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Faculty of Engineering

Electrical Power and Machines Department

B.Sc.Project

SMART HOME & RENEWABLE ENERGY

Presented By:
Ahmed Khalil Ibrahim

13

Kareem El Sayed Hamed

144

Ahmed Adel El Gendy

19

Mohamed Osama Abd El Ghany

163

Ali Mohamed Ali

125

Mohamed Ismail Kamel

164

Omar Magdy Saad

129

Mohamed Ismail Mohamed

165

Amr Mamdouh Mansy

138

Mohamed Ashraf Khalil

166

Alexandria, July 2016

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This project consumed huge amount of work, research and dedication. Still,
implementation would not have been possible if we did not have a support of many
individuals. Therefore we would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all of them.
First of all we are all very thankful to Prof. Dr. Mohamed Yousry for his scientific and
moral support and for providing necessary guidance concerning projects
implementation, his constant assessments and evaluations of our work throughout
this whole year have been a great help.
We would like to express our sincere thanks towards everyone in our project who
devoted his time and knowledge in the implementation of this project, there have
been a few ups and downs but we really came out with something and we all benefited
from the whole experience.
Nevertheless, we express our gratitude toward our families and colleagues for their
kind co-operation and encouragement which helped us in the completion of this
project, we may have been a nuisance for some but we are really blessed for having
such great families, truly they spared no effort for our sake.

II

CONTENTS
Module 1 Home Automation
Chapter 1 Introduction to Smart Homes
1.1 The history of smart homes.................................................................2
1.2 Nest products.......................................................................................9
1.3 Samsung SmartThings product..........................................................10
1.4 Smart Home Controlling Systems......................................................13
Chapter 2 Implemented Hardware
2.1 Power Supply.....................................................................................16
2.2 Light System.......................................................................................19
2.3 Shading System..................................................................................20
2.4 Air Conditioning System.....................................................................21
2.5 Door System.......................................................................................22
Chapter 3 Connecting to the Internet
3.1 Internet of things...............................................................................23
3.2 Setting the web server.......................................................................25
3.3 MVC Architecture..............................................................................26
3.4 Database Structure............................................................................27
3.5 Action and Logic.................................................................................28
3.6 Responsive Design (View)..................................................................29
3.7 Web Service.......................................................................................32
Chapter 4 Smart Materials
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................39
4.2 Wall Insulations.................................................................................40
4.3 Roof Insulations.................................................................................47
4.4 Floor Insulations................................................................................48
4.5 Energy-Efficient Windows..................................................................50
4.6 Energy-Efficient Doors.......................................................................52
III

4.7 Insulations and home energy efficiency ratings................................52


4.8 Energy Efficiency Rating of Air conditioners......................................53
4.9 Energy-Efficient Lighting....................................................................56
4.10 Smart Meters and Controls..............................................................58
Module 2 Solar Energy
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY
1.1 Introduction.62
1.2 Passive Solar Energy63
1.3 Active Solar Energy..63
Chapter 2 Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
2.1 Introduction.66
2.2 Components of a PV Systems..66
2.3 Series and Parallel Connections in PV Modules..67
2.4 Types of PV Systems69
2.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking.....................................................72
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar PV78
Chapter 3 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
3.1 Introduction.80
3.2 Basics of Concentrated Solar Power80
3.3 Concentrated Solar Power Technologies.81
3.4 Types of CSP.87
3.5 Comparison between different types of CSP.96
3.6 Applications of CSP in Smart Homes97
3.7 Simulation of design a parabolic Trough Solar Power System104
Module 3 Wind Energy
Chapter 1 Wind Turbines Systems
1.1 Introduction..108
1.2 Determining the wind resources...111
IV

1.3 Choosing a wind system size.115


1.4 Foundations Used to install wind Turbines in the sea.119
1.5 Wind Turbine120
1.6 Wind Turbine Subsystem.124
1.7 Generators used in wind turbines systems.125
1.8 Wind energy Conversion Systems.................................................129
Chapter 2 Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) Systems
2.1 Introduction..134
2.2 Steady State Operation of DFIG..134
2.3 Rotor Power Converters138
2.4 Control systems..145
2.5 Application issues..152
Chapter 3 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) Systems
3.1 Modelling and analysis of Direct-Drive PMSG154
3.2 Modelling of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines157
3.3 Control of Generator-Side Converter..161
3.4 Control of Grid-Side Converter.166
References..170
Appendix A..A-1
Appendix B..B-1
Appendix C..........................................................................................C-1
Appendix D..........................................................................................D-1

Module 1
Home Automation

Chapter 1
Introduction to Smart Homes
1.1 The History of Smart Homes
The idea of home automation isnt a recent concept in anyway but it has been more
of a case of technology catching up with the idea. Home automation was a topic of
science fiction for many years and in Ray Bradbury`s short story There will come soft
Rains he wrote about an automated home which continues to work despite no one
living in it.
The remote control it all started with the wireless remote control, which was first
unveiled by Nikola Tesla in 1898 when he controlled boat by sending it radio waves.

Fig.1.1: The remote control was first unveiled by Tesla in 1898


1.1.1 1901 1920 The Invention of Home Appliances
Although home appliances arent what wed consider smart, they were an incredible
achievement in the early twentieth century. These achievements began with the first
engine-powered vacuum cleaner in 1901. A more practical electricity powered
vacuum was invented in 1907. Throughout two decades refrigerators would be
invented, as well as clothes dryers, washing machines, irons, toasters, and so much
more. It was a fantastic time for anyone who was employed as a maid by a very
affluent family. Machines were introduced into the household to help with emerging
labor shortage (i.e. sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, food processors).

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

Advertisements termed these electrically-powered mechanisms spring cleaning with


electricity. This was the first instance of domestic technology, the foreground for the
connected home.
1.1.2 1939 Predicting the Future
Popular Mechanics Magazine The Electric Home of the Future depicted cooking
devices that use short-wave radio frequency and electrical means of recording
news reports and pictures as soon as the news happens.

Fig.1.2: Popular Mechanics Magazine Aug, 1939

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

1.1.3 1966 - 1967 ECHO IV and the Kitchen Computer


Although it was never commercially sold, the ECHO IV was the first smart device. This
clever device could compute shopping lists, control the homes temperature and turn
appliances on and off. The Kitchen Computer, developed a year later, could store
recipes, but had the unfortunate tagline, If she can only cook as well as Honeywell
can computer and therefore sold no models.
1.1.4 1970s - The Grandfather of Automation X10
X10 is a protocol for communication among electronic devices used for home
automation. It primarily uses power line wiring for signaling and control, where the
signals involve brief radio frequency bursts representing digital information. A wireless
radio based protocol transport is also defined.
In 1970, a group of engineers started a company called Pico Electronics in Glenrothes,
Scotland. Pico revolutionized the calculator industry by developing the first single chip
calculator. (Most calculators at the time used at least 5 chips, known as Integrated
Circuits, ICs) Today, X10 claims that this Contrary to popular belief, this calculator IC
was the worlds first microprocessor. Pico went on to develop a range of calculator ICs
which were manufactured by General Instruments and sold to calculator
manufacturers such as Bowmar, Litton, and Casio. When the price of calculator ICs
began to plunge, Pico decided to focus on developing an actual commercial product
versus concentrating on just ICs.
In 1974, the Pico engineers jointly developed a record changer that would select tracks
on a regular vinyl LP with BSR, which at the time was the worlds biggest manufacturer
of record changers. The Accutrac could be operated by remote control based on a
device Pico developed using ultrasonic signals. This led directly to the idea of remotely
controlling lights and appliances. In 1975, the X10 project was conceived. (It was
simply the tenth project that Pico had worked on. There were 8 different calculator IC
projects and the Accutrac was project X-9) The concept of using existing AC wiring to
transmit signals to control lights and appliances was born.
In 1978, after several years of refining the technology, X10 products began to appear
in Radio Shack stores. Shortly thereafter, X10 products appeared in Sears stores. A
partnership with BSR was formed, known as X10 Ltd, and the BSR System X10 was
born. The system at that time consisted of a 16 channel Command Console, A lamp
module, and an Appliance module. Soon afterwards came the Wall Switch module and
the first X10 Timer.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

By 1984, Pico had developed a joint venture with GE for a product called the
Homeminder. It was a VCR styled package a bit bigger than a cable set top box. It
connected to the TV and was operated by an infrared remote. Eventually the GE
division responsible for the Homeminder was closed and the units were repackaged
and sold to Radio Shack.
In the early 1980s, X10 lacked an official computer interface. Dave Rye of X10 says that
In the early days there were a lot of computer enthusiasts using X10. There were
third party computer interfaces available even before we introduced one. E.g. one by
Steve Ciarcia of Circuit Cellar Ink magazine (marketed by Micromint).
Shortly after the Homeminder, X10 developed their first computer interface for
Mattels short-lived Aquarius computer. X10s Aquarius computer interface eventually
morphed first into the Radio Shack Color Computer Interface, and then into X10s long
lived CP-290 unit, which was sold until the X10 replaced it with the Active Home
controller in the late 1990s. Over the years, the CP-290 has had a long list of both
official and shareware software so that it could be used with Apple IIs, Macs, DOS,
and Windows in all of its many versions.
It was also in 1984, according to Dave Rye, a vice president and technical manager
with X10 (USA) Inc., that BSR went belly up and so we pulled out in 1984 and formed
X10 (USA) Inc. (we being Pico). Pico is now a wholly owned subsidiary of X10 Ltd.
In 1989, X10 introduced the first low-cost self-installed wireless security system. Then
came the Voice Dialer security system, the Monitored security system, as well as
Personal Assistance versions. In 1995, X10 set up its own monitoring station called
Orca Monitoring Services in Seattle, Washington. Today, it monitors security systems
developed and manufactured by X10 for Radio Shack, Phillips Consumer Electronics,
(Magnavox) and the X10 Powerhouse brand.
1.1.5 2010 - Nest enters the picture
Designer of the iPod Tony Fadell started Nest because he believed the existing
products for home automation were too clunky and appealing to only the techsavvy. Since then, the company has developed next generation, wi-fi connected
thermostats and smoke alarms.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

1.1.6 2012 - SmartThings launches


The company raised more than $1.2 million on Kickstarter (Ashton Kutcher was an
investor), by promising to link almost any connected gadget in the home. With this
app, you get the closest thing to having a conversation with your home. By 2013,
SmartThings shipped more than 10,000 hubs.
1.1.7 CES 2013
This was the first year that home automation and tangible smart home products truly
dominated the forefront of CES. Belkin launched its with a handful of Wi-Fi devices,
one of which was the Home Control Switch, a smart plug that sits between the wall
socket and any electronic device plug, and allows for users to control with a
smartphone. In conjunction with IFTTT, users can do much more than just switch
devices on and off flash forward two years, and meet Tom Coates, who created a
Twitter-enabled house. Coates house posts regular tweets based on the temperature,
lighting and weather.

Fig.1.3: Smart Switch


1.1.8 2013 - Lab of Things
Microsoft launched Lab of Things (playing off the Internet of Things) to encourage
researchers to explore various studies of home automation. The Lab provides a virtual
dashboard for monitoring and controlling different connected devices and provides
standards for building home-related apps. By logging into the Lab, one could view
footage from a home security camera or get notified when a door is opened or closed,
among many other things.
1.1.9 2013 - A shared vision for connectivity
The Linux Foundation launched the AllSeen Alliance, backed by 23 consumer
electronics and software applications including LG, Panasonic, Sharp and Qualcomm.
This was a vendor-neutral approach to creating an open source software for
developing connected technology.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

As the largest cross-industry consortium in the smart home space, the AllSeen Alliance
aimed for all products to work together in the home.
1.1.10 CES 2014
LG launched a line of smart appliances equipped with
HomeChat, allowing people to communicate with
devices through a mobile message app. Shopping and
don't remember what's stocked in the fridge? Just
send a text. Overall, the Internet of Things was a huge
theme at CES, and more importantly, 2014 revolved
around
partnerships.
SmartThings
unveiled
SmartThings Labs, expanding its home automation to
Belkin, Sonos, Philips and more.

1.1.11 2014- Everything in one place


Founder of Quirky Ben Kaufman launched Wink, bringing smart items -- including
brands like Quirky, Nest and Phillips -- onto a small network that can be controlled
by one app. With Wink, you literally never have to move a muscle.

1.1.12 2014 - Investing in the future of homes


According to Samsung Electronics Chief
Executive Boo-Keun-Yoon, the future of
Samsung Smart Homes is bright. The
company acquired SmartThings for a
reported $200 million. The Samsung Smart
Home app enables users to connect with
various Samsung home devices including
refrigerators, washing machines, air
conditioners,
ovens,
etc.
Google
purchased Nest Labs for $3.2 billion,
whose mission is to reinvent devices in the
home such as thermostats and smoke
alarms. This acquisition represents
Google's utmost confidence in the rise and significance of the IOT, and thus put Google
in the forefront of the automated home space.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

1.1.13 2014 - iSmartHome


Apple had announced the arrival of Home Kit, which will allow users to control lights,
locks, cameras, doors, thermostats, plugs and switches at home. It's not ready yet, but
manufacturers are already building products to work with it.
1.1.14 2014 - Partnerships galore
In mid-July, Samsung, Dell and Intel joined forces to create an industry standard called
the Open Interconnect Consortium to define connectivity requirements for the billions
of devices making up the IOT. About a week later, Nest, Samsung and five other
manufacturers launched a wireless network called Thread, an IP-based wireless
networking protocol that allows smart gadgets to talk to each other. The continued
creation of these consortiums just goes to show the industry's investment and interest
in growing home automation and the Internet of Things.

1.1.15 CES 2015


Smart home innovation has been deemed one of the top tech trends at this year's CES.
Belkin has stepped up its home automation game with a slew of new sensors including
a magnetic window and door sensor, keychain sensor, room motion sensor, water
usage sensor and security alarm sensor. Another leader in the space, Nest, is
reiterating its open-software capability "Works with Nest," essentially allowing
compatibility with a number of big-name companies like Whirpool, Jawbone,
DropCam, LG and UniKey. This is another large step towards the Smart Home we've
been dreaming about, where standalone products will work in tandem. Samsung
presented grand ideas for the future of their products, promising that in a few years,
every product you own (even chairs) will incorporate some form of technology. This
vision includes for the usage of multiple devices across different brands, which is a
pretty incredible promise. "Without this kind of openness," Samsung CEO BK Yoon said
in a keynote presentation, "there won't be an Internet of Things because the things
will not fit together." Another theme: Internet of "kid-friendly" things. Also seen at
CES are connected baby pacifiers, baby monitors and a bed that tracks children's
sleeping patterns.
Each year we see more and more products entering the Internet cloud hovering over
our homes, and studies show that this is only going to increase. Sixty-five percent of
U.S. consumers are open to the idea of adopting smart home technology, and a recent
report predicts that there will be 9 billion devices connected to the home by 2018.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

1.2 Nest Products


1. The Nest Cam security camera is designed to
help you look after your home and family
even when youre away. Now Nest Cam can
use your phones location and even your
familys phones to know when you're
away. So when everyone leaves the house,
Nest Cam will know to turn on automatically.
And with 24/7 live streaming, advanced Night
Vision, and motion and sound alerts, Nest Cam
helps you look after your home from
anywhere.
Fig.1.4: Nest Cam security camera
Price: $149
2. Nest Thermostat The 3rd gen Nest Learning
Thermostat does. It learns what temperature
you like and builds a schedule around yours.
Since 2011, the Nest Thermostat has saved
over 4 billion kWh of energy in millions of
homes worldwide. And independent studies
showed that it saved people an average
of 10-12% on heating bills and 15% on
Fig.1.5: Nest Thermostat
cooling bills. So in under two years, it can pay for itself. Change the temperature
to save energy and youll be rewarded with a Leaf. The Leaf learns how to help you
save, so it appears at different temperatures for different families. The Nest
Thermostat is just one part of your heating and cooling system. But it can keep an
eye on the rest of it. Youll get an alert on your phone if theres something wrong
like temperatures are so low your pipes could burst. And if it looks like your
furnace is acting up, the Nest Thermostat will send you an alert.
Price: $249
3. The new Nest Protect has been redesigned from the inside out. It has an industrialgrade smoke sensor, tests itself automatically, and lasts up to a decade. It's also
the first home alarm you can hush from your phone without any extra hardware
required. And just like the original Nest Protect, it tells you whats wrong and can
even alert your phone.
Price: $99

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

1.3 Samsung SmartThings Products


1. The SmartThings Motion Sensor can monitor movement in your home and send
you alerts if theres unexpected activity when youre away. It can trigger lights and
other connected devices to turn on when there is movement, and monitor
temperature.
The SmartThings Motion Sensor is wireless, simple to install, and easy to connect to
your SmartThings Hub.
With a SmartThings Motion Sensor you can:

Receive an alert if there's unexpected movement in your home

Receive an alert if children access dangerous or off-limit areas

Set connected lights to turn on and off automatically as people come and go

Set connected lights to turn on automatically if theres unexpected


movement
Price: $39.99

2. The SmartThings Multipurpose Sensor can monitor whether doors, windows,


cabinets, or your garage are open, closed, or have been left open after you leave
home. It can also monitor temperature and vibration.
The SmartThings Multipurpose Sensor is wireless, simple to install, and easy to
connect to your SmartThings Hub.
With a SmartThings Multipurpose Sensor you can:

Check whether you closed the front door, window, or garage

Receive an alert if doors or windows open unexpectedly

Receive an alert if children access dangerous or off-limit areas

Receive an alert if theres an unexpected change in temperature

Set connected lights to turn on and off automatically as you open doors
Price: $39.99

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

3. The SmartThings Outlet allows you


to control lights, electronics, and
small appliances from anywhere.
You can also set things to
automatically turn on and off based
on a schedule or in response to
other activities
The SmartThings Outlet is wireless,
simple to install, and easy to
connect to your SmartThings Hub.

Fig.1.6: The SmartThings Outlet

With a SmartThings Outlet you can:

Control lights, electronics, and small appliances from anywhere

Monitor whether lights, electronics, and small appliances are turned on or off

Set lights, electronics, and small appliances to turn on and off automatically
Price: $54.99

4. The SmartThings Arrival Sensor can send you a notification when people, pets, and
cars arrive and leave your home. Simply place it in a childs bag, around a pets
collar, or in your car to stay connected to loved ones. And by keeping it on your
keychain, you can trigger it to emit a beeping noise to help you find your keys at
home.
The SmartThings Arrival Sensor is wireless, simple to install, and easy to connect to
your SmartThings Hub.

With a SmartThings Arrival Sensor you can:

Know when people, pets, and cars arrive or leave home

Receive an alert if your pet unexpectedly leaves home

Set connected lights to turn on and off automatically as people come and go

Attach to your keychain and find your keys at home


Price: $29.99

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

The SmartThings Hub is the heart of your smart home. It connects wirelessly with
hundreds of compatible smart devices, allowing you to monitor, control, and secure
your home from anywhere.
5. The SmartThings Hub is simple to install and easy to use with the free SmartThings
app. With a SmartThings Hub you can connect smart sensors, lights, locks,
cameras, and more to:

Monitor your home from anywhere

Control your home from the palm of your hand

Secure your home and protect it from damage and danger

Add any of the hundreds of compatible smart devices to enhance your home
Price: $99.00

6. The Lighting and Energy Starter Bundle includes our most popular devices needed
to get you started with adding smart lights to your home. Simply connect your
lights to your SmartThings Hub, download the free SmartThings mobile app, and
then connect the two OSRAM On/Off/Dim Smart Lights and the Motion Sensor
included in this bundle to start customizing lights in your home.
With the Lighting and Energy Starter Bundle, you can:

Manage multiple lights with one button

Automate your lights to turn off when you leave home

Set your lights to turn on when motion is detected in a room

Add connected thermostats for total smart home control

Fig.1.7: Lighting and Energy Starter Bundle


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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

1.4 Smart Home Controlling Systems


To establish Smart Home Controlling System and if you are Looking to make your
home just a little smarter? Here are one of our favorite smart home systems and
individual gadgets.
1. Lighting system
LED light bulbs which use embedded motion sensors, the bulbs can detect when
you're in the room and turn the lights on and off. Inside is an ambient light sensor,
allowing the lights to automatically change from a hard white to a softer white,
depending on the light in the rest of the room.so it will reduce energy consumption.
Stack lighting is recommended.
2. Garage
Which lets you tap your device's screen to open or close your garage from anywhere
and it can sense when you're near your driveway to automatically open and, when
your car is safely ensconced inside, close your existing garage door.
Chamberlain is recommended.
3. central system
If you have a wide variety of smart home gadgets, you'll need a central system to
integrate and control them all. While it has its imperfections and it works with a wide
range of devices and has a battery backup.
Samsung SmartThings hub is recommended.
4. Smart Thermostat
How to make sure all the rooms of your house are getting heated or cooled properly.
A small wireless sensor gets placed in the room that stays chilly, and the thermostat
will keep the heat on until it senses that room has warmed up enough. Now thats
smart. to name a few smart home systems. Also, the fact that I could get all of my
roomsnot just oneto the right temperature makes all the difference.
ecobee is recommended.
5. Video Monitor:
It must have a magnetic, swiveling base that lets you set it up almost anywhere. And
at least two-way audio, sharp night vision and a powerful digital zoom, and integrates
with other smart home products. Nest cam is recommended.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

6. Smart Speaker
It must be a bluetooth speaker and let you control a number of smart home gadgets,
as well as connect to other smart home hubs and read your audiobooks, check the
weather, and even let you purchase things online just by using your voice. And, as a
speaker it`s sounds must be great, too.
Amazon echo is recommended.
7. Smoke Detector
It has an industrial-grade smoke sensor, tests itself automatically, and lasts up to a
decade. It's also must be the first home alarm you can hush from your phone without
any extra hardware required. and have friendly human voice that gives you an early
warning. That way you can handle burning toast before it becomes a burning toaster.
Nest smoke alarm is recommended.
8. Smart Home Lock
Electronic door lock you can use your own personal code to enter your home with just
a few simple pushes of a button and lock it with just one. You also get more control
over who has access to your home. Just assign a temporary code to whoever needs
one and delete it when you see fit. Now you can totally eliminate the need for keys
kwikset is recommended.
9. Best Cookware
You can adjust the crock pot's settings from anywhere, receive reminders, change the
cook time, adjust the cooking temperature, use the timer to calculate cook times and
process, or check the status of your dish so you can come home to a perfectly cooked
meal.
belkin wemo is recommended.
10. Water Monitor:
By the time you discover a water leak in your home, its going to cost a fortune to get
it fixed. So it must detect those leaks before they get serious. Attach its sensors to
water-prone places like sinks and toilets, and if a drop of water falls, an alert is sent to
the hub so you can act immediately amd can Monitor your home 24/7 which lets you
set your own alerts and shows you all the locations of your sensors as well as the
temperature and humidity in those areas.
Wally home is recommended.
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART HOMES

11. Humidity Monitor


Humidity Sensor and Fan Control does what its name implies: a sensor detects excess
humidity and automatically activates the already installed ventilation fan to help
reduce condensation levels. You can set sensor sensitivity, humidity level and
automatic timeouts to meet room-specific ventilation needs.
Leviton humidity sensor and fan control is recommended.
12. Smart Home Controlling System
Lets you make your home smarter on your own terms. This touch-screen panel
replaces your wall switch, and, using a small built-in camera, will automatically turn
the lights on when you enter a room. It can also be used as a security camera, and you
can link two or more consoles to create a whole-home network. It is your back in case
youre running late. You can send a message to your homes console from your
smartphone so your family members know youre on your way.
Nubryte is recommended.
13. Smart Bed
Forget fitness trackers doubling as sleep monitors. You want your entire bed to track
your sleep. With Sleep IQ monitors how you sleep all through the night by tracking
breathing, heart rate and movement. With that data, it will give you pointers on how
to improve your sleep quality and get some more shut-eye each night. And with the
adjustable mattress, you and your partner can customize each side of the bed for the
most comfortable night of sleep possible.
Sleep number c2 bed is recommended.
14. Smart Refrigerator
It have a large touchscreen lets you view family members' schedules, leave notes for
each other, order groceries, play music, and even watch TV. Additionally, it may have
cameras on the inside, which take a picture and email it to you every time you close
the door. No more guessing if you need a quart of milk while you're at the store!
Samsung family hub refrigerator.

