
x = 0?
(a)
y
x = -3?
--
= -x?
(c)
5.
(a,b)
y = X.'
line
4.
segment from
(b,a),
Describe any function or functions you can think of which are their own
inverses.
and
x and y;
e.g.,
x -'xy + y.
about the
+ y ,= 0,
x.3
+ y3.= 3xy,
lx - yl = lx + yl,
behaving as a. mirror, i.e., for any portion of the graph there must also
+ y
to the line
y = x.
What (4h r
r.
/
7.
The expression
a'+ b-+
- b
obviously symmetric in
and
Hint:
+
a
re.'+
and
b+ la - to! :ITC
Show that it is also symmetric in
c:
67104 six cases (i) a
c,
p.1)
a < c <
b, < a
<t,,C,
ato.
'
370
I'
87
4
A1-3
Fnd,the inverse of eadh ,function.
9.
(a)
(b)
(c)
3x + 6
- 5
2
- 3
-x2
,(a) "f :
CP"
(b)
(c)
( d)
(e)
4: x---.-xixl
(f)
[x]
sgn x
Do the following:
(a)
(b)
I',
: x ---x
for
f 1,
--0-x2
: x
for
'ane ft.
2
and V?
fl,
f,
(f1
to the domain
(x
x > 0)
';
'
and 7,f
to the domain
Sketch a graph of
(a)
f :
an inverse._
(b)
f
(c)
12.
DO Problem 11 for
13:
Giv9 that
fg(x)
: x--.- x
ge(x).
- 4x.
are
and
such that
inverse to one
Show that
for
S.
x _> 1
f :
x2 - 4x + 5 for
x---...
yl in the domain of
of
x > 2
f .
'ig,
for all
If f(x) =12x-3 + 1 7
/..
for all
in the domain
'
.
15.
fg(y) = y
f0x) = gf(x)
e'
371
su h that
'
8--
A1-4.
Monotone Functions
increasing, oft&functIons
as
1G and
times decreasing.
increase
is con-
g,
The
graph _of a function may also contain horizontal portions (parallel to the
function such as
Example A1-4a.
The function
-x
defined by
2
,
0 < x < 1;
1 < x < 2;
h(x)
7-
x3
x,
0.
(1,2]
increases are
Let
yl ..f(x1),
y2
f(x2)
'pair,of numbers
(2)
21
x2
in 'I,
with
and let
I.
then
(3)
Y1 < Y2,
then f
{4)
y1
then
is a degreasing function. -
Y2'
the
< x.
2'
.2?
Y1 > Y
in
then
.< y
xl, 2c2
and
corresponding values of
y
for
monotone. Wunction w
Of
For examp
.k
the function
as
x >2.
the function
t:
s. 1
i ,1;.Y
c.
'
In some texts the term "nondecreasIng" ,.s useo instead 46, "increasing";
"nonincreasing" is used instead df "decreasing4,.., ,ii Volume 1 'of this book we
usually drop the phrase "str,intly" from these defiriitions Y ,u4ing (1) or (3)
'las the definition of "increab.ing."
0, 1'.
...s..
,
'
'
03
4.
/.
N;
J
.
'
Al -1+
THEOREM
Proof.
If
1 ,
Hence,
f(xl) # f(x2).
x2,
take
xi <'x2,
is one-to-olie,-and
f-
then
has an inverse
f(x)---44x
domain of g and
less than
yl < y2,
then
Y1 = f(x1),
and
are in the
and
y2 = f(x2)
must be
g(y2).
g(y1) = xl < x2
Therefore,
(Why?)
x2.
f.
Finally,
in the range of
f(x)
...-
/76
f : x .,--..xn,
x > O.
,*
1K >0.
x,
g :
domaIh
of
g;', we denote
by
g(y)
r147;:
jg
(2)
y > 0.'
ri,g
n2`'
we call
xn = Yr;
in the
'y
odd.
This means
For` example,,
'
is:
real,' 9/7171
n
If
is even,
incrtaginifor.all real
f2
x'7.
x >0.
If
is the, restriction of f
ily .
f "to x < 0,
and
to the
theh eaCh,of
A1-4
and
n,for
rr.
Exercises A1-4
A
1.
o'
Prove that
' -(Hint:
2
1
Let
> x
x ---a. x2
for ,x > 0
xi > x2 > 0;
then
- x2 >.0.
2 ;
2
.)
2.
..
decreasing?
strictly in
(b)
x----a-c,
easing?
7ise restricted.
& constant
(h)
f8
(i)
f9
(J)
fit)
+ IX'-
--0,1x1
3
(d)
(e)
f 5 :'
strictly
f2 :
:(c)
0
increasing'?
(k) .fis
X-- IX
-441
gl
(2)
(r)
f6
(g)
f
7
x < 0
x > 0
(4c g2
f'3f4(
X.'-'6'f4f3(X)
3;
A1-4
C
4.
is strictly increasing,
g,
.g4
14Aecreasing,
is strictly detrpasing,
followingfunctions:,
(a)
+ f
f
1
(b)
f2 + gi.
(k)
g2 4 fl,.,
(e)
fl
(1.)
f2
6(2)* glf#21..
f2
(m).. glg2'
-Y g^c
(g)
ga.
g2
-(I;)
g2
fl
g2fi.
(P)
flg2'
,-
or# if
(0)
.
.
"
7
at
4.
...
it has coordinates
(r., e + g)
also.
(rye)
= 0'
(Lr,8)
(r,e + n)
ft
Figure Al -5b
In a cartesian
pair of coerdinates
A relation between
and
by equations. ifffiolar
We discuss the graphs of a few functions defined
coOrdinates.
'43
.370 8 (i
A1-5'
..'.
.....
then 8,.2ng
(4, .- 27-1),
and,, in
gener4
3 3
The pole (origin) is a special.qase:
pair (0,A),
e
(4
, 3 +,
2ng)
For example
also has coordinates
n.
it is customaty to
When we assign polar coordinates to locate a,point,
is located
(-1-,.8)
r > 0, the point
ff.119w 'r alp tobe negative.
with respect to the origin (Figure AL -5b);
symmetrically'to the, point (r,A)
it has coordinates
,-
(r', e + g)
also.
,e)
8 = 0'
(r,A + 1)'
Figure Al -5b
the,plane.
,AI
A relation between
and
coOrdinates.
'
A1:5
r = c
.
contairis:all point
(cie), e
anY'Nlleal,
The equation
1.
circle.
e = c
.
c
radians
with the polar''axie;-each point of the line has coordinates (r,c) for some
.
.
real r. For r positive, the points form
.
the ray in direction e, for r
negative,' the ray has, direction 8 + It.
The0line has infinitely many equations e . c + nrc,. n an integer.
.
We
shall illustrate a
polar.coordinate graph
I
function
r =4 cos e.
.
Since
r .is a function of
A- the 'correspond.ing
at e=
valUe '0
valospf
rt
-f
to '1
Hence, in this.interval,
t:,
Since
=2.
increases from -0
the point
-
to
(4 cos(e
<4 <
5-
and,then decreases.to
1) ,e) 'is the same as
To 's16
-
values of
e 'and calculate
we consider values of
e,
x
T,E, etc.),
4i
%.
379
3 87
..
A1-5 ,
(
Figure Al -5c
r > 0,
we
(1)
x = r cos e, y
r sin e.
r-< 0.
Thus
(2)
It folloWs that .
x2
2
= r .
Figure A1-5d
O
380
,388
. A1-5
<
r = 4 cop e
(Example A1-4a)
(3)
r = 4 cos a
and
y,
r = 4r cos e,
r2
for if
r 1 0,
given equation
= 0
to obtain the
graphs.
This may notle immed' tely obvious since only 'Certain pairs of.
..
coordinates representing the' le will satisfy the equation r'= 4 cos e.
e
Forexample, both
(0,0)
r = 4 cos e.
x. + y
or
(x - 2)2 + y2 = 4,
911
(2,0
We recognize this as an
and radius
2,
verifying tne
r4 ...a2r2(cos.20
2 2
= a r
sin2e)
cos 2e
Since
'r2 ,= a
= 0
(th4cole)
and r
(9,t),
cos 29.'
for the pole, we see that r2 =\0 contributes no points not in the
2
2
ra cos 2e. Hence', the latter lean equation in polar.form
whie
381
389
S
of
is the
A1-5
caly the
Figure, Al-5e
;'distance between
et:ant
section is a parabola, if
a hyperbola
the conic
0 < e < 1
i,
is
*
I
and the
perpendicular to the
in Figure A1-5f.