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Chapter 2
Implemented Hardware
2.1 Systems
2.1.1 Power Supply
We created a smart power supply for our project that draws its power alternatively
from computer PSU and a Solar panel, this power supply does the desired functions of
measurement, protection and calculation then displays the results on LCD for the
users.
Functions:
1- Measurements
The microcontroller can measure up to 5v Dc, this is used to measure all voltages and
currents of the system
A) Voltage measurement
The system uses 3 levels of dc voltages (3.3V, 5V, 12V) both 3.3 and 5 V are measured
directly through the microcontroller while the 12 V is measured
through a voltage divider

We choose the values of Z1 and Z2 to be large (70kOhm, 50kOhm)


to minimize the current and losses
B) Current measurement
Currents of both PSU and Solar panel is measured through a very
small resistance (0.05Ohm) to create a small voltage drop that
after being measured by the controller
is converted
into current
C) Solar attach and detach
The power supply measures the power provided by the solar panel
in a dummy circuit of resistors then attaches the suitable number of circuits to achieve
maximum usage of the solar panel and the current is always monitored to detach
circuits if it falls below a threshold for the connected number of circuits. The current
is measured every interval of set time through the dummy circuit to attach the suitable
number of circuits. Attaching and detaching is done via relays and is done very fast
that it doesnt cause any annoyance to the customer and is informed through the LCD
of the power supply.

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CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTED HARDWARE

2- Protection
A) Under voltage protection
All voltage levels are measured and compared to acceptable levels, if the voltage
drops below these levels the system gives a notification then shutdown.
B) Overload and Short-circuit protection:
The current for every circuit is calculated and a higher margin is given then a suitable
fuse is provided to every circuit to achieve the protection from current changes.
C) Overvoltage protection:
The power supply is provided with over voltage protection on both the 220 AC
voltage side and the DC side that shuts down the PSU automatically when over voltage
occurs.
3- Monitoring
The power supply is constantly measuring the voltages and currents of both the PSU
and the solar panel. Then it performs calculations to find power, energy, cost of energy
per session, total cost of energy, and the cost saved by using the solar panel.
PSU

P = V*I/0.95

Solar

P=V*I

Energy

E=P*t

Cost is calculated according to latest tariff from the ministry of power and electricity,
where the prices are 7.5, 14.5, 16, 30.5, 40.5 and 71 PT for 50, 100, 200, 350, 650 and
1000 KW respectively.
** The energy consumption is saved in the EEPROM of the microcontroller and the
usage of every session is added to the total usage.

17

CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTED HARDWARE

Fig.2.1: Flow Chart of Power Supply Algorithm


18

CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTED HARDWARE

2.1.2 Light system


The smart home is lit with LED spotlights that draw power from the smart power
supply (PSU or Solar).
The LED lights are used to save power and provide warm white light, where the degree
of light is controlled both manually and automatically through a smart dimming
system using PID control.
2.1.2.1 Control scheme
The system is constantly monitoring the outer light level and the inner light level, while
automatic mode is on the system turns off the lights when sun level is higher than a
certain threshold and when it drops below this threshold the lights turn on with
dimming system in action to utilize the sunlight and achieve maximum savings.
The user can override the automatic system and apply his desired state whatever it is
through any of the developed application (mobile, web, computer) and the light
system will follow, then the user can return to automatic otherwise if the user leaves
it or forgets to turn automatic system back the system will return to automatic when
a state change occurs (crossing the sunlight threshold up or down).
The lighting system also includes outer lights which operates with both presence and
light level sensors to turn on when its night and someone is in the garden.

Fig.2.2: Flow Chart of Lighting System Algorithm


19

CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTED HARDWARE

2.1.3 Shading system


Our smart home has a shading system that is made from dc servo motors, hinges and
curtain sheets, the motors draw power from the smart power supply (PSU).
The shading system can provide protection from sunlight or privacy or both, where
the shades are controlled both manually and automatically and the smart dimming
system acts properly using PID control.
2.1.3.1 Control scheme
The system is constantly monitoring the outer light level, while automatic mode is on
the system lift the curtain up when the sun level is higher than a certain threshold to
use the sunlight to increase the efficiency and save power, and when it drops below
this threshold the curtains go down for privacy with dimming system in action all the
time to utilize the sunlight and achieve maximum savings.
The user can override the automatic system and apply his desired state whatever it
is through any of the developed application (mobile, web, computer) and both
curtains and shades will follow, then the user can return to automatic otherwise if
the user leaves it or forgets to turn automatic system back the system will return to
automatic when a state change occurs (crossing the sunlight threshold up or down).

20

CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTED HARDWARE

2.1.4 Air Conditioning system


Our smart home has an air-conditioning system that allows for a wide variety of
temperature with heating and cooling with precise control.
System consists of dc motors with dc motor drivers, heater and relays to provide both
heating and cooling, while it also contains temperature sensors for every room and
for the outside of the building and offers all this information for the user.
2.1.4.1 Control scheme
The system is constantly measuring the temperature in all rooms and outside the
house, then it takes the desired temperature from the user through any of the
developed application (mobile, web, computer).
If the desired temperature is less than the outer temperature then cooling starts with
PID control to reach the desired value by the user with the feedback from the
temperature sensors, else if the users desired temperature is higher than the ambient
temperature then the heating system starts to reach the desired value.

Fig.2.4: Flow Chart of Air Conditioning System Algorithm


21

CHAPTER 2 IMPLEMENTED HARDWARE

2.1.5 Door system


The model contains 2 doors made from dc servo motors, both doors can be operated
manually and automatically.
The first door is the garage sensor door which feels the owner car coming to park, it
opens the door and turns on the lights. The second door is the main door which is
protected with password and camera, it also can be opened using any of the
applications.
2.1.5.1 Control scheme
The door is always forced closed and waiting for input through the keypad, if the
password is entered wrong it gives u 2 retries and then fires the alarm and takes
picture and sends it to the user. If the password is entered right the door opens until
all pass, then close.
U can also use the doorbell which gives the bell sound and takes picture to send it to
the user, then if the user wants to open the door he can do this through any of the
developed application (mobile, web, computer).

Fig.2.5: Flow chart of Door System Algorithm


22

Chapter 3
Connecting to the internet

3.1 Internet of things (IoT)


Is a network of physical objects, with the addition of computational power and is
connected to the internet. The IoT allows objects to be sensed and controlled
remotely across existing network infrastructure, creating opportunities for more
direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, and resulting in
improved efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit. While there are many ways that
the Internet of Things could impact society and business, there are at least three major
benefits of loT that will impact every business, which include: communication, control
and cost savings.
3.1.1 The Three Cs of IoT
Communication. IoT communicates information to people and systems, such as state
and health of equipment (e.g. its on or off, charged, full or empty) and data from
sensors that can monitor a persons vital signs. In most cases, we didnt have access
to this information before or it was collected manually and infrequently. For example,
an IOT-enabled HVAC system can report if its air filter is clean and functioning
properly.
Control and Automation. In a connected world, a business will have visibility into a
devices condition. In many cases, a business or consumer will also be able to remotely
control a device. For example, a business can remotely turn on or shut down a specific
piece of equipment or adjust the temperature in a climate-controlled environment.

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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

Cost Savings. Many companies will adopt IoT to save money. Measurement provides
actual performance data and equipment health, instead of just estimates. Businesses,
particularly industrial companies, lose money when equipment fails. With new sensor
information, IoT can help a company save money by minimizing equipment failure and
allowing the business to perform planned maintenance. Sensors can also measuring
items, such as driving behavior and speed, to reduce fuel expense and wear and tear
on consumables. New smart meters in homes and businesses can also provide data
that helps people understand energy consumption and opportunities for cost savings.
Applying this idea to our model, we connected every device to the main controller
giving every item an id to be accessed later by the network to send and receive data
from the main server. This gave every device its own identification plus its normal
function throw manual control or automatic control and behavior example: a lamb
can be:
- turned on/off through a button
- has a dimmer behavior through sensors and automatic computation.
- send its status to the server
- get controlled by the server if a web/mobile signal is received.

Fig.3.1: Applying the idea of The Three Cs of IoT

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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

3.2 Setting the Web Server (Ruby on Rails)


Rails is a development tool which gives web developers a framework, providing
structure for all the code they write. The Rails framework helps developers to build
websites and applications, because it abstracts and simplifies common repetitive
tasks.
Rails is written in Ruby, the programming language which is also used alongside Rails.
One of key principles of Ruby on Rails development is convention over configuration.
This means that the programmer does not have to spend a lot of time configuring files
in order to get setup, Rails comes with a set of conventions which help speed up
development.

Fig.3.2: Ruby in Rails


Another characteristic of Rails is the emphasis on RESTful application design. REST
(Representational State Transfer) is a style of software architecture based around the
client-server relationship. It encourages a logical structure within applications, which
means they can easily be exposed as an API (Application Programming Interface).
The Web server is hosted by Heroku, it is a cloud
application platform lets app developers spend their
time on their application code, not managing
servers, deployment, ongoing operations, or scaling,
it can host rails application and offers a free hosting
space with a free domain name. Our application is
hosted at: http://shproject.herokuapp.com/

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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

3.3 MVC Architecture


ModelViewController (MVC) is a software architectural pattern for implementing
user interfaces on computers. It divides a given software application into three
interconnected parts, so as to separate internal representations of information from
the ways that information is presented to or accepted from the user. It is therefore a
popular choice for architecting web apps. In general, it separates out the application
logic into three separate parts, promoting modularity and ease of collaboration and
reuse. It also makes applications more flexible and welcoming to iterations.

The model defines what data the app should contain. If the state of this data changes,
then the model will usually notify the view (so the display can change as needed) and
sometimes the controller (if different logic is needed to control the updated view).
The view defines how the app's data should be displayed. It sends input data from the
user through it GUI to the controller and receive any changes from it.
The controller is responsible for responding to user input and perform interactions on
the data model objects. The controller receives the input, it validates the input and
then performs the business operation that modifies the state of the data model.
There are a few variations of the MVC design pattern such as MVP (ModelView
Presenter) and MVVP(ModelViewViewModel). Even with the so called MVC design
pattern itself, there is some variation between the traditional MVC pattern vs the
modern interpretation in various programming languages. For example, some MVC
based frameworks will have the view observe the changes in the models while others
will let the controller handle the view update. This article is not focused on the
comparison of various implementations but rather on the separationofconcerns
and its importance in writing modern web apps.
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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

3.4 Database Structure (Model)

Fig.3.3: Database is divided into three interconnected tables


Users table contains: a user identification id as a primary key for the table, user name
and address for the smart home, a secure password which an encryption algorithm
runs on it to secure it in the database and prevent from being exposed to any hacks or
attack, a user token which will be explained later for the web service part of the
application to serve the embedded system part of the project, and room_id that
contains the identification number of the different room in the smart home.
Rooms table is connected to the user table by a one to many relation, which mean
that every user can have many room and many room can belong to one user, the
Rooms table contains: a room_id which act as the identification for the room and as
the primary key for the table, room name and description for better view and
identifications, a user_id to act as a foreign key to connect between the table and the
users table and finally a devices log that hold the devices the belong to the room.
Devices table is connected to the Rooms table through the same relation as before
one to many relation, which mean that each device set belong to one room and a
room has many devices set. This type of formation is made to keep a log for previous
changes that have been done to the system for security reasons; to know if a device
has been turned on/off or has been accessed at any time of the day. Another scheme
could have been made for this table, to make it a many to many relation, which mean
that different devices can belong to many rooms and a room can have many devices.
Also, we limited the devices set to 5 devices just to test the ideas in our smart home
model, in the future or in a business setting the number of devices and their types can
be adjusted and set to anything as the customer requires.
You can check the model code snippet at appendix C
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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

3.5 Action and Logic (Controller)


As the user can make different requests
to the model, we will focus on the GET
and POST requests. GET request, means
retrieve whatever information (in the
form of an entity) is identified by the
Request-URI. If the Request-URI refers
to a data-producing process, it is the
produced data which shall be returned
as the entity in the response and not the
source text of the process, unless that
text happens to be the output of the process.

Fig.3.4: Action and Logic

POST request, means to post/create whatever information supplied in the identified


payload of the request-URL to be added to the database, if the data is successfully
added we get a 200/OK response from the server that the data has been.
In our application, we prevented the restricted the creation of new users to the
Webmaster, the one who can access the server and the source code of the application,
as this application is designed specifically for our model, to add a new home to use
the application you have to contact the company to add a new home a user to the
system.
A user can create different rooms in the house, giving it a name and a description and
every room is installed with a predefined set of devices we stated earlier, also the user
can destroy a room is he wanted. For privacy reason a user cant see the other users
or their rooms. Any user can only see his home and his rooms only and control the
status of his devices.
For easier view, the Room controller control the view of the devices of the room to
show only the last log of the devices set, so the user can only see the last state of his
devices and to change it if he wanted a separate view is there to see the entire log of
the devices and the modification date of them.
The Devices Controller, control the create of the new devices status with every change
action from the user, this method is used to keep a log for the entire modification
another method that would have been faster for the database was to only update the
current device with the new status and keep the modification date only but this would
have prevented the view of the entire log of changes.
Only authorized user can make changes to any room or devices this make the
application secure.
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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

3.6 Responsive Design (View)

Using Bootstrap and JQuery to make a responsive design, it is a design that respond
to different hardware, the window size and its content differ from a desktop to tablet
to a mobile.

Fig.3.5 (a): Home page on the

Fig.3.5 (b): Home page on the website

on the web application


The home page offer an introduction to the web application, where a general view on
the project and smart home system, the about page contain further details on project
supervisor and members and finally the contact page offer some details and contact
information.
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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

Fig.3.6: Login icon


Login icon at the top to offer accessibility for authorized user, where a user can enter
his username and password and access the dashboard where his rooms reside.

Fig.3.7: Rooms View


Every room can be accessed a photo can be assigned for each room to offer more
identification to the room, a responsive animation is added to the room view with
css to offer more interactivity in the application.

Fig.3.8: Living Room View


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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

A Room has a name and description that can be edited with the edit button and can
be destroyed with the destroy button. The latest device status is shown in a table
with red and green colors to show if the status is on/off with a matching icon to the
device to offer a better view.
To change the status of any device
when click on the edit button
shown in the fig.3.9 another table
appear which is a form with
buttons on/off that make a POST
request to the server to update
the status of the device.
The button shows the previous
devices status as checked button
to change and to keep the status
of the unchanged device when
updated.
Fig.3.9: Edit Button
The table with the devices status is being updated dynamically without any
interference from the user or without using the refresh button, to update the device
status if any change occurred in the server from other place e.g. mobile application,
tablet or another computer. For any problems or glitches in the system the user can
send us feedback about his problem to be fixed, through the contact page.

Fig 3.10: Contact View


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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

3.7 Web Service


A Web Service is a service offered by an electronic device to another electronic device,
communicating with each other via the World Wide Web. In a web service, web
technology such as the HTTP, originally designed for human-to-machine
communication, is utilized for machine-to-machine communication, more specifically
for transferring machine readable file formats such as XML and JSON. In practice, the
web service typically provides an object-oriented web based interface to a database
server, utilized for example by
another web server, or by a mobile
application, that provides a user
interface to the end user.
The W3C defines a Web service
generally as:
A software system designed to
support interoperable machine-tomachine interaction over a
network.
A web API is an application
programming interface (API) for
either a web server or a web

Fig. 3.11: API Web

browser. It is a web development term is usually limited to what is client-side


accessible to web applications and thus usually does not include web server and web
browser implementation details
So in order to increase the efficiency of the application and to not relay on the Web
Application we added an API to only send the needed data between the server and to
both the controller and the mobile applications requires it. This way is more efficient
at the size of the data sent is very small that doesnt consume too much of bandwidth
available plus its faster to transmit.
The Transmission of data over the API is in both way the server can send the data
when it is hit with a GET request from the controller or the mobile application and it
can receive the payload of a POST request when a device want to update its status
from the automatic behavior due to sensors or from the manual click of the mobile
application.

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CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

The Web API is done through the route action of the rails application in which we
append the url link of the site with an /api/ extension plus a user token to make it
more secure, as there is no password to protect the user privacy nor a way for a
machine to enter a username and password to access the rooms and devices, this
done through the token. Every user get assigned with a unique token that can be
hardcoded in the smart house application to access the corresponding record in the
database.

33

Chapter 4
Smart Materials

4.1 Introduction
Smart materials are materials, systems, and products that behave dynamically
unlike conventional building materials, which are static. This property allows them to
react and adapt to environmental changes. Their particular characteristics
are the result of physical or chemical influences upon the material, such as different
temperatures or direct sunlight.

Fig.4.1 Smart Home with smart materials


Designing your home for energy efficiency will help you live more comfortably and
save money, and help you save the environment by reducing greenhouse gas
emission. An energy smart home takes advantage of the suns free warmth and light,
with simple design features to keep it warm and comfortable in winter, and cool in
summer.
Up to 25% of the heat in your home is lost through the roof and up to 35% through
the walls so insulating them gives you the biggest savings on your energy bills.
The Smart Material Houses mark a new type that combines adaptable structural
design with smart technologies and building materials. They are being created as an
architectural pilot project under one of the main themes of The Building Exhibition
within the Building Exhibition, as the four model buildings demonstrate both how
new technological approaches can be translated into forward-looking architecture,
and how traditional techniques can be re-interpreted for the modern day.

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.2 Walls Insulation


4.2.1 How wall insulation works
Wall insulation acts as a blanket that prevents heat
from escaping through the walls of your home. It can
also help to stop your home getting too hot in
summer.
The type of wall insulation youll need depends on
whether your home has cavity or solid walls. Both
types should be installed by a professional installer.
The thermal images on the right show the same
house before and after cavity wall insulation was
fitted.
It shows that with insulation, there is less heat loss
and the heat is more uniformly spread around the
house.
4.2.2 Types of walls
Houses may be solid walls or cavity walls:

A cavity wall is made up of two walls with a gap in between, known as the
cavity; the outer leaf is usually made of brick, and the inner layer of brick or
concrete block.

A solid wall has no cavity; each wall is a single solid wall, usually made of brick
or stone.

Fig.4.3 (a): Cavity wall

Fig.4.3 (b): Solid wall

Older houses are more likely to have solid walls while the modern are cavity walls but
more expensive. Insulating your solid walls could cut your heating costs considerably,
because solid walls let through twice as much heat as cavity walls do. The good news
is they can be insulated.

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.2.2.1 Cavity wall insulation


Cavity wall insulation is injected through the outer wall of your home into the space
between the inner and outer leaves of brickwork that make up cavity walls.
It's cost effective - it costs between 330 and 720 depending on the size of your
home, and should pay for itself in four years or under through the savings you'll make
on your heating bills.
4.2.2.1.1 How cavity wall insulation is installed

Fig. 4.4: Cavity wall insulation


Youll need a registered installer to fit cavity wall insulation it's not a job you can do
yourself.
To insulate your cavity walls, the installer drills small holes around 22mm in size at
intervals of around 1m in the outside wall of your home. The installer then blows
insulation into the cavity using special equipment. Once all the insulation is in, the
installer fills the holes in the brickwork so you'll barely notice them. Cavity walls are
filled with an insulating material; commonly-used materials include mineral wool,
polystyrene beads or foam. Insulating cavity walls will help trap heat and prevent
warmth from escaping.
A registered installer will be able to check your propertys suitability for cavity wall
insulation and recommend the best type. The insulation is blown into the wall cavity
from the outside of your property through drilled holes. The holes are then filled in
with materials that match your brickwork.

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

Cavity wall insulation normally takes around two hours to install, but this depends on
the size of the house and other factors, such as ease of access.
4.2.2.1.2 Is cavity wall insulation suitable for your home?
Your home will usually be suitable for cavity wall insulation if it meets these criteria:

Its external walls are unfilled cavity walls.

Your cavity is at least 50mm wide.

The masonry or brickwork of your property is in good condition.

It is more than 10 years old (most newer houses will have insulation already).

The walls are not exposed to driving rain.

4.2.1.1.3 Cavity wall insulation costs and savings


As you'll see in the table below, you could save up to 275 a year by insulating cavity
walls.

Table 4.1: Cavity wall insulation cost and savings


4.2.2.1.4 Finding an installer
Your installer should be a member of one of these organizations:

The National Insulation Association (NIA) (Go to the NIA website)

The Cavity Insulation Guarantee Agency (CIGA) (Go to the CIGA website)

The British Board of Agreement (BBA) (Go to the BBA website).

Remember to also check whether the installer is signed up to a code of professional


practice like the one provided by the NIA and that the installation is guaranteed for 25
years by CIGA.
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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.2.2.2 Solid wall insulation


If your home has solid walls, you could save
between 145 and 455 a year by installing solid
wall insulation.
About a third of UK homes have solid walls,
according to the National Insulation Association. It
estimates that 45% of the heat from these homes
could be escaping through walls.
4.2.2.2.1 Internal or external insulation?

Fig.4.5: Solid wall Insulation

Internal wall insulation is done by fitting rigid insulation boards to the wall, or building
a stud wall filled in with insulation material such as mineral wool fiber.
External wall insulation involves fixing a layer of insulation material to the wall, then
covering it with a special type of render (plasterwork) or cladding. The finish can be
smooth, textured, painted, tiled, paneled, pebble-dashed, or finished with brick slips.
A) Internal wall insulation
Internal solid wall insulation usually involves fitting ready-made rolls or boards of
insulating material over the inside walls of your house. This can be disruptive - you'll
need to relocate plug sockets, radiators and fitted furniture.
Your walls will need to be carefully prepared before internal insulation can be fitted.
Any damaged plaster needs to be either repaired or removed, and bare brickwork
should be treated to eliminate areas where air can escape. Youll also experience a
slight reduction in floor space due to the extra thickness of insulated walls.
However, this option is usually cheaper than external solid wall insulation and can be
installed on a rolling, room-by-room basis.
Advantages and Disadvantages:

Is generally cheaper to install than


external wall insulation

Will slightly reduce the floor area of any


rooms in which it is applied (the
thickness of the insulation is around
100mm)

Is disruptive, but can be done room by


room

Fig.4.6: Internal wall insulation

Requires skirting boards, door frames and external fittings to be removed and
reattached

Can make it hard to fix heavy items to inside walls.


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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

B) External wall insulation


External insulation involves fixing an insulating material to external walls with a
protective render or decorative cladding over the top.
The thickness of the insulation needs to be between 50mm and 100mm. It's usually
installed when a building has severe heating problems or already requires some form
of repair work that provides the opportunity to add insulation.
External insulation is generally more expensive than the internal type. However, it's
usually the most suitable option as the installation process does not disrupt the
internal design and decoration of a home.
Decorative coatings can be used to improve the appearance of the outside of your
home. External insulation can also match a wide variety of home designs, such as
Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian-style properties.
Advantages:

Can be applied without disruption to the household

Does not reduce the floor area of your home

Renews the appearance of outer walls

Improves weatherproofing and sound resistance.

Fills cracks and gaps in the brickwork, which will reduce draughts

Increases the life of your walls by protecting the brickwork

Reduces condensation on internal walls and can help prevent damp (but will
not solve rising or penetration damp)

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.2.2.2.2 Solid wall insulation costs and savings


The tables below show how much you could reduce your heating bills and your CO2
emissions, and how long the insulation would take to pay for itself.
How much solid wall insulation will save you per year will depend on the type and size
of your home.

Table 4.2: Solid wall insulation costs and savings

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

2.3 R-values and Insulation (Conduction)


Below is a table of R-values for some common building products.
Material, 1" (2.5cm) thickness

m2K/W

ft2Fh/BTU

Polyisocyanurate spray foam

0.76 - 1.46

R-4.3 - R-8.3

Polyurethane rigid panel

0.97 - 1.2

R-5.5 - R-6.8

Closed-cell polyurethane spray foam

0.97 - 1.14

R-5.5 - R-6.5

Extruded polystyrene (XPS), low-density

0.63 - 0.82

R-3.6 - R-4.7

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) high-density 0.65 - 0.7

R-3.85 - R-4.2

Air-entrained concrete

0.69

R-3.90

Fiberglass batts

0.55 - 0.76

R-3.1 - R-4.3

Cotton batts (Blue Jean insulation)

0.65

R-3.7

Open-cell polyurethane spray foam

0.63

R-3.6

Cardboard

0.52 - 0.7

R-3 - R-4

Rock and slag wool batts

0.52 - 0.68

R-3 - R-3.85

Cellulose wet-spray

0.52 - 0.67

R-3 - R-3.8

Straw bale

0.26

R-1.45

Softwood (most)

0.25

R-1.41

Hardwood (most)

0.12

R-0.71

Brick

0.03

R-0.2

Glass

0.025

R-0.14

Poured concrete

0.014

R-0.08

Steel stud

5.3x10-4

R-0.003

Table 4.3: R-values for 1" thickness of common building materials.

Fig.4.6: Reduction in heat transfer Vs Thickness of insulation


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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

Reduction in heat loss does not follow R-values linearly, but in an inverse logarithmic
curve. Because R-values are 1 / conductance (U), doubling the thickness of insulation
will not cut heat loss in half. Rather, there is an exponential decay of heat flow,
where the difference between no insulation and one inch (or one cm) of a particular
insulation may save 80% of heat loss, while going from one inch to two inches of that
insulation saves an additional 9%, and going from 9 inches to ten inches only saves
an additional 1%.
4.3 Roof Insulation
4.3.1 Do you have a flat or pitched roof?
The type of insulation you should choose will depend on the type of roof you have. If
you have a pitched roof, there are two options: warm or cold loft insulation. For flat
roofs, there are three options available: warm deck, cold deck or inverted roof.
4.3.1.1 Pitched Roof
A) Cold loft insulation for pitched roofs
The simplest and cheapest roof insulation is the classic cold loft option. This is often
called just loft insulation. This type places insulation over and between the wooden
joists, above the ceiling of your home's top floor. It will stop the heat escaping from
the living area of your home, but leave the loft space uninsulated. This means it will
remain cold in winter and warm up in summer.
This is the only type of roof insulation you can apply to have the costs covered by
an insulation grant. It's also fairly easy to do as a DIY project, and you can buy loft
insulation from most high street DIY stores.
B) Warm loft insulation for pitched roofs
If you can't install cold loft insulation because, for
example, you're using your loft as a living space, you
will need to consider warm loft insulation.
For a warm loft, you install insulation directly under the
roof in the plane of the roof's pitch (slope). Insulation
will reduce heat loss and your loft space won't become
excessively hot in summer or cold in winter.
It's not as easy as laying rolls of insulation, but it can
still be done as a DIY job if you'd rather not pay an
installer.

Fig.4.7: Loft Insulation

One important point to remember with a warm loft solution is the need ventilation
immediately below the roof tiles. This prevents condensation build up or water getting
in through or around the tiles, which could cause the roof structure to rot.

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.3.1.2 Flat roof insulation


There are three types of insulation for flat roofs and a professional should help you
to decide which one is best for you.

Warm deck or warm roof has insulation above the roof deck (the panel
underneath the roofing material that's usually made of wood), and is
recommended in damp and cold areas such as Britain.
Cold deck or cold roof has insulation below the roof deck and the associated
joists. Typically, you leave a gap for ventilation, as condensation may form
that can lead to rot. In both warm deck and cold deck options, the weather
membrane, typically formed of roofing felt and bitumen, will be the topmost
layer, protecting against rain.
Inverted roof has insulation that goes above the weather membrane,
effectively protecting it from heat and cold that can shorten its life and that
of the roof deck. It can even protect against wear and tear if there is access
to the roof. With an inverted roof, the top-most layer is generally gravel or a
similar material.

4.3.2 Roof insulation cost and saving

Table 4.4: Roof insulation cost and saving


4.4 Floor Insulation
Insulating under the floorboards on the ground floor will save you about 45 - 55 a
year, and you can seal the gaps between floors and skirting boards to reduce draughts
too. Gaps and draughts around skirting boards and floors are simple to fix yourself
with a tube of sealant bought from any DIY store. Floorboards will rot without
adequate ventilation so don't block under-floor airbricks in your outside walls.
Older homes are more likely to have suspended timber floors. Timber floors can be
insulated by lifting the floorboards and laying mineral wool insulation supported by
netting between the joists.

43

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

Fig.4.8: Solid Ground Floor with Insulating Board


Many homes especially newer ones will have a ground floor made of solid
concrete. This can be insulated when it needs to be replaced, or can have rigid
insulation laid on top.
You don't need to insulate the floors of upstairs rooms in your house if they're above
heated spaces (like the living room). But you should think about insulating any floors
that are above unheated spaces such as garages, as you could be losing a lot of heat
through those.
4.4.1 Floor insulation cost and saving
Insulating and draught-proofing your floor can be a cost-effective energy-saving
measure, especially if you are able to do some or all of the work yourself.

Table 4.5: Floor insulation cost and saving


The savings presented are for typical oil heated homes.*these costs are illustrative.
These costs will vary depending on the level of work needed. Insulating a concrete
floor will save around the same as insulating a timber floor, but the cost will vary
enormously depending on circumstances.
4.4.2 How to install floor insulation
Not all home insulation work has to be carried out by a professional; it may work out
cheaper to do the smaller jobs yourself with materials from a DIY store. Try to
sealing any gaps between and around the floorboards when you put them back.

44

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

It's even easier to insulate your timber floor if you have an unheated cellar or
basement space underneath that you can get into. Check that the joists supporting
the floorboards are in good condition and don't show any signs of wet or dry rot.
If the joists are okay, you can fit insulation in between them and hold it in place with
netting if necessary. The basement's 'ceiling' should then have plasterboard fixed
directly to the undersides of the joists, to provide fire resistance and you can then
fit more rigid insulation underneath the 'ceiling' to benefit from even more insulation.
Rugs and carpets on the floor will also help your feet feel warmer, which might mean
you don't feel the need to put the heating on as much.
4.5 Energy-Efficient Windows

All properties lose heat through their windows. But energy-efficient glazing keeps your
home warmer and quieter as well as reducing your energy bills. That might mean
double or triple-glazing, secondary glazing, or just heavier curtains.
4.5.1 How energy-efficient glazing works
Double-glazed windows have two sheets of glass with a gap in between, usually about
16mm, to create an insulating barrier that keeps heat in. This is sometimes filled with
gas. Triple-glazed windows have three sheets of glass, but arent always better than
double-glazed windows.
Energy-efficient windows come in a range of frame materials and styles.
Performance criteria vary according to the following:

How well they stop heat from passing through the


window.

How much sunlight travels through the glass?

How little air can leak in or out around the window?

Fig.4.9: Double-glazed

4.5.2 Windows Frame materials


For all frame materials there are windows available in all energy ratings.

UPVC frames last a long time and may be recycled.

45

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

Wooden frames can have a lower environmental impact, but require


maintenance. They are often used in conservation areas where the original
windows had timber frames.

Aluminum or steel frames are slim and long-lasting, and may be recycled.

Composite frames have an inner timber frame covered with aluminum or


plastic. This reduces the need for maintenance and keeps the frame
weatherproof.

4.5.3 Windows U-values


Windows that have an energy rating will have the u-value of the window displayed on
the energy label. A u-value is a measure of how easily heat can pass through a
material. Materials that let out more heat have higher u-values whereas materials that
let less heat pass through them have lower u-values.
In some cases, windows with a higher energy performance rating might have a higher
u-value than windows with a better energy efficiency rating. This might seem the
wrong way round as lower u-values indicate better insulation levels. However, in these
cases it will be that there are other aspects of the window that make them better
overall such as coating used on the glass and the gap between the glass panes.

Fig.4.10: Glazing Insulation performance


Calculating the overall U-factor starts with adding resistances. U-factors are calculated
for a particular element (roof, wall, window etc.) by finding the resistance of each
constituent part, including air films and air spaces, and then adding these resistances
to obtain a total resistance. The U-factor is the reciprocal of this sum () of resistances:
U= 1/ R.

46

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.5.4 Benefits of energy-efficient windows

Smaller energy bills.

Smaller carbon footprint.

More comfortable home: energy-efficient glazing reduces heat loss through


windows and means fewer draughts and cold spots.

Peace and quiet: as well as keeping the heat in, energy efficient-windows
insulate your home against external noise.

Reduced condensation: energy-efficient glazing reduces condensation buildup on the inside of windows.

The costs and savings for energy-efficient glazing will be different for each home and
each window, depending on its size, material and the installer you choose. Double
glazing should last for 20 years or more.
4.6 Energy-Efficient doors
Like any other part of the home, doors can be insulated and draught-proofed to
prevent heat from escaping. Building regulations state that installing a new door
requires approval from the relevant buildings control body, and new external doors
now generally contain integrated insula4.6tion to reduce heat loss and comply with
the regulations.
A properly fitted new external door should include an effective draught-proofing
system. Existing doors can be improved by fitting draught-proofing strips around the
seals and the letterbox. Fitting draught-proofing to the doors and windows will save
the typical household between 25 and 35 a year.

47

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.7 Insulation and home energy efficiency ratings


An Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) is
needed when you want to sell your house. A
home's EPC shows (fig.4.12) an overall energyefficiency rating for your home from A-G. A
represents the most energy efficient properties
and G the worst. The EPC also contains advice
on how to cut carbon emissions and fuel bills by
making home improvements.
Fitting insulation is an effective way of raising
your homes energy-efficiency rating.
If you don't have insulation installed, the EPC
will recommend the type and level of insulation
required for maximum efficiency.

Fig.4.12

4.8 Energy Efficiency Rating of Air Conditioners

Air conditioners efficiencies are greatly affected by the heating and cooling loads occur
in the building because of radiant energy from the sun that enters through windows,
is absorbed by furniture, walls, and equipment, within the building, and is later
radiated as heat within the building and also affected by the heat conducted through
the building envelope (walls, roofs, floors and windows) to or from the environment
around the building.
The efficiencies of air conditioners are usually measured in terms of their Energy
Efficiency Ratios (EER)
EER= Btu of cooling / (watt-hours of electric energy input)
4.8.1 Cooling Loads Calculations
The cooling load due to summation of heat conduction
Q

total

=Q

transmission

+Q

person sensible

+Q

light

+Q

solar

+Q

equipment

48

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

The cooling load due to solar radiation through windows can be calculated by
Q

solar

=AxSCxMSHGxCLF

Where

Qsolar =cooling load (Btu/hr)


SC =shading coefficient
2

A =window area (ft )


CLF =cooling load factor
2

MSHG =maximum solar heat gain (Btu/hr/ft )


Q transmission = U x A x T (Watt)
Where U: over all heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 . )
A: area of heat transfer (m2 )
T: difference between outside and inside design condition.
U calculation
A) Wall:
1

=h +h +
o

X
k

Materials
1-Common brick
(8 cm)
2-Cement plaster
(2 cm)

Thermal Conductivity (K)


K=0.72
K=0.72

3-Gypsum plaster (13mm)

k=0.38

4-Paint
(2.4 mm)

K=0. 26

Number of Layers
2
2
2
2

Table 4.6: Wall Materials

49

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

B) Roof:
1

=h +h +
o

X
k

Materials

Thermal Conductivity (K)

Number of Layers

1-Concrete (15 cm)

k=1.5

2-Cement (3 cm)

K=0.72

3-Tile(2.54 cm)

K=0.84

4-Gypsum plaster (13mm)

K=0.38

5-Paint
(2.4 mm)

K=0.26

Table 4.7: Roof Materials


Q equipment = Q each equipment x number of equipment
For Example: Computer: 480 W , ATM machine: 50 W
Q light= Light intensity x A

(Watt)

Q person= Q person sensible + Q person latent.


Q person sensible= Q sensible heat load / person x number of persons
Q person latent= Q latent heat load / person x number of persons
So by installed building with insulated walls, insulated roof, and double-glazed
windows will decrease the heat conduction through walls and reduce the radiant
energy from the sun so cooling load decrease, efficiency of air conditioner increase
and electric energy input decrease ( Electricity bill will be reduced ).

50

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

Where the temperature Differential is The difference in temperature between two


spaces within a building, or between the indoor and outdoor temperature.
Temperature differential causes natural convection currents and air to migrate
through cracks and open doors, windows, or other means of egress.
4.9 Energy Efficient Lighting

Lighting accounts for 18% of a typical households electricity bill. You can cut your
lighting bill and energy use by changing which bulbs you use and how you use
them. Houses typically use a mixture of standard light fittings and downlights or
spotlight fittings. Energy efficient bulbs are available for both types of fittings.

4.9.1 Which light bulbs are energy efficient?


There are two main types of energy efficient light bulbs which are Compact
Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
CFLs are a cost-effective option for most general lighting requirements. Replacing a
traditional light bulb with a CFL of the same brightness will save energy.
LEDs are available to fit both types of fittings and are particularly good for replacing
spotlights and dimmable lights. Though more expensive to buy initially, they are more
efficient than CFLs and will save you more money in the long term. By replacing all
halogen downlights in your home with LED alternatives.

51

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

4.9.2 Comparison Chart between LED Lights, Incandescent Light Bulbs and CFLs

52

CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

Table 4.8: LED Lights Vs Incandescent Light Bulbs Vs CFLs

4.10 Smart meters and controls

4.10.1 Smart meters


Smart meters are the next generation of gas and electricity meters. Together with
their accompanying in-home displays, smart meters will help you keep track of the
energy you use in your home, and will cut out the need for meter readings.
The UK Government plans for every home and business in the UK to have a smart
meter for electricity and gas by the end of 2020.
4.10.1.1 How do smart meters work?
Smart meters measure the total energy used in the same way as a traditional meter,
but they can also tell you when you have used it and how much it costs. Additionally,
they have a communication capability that allows this data to be displayed on a device
inside your home and read remotely by your energy supplier.
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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

An in-home display (IHD) unit will be provided along with the smart meter as part of
the program. This device is the most visible part of the smart metering system and
provides up-to-date real-time information on gas and electricity use in pounds and
pence, as well as units of energy. The display also presents historical information on
consumption so that you can compare current and past use.
4.10.1.2 What are the benefits of smart meters?

They enable you to see when you're using the most energy and how much it's
costing you. This means you can adapt your energy use and cut down on waste
to provide long-term carbon and financial savings.

They provide you with accurate and real-time information about your energy
use, enabling you to make informed decisions about your energy
behavior. Currently many of us receive estimated bills after the energy has
been used, making it difficult to reconcile costs with usage.

4.10.2 Smart heating controls


Smart thermostats are a new type of heating control which connect to the internet,
allowing them to be accessed and adjusted remotely. They can give you much greater
control over your heating, from wherever you are, at any time of day.
There are a range of different smart heating controls currently on the market - each
works slightly differently and has different features. Some features include:

remote access to turn your heating on and off, or control the temperature in
your home, using a mobile app

memory to remember your routine energy use - this information can then be
used to set heating preferences automatically

the ability to control the heating in different areas of your home, to avoid
wasting energy by heating un-used rooms

Information about how much energy your heating system is using. Some
devices can store information so that you can see your energy use over time.

4.10.2.1 What are the benefits of smart heating controls?

They allow you greater control and give you the option to be more flexible with
your heating settings.

They can help you to manage your heating more efficiently and potentially
help you save money on your energy bills. For example, if you are going to be
home late one evening, you can remotely change your settings to prevent the
heating from turning on until you arrive home.

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CHAPTER 4 SMART MATERIALS

They allow you to adjust your heating very easily, helping to make your home
more comfortable very quickly. Be aware, if you use the control to turn the
heating on more frequently, or to a higher temperature than it usually would
be, you could find you use more energy, and your bills go up.

The additional information they provide about your energy use can help you
to work out the optimum heating for your home, and show you any wasteful
heating habits that might be raising your bills.

55

Module 2
Solar Energy

56

Chapter 1
Introduction to Solar Energy
1.1 Introduction
Solar energy is radiant energy from the sun. It is vital to us because it provides the
world directly or indirectlywith almost all of its energy. In addition to provide the
energy that sustains the world, solar energy is stored in fossil fuels and biomass, and
is responsible for powering the water cycle and producing wind. Every day the sun
radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy
in one second than people have used since the beginning of time! Solar energy comes
from within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big ball of gases mostly
hydrogen and helium. The hydrogen atoms in the suns core combine to form helium
and radiant energy in a process called nuclear fusion. Only a small part of the solar
energy that the sun radiates into space ever reaches the earth, but that is more than
enough to supply all our energy needs. Every day enough solar energy reaches the
earth to supply our nations energy needs for a year!
People have harnessed solar energy for centuries. As early as the 7th century B.C.,
people used simple magnifying glasses to concentrate the light of the sun into beams
so hot they could cause wood to catch fire. In the 1860s in France, a scientist named
Auguste Mouchout used heat from a solar collector to make steam to drive a steam
engine. Around the same time in the United States, John Ericsson developed the first
realistic application of solar energy using a solar reflector to drive an engine in a steam
boiler. With coal becoming widely used, neither of these inventions became part of
the mainstream. Early in the 1900s, scientists and engineers began seriously
researching ways to use solar energy. The solar water heater gained popularity during
this time in Florida, California, and the Southwest. The industry was in full swing just
before World War II. This growth lasted until the mid- 1950s, when low-cost, natural
gas became the primary fuel for heating homes and water, and solar heating lost
popularity. The public and world governments remained largely indifferent to the
possibilities of solar energy until the energy crises of the 1970s. Research efforts in the
U.S. and around the world since that time have resulted in tremendous improvements
in solar technologies for heating water and buildings and making electricity.
Solar energy is an alternative to conventional energy technologies, but other forms of
energy can many times seem more practical to use. The most important disadvantage
about solar energy is that the access on a short-term basis can be uncertain. The total
incoming radiation normally doesnt vary much from year to year (typically 5 per
cent), but it is not easy to predict on a day-to-day basis.