(Other orients
ons
= o
,
1.0,COS*e
Nos: 8-104
isaby
FigUre Al-5f.
.
This Curve is defined as the set (locus) ofpoints''P. such that the
product of the"distapces of P from two fixed points is the square. of half
the: distance %etWeerrthe two f1Xed points.
f
382
A1-5
1.
I..
Tft lei
/.
(r,9)
DP
1,11A1
we 'obtain
ep,
(4)
r,
e, .
e cos 0
wilizh we take to be the standard form of the polar equation of conic sections..
.
if
e < 1
r > 0;
if
From Equation-(4),
may b'e neggtive and these values give us the branch pf the hyperbole lying to
the left.of the directriSc.
,,
.
\
Describe and sketch the graph otthe equation
Example Al_....
-5!'.
16
114
r - 1 cos e
5
.
16.
1 -
,r)s 4
from which
and pi=
e =
Since
e < 1,
'3
focus
F1' at' the pdlesand Major axis on the polar axle:. By giiiing
values
2,n).
0 ,-and
(8,0)
.9- the
and
10,
the center of the ellipse
is the point (3,0).; and the other focus is, the "point F (6 0).- Since
'
16 ?
p =
(the distance betyeen. a focus and corresponding directrix of the
3
pole is
r cos e = -
16
3
the direqriX 12
21
corresponding to
F2(6,0
is
r cos 9 =
3
.
Uhen
e =
then
r =
,16
16
(latus rectum)
through F1.
y,
(-5-, .51
16 .311
(75 2 )f
-4
'3&3
419
3p,
A1-5
--
Exercises A1-5
l'. ,Find all .polar coordinates of each of the following. points:
i).
(a)
(6
(b)
(-6 ,,'-i).
(a)(-6, - 'i).
%
2.
A)
'
(4, -4).
(a)
'
(e)
(.-3
(f)
(-3 , 4).
, 0).
(b)
(:-2-2'a
(c)
(-2
(d)
,.
i).,
-2iD.
*(g)
(9, -10) 7
(h)
-1,
1)
; -,/).'
(,/'
,,
4.
(x,y)
use arccos 1
r.
,,'
5.
Ane
L,
triangle coincides with tlie pole, and one angular coordinate of a vertex
is
-
radians.
a constant.
(b)
'a constant.
y = c,
%,
(c)
ax +by = c.
(c1)
x2 +.(y1 k)2
(f)
7.
xx
-W.
10
= k2,
..
aa
= 'a2,
r . a.
(b)
r, sin:e
(c)
2a,sin B.
(d) r
(e)
=-5.
1
1,- cos e
r i.2 tan B.
385
393_
I-
Al-5'
8.
units
9.
Repeat
Number(8 if the
10.
is
11.
8', 9,
10.)
8
r'
1 7 cos
.*
5
12
36
-
sin
1.4.
16
(d) "r
5+3
sin
(e)
"-
- 3 cos
pin 0-
= 1 - r
1.2., Certain types c7f symmetry of curves in-polar coordinate's are readily
detected.
is replaced by
-r.
is replaced by
-0?
(b)
is replaced by
7(-
(c)
and
(d)
1.s replaced by
13.
0?
CI
are replaced by
-r
and
'N.
respectively?
n + 0?
. (a)
(
k
-e,
201
Iair
38 9
Al-5
(b)
= ae.
(d)
r = a sin20 cos 8.
(e)
re = a.
-,
x.
'snot 41.11..te.)
(a),` r= 2
2 sin 0,
'r = -2 sin420,
(c)
A'
r = 2
2 cos.
;
r = 2 cos 0
0,
- cos
e)
'p
L
38
395.
Is.
A2-1
4
Appendix 2
POLYNONIAIIS
A2-1.