57

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY

1.2 Passive Solar Energy


The principles for passive solar space heating solar energy can be used directly for
space heating. The sunlight passes through glass and other transparent material so
that it can be absorbed in floors, walls, ceiling and furniture. Next, these materials
emit long wave heat radiation (infrared radiation). The heat is not released again,
because the glass is not transparent for infrared radiation. These processes occur in
practically all buildings, regardless of whether they are designed for it or not. We can
increase the contribution from passive solar heat through conscious design and use of
energy efficient materials and construction solutions. Passive solar heating systems
are normally divided into three main groups:
Direct systems, where the sun radiation passes into the room through
apertures.
- Indirect systems, where the sun radiation heats up a solar wall. This consists
of a material that stores the heat efficiently, and the living space is heated up
by the warm solar wall
- Isolated systems, where the solar energy is caught up in a room that is
separated from the living zone, often called a sunroom or glass yard.
Some technologies for passive solar energy Components for passive solar heat
normally serve two purposes simultaneously: the technical purpose related to building
and gathering or storing solar energy. The additional costs for using solar heat are
therefore low or none, and moreover one can reduce the need for technical
installations for heating. Apertures let in solar radiation if they are directed towards
the sun, but they also let the heat out. To increase the net contribution it is possible
to use windows with extremely low U-value (measure of thermal transmittance).
Special coatings that admit visible light but block for heat radiation are now common
in commercially available windows.
-

However, there are more advanced solutions. One area of great interest is windows
with switchable coats. These can control the amount of radiation which is let in or out
through a window. There are several kinds of coatings which can be regulated
electrically, while other types react to temperature or radiation directly. In buildings
with a cooling demand, such active systems for regulating the solar radiation entry,
are often just as important for reducing the demand for cooling as for contributing to
space heating.
1.3 Active Solar Energy
A solar collector gathers solar radiation and converts the energy to heat. In its simplest
form, it can be a surface that is exposed to the sun. The light that is absorbed by the
plate is converted into heat. The plate has channels where water or another heat
transfer medium circulates.
58

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY

The medium is then distributed to the space where heat is needed. There are several
practical designs of this concept. In order for a solar collector to function well, it must
meet three requirements:
The solar collector surface - the absorber should be black to absorb as much
radiation as possible and reflect as little as possible
- The heat in the absorber must be transmitted effectively to the heat transfer
medium. Al or Cu are good heat conductors
- The solar collector must not have too large heat losses. In all but very simple
devices, the sides and back are insulated and a transparent cover is therefore
used.
A solar collector collects solar energy more or less effectively, depending on
construction and the choice of materials. An effective collector with low losses can
deliver heat with a high temperature, but is relatively expensive. One therefore
chooses a solar collector based on the needs that the plant is to meet and the practical
circumstances with regard to the installation. If one only needs moderate
temperatures, an inexpensive model could be adequate.
-

Water is the most common heat transfer medium in solar collectors. Water is
inexpensive and gives good heat transport capacity through small pipes. The
disadvantage with water is that it can freeze, and that water leakage can damage the
building. Adding an antifreeze agent avoids the freezing problem but adds cost and
increases the risk for environmental impact. Air is even cheaper than water, it doesnt
freeze and small leakages dont lead to practical problems. However, air has much
poorer heat transfer properties than water.
Much larger air ducts than the equivalent water pipe is required to transfer heat. Air
heating collectors are therefore more expensive and less effective than water heating
collectors.
For high temperature applications other heat transfer media are used such as oil or
melted salt. Research has also been done on using liquid sodium.
The solar collector is the key component in the solar energy system. It is an important
part of the system cost and sets limits for what the system can deliver. Therefore there
are several types that are adapted to different performance requirements.
The flat plate solar collector is the most common one. It consists of a flat plate where
water runs through channels. Usually, the solar collector is equipped with one or more
glass covers to decrease heat loss. The more one wishes to reduce the losses from a
flat plate solar collector, the more advanced and expensive materials and technologies
must be used.

59

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY

Solar heating is most common in single-family houses and terrace houses, but can also
be used in larger systems, for instance in apartment blocks. Status and trends Active
solar energy in buildings is a technically mature technology, and little research activity
is carried out in the field. However, the technology is commercially immature, and
therefore large efforts are put into making production methods, marketing channels
and installation work more efficient. Increased production volumes are important in
order to bring down costs.
The costs depend on where in the world the system will be used since energy
consumption, solar irradiance and cost structure vary.
In generation, Most of the worlds electricity is produced by steam turbines. Solar
energy can also be used to generate steam for steam turbines. In order to achieve the
high temperatures necessary, more than 350oC, the sunlight must be concentrated.
Systems that concentrate the light more than ten times only see a small part of the
sky.
In practice, they can therefore only concentrate direct sunlight. For that reason, solar
thermal power plants must be located in areas with a lot of clear weather. The optical
systems that concentrate the light must be directed towards the sun all the time.
Therefore, they must be equipped with a device called a tracker allowing them to
follow the suns movement over the sky continuously.
A thermal power plant is a complicated installation, consisting of collector or mirror
field, steam generation system, turbines, cooling systems and a number of auxiliary
systems. However, much of these plants consist of conventional technologies that
show significant economy of scale. Therefore, large solar thermal power plants can
produce electrical power at a lower cost than solar cells. The value chain for thermal
solar power plants is largely the same as the one for conventional power plants and
include, besides solar specific components as mirrors, advanced solar collectors,
buffer storage and related mechanics, standard components such as pipes, heat
exchangers, steam equipment, turbines, control systems, etc. All full-scale plants have
reserve burners to keep the power plant working when incoming radiation is
insufficient.

60

Chapter 2
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
2.1 Introduction
We now will use the gained knowledge to discuss complete PV systems Photovoltaic
Systems. A PV system contains many different components besides the PV modules.
For successfully planning a PV system it is crucial to understand the function of the
different components and to know their major specifications. Further, it is important
to know the effect on the location of the (expected) performance of a PV system.
2.2 Components of a PV System
Solar cell can convert the energy contained in the solar radiation into electrical energy.
Due to the limited size of the solar cell it only delivers a limited amount of power under
fixed current-voltage conditions that are not practical for most applications. In order
to use solar electricity for practical devices, which require a particular voltage and/or
current for their operation, a number of solar cells have to be connected together to
form a solar panel, also called a PV module. For large-scale generation of solar
electricity solar panels are connected together into a solar array.
Although, the solar panels are the heart of a PV system, many other components are
required for a working system that we already discussed very briefly above. Together,
these components are called the Balance of System (BOS). Which components are
required depends on whether the system is connected to the electricity grid or
whether it is designed as a stand-alone system.
The most important components belonging to the BOS are:
A mounting structure is used to fix the modules and to direct them towards the sun.
Energy storage is a vital part of stand-alone systems because it assures that the
system can deliver electricity during the night and in periods of bad weather. Usually,
batteries are used as energy storage units.
DC-DC converters are used to convert the module output, which will have a variable
voltage depending on the time of the day and the weather conditions, to a fixed
voltage output that e. g. can be used to charge a battery or that is used as input for an
inverter in a grid-connected system.
Inverters or DC-AC converters are used in grid connected systems to convert the DC
electricity originating from the PV modules into AC electricity that can be fed into the
electricity grid.

61

CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

Cables are used to connect the different components of the PV system with each
other and to the electrical load.
It is important to choose cables of sufficient thickness in order to minimize resistive
losses. Even though not a part of the PV system itself, the electric load, i.e. all the
electric appliances that are connected to it have to be taken into account during the
planning phase. Further, it has to be considered whether the loads are AC or DC loads.

Figure 2.1: A schematic of different components of a PV system

2.3 Series and Parallel Connections in PV Modules


If we make a solar module out of an ensemble of solar cells, we can connect the solar
cells in different ways: first, we can connect them in a series connection as shown in
Fig. 2.3 (a). In a series connection the voltages add up. For example, if the open circuit
voltage of one cell is equal to 0.6 V, a string of three cells will deliver an open circuit
voltage of 1.8 V. For solar cells with a classical front metal grid, a series connection can
be established by connecting the bus bars at the front side with the back contact of
the neighboring cell, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3 (b). For series connected cells, the current
does not add up but is determined by the photocurrent in each solar cell. Hence, the
total current in a string of solar cells is equal to the current generated by one single
solar cell. Figure Fig. 2.3 (d) shows the I-V curve of solar cells connected in series. If we
connect two solar cells in series, the voltages add up while the current stays the same.
The resulting open circuit voltage is two times that of the single cell. If we connect
three solar cells in series, the open circuit voltage becomes three times as large,
whereas the current still is that of one single solar cell. Secondly, we can connect solar
cells in parallel as illustrated in Fig. 2.3 (c), which shows three solar cells connected in
parallel. If cells are connected in parallel, the voltage is the same over all solar cells,
while the currents of the solar cells add up. If we connect e.g. three cells in parallel,
the current becomes three times as large, while the voltage is the same as for a single
cell, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3 (d).
62

CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

We used I-V curves, i.e. the current-voltage characteristics, in the previous


paragraphs. This is different to Parts II and III, where we used I-V curves instead, i.e.
the current density - voltage characteristics. The reason for this switch from J to I is
that on module level, the total current that the module can generate is of higher
interest than the current density. As the area of a module is a constant, the shapes of
the I-V and J-V curves of a module are similar. For a total module, therefore the voltage
and current output can be partially tuned via the arrangements of the solar cell
connections. Figure 2.4 (a) shows a typical
PV module that contains 36 solar cells connected in series. If a single junction solar cell
would have a short circuit current of 5 A, and an open circuit voltage of 0.6 V, the total
module would have an output of Voc = 36 _ 0.6V = 21.6V and Isc = 5 A.
However, if two strings of 18 series-connected cells are connected in parallel, as
illustrated in Fig. 2.4 (b), the output of the module will be Voc = 18 _ 0.6V = 10.8V and
Isc = 2 _ 5A = 10 A. In general, for the I-V characteristics of a module consisting of m
identical cells in series and n identical cells in parallel the voltage multiplies by a factor
m while the current multiplies by a factor n. Modern PV modules often contain 60 (10
_ 6), 72 (9 _ 8) or 96 (12 _ 8) solar cells that are usually all connected in series in order
to minimize resistive losses.

Figure 2.2: Illustrating (a) a solar cell, (b) a PV module, (c) a Solar panel, and (d) a PV
array

63

CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

Fig.2.3: Illustrating (a) a series connection of three solar cells and (b) realization of
such a series connection foe cells with a classical front metal grid. (c) Illustrating a
parallel connection of three solar cells. (d) I-V curves of solar cells connected in
series and parallel.

Fig.2.4: Illustrating a PV module consisting (a) of a string of 36 solar cells connected


in series and (b) of two string of 18 solar cells that are connected in parallel.
2.4 Types of PV Systems
PV systems can be very simple, consisting of just a PV module and load, as in the direct
powering of a water pump motor, which only needs to operate when the sun shines.
However, when for example a whole house should be powered, the system must be
operational day and night.

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It also may have to feed both AC and DC loads, have reserve power and may even
include a back-up generator. Depending on the system configuration, we can
distinguish three main types of PV systems: stand-alone, grid-connected, and hybrid.
The basic PV system principles and elements remain the same. Systems are adapted
to meet particular requirements by varying the type and quantity of the basic
elements.
2.4.1 Stand-Alone Systems
Stand-alone systems rely on solar power only. These systems can consist of the PV
modules and a load only or they can include batteries for energy storage.
When using batteries charge regulators are included, which switch off the PV modules
when batteries are fully charged, and may switch off the load to prevent the batteries
from being discharged below a certain limit. The batteries must have enough capacity
to store the energy produced during the day to be used at night and during periods of
poor weather. Figure 2.5 shows schematically examples of stand-alone systems; (a) a
simple DC PV system without a battery and (b) a large PV system with both DC and AC
loads.

Figure 2.5: Schematic representation of (a) a simple Dc PV system to power a water


pump with no energy storage and (b) a complex PV System including batteries,
power conditioners, and both DC and AC loads.
2.4.2 Grid-Connected Systems
Grid-connected PV systems have become increasingly popular for building integrated
applications. As illustrated in Fig. 2.6, they are connected to the grid via inverters,
which convert the DC power into AC electricity.
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In small systems as they are installed in residential homes, the inverter is connected
to the distribution board, from where the PV-generated power is transferred into the
electricity grid or to AC appliances in the house.
These systems do not require batteries, since they are connected to the grid, which
acts as a buffer into that an oversupply of PV electricity is transported while the grid
also supplies the house with electricity in times of insufficient PV power generation.
Large PV fields act as power stations from that all the generated PV electricity is
directly transported to the electricity grid. They can reach peak powers of up to several
hundreds of MWp. Figure 2.7 shows a 25.7 MWp system installed in Germany.

Figure 2.6: Schematic representation of a grid-connected PV system

Figure 2.7: The 25.7 MWp Lauingen Energy Park in Bavarian Swabia, Germany [82]

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2.4.3 Hybrid Systems


Hybrid systems consist of combination of PV modules and a complementary method
of electricity generation such as a diesel, gas or wind generator.
A schematic of a hybrid system shown in Fig. 2.8. In order to optimize the different
methods of electricity generation, hybrid systems typically require more sophisticated
controls than stand-alone or grid-connected PV systems.
For example, in the case of a PV/diesel system, the diesel engine must be started when
the battery reaches a given discharge level and stopped again when battery reaches
an adequate state of charge. The back-up generator can be used to recharge batteries
only or to supply the load as well.

Figure 2.8: Schematic representation of a hybrid PV system that has a diesel


generator as alternative electricity source.
2.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking
In this section we discuss the concept of Maximum power point tracking (MPPT). This
concept is very unique to the field of PV Systems, and hence brings a very special
application of power electronics to the field of photovoltaics. The concepts discussed
in this section are equally valid for cells, modules, and arrays, although
MPPT usually is employed at PV module/array level. As discussed earlier, the behavior
of an illuminated solar cell can be characterized by an I-V curve. Interconnecting
several solar cells in series or in parallel merely increases the overall voltage and/or
current, but does not change the shape of the I-V curve. Therefore, for understanding
the concept of MPPT, it is sufficient to consider the I-V curve of a solar cell. The I-V
curve is dependent on the module temperature on the irradiance. For example, an
increasing irradiance leads to an increased current and slightly increased voltage, as
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CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

illustrated in Fig.2.9.The same figure shows that an increasing temperature has a


detrimental effect on the voltage. Now we take a look at the concept of the operating
point, which is the defined as the particular voltage and current, at that the PV module
operates at any given point in time. For a given irradiance and temperature, the
operating point corresponds to a unique (I, V) pair which lies onto the I-V curve. The
power output at this operating point is given by P = I _ V. The operating point (I, V)
corresponds to a point on the power-voltage (P-V) curve, shown in Fig. 2.10. For
generating the highest power output at a given irradiance and temperature, the
operating point should such correspond to the maximum of the (P-V) curve, which is
called the maximum power point (MPP). If a PV module (or array) is directly connected
to an electrical load, the operating point is dictated by that load. For getting the
maximal power out of the module, it thus is imperative to force the module to operate
at the maximum power point. The simplest way of forcing the module to operate at
the MPP, is either to force the voltage of the PV module to be that at the MPP (called
Vmpp) or to regulate the current to be that of the MPP (called Impp). However, the
MPP is dependent on the ambient conditions. If the irradiance or temperature change,
the IV and the P-V characteristics will change as well and hence the position of the
MPP will shift. Therefore, changes in the I-V curve have to be tracked continuously
such that the operating point can be adjusted to be at the MPP after changes of the
ambient conditions. This process is called Maximum Power Point Tracking or MPPT.
The devices that perform this process are called MPP trackers. We can distinguish
between two categories of MPP tracking:
Indirect MPP tracking, for example performed with the Fractional Open Circuit
Voltage method.
Direct MPP tracking, for example performed with the Perturb and Observe method
or the Incremental Conductance method.
All the MPPT algorithms that we discuss in this section are based on finding the tuning
the voltage until VMPP is found. Other algorithms, which are not discussed in this
section, work with the power instead and aim to find IMPP.

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Figure 2.9 Effect of increased temperature T or irradiance GM on the I-V curve

Figure 2.10: A generic I-V curve and the associated P-V curve. The maximum power
point (MPP) is indicated

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CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

2.5.1 Indirect MPPT


First, we discuss indirect MPP Tracking, where simple assumptions are made for
estimating the MPP based on a few measurements.
2.5.1.1 Fixed Voltage Method
For example, in the fixed voltage method (also called constant voltage method), the
operating voltage of the solar module is adjusted only on a seasonal basis. This model
is based on the assumption that for the same level of irradiance higher MPP voltages
are expected during winter than during summer. It is obvious that this method is not
very accurate. It works best at locations with minimal irradiance fluctuations between
different days.
2.5.1.2 Fractional Open Circuit Voltage Method
One of the most common indirect MPPT techniques is the fractional open circuit
voltage method. This method exploits the fact that in a very good approximation
the Vmpp is given by Vmpp = k _ Voc, where k is a constant. For crystalline silicon, k
usually takes values in between 0.7 and 0.8. In general, k of course is dependent on
the type of solar cells. As changes in the open circuit voltage can be easily tracked,
changes in the Vmpp can be easily estimated just by multiplying with k. This method
thus can be implemented easily. However, there are also certain drawbacks. First,
using a constant factor k only allows to roughly estimate the position of the MPP.
Therefore, the operating point usually will not be exactly on the MPP but in its
proximity, with is called the MPP region. Secondly, every time the system needs to
respond to a change in illumination conditions, the Voc must be measured. For this
measurement, the PV module needs to be disconnected from the load for a short
while, which will lead to a reduced total output of the PV system. The more often the
Voc is determined, the larger the loss in output will be. This drawback can be
overcome my slightly modifying the method. For this modification a pilot PV cell is
required, which is highly matched with the rest of the cells in the module. The pilot
cell receives the same irradiance as the rest of the PV module, and a measurement of
the pilot PV cells Voc also gives an accurate representation of that of the PV module,
hence it can be used for estimating Vmpp. Therefore, the operating point of the
module can be adjusted without needing to disconnect the PV module.

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2.5.2 Direct MPPT


Now we discuss direct MPP tracking, which is more involved than indirect MPPT,
because current, voltage or power measurements are required. Further, the system
must response more accurately and faster than in indirect MPPT. We shall look at a
couple of the most popular kind of algorithms.
2.5.2.1 Perturb and Observe (P&O) Algorithm
The first algorithm that we discuss is the Perturb and Observe (P&O) algorithm, which
also is known as "hill climbing" algorithm. In this algorithm, a perturbation is provided
to the voltage at that the module is currently driven. This perturbation in voltage will
lead to a change in the power output. If an increasing voltage leads to an increasing in
power, the operating point is at a lower voltage than the MPP, and hence further
voltage perturbation towards higher voltages is required to reach the MPP. In
contrast, if an increasing voltage leads to a decreasing power, further perturbation
towards lower voltages is required in order to reach the MPP. Hence, the algorithm
will converge towards the MPP over several perturbations. A problem with this
algorithm is that the operating point is never steady at the MPP but meandering
around the MPP. If very small perturbation steps are used around the MPP, this
meandering, however, can be minimized. Additionally, the P&O algorithm struggles
from rapidly changing illuminations. For example, if the illumination (and hence the
irradiance) changes in between two sampling instants in the process of convergence,
then the algorithm essentially fails in its convergence efforts In the latest perturbation,
the algorithm has determined that the MPP lies to the at a higher voltage than of point
B, and hence the next step is a perturbation to converge towards the MPP accordingly.
If the illumination was constant, it would end up at C and the algorithm would
conclude that the MPP is at still higher voltages, which is correct. However, as the
illumination changes rapidly before the next perturbation, the next perturbation shifts
the operating point to C instead to C, such that PC < PB While the MPP still lies to the
right of C, the P&O algorithm thinks that it is on the left of C. This wrong assumption
is detrimental to the speed of convergence of the P&O algorithm, which is one of the
critical figures of merit for MPPT techniques. Thus, drastic changes in weather
conditions severely affect the efficacy of the P&O algorithms.

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2.5.2.2 Incremental Conductance Method

Fig.2.11: A conceptual flowchart of the incremental conductance algorithm.