'
Signiance of Polynomi,pls
The importenceof,polynomials in applicatiots to engineering and the
ties that; for all practical purposes, PermAt the replacement or much more com:plicated functions by polynomial functions in a host of situatfolls.
We shall
the determination of slope End area, and the location of zeros and
!k*
0)1
+ alx + a2x2 .+
given
+ anxn
k
number for
x.
them valuab
The graph, of
a polynomial function can,always be used for this purpose, and because it has no sharp changes of direction, and only a:limited number
of upA and downs, it is in many.ways the best curve for'the. purpose.
'4er
389
o.
396
4if
4--
.A2-1
Given
distinct numbers
y2,*..., yn
y1,
-a polynomial,: function of degree at most
i = 01." n.
'.points
n'
you
n = 2:
founda
is also-differe'ntfrom. yr,
y2
If
4t,
it is a constant function.
y2 = yr,
a linear function; if
,r
f
.
.,
equations
yi, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
f(xi)
1
.
'-o,$This giVes.
unknowns
...
0'
l'
and
a'
4-1,
,,,
Example A211a.
ft
(-2,2),'(143), (2,-1),
poi&s.
Assume, therefore,
,-
f(x) = a0
Then, if the graph of
f(4) = 1;
that it,
a
,
0
0
al +
a2 +
+ 2a 14 "4a
16a
4: 4a
1
a3 =
+'8a3 = -1,
2
2
+ 64a 0 to
20
3)
31
37
a2
and
, al
11
a3
Hence
4.
f(X)
= 44160
62X
37X2..4
labor in-
One of the most important of these methods, called the Lagrange Intl"
390
6 Z)
We can
A2-1
easily write down a formilia for a polynomial of degree
at *n - 1
xis.
-of the,
that is zero
ti
ti
Figure A2-la
as in Figure A2-16.
The polynomial
(1)
has zerosat.i x
81
(x ),= y 1
1
2'
3'
and
By proper choice of
x4.
Let us do so!
Take
C1
such that
Suppose, for
and
(x4,y4)
we can take
Ci,
40.
= g (x ) = C
1
X2)(X1
x4)',
x3)(xl
4
(2)
Cl - (x1
If we substitute
C1
yi
x2)(xi - x3)(xl - x4)
, 81(x)
-(37;
= y
- x3),(x1 - x4)
It
y,
If
at
/ 0
XLI'
and is zero at
x2, x3,
and
x4.
.(x
(4)
f35(x) =
x4)
x)(x
(X2 - xl)(x2
x3)(x2 - x1.4)
'
4
3
391
3 9
e
A2-1
N
( 5)
g3(X) = Y3
(x -
- x2) (x - x4)
(x
'
,.1-
and
*
g4(x)
Y4
are alsg'polynomitlp, ,each having ,the property tlot it is zero at three of the
at the fourth
This
x.
F.
Values of
dingy
Corr
Value of
g (x)
Value of
x4,-.-
Y-4.
Y4
'
0 .
P2(x)
`N.
`Value of
g3(x)
Value of
g4(x)
3
-10
' 0
y
1
Y4
'
.1;
g(x)
'(T)
.'
L.
..,
,1
+ Y2 + + p
.-
T2'
g(X3) = 0 + 0 + y3 + 0 = y
g(x4) = 0 + 0 + 0+ y4 = y4.
.,
41r.
--.
From .Egillatlons (3), (4), (5), and (6) it is also dealt that
in
.*'
3.
_
is a polynomial
Example A2 -lb.
and
(4,2).
We find that
,-
g (x)' =
-
1.
(x
4)
-g(x) = 0,
J
392
399
2x(x - 2)(x.- 4)
-1,
)
A2-1
1)(1)2(x - 4)
(x
g3(x)
(x t 1)(x)(x - 2)
g4(x)
(()14c
))((lct.
and
i
2
...-gfx),,,,, - 15 x(x - 2)(x - 4) + 1-(x + 1)(x)(x - 4) + 2,(x + 1)(x)(x - 2)
,
12
20
.
- ix).
-1".(x2
The right hand sides of Equations (3), (4),.(5), and (6Y have the
.
4 ;
following structure:
4
Ni(x)
gi(x) = yi
'
i = 1, 2, 3, 4:
,....s,
(x - x ).
and
(x - x4),
numerator at
x4t--...x
41)/.. N (x.).
This same structure.would still hold if we had.more (or fewer) points given.
(d)
16;.i*
a < x < b,
- g(x)I < c
and
g
for all
such that
x
in
Akt.
393-
400.
a < x < b.
A2 -1
-% ,;
t\C4
../
//
vs
.
Figure A2 -lc
A strip between
f(x) - c
and
f(r) + c.
continuous curve,
may 'have
..
and
Xhe graph of
is a
x = b.
atci.p,
f,- extending
st
x f(x) -.,c
and
X
where
-4.f.
(X) +
whose graph on, a < x < b *lies entirely inside "this strip.
cise meaning of the statement:
o.
Exercises A2-,1
1.
3.
graph contains
4.
g(x)
points
and
whole
(4,2), (0,-1),,(2,3).
(2,91-,---(3;307
'( 1,6).
O7,
394
4'0
TO
(0,1), (1,0),
, A2-2
vt;
A2-2.
Number of Zeros
One could get, the impression that every polynomial function of degree
zeros.
n zeros.
.nomial function for which the numberof zeros is less than the degree:
V
quadratic function
f
has only one zero, namely
factors
x - 3,
x2
3.
-, 6x + 9 = (x - 3)2.
f(4) = (x - r)
where. ,q(x)
is a zero of
is a polynomial, and if
f
The
of multiplicity
of a polynomial
that diVides
f(x).
to be the
k > 0,
q(x),
x - r
That is, if
q(x),
then
k.
The proof of the general theorem abput the number of zeros of a'poly:
nomial function depends on !She fact that every such function has at least one
zero.
.7.
pie
degree greater than zero has at least one zero, real or complex.
(As a
matter of fact, the theorem isicorrect even if some or all of the coefficients
of the polynomial are complex numbers.)
The first known proof of the theorem was published by the great.German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 = 1855) in 1799.
has written an inteieSting'accoUni of Gauss.
22.
proofs of the theorem, the last in 1850. 'None of the proofs is sufficiently
9
395
14Q2
12-2.,
in L.. E. Dickson? New First Course in the theory of Equations, John Wiley and
Sons, 1939..
Then
n > O.
Let
f be
n.
rl.
Then
of degreern - 1
q(x)
such that
k:I^e
f(x) = (x - r )q(x).
(1)
If
.o.fs q
1,
is
n - 1
and'is.positive...Then
could'happen that
r2 = r1)
If
n > i,
the degree
(it
and
q(x) = (x - r2)s(x),
(2),
where
s *is of degree
n - 2.
1,
(3)
If
f(x) = (x
n = 2,
then
ri)(X - r2)s(x).
Otherwise, the proCess may be continued until we arrive at the final stage,
(10
f(x) = (x - ri)(x
r2)
n - n = O.
is
(x - rn)z(x),
Hence,
z(x)
is a constant.
Compari-
son of the expanded form of Equation (4) with the equivalent form
f(x) = anxn + a
*shows that
(5) '
z(x) = a
/ O.
n-1
xn-1 +
+..a
0,
ti
Hence,
f(x) =
(x - t )(x -'r2)
.n
(x - r ).
396
x + a
A2-2,
in.place of
2"
r2,
(r - r )..
r2,
r
1,
r
'
is a zero of
f,
and
Hence,
hasat most
zeros.
f may be less,than
has exactly
`n.
Example A2-2.a..
f
x -4x5 + x
5x,
+ 8x - 4
multiplicity of each.
Since the coefficient of the term of" highest degree is
we know that
1,
4.
'
Section 1-7.)
(Refer to:.
-2
is a zero of
It may be helpful to show a practical way for putting down the synthetic
substitutions by which we obtained the zeros and their multiplicities.
This
Table A2.-2
5x
.4- x
-1
-4
-3
-4
-3
-4
-a
-4
ta,
4._
x --4x
- x
+ 8x - 4
fs a zero
1
1....1...4
0.
-4
-0
'-4
3.-
-4
of
three.