These relationships are exploited by the incremental conductance algorithm. Figure
2.11 shows a conceptual flowchart. Note that this flowchart is not exhaustive. While
both, the instantaneous voltage and current are the observable parameters, the
instantaneous voltage is also the controllable parameter. Vref is the voltage value
forced on the PV module by the MPPT device.
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CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

It is the latest approximation of the Vmpp. For any change of the operating point, the
algorithm compares the instantaneous with the incremental conductance values.
If the incremental conductance is larger than the negative of the instantaneous
conductance, the current operating point is to the left of the MPP; consequently, Vref
must be incremented. In contrast, if the incremental conductance is lower than the
negative of the instantaneous conductance, the current operating point is to the left
of the MPP and it is consequently decremented. This process is iterated until the
incremental conductance is the same as the negative instantaneous conductance, in
which case Vref = Vmpp. The incremental conductance algorithm can be more
efficient than the P&O algorithm as it does not meander around the MPP under steady
state conditions. Further, small sampling intervals make it less susceptible to changing
illumination conditions. However, under conditions that are strongly varying and
under partial shading, the incremental conductance method might also become less
efficient. The major drawback of this algorithm is the complexity of its hardware
implementation. Not only currents and voltages must be measured, but also the
instantaneous and incremental conductance must be calculated and compared.
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar PV
2.6.1 Advantages of Solar PV
1. PV panels provide clean green energy. During electricity generation with PV
panels there is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is
environmentally friendly.
2. Solar energy is energy supplied by nature it is thus free and abundant!
3. Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight.
4. Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with
distributed power generation DPG is indeed the next generation power
network structure!
5. Solar Panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to
continue reducing for the next years consequently solar PV panels has indeed
a highly promising future both for economic viability and environmental
sustainability.
6. Photovoltaic panels, through photoelectric phenomenon, produce electricity
in a direct electricity generation way.
7. Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low,
almost negligible, compared to costs of other renewable energy systems.
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CHAPTER 2 PV SYSTEMS

8. PV panels have no mechanically moving parts, except in cases of sun-tracking


mechanical bases; consequently they have far less breakages or require less
maintenance than other renewable energy systems (e.g. wind turbines).
9. PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all; consequently, they are a
perfect solution for urban areas and for residential applications.
10. Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling PV panels can
provide an effective solution to energy demand peaks especially in hot
summer months where energy demand is high.
11. Though solar energy panels prices have seen a drastic reduction in the past
years, and are still falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic panels are one of
major renewable energy systems that are promoted through government
subsidy funding (FITs, tax credits etc.); thus financial incentive for PV panels
make solar energy panels an attractive investment alternative.
12. Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground
without any interference to residential lifestyle.
2.6.2 Disadvantages of Solar PV
1.

As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency issues; not
shining at night but also during daytime there may be cloudy or rainy weather.

2.

Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar


energy panels less reliable a solution.

3.

Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to convert direct


electricity (DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in order to be used on the power
network.

4.

For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid connections,


Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also storage batteries; thus
increasing the investment cost for PV panels considerably

5.

In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require relatively large


areas for deployment; usually the land space is committed for this purpose for
a period of 15-20 years or even longer.

6.

Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-25%) compared
to the efficiency levels of other renewable energy systems.

7.

Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating costs, they


are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily; additional insurance costs are
therefore of ultimate importance to safeguard a PV investment.
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Chapter 3
Concentrated Solar Power
3.1 Introduction
Concentrated solar power (CSP), also referred to as solar thermal power, and
generates electricity by using sunlight to heat a fluid. The heated fluid is then used to
create steam that drives a turbine-generator set. Because CSP systems heat a fluid
prior to generating electricity, thermal energy storage can be readily incorporated into
the design of CSP plants, making them a potential source of dispatch able renewable
power. Furthermore, because the power generation unit in a CSP system is similar to
that of current fossil-fuel thermal power systems (i.e., steam cycle, steam turbine and
generator), CSP technology is well suited for use in hybrid configurations with fossilfuel plants, particularly natural gas combined cycle plants.
3.2 Basics of Concentrated Solar Power
CSP systems employ mirrors to direct and focus solar radiation on a heat transfer fluid.
This fluid, which may be a synthetic oil, molten salt, or steam, is then used to generate
electricity either by direct expansion through a turbine (if the heat transfer fluid is the
same as the fluid passing through the turbine) or via heat transfer to a separate fluid
(often steam or organic vapor), which expands in a turbine and generates electricity.
The two process steps that most affect overall CSP plant efficiency are the solar-toheat step within the solar collector and the heat-to-electricity step in the power
generation block CSP system architectures that focus the solar energy to a point,
rather than on a line, can yield higher working fluid temperatures, and thus have an
inherently higher theoretical efficiency. As discussed later however, their potential for
higher efficiency can come with added system complexity and cost. In practice both
line- and point-focus systems have been deployed depending on the specific technoeconomic requirements of a project.
CSP has a range of characteristics that make it an attractive power generation
pathway. First, like photovoltaic (PV) technology, CSP offers a means of exploiting the
worlds very large and broadly distributed solar resource.
Because CSP involves a solar-to-heat conversion step, it is possible and in fact
relatively straightforward to incorporate high-efficiency thermal energy storage in
the architecture of a CSP plant. This means CSP plants can provide dispatch able
renewable electricity. The third compelling feature of CSP technology is the ease with
which it can be hybridized with other thermal generation options, such as fossil-fuel
combustion, thus providing a flexible power plant that can exploit the solar resource
while also being fully dispatch able at night and during other periods of low solar
insolation Along with its inherently attractive features, however, CPS suffers from
some serious shortcomings. First, CSP systems can only exploit direct solar radiation.
I this contrasts with non-concentrating PV systems that can also exploit diffused
sunlight. As a result, intermittent cloud cover or hazy skies can affect generation from
CSP plants more than generation from PV systems. Adding thermal storage helps
alleviate this issue. However, storage also adds capital and operating costs, which may
or may not be economically justify able.

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Second, CSP is very sensitive to scale. Specific cally, CSP systems need to be large (tens
of megawatts or larger) to approach their techno-economic optimum in terms of
maximizing efficiency and minimizing costs. This contrasts with PV technology, where
system cost depends on scale but efficiency does not.
The practical result is that developing a commercial CSP plant requires a very large
capital investment and presents financial risks that only a limited set of investors are
capable of taking on. As more CSP deployment occurs, the investment risk profile will
change and a larger pool of investors will emerge. However, this pool will still be much
smaller than that for PV systems, which can be deployed at scales ranging anywhere
from a few kilowatts to hundreds of megawatts.
Combining the large land requirements of CSP plants with the need for this land to be
flat and subject to high levels of direct sunlight restricts the land base suitable for siting
CSP. In the United States the vast majority of CSP-suitable land is located in the
Southwest. Recent studies have concluded that in this region, between 54,000 and
87,000 square miles of land may be suitable for CSP plants.2, 3 Depending on
assumptions about system capacity factories and thermal storage, this land base could
support between 6.8 and 7.4 terawatts (TW) of generation capacity. These are
enormous numbers compared to the nameplate capacity of the entire U.S. electricity
generation fleet, which currently totals 1.15 TW. Of course, it is also worth noting that
54,000 square miles is an area almost exactly the size of the state of New York. The
geographic distribution of CSP-suitable land across the southwestern United States,
as identified by the U.S. Department of Energys National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL).
3.3 Concentrated Solar Power Technologies
Fundamentally, a CSP plant is simply a thermal power plant where solar-derived heat
is converted into electricity subject to thermodynamic efficiency limitations. Since the
temperatures produced by collecting the suns heat in todays CSP designs do not
reach the same levels as the temperatures achieved in modern coal or natural gas
plants, CSPs heat-to-electricity conversion efficiency is lower than that of fossil-fi red
power plants.
Importantly though, this efficiency deficit is not inherent: to the extent that advances
in system design and materials enable CSP systems to achieve higher temperatures,
the efficiency differential compared to fossil-fi red systems could shrink substantially.
The Figure below provides a quantitative illustration of energy flows and losses
through a contemporary CSP system from incident solar radiation to generated
electricity delivered to the grid. In this example, less than half (42%) of the total
incident solar energy is delivered to the boiler as heat as a result of energy losses
associated with the CSP systems mirror array and thermal receiver. Owing to the
thermodynamics of the Rankine cycle, only 40% of this captured thermal energy is
then converted to electricity, meaning that after plant power needs are met, the CSP
plants net electrical energy output represents just 16% of the incident solar energy.
This example provides a clear illustration of the substantial opportunity that exists to
improve overall CSP efficiency.
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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Solar-to-heat conversion losses can be reduced through improved mirror systems and
the design of thermal receivers with lower convective and re-radiative losses, while
designs that allow for higher working fluid temperatures will improve heat-toelectricity efficiency. Whereas the overall efficiency of todays advanced fossil-fuel
generation plants, which use combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) technology is about
55%, the overall efficiency of the CSP plant in Figure 3.1 is 16%. Note that the steam
turbine portions of both the CCGT and CSP plants are comparable in efficiency.

Fig.3.1: Energy flows and losses through a contemporary CSP system from incident
solar radiation
A thermal solar power plant can be divided into three subsystems consisting of the
collector, the thermal storage and the power cycle. Another important aspect of the
system is the medium that is used to transport heat from the collector field to the
power cycle and the medium used for thermal storage. The different characteristics
and the most common medium used in a typical thermal concentrating solar power
plant will be presented:
3.3.1 Collector
The concentrating device of a thermal solar power plant consists of mirrors, the
collector, focusing the incoming solar irradiation on to a heat -absorbing device, the
receiver. This is done because the solar irradiation per square meter on earth is too
small to heat anything to a desired temperature used in power generating
applications. By concentrating the irradiation from a large area on to a small point high
temperatures can be reached [1]. The arrangement of the mirrors differs depending
on which type of CSP plant configuration that is used.
Most mirror configurations use a tracking system to follow the movement of the sun
in the sky in order to maximize the heat collection throughout the day. This can be
done with either one (east-west direction) or two axes (additionally north-south
direction). Systems using one axis require less investment and maintenance cost at
somewhat lower performance compared to two-axis tracking system.

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Fig.3.2: CSP Parabolic Trough Solar Collectors

3.3.2 Thermal Energy Storage


Because CSP technologies initially capture solar energy as heat, the opportunity exists
to store this heat for a period of time prior to generating electricity. Roundtrip
efficiencies for thermal energy storage can be quite high, on the order of 95% or
higher, which makes the storage option for CSP much more attractive than for PV,
where battery or fuel-production technologies are needed to implement storage.
Given the significant advantage of energy-storage capability in currently employed
CSP technologies this section describes the most likely near-term storage technologies
for CSP and the benefits associated with storage. There are opportunities to pair CSP
technologies with other thermal plants in hybrid configurations, especially with
natural gas plants, which can be used to supplement solar power generation as well
as to improve the dispatch ability of produced power.
The energy storage capacity of a CSP plant can be expressed in terms of the number
of hours that the plant can operate at its design capacity using only the heat from the
storage system. For example, thermal storage of six hours means that the CSP plant
can operate for six hours at its nameplate capacity using only the thermal energy from
the storage system (with no energy from the solar field).

Fig.3.3: Molten salt storage tanks at the Solana Generating Station in Arizona
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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

3.3.2.1 Short-Term Thermal Energy Storage


Two types of short-term energy storage are already in commercial use with CSP. The
first exploits the inherent thermal inertia of the heat transfer fluid, especially in the
piping of parabolic trough CSP plants. This short-term storage is important for
damping fluctuations in power output associated with short-term disturbances such
as passing clouds. The second short-term thermal storage mechanism uses steam
accumulators pressurized vessels that are used to store steam. These accumulators
are ideal for short-term buffer storage and have the advantage of using a simple,
inexpensive storage medium. Because this option requires pressurized tanks,
however, storage is limited to small capacities on the order of an hour of storage.
Furthermore, steam accumulators have the disadvantage of being inefficient and
producing variable pressure steam. The PS10 CSP plant in Spain uses four steam
accumulators to provide 20 megawatt-hours (MWh) of storage.
3.3.2.2 Longer-Term Thermal Energy Storage
Figure (3.4) illustrates the basic strategy for longer-term thermal energy storage for
CSP technologies; specifically, it shows a process flow chart for a CSP plant with a twotank indirect thermal energy storage system. In this example, the hot heat transfer
fluid (HTF) from the receiver or collectors of a solar tower or parabolic trough plant
can either be sent directly to generate steam or it can be diverted to a heat exchanger
to heat a thermal energy storage (TES) fluid, typically a molten salt. In this mode of
operation, fluid from the cold salt tank is heated as it is pumped to the hot salt storage
tank. The fluid from the hot storage tank can be used to heat the HTF when production
from the solar field is not adequate.
The two-tank indirect arrangement is currently in use at many CSP plants, including
the Solana plant in the United States and the Arenales plant in Spain. The Solana plant
has six hours of storage and the Arenales plant has seven hours of storage. This twotank indirect system represents the current practice in thermal energy storage and
has important advantages in terms of ease of operation and the ability to provide very
large storage capacities. On the other hand, the two-tank indirect approach is
expensive and incurs efficiency losses because of heat losses in the HTF-to-TES fluid
heat exchanger. As a result, a number of other thermal storage systems are under
consideration and at various stages of development.
The simplest variation on the two-tank indirect system is the two-tank direct
configuration, which eliminates the heat exchanger and the direct connection
between hot and cold storage tanks. Instead, the hot and cold storage tanks are
inserted directly in series, with pipes coming from and to the solar field, respectively.
Apart from the obvious advantage of eliminating the need for a heat exchanger to
transfer thermal energy from the HTF to the TES fluid, the two-tank direct system can
operate at very high temperatures and store large amounts of energy. These two
advantages result from using high-temperature molten salts for both HTF and TES
functions. The use of molten salts carries with it the disadvantage of having to prevent
the salt from freezing, e.g., by running electrical tracing in the piping.
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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Fig.3.4: basic strategy for longer-term thermal energy storage for CSP technologies

3.3.2.3 System Benefits of Thermal Energy Storage


The ability to provide effective thermal storage as part of a CSP system design yields
several benefits including:
1-The ability to transform CSP from an intermittent to a dispatchable generation
source.
2-The ability to better match electricity demand.
3-The extended utilization and increased efficiency of a CSP facilitys power
generation unit.
4- The ability to increase the annual capacity factor of the CSP plant.

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3.3.3 Power Cycle


Most currently operating solar trough and power tower systems use a Rankine cycle
for electricity production. Water is heated up in a boiler producing high-pressure
steam that is fed into a steam turbine coupled to a generator. Temperature and
pressure data depends on the turbine design and heat source. In CSP plant
applications the thermal fluid medium reaches a temperature of 400 to 600. This
means that steam temperature of around 350 to 550 and a pressure of 100 bar is
common. Some CSP plants use a heat engine (such as Stirling motor or Brayton cycle)
to produce power. Most solar plants are located in sunny and dry climate and use an
air cooled condenser instead of the more common use of water as cooling medium.

Fig.3.5: Rankine cycle for electricity production


3.3.4 Thermal Media
Different heat absorbing fluids are used in CSP plants operated today. The fluid is often
mentioned the thermal heating fluid or just THF and is used to transport heat from
the concentrating apparatus to the power cycle. Some systems that use a heat engine
dont use any thermal heating fluid. The most common type of THF is a thermal oil
that can be heated up to around 400. There are also systems that use molten salt
mixture which can be heated to around 500, but need an advanced control system to
prevent the salt to crystallize at around 200.

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As already noted, two broad design paradigms exist for CSP systems:
1- line focus and point focus
. As the names suggest, line-focus systems concentrate sunlight on a line,
2- point focus systems
Concentrate light to a point. Because the latter approach is able to achieve higher
working fluid temperatures, point-focus designs can achieve higher efficiencies than
line-focus designs.

Fig.3.6: Line Concentrators and Point Concentrators


3.4 Types of CSP Technology
Today there are five primary types of CSP technology either in operation or the subject
of serious research and development efforts:
1- Parabolic trough (line-focus design),
2- Solar tower (point-focus design)
3- Linear Fresnel (low-cost and more reliable variation of line-focus design)
4- Beam down (recent low-cost variation of point-focus design
5- Stirling dish.
The important features of each technology are summarized. It should be noted that
the Stirling dish technology is fundamentally different from all other CSP technologies,
as it does not utilize a Rankine cycle to convert thermal energy to electricity.
Most CSP development to date has centered on the first two technologies parabolic
trough and solar tower. However, each of the five main CSP technologies brings with
it a distinct set of technical and economic advantages and challenges.

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3.4.1 Parabolic Trough Design

Fig.3.7: Parabolic trough solar collector


A parabolic trough solar collector is designed to concentrate the suns rays via
parabolic curved solar reflectors onto a heat absorber element a receiver located
in the optical focal line of the collector. The solar collectors track the sun continuously.
The key components of a parabolic trough power plant are mirrors, receivers and
turbine technology. The receiver consists of a specially coated absorber tube which is
embedded in an evacuated glass envelope.
The absorbed solar radiation warms up the heat transfer fluid flowing through the
absorber tube to almost 400C. This is conducted along a heat exchanger in which
steam is produced, which then generates power in the turbines.
The output of the power plant is between 25 MW and 200 MW of electricity, at its
peak. Thanks to storage systems, the plant can keep working at a constant load. With
high performance and low electricity production costs, the outlook for parabolic
trough power plants is very good.
The complete assembly of mirrors plus receiver is mounted on a frame that tracks the
daily movement of the sun on one axis. Relative seasonal movements of the sun in the
other axis result in lateral movements of the line focus, which remains on the receiver
but can have some spill at the row ends. Trough systems using thermal energy
collection via evacuated tube receivers are currently the most widely deployed CSP
technology. In this configuration, an oil heat transfer fluid is usually used to collect
the heat from the receiver tubes and transport it to a central power block.

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Fig.3.8: Parabolic trough Configuration for generating Electricity

3.4.1.1 Advantages
The parabolic trough design is the most mature CSP technology and has been used in
the United States since the Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) project began
coming on line in 1984. Since that time the design has undergone a great deal of
optimization. As a result, parabolic trough CSP is now considered a commercial
technology. Similar to other solar technologies, parabolic trough technology can be
equipped with a tracking system that rotates the mirrors to track the sun as it moves
across the sky every day. Alternatively, the parabolic troughs can be adjusted
seasonally this avoids the high cost of adding tracking capability but results in lower
overall efficiency.
3.4.1.2 Disadvantages and Design Limitations
Although it is now a relatively mature technology, parabolic trough CSP has significant
drawbacks. The main drawback is high capital cost due to the need for many rows of
mirror and collector units to increase the temperature of the heat transfer fluid. Also,
parabolic trough systems suffer from problems with convective heat loss and reradiation, as well as mechanical strain and leakage at moving joints. Some of the
operating SEGS plants have experienced these mechanical problems, though they
have been resolved with operating experience. Similar operating challenges will no
doubt occur in new designs and new operating regimes. Finally, the heat transfer fluid
operates at relatively low temperatures (400C or less), leading to low overall
thermodynamic efficiency.

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3.4.1.3 Future Parabolic Troughs
The 2020 trough roadmap case is based on a 250-MW molten-salt HTF trough at a field
temperature of 500C, similar to the configuration being tested by Enel at the 5-MW
Archimede demonstration in Sicily. The higher temperature improves power cycle
efficiency and dramatically lowers )Thermal energy storage( TES cost. Direct storage
of the molten-salt HTF in a thermocline system is assumed, and no adjustment in the
performance of the TES system is applied, which assumes improvement in the ability
to maintain a sharply stratified thermocline and/or sliding pressure turbine operation
with minimal efficiency impacts, as has been suggested by Kolb (2010). Advanced
collector designs, employing novel reflector materials and larger-aperture troughs,
account for the reduced solar field cost. Operating experience and manufacturing
volume are also assumed to lower Operation and maintenance and capital costs. The
major challenge for this case is successful deployment of salt-HTF systems for troughs.
3.4.2 Solar towers
Solar Central Tower systems have a single receiver placed on top of a tower
surrounded by hundreds of mirrors (heliostats) which follow the apparent motion of
the sun in the sky and which re-direct and focus the sunlight onto the receiver.
The key elements of a solar tower system are the heliostats provided with a two-axis
tracking system the receiver, the steam generation system and the storage system.
The number of heliostats will vary according to the particular receivers thermal cycle
and the heliostat design. This allows sophisticated high efficiency energy conversion
at a single large receiver point. Higher concentration ratios are achieved compared to
linear focusing systems and this allows thermal receivers to operate at higher
temperatures with reduced losses. A range of system and heliostat sizes have been
demonstrated.

Fig.3.9: The solar power plant 'Gemasolar' situated near Seville in Spain

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3.4.2.1 Advantages
Because solar towers can utilize a hotter working fluid than troughs, they offer a path
to higher efficiency. Additionally, as towers utilize a lower heat transfer surface area,
convective losses can be reduced. Finally, , higher operating temperatures in the solar
tower make it possible to add thermal storage more efficiently because the size
(volume) of thermal storage required is smaller. This reduces both the cost and the
heat losses of the storage system.

Fig.3.10: Solar towers Configuration for generating electricity

3.4.2.2 Disadvantages and Design Limitations


The two-axis tracking system is an inherent requirement of the solar tower design; by
contrast, mirrors in the trough design can have one-axis tracking or no tracking.
Although two-axis tracking makes it possible to collect heat from sunlight more
efficiently, it also increases the cost of the solar field. In addition, the solar tower
design has been shown to suffer from difficulties in mirror alignment, high
maintenance costs, and difficulties with molten salt (such as its high viscosity in tubes
and the danger of falling below its freezing point).
Furthermore, the receiver fluid temperature can change rapidly with intermittent
cloud cover, resulting in intermittent electricity generation and, more importantly, the
potential for excessive mechanical strain. There is also less construction and operating
experience with towers than with the more mature trough technology. Finally, careful
consideration of potential impacts on local wildlife is important for solar tower
installations, particularly in desert regions. For example, it has been reported that the
high temperatures generated around the collector in solar tower plants can harm birds
flying in the vicinity of the tower. Such impacts will need to be factored into the design
of future plants of this type.