40'4
of
multiplicity
397
in
-it',
A2-2
The entries
,3, -4, 4
1,
1,*4, 4
x --4x
2
x
+ 4x + 4
+ 4x + 4
has
1, 3, 0, -4
in the
.
In the last-row
are coefficients of polynomialsof
-2
(x + 2)2.
Thus,'the zeros, of
are .1
(of
-2
multiplicity two).
two):
."
viP
The graph of
and
(points
and
ti
f (x)
arc
Ffgure
Graph_Of
f :,x :4Z
8
4'
398
94 4:
L.
sr
t..)
A2=2
\'
.
>,
'
.-
stant polynoMial function includes zero when its domaih is the set of ail
cm-
.;
plex numbers.
The range does not always include zero "wh' en the domain-is the
,
f :.x -*.y
x2 + 1,
R,
p
-AT"
is the set.
(y
is > 0,
y > 1).
suppose that
plex number.
n > 0 'and
a + ib.
Foe,
is any com-
a + ib
is equivalent to
(6)
a - ib = 0.
f(x)
'
that is mapped by
n;
f into
a + ib:
'
f(x) = a + ib.
a + ib,
will be exactly
n_
n:
.1
The Fundamental Theorem does not tell Us how to find even one of the zeros
of
f.
Bell Telephone Laboratories built a machine, the Isogiaph, for solving such
,
1Q kr less.
Root-Finder, by R. L. Dietzold, Bell Labs ReCord, 16, December, 1937, page 130.
399
406
A2-2.
"There is an interesting use for the roots of the 'characteristic equation' of a vibrating system in the dynamics of electromagnetic and mechanical
systems Where many.of the properties of amplifiers, filters, servos, airfo21s,
and other devices must be determined.
, bly, and bridges will collapse under the stresses exerted by the winds.
..
The
prediction of such behavior isof great importance to designers of the amplifies that boost your voice-are ktdcrOsies the country over telephone lines,
and the servos that point guns at an attacking,plane."
Exercises A2-2
1.
- x
(a)
(b)
(c)
x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 2 = 0
(d)
x311 x2 - 2 = 0,
(e)
x3 + 6x2 +.13x + 10 = O.
"S.
+ 2 = Q,,
12.
snow trat the s.m oP the malti.%licities of the roots equals...the degree of
the
olynomial.
(01 x3 - 3x - 2 = 0,
(b)
x3 - 3X + 2 = 0,
13
x4
5x3
9x2
7x + 2 = O.
Find the roots and their multiplicities of each of the following equa-
3.
tions.
.
(a)
x5 + 4x4 + x3
(b)
X5
X4
5X
10x2 - 4x + 8 =
+ 8x -4 =0
0'
4 0,7
'
A2-2
4.
A number system is said to be algebraically closed if, and only if, every
polynomial equatipn of degree > 0,
68E: solution in that system.
The integers:
-1, 0, 1, 2; 3,
Thfreal numbers:
5,
(d)
(e)
os,
You may have heard that it was necessary for matheMatic4ans to invent
.and,other.complex numbers in order'.to solve some ,quadratic equatiohc.
,,10.
--14
71.1'
tw
401
i0g
11
A2-4,
A2-3.
Complex Zeros
ax + bx + c = 0,
(1).
4.
x-
'(2)
The coefficients
a, b,
and
-)
t 42 -
C
.
2a
imaginary if
- 4ac j 0,
- 4at < 0.
EXagple
a.
bg = 4ac > 0,
Its sign
cff
2'
= 0'?
'
-1 - i 4
-1 + i 4
2
'
We notice that these roots are complex conjugates; that 1,e, they have the
.1,
form
A
11
1.r+ ty
u - iv,
and
and v=
where .0
and
,/-
,,
2 '
Let
-d
2
.
ax
+ bx + c = 0
are
, d,
b
b
.d.
conjugates. Thus, if a,
- ik). Thes'e are
+ i(2a) and 2a
2a
2a
2a
t.
c are real and if the roots of (1) are imaginary, then these rbotsand
b,
.
and
represent
.
the real and imaginary parts of a complex root of an equation of any degree,
*4.5106
:,.._
4
I
1402
409
...1,r
A2-3'
Complex-conjugates Theorem.
coefficients, and if
imaginary part
If. f(x)
a + tb
b /-0,
then
f(x) = 0,
is also a root.