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3.4.2.3 Future Power Towers


The 2020 tower roadmap case is based on a 150-MW molten-salt HTF tower with a
supercritical steam power cycle at 650C.
3.4.3 Beam-Down CSP
The beam-down CSP system (Figure 3.11) consists of an array of tracking heliostat
mirrors that reflect light to a single, centrally located mirror or secondary heliostat
atop a tower, which in turn reflects light down to an enclosed, secondary collector.
This enclosed collection system may allow for very high temperature working fluids
and thus increased thermodynamic efficiencies. Also, with this design the high cost
and inefficiencies associated with having the receiver atop the tower, as is the case in
solar tower systems, can be avoided. In this design, the heat transfer and thermal
storage fluids viare the same, which allows for better power dispatch and greatly
reduces storage costs. Beam-down technology has not yet been implemented at full
plant-size scale. Current technical difficulties include geometry design issues,
fabrication and control of the secondary heliostat, loss of light around collectors, and
mirror material issues involving reflectivity and thermal strain.

Fig.3.11: Beam-down CSP system


Source: Masdar Institute: Laboratory for Energy and Nano-Science

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Fig.3.12: Beam-down CSP system


Source: Masdar Institute: Laboratory for Energy and Nano-Science

3.4.4 Linear Fresnel CSP

Fig.3.13: linear Fresnel design


In the linear Fresnel design, flat and/or slightly curved mirrors concentrate sunlight on
a stationary tube at the focal line (Figure 3.14). The entire arrangement remains
stationary, reducing its average absorption efficiency during a day but making it
cheaper, both in capital and operating expenses, when compared with parabolic
trough designs. Larger apertures (greater mirror coverage per square meter) are
possible with linear Fresnel, and the physical arrangement of the mirrors results in
substantially lower wind loads than trough designs.

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This design is technologically simple; it also uses a relatively low-temperature working


fluid, making it comparatively inexpensive. Construction is also relatively simple.
However, because the working fluid operates at a relatively low temperature, the
efficiency of linear Fresnel systems is lower than that of other CSP designs such as a
solar tower. Newer linear Fresnel designs may allow use of higher temperature molten
salts.

Fig.3.14: linear Fresnel Configuration for generating electricity

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3.4.5 Stirling Dish Engines


This CSP technology uses dish-shaped mirror arrays to focus sunlight onto a Stirling
engine at the focal point of the dish (Figure). Each unit is rated at modest power output
(1025 kW), so the technology is modular a potential advantage. The efficiency of
Stirling engines can approach the maximum theoretical thermodynamic efficiency of
a heat engine. As a result, this design has the highest potential conversion efficiency
of any CSP technology. Furthermore, high operating temperatures can be achieved in
larger units (>30 kW) by concentrating a larger array of mirrors on a single heat engine,
thereby increasing efficiency even further. Stirling engines are efficient, but because
these systems require a separate engine with every dish, they are capital intensive and
have high operating and maintenance (O&M) costs.
In addition, there is currently no simple energy storage option for Stirling dish engine
technologies a significant drawback. Stirling dish engine systems involving tens of
thousands of mirror arrays acting in parallel at a centralized location have been
proposed. These types of systems have been successfully tested, but have seen limited
commercial use Because of the expense of Stirling engines, research and development
efforts are underway to explore the use of Brayton micro-turbines as a substitute for
Stirling engines in dish CSP designs.

Fig.3.15: Stirling Dish Engine CSP Technology


Source: Courtesy of the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

3.5 Comparison between Different types of concentration solar Power

Table 3.1: Comparison between types of CSP

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3.6 Applications of concentrated solar power in smart homes


3.6.1 Solar Heat water system

Fig.3.16: Solar Water Heater


To design a solar heat water system, we should determine the following:
1- Closed loop solar water Heater.
2- How much area of collector we need.
3- Types of collectors using in Houses.
3.6.1.1 Closed loop solar water Heater
A solar thermal system can be active or passive. This term relates to the movement
of the heat transfer liquid through the solar collector.
A) Passive systems
Rely on thermosiphoning action to slowly move the water through the collector.
B) Active systems
Utilize a circulation pump to move the liquid. There are three main categories of
plumbing format (Active systems) for solar thermal systems.

Direct
Closed Loop (aka Indirect)
Drainback

The next figure focuses on active systems (closed loop) as most collectors will be
installed in this format.

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Fig.3.17: Active solar water heater


Active closed loop solar water heater is suitable for:

Cold climates with winter night temperatures < -10oC / 50oF


Poor water quality that would cause corrosion of the copper, or scale formation
in the collector.
Domestic or commercial applications
Commercial applications when final liquid to be heated is not potable water.

Design Details

The liquid circulated through the collector is separate from the water in the
main hot water system
The liquid can be plain water, or a glycol-water mix for areas that need freeze
protection.
The heat transfer between the closed loop and main system water is achieved
via a heat exchanger, either internal coil inside the storage tank, or external
heat exchanger.

Advantages

Design to withstand freezing temperatures


Can protect solar collect from scale in areas with poor water quality.
Suitable for commercial style applications such as spas, pool heating, industrial
heating etc.
Can withstand stagnating conditions without heat dissipation if designed for
steamback operation (Apricus evacuated tube collector are suitable for
steamback operation).

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Disadvantages

Not as efficient as direct flow system, due to the need to use a heat exchanger
In cold regions, anti-freeze liquid must be inspected and changed periodically
(every 2-5 years). Warm regions can just use water.
System cost is higher due to need for:
Heat transfer fluid (normally propylene glycol based anti-freeze)
More complex pump station (fill & drain valves, pressure relief valve, air
separator etc.)

3.6.1.2 How much area of collector we need?


We depend on Energy balance equation
Q1=Q2
Q1 = Energy produced by solar Energy
Q2 = Energy needed to heat specific amount of water to specific Temperature
A Js t = mc ( Tf Ti )
Specific heat c= 4180 J/kg.K
Js=1000 W/m2 ( solar radiation )
Thermal efficiency =60%
Mass (m ) =density x volume
Water density = 1000 kg / cubic meter
to heat 80 Gallon of Water
Start temperature Ti=15 C
Hot water temperature Tf=60 C
t = 5.5 hours/day = 5.5 *60*60 sec / day
Gallon = 1 gallon =3.785 liter
A Js t = mc ( Tf Ti )
A = 5

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

3.6.1.3 Types of collectors using in Houses


A) Evacuated Tubes.
b) Glazed Flat Panel.
A) Evacuated Tubes

Fig.3.18: Evacuated tube solar collector

Evacuated tube solar collectors, as depicted in Figure 3.19 below, have an absorber
with a selective coating enclosed in a sealed glass vacuum tube. They are good at
capturing the energy from the sun; their thermal losses to the environment are
extremely low. Systems presently on the market use a sealed heat-pipe on each tube
to extract heat from the absorber (a liquid is vaporized while in contact with the heated
absorber, heat is recovered at the top of the tube while the vapour condenses, and
condensate Returns by gravity to the absorber).

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Fig.3.19: Evacuated tube solar collector configuration for heating water

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Efficiency estimation of evacuated tubes

Transmitivity ( ) :The transmissivity.


( ) = The absorptivity of the glass .
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant [W/m2-K4] .
=optical efficiency term (Absorber selective coating emissivity).

B) Glazed Flat plate


In glazed liquid flat-plate collectors, as depicted in the Figure 3.20 a flat-plate absorber
(which often has a selective coating) is fixed in a frame between a single or double
layer of glass and an insulation panel at the back. Much of the sunlight (solar energy)
is prevented from escaping due to the glazing (the greenhouse effect).

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Fig.3.20: Glazed liquid flat-plate collectors


Efficiency estimation of glazed flat panel

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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

R = thermal resistance
R is measured by two laws depend on heat transfer way
heat transfer by two ways: 1- conduction R= L/kA
2- convection R= 1/hA
k: - Thermal conductivity in conduction
h: - Thermal conductivity in convection
3.7 Simulation of Design a parabolic trough solar power system
Design a parabolic trough solar power system to make steam to power a 1MW
steam turbine.
First we estimate the mass flow rate of steam
Second we estimate the flow rate of oil:
Third we estimate the main required (the number of solar troughs)
Siemens steam turbine SST-060 (up to 6 MW)
Inlet pressure [1]:

up to 131 bar/ 1,900 psi

Inlet temp dry saturated steam [1]: up to 530 C/ 985 F


Exhaust pressure [1]:

back pressure: up to 29 bar/ 420psi or vacuum


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CHAPTER 3 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER

Steam Table at 131 bar [2]:


Temperature: 331.45 C (628.61 F) (605.136 K)
Specific Enthalpy of Water [2]: 1538.89 kJ/kg (661.6038 Btu/lb)
Specific enthalpy of dry saturated steam [2]: 2657.06 kJ/kg ( 1142.33 Btu/lb)
Difference between water and steam [2]: 2657.06 1538.89 = 1118.17 kJ/kg
Temperature of oil leaving solar collector: 390 C
Specific heat of therminol VP-1 at 345 C [3]: 2439.5 kJ/ kgK
Efficiency loss of heat from the sun to the collector [4]: 18%
Solar constant: 1000 W/m2
Total hour of sun: 6 hours
Solar trough collector area [5]: 564 m2 (5.7 m wide by 99 m long)

3.7.1 Example Problem Solution


Part A) flow rate of steam Solve for the mass
1MW= mass flow rate of steam (kg/s) * enthalpy difference (kJ/kg)* product of
efficiencies of the process
The formula for Carnot efficiency is: C = (Ti - To) / Ti
Where, C = efficiency of the Carnot cycle
Ti = temperature at the engine inlet (K)
To = temperature at engine exhaust (K)
C = (605 K 298 K)/ 605 K
C = 0.51 or 51%
Conversion of mechanical work into electricity is assumed at 80%.
1MW = 1000 kW, 1 kW = 1 kJ/s
Dividing the power of the converted 1MW by the enthalpy difference and the
product of the efficiencies gives us:
Mass flow rate of steam (kg/s) = 1000 (1118.17 (0.51 0.80))
Solving the previous equation results in: Mass flow rate of steam = 2.2 kg/s
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Part B) Solve for the flow rate of oil


The steam is formed at 331 oC. Assuming a 15 oC difference in temperature in the
steam boiler, the exit oil should be at 346 oC.
Now multiply the mass flow rate of therminol VP-1, the synthetic oil used, by the
difference between the enthalpies of water and the steam, to give the energy input
rate to produce the steam:
2.2 kgs 1118.17 kJkg = 2.46 MW = 2460 kJ/s
This rate can be set equal to the rate of energy input into the oil, which is the mass
flow rate of oil multiplied by the heat capacity of the synthetic oil multiplied by the
change in temperature of the oil. This can be rearranged to give the mass flow of oil
as:
2460

kJ
s

(2439 kJkgK (390 346 C)) = 0.023 kg/s = 23 g/s oil.

Part C) Solve for the number of solar troughs


The total solar power required is found by dividing the power input to the steam by
the efficiency losses from the transfer of heat from the sun to the collector.
2460 kJs 0.18 = 13670 kJs
Use the insolation to determine the total area of the CSP system needed.
1 kWm2 6 hours = 6 kWhrm2
Convert from kWhr/m2 to kJ/m2
6 kWhrm2 (3.6 106 JkWhr) 1 kJ1000 J = 2.16 104 kJm2
The total energy needed for a days supply of 1 MW of electrical power is.
13670 kJs 24 hr 3600 shr = 1.18 109 kJ
Divide the required energy by the insolation in kJ/m2 to give the area as:
1.18 109 kJ (2.16 104 kJm2 ) = 54,666 m2

101

Module 3
Wind Energy

102

Chapter 1
Wind Turbines Systems

1.1. Introduction
Wind is simple air in motion. The uneven heating of the earths surface causes it by the sun.
Since the earth's surface is made of very different types of land and water, it absorbs the sun's
heat at different rates. During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the
air over water. The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes
in to take its place, creating winds. At night, the winds are reversed because the air cools more
rapidly over land than over water.
Today, wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Wind is called a renewable energy
source because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines.

Fig.1.1: Air currents effect on local air circulation


Since ancient times, people have harnessed the winds energy. Over 5,000 years ago, the
ancient Egyptians used wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to
grind wheat and other grains. The earliest known windmills were in Persia (Iran). These early
windmills looked like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people of Holland improved
the basic design of the windmill. They gave it propeller-type blades, still made with sails.
Holland is famous for its windmills.

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American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to pump water, and to cut wood
at sawmills. As late as the 1920s, Americans used small windmills to generate electricity in
rural areas without electric service. When power lines began to transport electricity to rural
areas in the 1930s, local windmills were used less and less, though they can still be seen on
some Western ranches.
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical
power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator
can convert this mechanical power into electricity. So how do wind turbines make electricity?
Simply stated, a wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make
wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which
spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity.

Fig.1.2: 1888-First Wind Turbine

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

During the modern era the wind energy has been utilized mainly to generate electricity
through the use of wind turbines, where the wind rust through the blades of wind turbine
causing a lifting force (similar to the force that is produced on both ends of plane wings) this
force leads to rotate the blades which in turn are linked to o rotation axis, and it Is in turn Is
linked (with or without a gearbox) to electric generator that works on electricity generation.

The technology of wind turbines in the sea has evolved a lot over the post period as it is
considered a significant contributor in securing our energy needs.

Wind generators need clean and sufficiently fast wind to produce electricity. Clean wind is
strong and laminar, which means it flows in smooth streamlines and is not disrupted by nearby
obstacles.
Coastal locations, and flat rural areas without significant vegetation or buildings, offer the most
laminar wind flow. Small wind systems should generally be installed only in these areas.
Significant turbulence is caused by terrain such as steep hills and cliffs as well as ground clutter
such as trees and nearby buildings or structures.
Urban areas have a poor wind resource that is usually extremely turbulent. Productive wind
power systems place the wind generator on tall towers in clean wind, well above areas of
turbulence caused by obstructions usually impossible in urban areas.
some European countries such as Denmark, Germany and Britain has Introduced this
technology as a major contributor in their electrical networks, and many of the largest
companies in the world participate and compete strongly in this industry.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.2. Determining the Wind Resource

If the site seems suitable, quantify the wind resource, usually with the help of a wind site
assessor or installer, to estimate how much energy a wind turbine will produce at this site.
The wind varies with the seasons, and many locations have stronger winds in winter. Many
coastal regions often have sea breezes as their prevailing winds in summer.
Determining the average annual wind speed (typically measured in meters/second) at the
site may be challenging, although several state government programs are developing tools
to help estimate wind resources. When estimating the output of a wind system at your site,
wind site assessors or installers should use:

Multiple wind speed data sources (e.g. wind maps or modeling, automatic weather stations,
nearby monitoring sites) to generate a robust understanding of wind patterns at the site.

Topography maps and a site visit to estimate wind shear (the rate at which the wind speed
changes with increasing height from the ground).

The proximity of trees, buildings and other obstacles to estimate turbulence intensity.

The power curve of the wind system, obtained from the manufacturer, which shows the
expected power output of the turbine in any given wind speed.

Fig.1.3: Power Curve of the Wind System

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Off-grid small wind systems usually require a minimum average annual wind speed of at
least 45m/s to be cost effective; for grid connected systems the annual average should be
greater than 6m/s.
Automatic weather stations typically monitor wind speeds at 10m above ground level;
wind models typically estimate wind speeds at heights of 5080m. Note the height at
which annual wind speed data is sourced, because if it is not exactly the same as the height
of the tower, the wind site assessor must estimate the wind speed at the tower height.
For example, a site with 5m/s average annual wind speed at a height of 30m may only have
3m/s average wind speed at a height of 12m. In this case, a wind system placed on a 12m
tower produces negligible electricity; the same system on a 30m tower produces at least
ten times more electricity.

This turbine produces around 5,000kWh/year with an average annual wind speed of 4m/s or
around 15,000kWh/year at 6m/s. taller towers and good siting allows wind systems to access
faster wind speeds.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Manufacturers should state the cut-in wind speed of the turbine, the speed at which the
wind generator begins to turn and generate power. In areas with frequent light winds, a low
cut-in speed is important for maximum output. Prioritize sites on elevated, open land where
winds are unimpeded by trees and buildings. That is where wind turbines generate the most
energy.
Sites on elevated, open land where winds are unimpeded by trees and buildings should be
prioritized, as this is where wind turbines generate the most energy. Site turbines away from
turbulent winds caused by any obstacles, if possible. In cases where wind systems can not be
sited away from obstacles, an appropriately tall tower is critical.

1.2.1 On shore Wind Turbines


Onshore wind often has the benefit of being close to existing electrical grids, reducing the
environmental impacts associated with building new electrical grids. The environmental cost
of building and installing an onshore wind turbine is the part of the process that is the most
harmful to the environment. This cost is undoubtedly lower with onshore wind than with
offshore wind. However, there are also many cost benefits to onshore wind power that by
extension impact the environment, chiefly in form of noise pollution, visual pollution and harm
to birds .The issue of visual and noise pollution has in many instances been lower than
expected, as in Inner Mongolia where people live at least 1000 meters from the closest wind
turbines and "the average noise level of wind turbines in operation in Inner Mongolia is only
31 dB at a distance of 1000 m, equal to noise level in bedroom.

1.2.2 Off Shore Wind Turbines


Offshore wind tends to flow quickly and with bigger force than the wind on land.
Because the roughness of the sea surface is lower than the land and the obstacles of windblast
are less, therefore it allows the wind turbines to generate electric power even more.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Since the energy extracted from the wind commensurate


with the cubic-speed wind, then any slight increase in the
speed of wind for several (miles per hour) can achieve a
significant increase in the electrical power generated. for
example, wind turbine located at a site in which the wind
speed is 16 mph (approximately 7 meters per second)
produces more with 50% from the same turbine located at
the site where wind speed about 14 MPH (6 M per Second). Fig.1.5: Off Shore Wind Turbines

1.2.3 Features wind turbines are placed in the sea for land-based turbines
1 - Low Voice Noise Ratio: The wind turbines through its work, they send annoying voice,
which has led to cause problems for people who live in the vicinity of the wind station, so
that some farmers complain that their animals are affected by noise of the wind turbine
blades, so the existence of wind turbines in the sea softens the impact of this problem,
whether for human or animals that live in the surrounding areas.

2- It does not pose a threat to the lives of migratory birds: wind turbines located on dry land
often cause the death of many birds that clashes with Its animated blades, despite the fact
that some countries that rely on wind power are working on avoiding that problem by not
establishing wind stations in the way of birds migration, wind turbines that are positioned
at sea ends the problem as the birds often fly over the ocean.

3- Wind turbines have no large visual impact where it is located far from accommodation; so
they do not affect the general view. The only negative point for wind turbines in sea than
those on land is The cost: where this negative point is considered the biggest, where it is
possible that the cost of generated power increase from these turbines around (2.5 to 3.5
times) than those found on land, but in any case still wind turbines at sea is on under
development industry and the high cost will decrease with time, and this high cost because
of the difficult working conditions for the

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

installation and maintenance of turbines in the sea, which require the use of private vessels to
be installed in the sea.

1.3 Choosing a Wind System Size


The first step in choosing the size of a wind system is to clarify your goals. For example, if you
are installing a grid-connected system and your goal is to be carbon neutral, then average the
annual energy needs of the household or site over several years (or appropriately predict them
for a new building) so you know how much energy you need your wind system to produce each
year.
If you were installing a grid-connected system and you would like to maximize its financial
performance, consider any state grants available, any renewable energy certificates, and
importantly the value of the energy produced by the wind system. For example, with current
net feed-in tariffs, the energy generated by a wind system used instantaneously on site (or
displaced import energy) is roughly $0.2855/kWh. This is a much higher value than generated
energy sent back to the grid and not used instantaneously on site (exported energy), which is
closer to $0.0800/kWh. Work with an independent small wind expert to analyze the expected
displaced import and export values of the wind electricity for different wind system sizes,
based on the daily load profile of the house and seasonal wind patterns, to determine the
financial performance of the wind system.

1.3.1 Connecting Wind Systems


Small wind turbines can be connected as:

Grid connected, no battery storage

Off-grid or independent stand-alone power systems

Grid connected, with battery storage.


A grid-connected system allows the wind system owner to send electricity back to the grid
when excess electricity is produced, and draw electricity from the grid when more is
needed.
Stand-alone power systems are most practicable in locations that are some distance from the
electricity network.

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They typically use more than one technology to generate electricity, such as wind and solar
photovoltaic combined, to take full advantage of seasonal and daily variations in wind and
solar resources.
1.3.2 Grid Connected Wind Turbines
To connect the output of the wind turbine to the utility grid, it must have the same voltage
level, frequency & phase shift angle. So, some auxiliary systems are used to maintain this level
accurately

1.3.3 Choosing a Tower Type


The three main types of towers: tilt-up, guyed lattice, and freestanding (freestanding towers
could be a lattice or monopole tower) have a variety of considerations, shown in the table
below.

1.3.4 Tower Types for Wind Systems


Tower type
Installation

Freestanding
Crane

Guyed lattice
Installed on ground,
lifted with crane

Tilt-up
Installed on ground,
lifted with crane

Base

710% of tower
height for concrete
foundation

Guy radius 5080%


of tower height;
minimum cleared
area required

Guy radius 2560%


of tower height

Maintenance

Climb

Climb

Lower turbine
twice/year

Cost

Expensive

Least expensive

Mid-range cost

Table 1.1: Types of wind Systems

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Fig.1.6: Tilt-up, fixed and freestanding towers have different footprints on the ground.

Tilt-up towers are designed so that they can be


lowered and raised by tilting the tower with a gin pole
and winch.
A tilt tower and gin pole must have sufficient area
around the wind tower for the tower and the guy wires
to be lowered. A 24m tall tower needs at least a 24m
area for lowering. If a vehicle is used to raise and lower
the tower it also needs room to safely access the site
and maneuver.

Fig.1.7 Tilt-up towers

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.3.5 Determining Appropriate Tower Heights


The most common mistake for small wind systems is putting a wind generator on too short a
tower. Its the equivalent of putting a solar collector in the shade.
Avoid making this common mistake by understanding output and site conditions, and asking
the right questions of the installer.
Output from a wind generator is tied
to the speed of the wind in a cubic
relationship i.e. doubling the
speed available to a wind system
increases the power available by
eight times. Tall towers that access
faster wind speeds can reap larger rewards.