- ib
with
and
real and
b # 0,
then
f(p
ib) = 0.)
First PrQof.
The key to this proof is the use pfd the quadratic polynomial
tt- ,
that is the product of x + it)
and x
(a - ib). We show ,that it
.
dies f(x).
f(a - it) = 0
(3)
fx
p(x)
1(4
(a + ib)][x- (a - ib)]
a)
- it2lf.(x
+ ib)
a)
;
K
.N
Now
Henc4, if
and a remainder
'k
where
f(x)
h, k,
is divided by
f(x) = p(x)
This is an identity in
p(a + 1.0 = 0.
is
of dowiree
(but no greater),
.L,
(4)
p( ),
ossi
r(o* xli= hx +
whet
are real.
Thus,
+ k.
q(x)
By hypothesisa
Therefors, if we substitute. a + ib
for
in Equation
(4), we get
0 = 0 + ha + ihb + k.
0,
we have
ha + k
(5)
and
hb = O.
(6)
-Since
b / 0
0
* , 4 0 -P`'
h = 0.
Then Equa-
zero, and
4.10,
fr.
A2-3
Since
p(a - i
f(x) 4 p(x)
q(x).
= 0
172.
f(a - ib) = 0.
Let
Second Proof.
f(x) = a xn + an-lx
(8)
n-1
f(a + ib) = 0.
we can expand
+.a lx + a
When we substitute
(a + ib)
(a + ib)3,
0'
a '+:tb
for
in
mial Theorem.
actually carrying out all of these` expansions, if we observe how the terms
behave.
a +
= a + ib,
.,:
)
(a +'ib)
- a
+ 2aib +
(a2
iO3
(a
a3
.2.
b )
i2b2
'
+ i(2ab),
imaginary part40- b
In the
If we
change the_sign of
b,
Thus, if
then
tut by hypothesis,
'f(a + ib) = 0;
so that
u + iv = 0,
and therefore
u = V = 0..
f(a - ib)
Hence
0. r.
.404
o
A2-3
What is the degree of a polynomial function
,ExamRle A2-4a.
of mini-
and
2 + i, 1,
3 - 2i 'are zeros of
f?
6
I
+ (-6
zeros, so
coefficients of
l][x - (3
is
3.
is the answer.
f(x)
For
5.
41
and
3 - 2i..
(9)?,
f.
No
zeros
1, 3 - 2i, 3 + 2i.
11
But
(10). [x
(2 + ink
4 a polynomial of degree
(2
5,
(3
2i)]
Exercises A2-3
1.
Multiply the ,fa tors in (10) above to show that the expression does have
real coefficients.
in your answer?
(b)
2 + 3i
as a zero,
A2",1
3.
(al
x3 - 1 = 0
(b)
x3 + 1 = 0
(c)
x3
(d)
(e)
x4
(f)
(g)
x6
x2 + 2,C= 8
+ 5x
-
+ 2x
-
+ 4 = 0
+ 3x
2x5-+ 3x4
+ 4X
-
+ 3x
+ 2x t 1 '=-0
(-
4x3 + 3x2 - 2x + 1 = 0
4.
2 + i, -2 + i, 2 - 1, 3 + i, -3 + i
as roots?
I
arl- b1,
5.
a - big
rational\ Then
where
and
a + big.
are
Prove
a + b1 is a root of
f(x) = 0,
that if, u = v1 = 0,
and
then
apd
f(x)
a - big
is also a root.
(Note
u = v = 0.
3 + 2V as a zero.
7. /State and prove a theorem similar to that in Exercise 5 abOve for numbers
of the form
8.
-1
and
3 -
as zeros, if
, ...
(b)
4
9.
,t
)
('a)
Find,a,polynomial of
If as a zero.
10.
What is the degree of a polynomial, of minimum degree with (a) real, and
(b) rational coeffici ents having
'
as a zero?
(1)
i + ig
(2)
1 + i1 as a zero?
(3)
if +
as a zero?
406.
413
.