Fig.1.8: Determining appropriate

tower heights

Wind speed increases, and turbulence decreases, with height. Below the height of 20m the
friction between wind and earth slows the wind speed significantly. This zone is also often very
turbulent. Install the wind generator on the highest tower that is practicable and cost effective
for the site.
Towers of at least 24m height are appropriate in areas where the land is flat or elevated and
there are no obstacles within 150m. The tower should also be at least 300m away from any
steep bluffs or sharp changes in elevation. Place the turbine in the area of smooth laminar air.
The diagram illustrates how to test for smooth laminar air using a balloon, tag lines and a tether
line. Install the highest possible tower for the site.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Fig.1.9: Test for smooth laminar air


Test for smooth laminar air with a balloon, tag lines and a tether line. If the site has ground
clutter, the site assessor or installer must calculate the minimum tower height based on the
proximity and height of the surrounding ground clutter.
A general rule for minimum tower height is that the bottom of the turbine rotor, or blades,
should be at least 10m above the tallest obstruction within 150m or the nearby prevalent tree
height. For trees, this means the mature tree height over the 2030year life of the turbine, not
the current tree height. Consider also any future plans for buildings.
Effectively, this means the minimum tower height is:
(Height of tallest obstacle within 150m) + (10m buffer) + (length of blade of selected wind
system)

1.4 Foundations Used to Install Wind Turbines in the Sea


Foundations currently used in current wind turbines projects can be categorized as follows:
Mono- Pile: A steel pillar is buried for a distance of 10 to 25 meters below the seabed.
Gravity Foundation: This pattern is currently the most widely used in the marine wind
turbines, as it consists of large concrete base or made of steel, which expand on the seabed,
And Thus ensure the stability of the turbine in the sea depends on gravity.
Tripod Foundation: There are three pillars of this design and at the end of each one there is
pillar that is buried in the seabed at a distance of between 10 to 20 meters, depending on the
marine soil Conditions, this design is used in deep water. However, so far it has not been used
in marine wind projects dramatically.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.4.1 Foundations Used for Wind Turbines in Deep Water


Although placing wind turbines in deep water have large capabilities of generating electric
power, but the use of these turbines in a trading way was not done until now. Moreover,
many of the engineering design of these turbines have been adopted from the oil and gas
industry.

Fig.1.10: Deep Water Wind Turbine Development

Benefits from placing wind turbines in deep water go back to two factors:
- Wind at sea is stronger than that al the beach.
- Projects in this case will be far from the shore line, and would not have any auditory Impact
or visual pollution on anyone and thus reduce opposition from establishing them. Of course,
the very high cost for this kind of projects is one of the most important challenges facing the
use of wind turbines in deep water.

1.5 Wind Turbine


Wind turbines can be divided into two main types, horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) and
vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) based on which direction they spin either horizontally or
vertically.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Fig.1.11: Main Types of Wind Turbines

1.5.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines


Let us first discuss Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT). HAWT has a similar design to the
windmill; it has blades that look like a propeller that spin on the horizontal axis. They have the
main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and they must be pointed into
the wind. The turbines are pointed to the wind using simple wind vane placed square with the
rotor for small turbines or using a wind sensor coupled with a servomotor for large ones. In
case of large turbines, a gearbox is used this turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a faster
rotation that suitable for driving an electrical generator. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines are
either upwind or downwind turbines.
1.5.1.1 Upwind Turbine
The rotor that on an upwind turbine is in front of the unit, positioned similar to a propeller
driven airplane. To keep it oriented into the wind, a yaw mechanism such as a tail is needed.
The advantages are the reduced tower shading. The air would start to bend around the tower
before it passes it so there is some loss of power from the interference, just not the degree as
in the downwind turbine. The disadvantages are the extended nacelle that is required to
position the rotor far enough away from the tower to avoid any problems with a blade strike.
The blades themselves must be somewhat stiff to avoid bending back into the tower. This
would mean that the point where the blade attaches to the rotor hub will be stressed during
high, gusty wind conditions.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.5.1.2 Downwind Turbine


The downwind turbine has its rotor on the back side of the turbine. The nacelle typically is
designed to seek the wind, thus negating the need for a separate yaw mechanics.
The Advantage is that the rotor blades can be flexible since there is no danger of the tower
strike. The flexing blade has two advantages. They are relatively cheap. They can relieve stress
on the tower during high or gusty wind conditions since the flexing allows some wind load to
be transferred directly to the blades instead of the tower. The Proven has a hinged design that
allows the blade to flex back to dissipate energy for speed control.
The Disadvantage is the flexible blade advantage can also be a disadvantage as the flexing may
fatigue the blades. Tower shadow is problem with a downwind machine since the rotor blade
actually passed behind the tower. This can cause turbulence and increased fatigue on the unit.

1.5.1.3 The advantages of HAWT are as follows:


1. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
2. High efficiency.
1.5.1.4 The disadvantages of HAWT are as follows:
1. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance of
the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
2. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when a
blade passes through the tower's wind shadow.
1.5.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
On the other hand, Vertical axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor
shaft arranged vertically. With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components
can be placed near the ground, so the tower does not need to support it, also makes
maintenance easier.
1.5.2.1 The advantages of VAWT are as follows:
1. No yaw mechanism is needed.
2. A VAWT could be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
3. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.5.2.2 Disadvantages of VAWT are:


1. Most VAWTs have an average low efficiency than HAWTs.
2. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due and do not
take advantage of higher wind speeds above.

1.5.3 Comparisons between VAWTs and HAWT

Points

HAWTs

VAWTs

Source of producing

Large

Large

electricity

Use of electrical generator

Yes

Yes

Fanatical feasibility

High

Low

Operating speed

From 3mph to 50mph

From 1mph to 20mph

Range of power production

From 1kw to 6

Less than 50 kw

Megawatts

Maintenance

Relatively hard

Easy

Size

Commercial

Non-commercial (small
applications)

Positioning

Must face the wind

don't need to face wind

Table 1.2: VAWTs Vs HAWTs

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.6 Wind Turbine Subsystems

Fig. 1.12: Wind Turbine Subsystems

The wind turbine consists of


Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
Blades: Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin. Most
turbines have either two or three blades.
Brake: Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically, in emergencies.
Controller: Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and
shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about
55 mph because they may be damaged by the high winds.
Gearbox: Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational
speeds from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800 rpm; this is the
rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gearbox is a costly
(and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators
that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Generator: Produces 50/60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction
generator.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

High-speed shaft: Drives the generator.


Low-speed shaft: Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm.
Nacelle: Sits atop the tower and contains the gearbox, low- and high-speed shafts, generator,
controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
Pitch: Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep the
rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor: Blades and hub together form the rotor.
Tower: Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the structure
of the turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to
capture more energy and generate more electricity.
Wind direction: Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbineslike the one shown
hereface into the wind while downwind turbines face away.
Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Yaw drive: Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction changes.
Downwind turbines do not require a yaw drive because the wind manually blows the rotor
away from it.
Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.
The most cost effective, productive and reliable small wind systems are wind generators with
a set of two or three blades that spin on a horizontal axis.
The most important question to ask among choosing a wind turbine system is: What is the
annual energy output (measured in kilowatt hours) for the turbine in annual average wind
speeds of 47m/s? How was this information developed?

1.7 Generators Used in Wind Turbine Systems


Basically, any wind turbine could be equipped with any type of three-phase generator.
Currently the demand of the electrical grid can be achieved by using frequency converters
either the generator is supplies alternating current (AC) of variable frequency or direct current
(DC).

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Synchronous generator
1- Wound rotor generator (WRSG)

Asynchronous (induction) generator


1-Squirrel cage induction generator
(SCIG)

2- Permanent magnet generator


(PMSG)

2- Wound rotor induction generator


(WRIG)
A-Opti-Slip induction generator (OSIG)
B- Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG)

Table 1.3: Generators in Wind Turbines


Synchronous or asynchronous generators are connected to the wind turbine through gearbox
in case of asynchronous generators, or without gearbox in case of synchronous generators.
There are four different types of connection depending on the type of the generator. Type A
used only in fixed wind speed. Type B, type C, and type D mostly used because it works at
variable speed. Figure 1.10 show the different types of generators connected with the wind
turbine.
From these comparisons it is clear that the DFIG is preferable because of its ability to generate
at a wide range of speed, cheaper, can be self-excited, simple, robust, and high efficiency but
it requires a gearbox.
Currently, mainly, three wind turbine concepts dominate the market:
1) fixed-speed wind turbines with an induction generator directly connected to the grid,
2) Gearless wind turbines with a power electronic converter connected between the stator
and the grid.
3) Systems with DFIG, i.e., a slip-ringed wound-rotor induction generator, where a power
electronic converter is connected between the rotor circuit and the grid.
The latter is currently the most popular one, due to its high-energy efficiency and due to the
fact that a power electronic converter with a rating of only 20%30% of the rated wind
turbine power is needed. However, it is the most difficult one to control and also to model.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Fig.1.13: Types of Wind Turbines

122

CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.7.1 Comparison Between Types of Synchronous and Types of Induction Generators

Points

Excitation

Induction

Synchronous

SCIG

WRIG

OSIG

DFIG

WRSG

PMSG

Not self-

Not self-

Not self-

Can be

Self-excited

Self-excited

excited

excited

excited

selfexcited

Price

Cheap

Expensive

Cheap

Cheap

Expensive

Expensive

Simple

Complicated

Complicated

related to
SCIG
Mechanical Simple

Simple but

Simple

design

not robust

and robust and

and
robust

robust

Use of

Must use

Must use

Must use

Must

Gear box is

Gear box is not

gearbox

gearbox

gearbox

gearbox

use

not essential

essential

Wide

Restricted

Restricted

High

Moderate

High

gearbox
Speed

Restricted

Restricted

Wide but

range

restricted

operation

0-10%

Efficiency

Moderate

High

Moderate

Table 1.4: Comparison between types of synchronous and types of induction generator

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.8 Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECSs)


Power Converters for WECSs
Power electronics devices have been applied in WECSs since the 1980s, when a thyristor based
soft-starter was applied to a SCIG system, which was directly connected to the grid. The
thyristor based soft-starter was used for limiting the current surge during start up. In the
1990s, the emergence of the rotor resistance control approach made it possible that the WRSG
can be controlled to operate at variable speed. Although the speed range is only limited to
10% above the synchronous speed of the generator, this progress has improved the energy
capture efficiency of the wind turbine due to the application of the converter controlled
variable resistance. Nowadays, back-to-back converters are widely used in WECSs, either in
reduced power (reduced power means that only the 30% of the rated power is processed by
the power converters) for DFIG systems or in full power (full power means that the power
generated by the generator up to its rated power is processed by the power converters) for
PMSG/SCIG/WRSG systems.

Fig.1.14: DFIG with 1/3 scale power converter

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

Fig.1.15: Asynchronous/ Synchronous generator with full-scale power converter


The back-to-back power converters, which decouple the wind turbine from the grid, possess
the capability to regulate the operation speed of such wind turbine generators, control the
active and reactive powers injected into the grid, and improve the power quality. Conventional
two-level back-to-back power converters have been widely applied in wind power industry and
their reliability has been well proved. With the development of the semiconductor devices and
the digital control technology, multilevel converters were investigated and commercialized
during recent years, which helps in improving the power level and the power quality of the
wind energy generation systems. The most widely applied power converters for the bestseller
range 1.5-3.0 MW WECSs are the two-level back-to-back voltage source converters (VSC).

Fig.1.16: Back-to-Back Converter

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

The insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are used as the power switches. Although
recent developments have make the IGBT with higher-voltage blocking capability closer to
the integrated gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT), the IGBT based two-level back-to-back
VSCs are applied mainly in the low-voltage, low or medium power drive industries. As
introduced in to increase the voltage level, as well as the power level of the conventional
two-level back-to-back VSCs, series-connected power switches can be applied. Based on this
topology of power switches connection, the series connected IGBTs distribute the voltage
and power stress on the single IGBT in the conventional two-level VSCs, which improves the
voltage and power level of the two-level VSCs. With the application of the series-connected
IGBT two-level high power inverters, the multi-pulse rectifiers become attractive selections
for the high power back-to-back VSCs. These types of rectifiers help in reducing the input
current harmonics, which is beneficial for the generators in wind turbine systems. Although
the series-connected IGBT VSC has greatly improved the voltage and power level of the twolevel VSC, it contributes nothing to reduce the dv/dt (the voltage change, dv, within the time
interval, dt, or to improve the power quality. Based on this concern, the multilevel converters
were investigated and commercialized. Among various types of multilevel converters, the
neutral-point clamped (NPC) converters, cascaded H-bridge (CHB) converters, flying
capacitor converters, and Active NPC converters are the most studied ones. Here, the
research on NPC and CHB converters which are the most widely applied types of multilevel
converters will be reviewed.

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.8.1 Neutral-Point Clamped Multilevel Converters


The NPC multilevel converter was proposed in in the early 1980s. It can be structured as three
level, five level, and even seven level or more. However, the three level NPC converter is the
most applied type in industry. In each leg of the three-level NPC converter, there are four
power switches which are clamped with diodes to a midpoint of the capacitor bank. To this
converter, all conventional pulse width modulation (PWM) approaches are applicable. Since
the commutation voltage of all the power switches in the NPC converter is only half of the DC
bus voltage, the NPC converter is very suitable for the high power, medium voltage drives (2.34.16 kV). What is more, since the conduction of the power switches only shares half of the DC
bus voltage, the dv/dt is greatly reduced. The output line-to-line voltages of the NPC converter
consists of three voltage levels, which result in reduced harmonics in the output voltages and
improved power quality. The main drawback of the NPC converter is that the power losses on
the power switches are unevenly distributed, which reduces the reliability of the NPC
converters.

Fig.1.17: Neutral-Point Clamped Multilevel Converter

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CHAPTER 1 WIND TURBINES SYSTEMS

1.8.2 Cascaded H-Bridge Converters


The concept of cascaded H-bridge (CHB) converter was first introduced in the 1980s. After that
in the late 1990s, the CHB converter was further studied and tested. The CHB converter
consists of series connected H-bridge power cells. A typical H-bridge power cell. The seriesconnected power cells naturally increase the voltage and power level of the CHB converters.
The number of the power cell mainly depends on the operation voltage, the harmonic
requirements, and the budget for the system. What is more, for a CHB multilevel converter
with k power cells, it will be able to generate level output voltages, which results in reduced
harmonics in the output voltages and improved power quality. The main drawback of the CHB
converter is that it requires large number of dc sources for the H-bridge, which increases the
cost.

Fig.1.18: Cascaded H-Bridge Converter

128

Chapter 2
Doubly-fed Induction Generator (DFIG) system
2.1. Introduction
This chapter introduces the operation and control of a Doubly-fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
system. The DFIG is currently the system of choice for multi-MW wind turbines.
The aerodynamic system must be capable of operating over a wide wind speed range in order
to achieve optimum aerodynamic efficiency by tracking the optimum tip-speed ratio.
Therefore, the generators rotor must be able to operate at a variable rotational speed. The
DFIG system therefore operates in both sub- and super-synchronous modes with a rotor speed
range around the synchronous speed. The stator circuit is directly connected to the grid while
the rotor winding is connected via slip-rings to a three-phase converter. For variable-speed
systems where the speed range requirements are small, for example 30% of synchronous
speed, the DFIG offers adequate performance and is sufficient for the speed range required to
exploit typical wind resources.
An AC-DC-AC converter is included in the induction generator rotor circuit. The power
electronic converters need only be rated to handle a fraction of the total power the rotor
power typically about 30% nominal generator power. Therefore, the losses in the power
electronic converter can be reduced, compared to a system where the converter has to handle
the entire power, and the system cost is lower due to the partially-rated power electronics.
This chapter will introduce the basic features and normal operation of DFIG systems for wind
power applications basing the description on the standard induction generator. Different
aspects that will be described include their variable-speed feature, power converters and their
associated control systems, and application issues.
2.2. Steady-state operation of the Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
The DFIG is an induction machine with a wound rotor where the rotor and stator are both
connected to electrical sources, hence the term doubly-fed. The rotor has three phase
windings which are energized with three-phase currents. These rotor currents establish the
rotor magnetic field. The rotor magnetic field interacts with the stator magnetic field to
develop torque. The magnitude of the torque depends on the strength of the two fields (the
stator field and the rotor field) and the angular displacement between the two fields.
Mathematically, the torque is the vector product of the stator and rotor fields. Conceptually,
the torque is developed by magnetic attraction between magnet poles of opposite polarity
where, in this case, each of the rotor and stator magnetic fields establish a pair of magnet 260
poles, Fig.2.1 Clearly, optimum torque is developed when the two vectors are normal to each
other. If thestator winding is fed from a 3-phase balanced source the stator flux will have a
constant magnitude and will rotate at the synchronous speed. We will use the per-phase
equivalent circuit of the induction machine to lay the foundations for the discussion of torque
control in the DFIG.

129

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The equivalent circuit of the induction machine is shown in Fig.2.2 the stator side has two
parasitic components, Rs and Ls, which represent the resistance of the stator phase winding
and the leakage inductance of the phase winding respectively. The leakage inductance models
all the flux generated by current in the stator windings that does not cross the air-gap of the
machine, it is therefore not useful for the production of torque. The stator resistance is a
natural consequence of the windings being fabricated from materials that are good conductors
but nonetheless have finite conductance (hence resistance).
The magnetizing branch, Lm, models the generation of useful flux in the machine flux that
crosses the air-gap either from stator to rotor or vice-versa.

Fig. 2.1: Magnetic pole system generated by currents in the stator and rotor windings. The
stator and the rotor field generate a torque that tends to try and align poles of opposite
polarity.
In this case, of rotor experiences a clockwise torque.

Fig. 2.2: Per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction machine

130

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

Like the stator circuit, the rotor circuit also has two parasitic elements. The rotor leakage
reactance, Lr, and the rotor resistance Rr. In addition, the rotor circuit models the generated
mechanical power by including an additional rotor resistance component, Rr(1s)/s. Note that
the rotor and stator circuits are linked via a transformer whose turns ratio depends on the
actual
turns ratio between the stator and rotor (1:k), and also the slip, s, of the machine.
In an induction machine the slip is defined as

Where ns and nr are the synchronous speed and the mechanical speed of the rotor
respectively.
The synchronous speed is given by

Where p = number of pole pairs and fe is the electrical frequency of the applied stator
voltage. We will first consider the operation of the machine as a standard induction motor. If
the rotor circuit is left open circuit and the rotor locked (standstill), when stator excitation is
applied, a voltage will be generated at the output terminals of the rotor circuit, V r. The
frequency of this output will be at the applied stator frequency as slip in this case is 1. If the
rotor is turned progressively faster and faster in the sub-synchronous mode, the frequency at
the output terminals of the rotor will decrease as the rotor accelerates towards the
synchronous speed. At synchronous speed the rotor frequency will be zero. As the rotor
accelerates beyond synchronous speed (the super-synchronous mode) the frequency of the
rotor voltage begins to increase again, but has the opposite phase sequence to the subsynchronous mode. Hence, the frequency of the rotor voltage is

No rotor currents can flow with the rotor open circuit, hence there is no torque production
as there is no rotor field r, Fig 2.1 If the rotor was short circuited externally, rotor currents
can flow, and they will flow at the frequency given by (3). The rotor currents produce a rotor
magnetic field, r, which rotates at the same mechanical speed as the stator field, s. The
two fields interact to produce torque, Fig. 2.1
It is important to recognize that the rotor magnetic field and the stator magnetic field both
rotate at the synchronous speed. The rotor may be turning asynchronously, but the rotor
field rotates at the same speed as the stator field.
The mechanical torque generated by the machine is found by calculating the power absorbed
(or generated) by the rotor resistance component Rr(1s)/s. This is shown to be

131

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

In an ideal induction machine, we can ignore the rotor and stator phase winding resistance
and leakage inductance. The per-phase equivalent circuit then becomes simple, Fig. 2.3 The
phasor diagram for the machine is shown. Note that the stator generated flux component is
normal to the rotor current (hence rotor flux) phasor giving the optimum conditions for

Fig. 2.3: Simplified equivalent circuit of the induction machine assuming low values of slip
and negligible stator and rotor leakage reactance. Phasor diagram demonstrates optimal
orientation of magnetizing current and rotor current.
Torque production (note this is true for low values of slip only). Using this simplified circuit
diagram, the mechanical torque production is then:

The key point in this development is to show that the developed torque is controlled by the
combination of the stator generated flux, m, and the rotor current magnitude, ir, if the two
vectors are maintained in quadrature, Fig. 2.1. In the DFIG system, torque is controlled by
calculating the physical position and magnitude of the stator generated flux (by monitoring
the position and magnitude of the applied stator voltage which in this case is imposed by the
grid voltage magnitude, frequency and phase) and regulating the rotor currents such that
they are normal to the stator flux with a magnitude that will generate the desired torque.

132

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The DFIG system therefore has to control the magnitude, frequency and phase of the applied
rotor current. Most DFIG systems utilize closed-loop current control using a voltage-source
inverter (VSI). At this stage, the voltage source inverter can be viewed as a three-phase voltage
source whose magnitude and phase can be altered instantaneously this will be illustrated in
Section 2. Therefore, the VSI can be used to regulate the rotor current. In order to properly
position the rotor current knowledge of the physical position of the rotor is required using a
mechanical position sensor, for example. In such a way, the rotor current (hence flux) can be
oriented optimally with respect to the stator flux to generate the desired torque.

2.3. Rotor power converters


This section will detail the AC-DC-AC converter used on the rotor which consists of two voltagesourced converters, i.e., rotor-side converter (RSC) and grid-side converter (GSC), which are
connected back-to-back. Between the two converters a dc-link capacitor is placed, as energy
storage, in order to keep the voltage variations (or ripple) in the dc-link voltage small. With the
rotor-side converter it is possible to control the torque or the speed of the DFIG and also the
power factor at the stator terminals, while the main objective for the grid-side converter is to
keep the dc-link voltage constant regardless of the magnitude and direction of the rotor
power. The grid-side converter works at the grid frequency (leading or lagging in order to
generate or absorb a controllable magnitude of reactive power). A transformer may be
connected between the grid-side inverter or the stator, and the grid. The rotor-side converter
works at different frequencies, depending on the wind speed.
The back-to-back arrangement of the converters provides a mechanism of converting the
variable voltage, variable frequency output of the generator (as its speed changes) into a fixed
frequency, fixed voltage output compliant with the grid. The DC link capacitance is an energy
storage element that provides the energy buffer required between the generator and the grid.
2.3.1 The back-to-back inverter-converter arrangement

Fig. 2.4: Typical back-to-back arrangement of inverter and converter circuits to control power
flow.

133

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The VSI is capable of generating any voltage with arbitrary frequency and phase (within the
limits of dc link voltage and switching frequency). Therefore, the VSI can be viewed and
modelled as an ideal controllable voltage source whose bandwidth is usually much higher than
the required excitation frequency required by the system.
For example, Fig. 2.5 shows a single line diagram of a grid-connected inverter. In this case the
inverter is simply modelled as an ideal voltage source that is generating a balanced set of threephase voltages whose magnitude and phase can be controlled relative to the grid voltage. This
provides the capability to control the flow of real and reactive power to the grid as will be
discussed later. Note that synchronization to the grid frequency is assumed.

Fig. 2.5: Doubly-fed induction generation system power flows.

In steady-state at fixed turbine speed for a lossless DFIG system, the mechanical power from
the wind turbine applied to the shaft is Pm = Ps + Pr. It follows that:

Therefore if the maximum slip is limited, say to 0.3, the rotor winding converters can be rated
as a fraction of the induction generator rated power. This is typically around 30% for DFIG in
wind power generation systems gives a slip range of 0.3. This is one key advantage of the
DFIG system over fully-rated power electronic systems. From the above relationships, the
stator and rotor power are Ps = Pm/(1s) and Pr = sPm/(1 s), respectively. To consider the
mechanical power change during different rotor speeds, the following analysis is carried out
with all terms in per unit values. The slip is assumed to vary from a sub-synchronous value of
+0.35 to a super synchronous value of -0.35.

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CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The per unit output power from wind turbine is

Here we use the example wind turbine model in MATLAB (The Mathworks Inc., 2013):

The maximum value of Cp is 0.48 when = 0 for = 8.1. These are defined as base values for
per unit calculations. Here base wind speed is 12 m/s, gear ratio is 10, rotor radius is 5.16m.
When s = 0.2, Cp is 0.48 then Pm is 1.0 p.u. ideally. Hence for 2 pole-pair generator,

Then at the base wind speed, the expression of Pm in terms of slip s is

The above analysis is carried out in MATLAB programming, with the power flow results shown
in Fig.2.6 shows how the rotor and stator power vary as the rotor slip changes from sub- to
super-synchronous modes. The speed of the rotor has to change as wind speed changes in
order to track the maximum power point of the aerodynamic system. Slip, s, therefore is
related to incident wind speed. In this case, a slip of -0.2 occurs with rated wind speed (12 ms1). As wind speed drops, slip has to increase and in this case has a maximum value of 0.35.

135

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

Fig. 2.6: Doubly-fed induction generation system power flows.


It is clear that the mechanical power, Pm, reaches its peak at super-synchronous speed when
s = -0.2. When rotating at the synchronous speed (s = 0), the DFIG supplies all the power via
the stator winding, with no active power flow in the rotor windings and their associated
converters. Note that at s=0, the stator power is maximum. As the wind speed increases, the
rotational speed must also increase to maintain optimum tip-speed ratios. In such
circumstances, the machine operates at super-synchronous speeds (s < 0). The mechanical
power flows to the grid through both the stator windings and the rotor windings and their
converter. For example, at s=-0.2, Ps is 0.8pu and Pr is 0.2 pu giving a total generated power of
1pu. At lower wind speeds, the blades rotate at a sub-synchronous speed (s > 0).
In such circumstances, the rotor converter system will absorb power from the grid connection
to provide excitation for rotor winding.
For example, at s=0.2, Ps is 0.8pu but Pr is -0.2 pu giving a total generated power of 0.6pu. With
such a control scheme it is possible to control the power extracted from the aerodynamic
system such that the blade operates at the optimum aerodynamic efficiency (thereby
extracting as much energy is as possible) by adjusting the speed of rotation according to the
incident wind speed.

2.3.2 The Rotor-Side Converter (RSC)


The rotor-side converter (RSC) applies the voltage to the rotor windings of the doubly-fed
induction generator. The purpose of the rotor-side converter is to control the rotor currents
such that the rotor flux position is optimally oriented with respect to the stator flux in order
that the desired torque is developed at the shaft of the machine.

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CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The rotor-side converter uses a torque controller to regulate the wind turbine output power
and the voltage (or reactive power) measured at the machine stator terminals.
The power is controlled in order to follow a pre-defined turbine power-speed characteristic to
track the maximum power point. The actual electrical output power from the generator
terminals, added to the total power losses (mechanical and electrical) is compared with the
reference power obtained from the wind turbine characteristic. Usually, a ProportionalIntegral (PI) regulator is used at the outer control loop to reduce the power error (or rotor
speed error) to zero. The output of this regulator is the reference rotor current i rqref that must
be injected in the rotor winding by rotor-side converter. This q-axis component controls the
electromagnetic torque Te. The actual irq component of rotor current is compared with irqref
and the error is reduced to zero by a current PI regulator at the inner control loop. The output
of this current controller is the voltage vrq generated by the rotor-side converter. With another
similarly regulated ird and vrd component the required 3-phase voltages applied to the rotor
winding are obtained. The generic power control loop is illustrated in the next section.
2.3.3 The Grid-Side Converter (GSC)
The grid-side converter aims to regulate the voltage of the dc bus capacitor. Moreover, it is
allowed to generate or absorb reactive power for voltage support requirements. The function
is realized with two control loops as well: an outer regulation loop consisting of a dc voltage
regulator. The output of the dc voltage regulator is the reference current icdref for the current
regulator. The inner current regulation loop consists of a current regulator controlling the
magnitude and phase of the voltage generated by converter from the icdref produced by the dc
voltage regulator and specified q-axis icqref reference.
2.3.4 Converter losses
The losses of the converters can be divided into switching losses and conducting losses.
The switching losses of the transistors are the turn-on and turn-off losses. For the diode the
switching losses mainly consist of turn-off losses, i.e., reverse-recovery energy. The turn-on
and turn-off losses for the transistor and the reverse-recovery energy loss for a diode can be
found from data sheets. The conducting losses arise from the current through the transistors
and diodes. The transistor and the diode can be modeled as constant voltage drops, and a
resistance in series. The switching losses of the transistor can be considered to be
proportional to the current, for a given dc-link voltage. For a given dc-link voltage and
switching frequency, the switching losses of the IGBT and diode can be modeled as a
constant voltage drop that is independent of the current rating of the valves (Petersson,
2005).
2.3.5 DC-link model
The dc-link model describes the dc-link capacitor voltage variations as a function of the input
power to the dc-link (Ledesma & Usaola, 2005).

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CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The energy stored in the dc capacitor is

Where C is the capacitance, Vdc is the voltage, Wdc is the stored energy, and Pdc is the input
power to the dc link. The voltage and energy derivatives are

The Pdc is calculated as Pdc = Pin Pc. Where Pin is the input power from rotor-side converter
and Pc is the grid-side converter output power. The dc-link voltage varies as Pdc and is a
constant when Pdc = 0.
2.3.6 Basic Control of Real and Reactive Power using the RSC
The grid side converter is used to partly control the flow of real and reactive power from the
turbine system to the grid. The grid-side converter feeds the grid via a set of interfacing
inductors. Fig.2.7(a) shows the single phase equivalent circuit of the system. As previously
shown, the grid-side converter (a voltage source inverter) can generate a balanced set of
three-phase voltages at the supply frequency and that the voltage, E, can have a controllable
magnitude and phase. Load angle control is used to illustrate the basics of real and reactive
power control, though in practice, a more sophisticated control is used which provides
superior transient response. Load angle control mimics the operation of a synchronous
generator connected to the network. Essentially, load angle control uses the angle, , between
the voltage generated by the grid-side converter, E, and the grid voltage, V, Figure 7(b), to
control the real power, P, injected on to the grid. Likewise, reactive power, Q, is controlled
using the magnitude of the voltage generated by the grid-side converter. The steady-state
equations governing the real and reactive power flow from the grid-side converter to the grid
are

Where Xs is the reactance of the interfacing inductance. If is small the equations can be
simplified to

Showing that P can be controlled using load angle, , and Q can be controlled using the
magnitude of E. Interfacing inductance must be used to couple the output of the grid-side
converter shown in Figure 8 to the grid. The inductor is sized according to the rating of the
converter. Typically, the system will have a transformer on the turbine side of the point of
common coupling (PCC)

138

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

In addition, at the point of connection there is usually the need for a substation which includes
whatever equipment is required by local network codes, for example, plant to disconnect the
turbine under fault conditions.
The combination of control and power electronics enables the grid-side converter to produce
the necessary voltage magnitude, E, and load angle, , in order to meet a required Pc and Qc
demand set by the main system controller. The controller has to be able to synchronize to the
grid frequency and phase, in order to connect and supply power. This is typically carried out
using some form of phase-locked loop.

Fig. 2.7: (a) Single line diagram of steady-state generator-side converter connected to the
grid and (b) phasor diagram demonstrating load angle control of the grid-side converter to
establish exported real power and control of reactive power
At any instant, the power exported by the GSC is determined by the state of the DC link voltage.
The grid-side converter controller monitors the DC link voltage. If the DC link voltage rises, the
grid-side converter can export more real power by increasing the load angle in order that the
DC link voltage moves back towards it nominal value. If more power is being exported by the
GSC than is currently being generated by the RSC, the DC link voltage will fall below its nominal
value. The grid-side controller will then reduce the exported real power to allow the DC link
voltage to recover to its nominal value. In essence, the DC link voltage indicates power flow
balance between the generated energy and the exported energy in the rotor side. If the input
and output power to the dc link capacitor do not match then the dc link voltage will change.
The quality of the energy supplied to the network must meet basic requirements and the Grid
Code in force at the connection point will set these. The grid code specifies many performance
indicators of the quality of the energy supplied by the grid-side converter, along with other
important issues such as fault levels, anti-islanding and disconnection.

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CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The relevant grid code(s) in operation must be determined prior to tendering for work on the
turbine power electronics and control. The grid code has important implications on the control
system of the turbine. One main concern in many turbine systems is what to do if the turbine
system loses its mains connection, say, for example, because of a network fault. Without a
mains connection the turbine is unable to export energy. If the generator-side controller
continues to generate power, the DC link capacitance will be over charged. Therefore, a grid
fault will require the generator to stop generating energy, which then means that there is no
longer a restraining torque to control the blade speed. In a wind turbine, a loss of supply will
cause an over speed condition, as the blade system will accelerate due to the aerodynamic
torque produced by the blades. Shorting resistors, or a crowbar circuit, are often switched
across the rotor circuit of the generator in order that the energy generated by the blade system
can be absorbed and the over-speed condition controlled to a safe and manageable level. in
addition, there are often aerodynamic (pitch control) and mechanical braking mechanisms
included in wind turbines as an additional over-speed safety measure.

2.4. Control system


Nomenclature
, ,

Voltage, current and flux vectors.

Rs, Rr

Stator, rotor winding resistances.

Ls, Lr, Lls, Llr

Stator, rotor winding self- and leakage inductances.

Lm

Magnetizing inductance.

s, r, slip

Synchronous, rotor and slip angular frequencies.

P, Q

Active and reactive power.

s, r

Stator and rotor subscripts.

Grid-side value subscripts.

Converter value subscripts.

d, q

d-axis and q-axis component subscripts.

Nominal value subscript.

ref

Reference value superscript.

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CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

This section will detail the vector-control techniques used for the independent control of
torque and rotor excitation current in the DFIG and decouple control of the active and reactive
power supplied to the grid. The vector control for the generator can be embedded in an
optimal power tracking controller for maximum energy capture in a wind power application.
By controlling the active power of the converter, it is possible to vary the rotational speed of
the generator, and thus the speed of the rotor of the wind turbine. This can then be used to
track the optimum tip-speed ratio as the incident wind speed changes thereby extracting the
maximum power from the incident wind. The grid-side converter control gives potential for
optimizing the grid integration with respect to steady-state operation conditions, power
quality and voltage stability.
2.4.1 Rotor-side converter control
The rotor-side converter (RSC) provides the excitation for the induction machine rotor. With
this PWM converter it is possible to control the torque hence the speed of the DFIG and also
the power factor at the stator terminals. The rotor-side converter provides a varying excitation
frequency depending on the wind speed conditions. The induction machine is controlled in a
synchronously rotating dq-axis frame, with the d-axis oriented along the stator-flux vector
position in one common implementation.
This is called stator-flux orientation (SFO) vector control. In this way, a decoupled control
between the electrical torque and the rotor excitation current is obtained. Consequently, the
active power and reactive power are controlled independently from each other.
There are other options for directional rotating frames. Orientation frames applied in
traditional vector control of induction machines such as rotor-flux orientation and
magnetizing-flux orientation, can also be utilized (Vas, 1990). Additionally, the orientation
(SVO) is also commonly-used in DFIG vector controller, as contrast with SFO (Muller et al.,
2002). To describe the control scheme, the general Parks model of an induction machine is
introduced. Using the motor convention in a static stator-oriented reference frame, without
saturation, the voltage vector equations are

Where
is the stator voltage imposed by the grid. The rotor voltage
is controlled by the
rotor-side converter and used to perform generator control.
The flux vector equations are

141

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

Where Ls and Lr are the stator and rotor self-inductances: Ls = Lm + Lls, Lr = Lm + Llr
Under stator-flux orientation (SFO), in dq-axis component form, the stator flux equations are:

Defining leakage factor and equivalent inductance as


The rotor voltage and flux equations are (scaled to be numerically equal to the ac per-phase
values):

Where the slip angular speed is slip = s - r.


The stator flux angle is calculated from

Where s is the stator-flux vector position.


The control scheme of the rotor-side converter is organized in a generic way with two series
of two PI-controllers. Fig. 2.8 shows a schematic block diagram for the rotor-side converter
control. The reference q-axis rotor current irq* can be obtained either from an outer speed
control loop or from a reference torque imposed on the machine. These two options may be
termed a speed-control mode or torque-control mode for the generator, instead of regulating
the active power directly. For speed-control mode, one outer PI controller is to control the
speed error signal in terms of maximum power point tracking. Furthermore, another PI
controller is added to produce the reference signal of the d-axis rotor current component to
control the reactive power required from the generator. Assuming that all reactive power to
the machine is supplied by the stator, the reference value ird* may set to zero. The switching
dynamics of the IGBT switches of the rotor converter are neglected and it is assumed that the
rotor converter is able to follow demand values at any time.

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CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

The control system requires the measurement of the stator and rotor currents, stator voltage
and the mechanical rotor position. There is no need to know the rotor-induced EMF, as is the
case for the implementation with naturally commutated converters. Since the stator is
connected to the grid, and the influence of the stator resistance is small, the stator magnetizing
current ims can be considered constant (Pena et al., 1996).
Rotor excitation current control is realized by controlling rotor voltage. The i rd and irq error
signals are processed by associated PI controllers to give vrd and vrq, respectively.

Fig.2.8: Vector control structure for rotor-side converter.

From the rotor voltage equations

To ensure good tracking of the rotor dq-axis currents, compensation terms are added to vrd
and vrq to obtain the reference voltages vrd* and vrq* according to

The electromagnetic torque is

143

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

For the stator-voltage oriented control the above equation is an approximation. However, for
stator-flux orientation, the stator flux current ims is almost fixed to the stator voltage. For
torque mode control, since it is difficult to measure the torque, it is often realized in an openloop manner. The torque can be controlled by the q-axis component of the rotor current
irq. Therefore, the q-axis reference current, irqref can be determined from the reference torque
Teref as

Also

2.4.2 Grid-side converter control


The grid-side converter controls the flow of real and reactive power to the grid, through the
grid interfacing inductance. The objective of the grid-side converter is to keep the dc-link
voltage constant regardless of the magnitude and direction of the rotor power. The vector
control method is used as well, with a reference frame oriented along the stator voltage vector
position, enabling independent control of the active and reactive power flowing between the
grid and the converter. The PWM converter is current regulated, with the d-axis current used
to regulate the dc-link voltage and the q-axis current component to regulate the reactive
power. Fig.2.9 shows the schematic control structure of the grid-side converter.
A similar analysis for the control of the dq currents carried out for the grid-side converter can
likewise be done for the control of the converter dq currents. The voltage equations in
synchronously rotating dq-axis reference frame are:

The angular position of the grid voltage is calculated as

144

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

Fig.2.9: Vector control structure for grid-side converter.


Where vc and vc are the converter grid-side voltage stationary frame components.
The d-axis of the reference frame is aligned with the grid voltage angular position e. Since the
amplitude of the grid voltage is constant, vcq is zero and vcd is constant. The active and reactive
power will be proportional to icd and icq respectively.
Assume the grid-side transformer connection is star, the converter active and reactive power
flow is

Which demonstrates that the real and active powers from the grid-side converter are
controlled by the icd and icq components of current respectively.
To realize decoupled control, similar compensations are introduced likewise in previous
control to obtain the reference voltages vrd* and vrq*

The reference voltage vcd* and vcq* are then transformed by inverse-Park transformation to
give 3-phase voltage vcabc* for the final PWM signal generation for the converter IGBT
switching

145

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

2.4.3 Optimum operating point tracking of a variable-speed wind turbine


Optimal tracking to provide maximum energy capture from the wind derives from the powerspeed characteristics of a given turbine. This is commonly expressed as

The turbine blade is characterized by particular Cp - curves, and from these the Tm - r
characteristics may be derived for various values of wind velocity v.

Where r , is the shaft speed referred to the generator side of the gearbox. For wind velocities
higher than rated, the turbine energy capture must be limited by applying pitch control or
driving the machine to the stall point. For wind velocities below rated, the machine follows the
previous equation. There are two methods of achieving this which are termed current-mode
control or speed-mode control.
2.4.4 Current-mode control
This mode may be considered to be standard tracking mode. Given a shaft-speed
measurement, an electrical torque can be imposed on the DFIG according to previous
equation after compensating for the transmission friction losses:

2.4.5 Speed-mode control


This is a rather novel methodand has not hitherto received much attention on account of its
requirement for a mechanical torque observer. Whilst there are engineering problems
associated with the observer design, the method is feasible in practice and that significantly

146

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

improved tracking may be obtained over the current-control method above. Given a Tm signal,
then the DFIG can be driven to the optimum power curve by

2.5. Application issues


2.5.1 Industrial applications
The DFIG system costs more than fixed-speed induction generators without converters.
However, the performance and controllability are excellent in comparison with speed
induction generator systems; they capture more wind energy, they exhibit a higher reliability
gear system, and high-quality power supplied to the grid. It saves investment on full-rated
power converters, and soft-starter or reactive power compensation devices (fixed-speed
systems). Modern wind farms, with a nominal turbine power up to several MWs, are a typical
case of DFIG application. Besides this, other applications for the DFIG systems are, for example,
flywheel energy storage system, stand-along diesel systems, pumped storage power plants, or
rotating converters feeding a railway grid from a constant frequency utility grid.

2.5.2 Braking systems


Braking systems for a wind turbine generation system must be able to reduce the speed of the
aerodynamic rotor during abnormal scenarios, such as over speed, maintenance or fault
conditions. Wind turbine design standards require two independent brakes which must be
capable of reducing the wind turbine to a safe rotational speed in all anticipated wind speeds
and fault conditions (Craig et al., 1998). There are usually combined conventional mechanical
shaft (disk) brakes and aerodynamic brakes (for example, pitching mechanisms) for wind
turbine brake systems. For a rapid response, electrodynamic braking can be used but only in
the event that the electrical systems are operational. However, it has to be used in
combination with a mechanical parking brake in cases when the rotor cannot be allowed to
idle at a low rotational speed. Moreover, it cannot hold the rotor at standstill.

147

CHAPTER 2 DFIG SYSTEM

2.5.3 Converter protection systems


The prevalent DFIG converter protection scheme is crowbar protection. A crowbar is a set of
resistors that are connected in parallel with the rotor winding on occurrence of an
interruption. The crowbar circuit bypasses the rotor-side converter. The active crowbar control
scheme connects the crowbar resistance when necessary and disables it to resume DFIG
control.
A braking resistor (DC-chopper) can be connected in parallel with the DC-link capacitor to limit
the overcharge during low grid voltage. This protects the IGBTs from overvoltage and can
dissipate energy, but this has no effect on the rotor current. It is also used as protection for
the DC-link capacitor in full rated converter topologies, for example, permanent magnet
synchronous generators. In a similar way to the series dynamic braking resistor, which has
been used in the stator side of generators, a dynamic resistor is proposed to be put in series
with the rotor (series dynamic resistor) and this limits the rotor over-current (Yang et al., 2010).
Being controlled by a power-electronic switch, in normal operation, the switch is on and the
resistor is bypassed; during fault conditions, the switch is off and the resistor is connected in
series to the rotor winding. The rotor equivalent circuit is shown with all the above protection
schemes in Fig. 2.8
2.6. Summary
The DFIG system applied to wind power generation has gained considerable academic
attention and industrial application during the past 10 years. In practical applications, power
levels are currently reaching 3-5MW and the DFIG is gradually maturing as a technology for
variable-speed wind energy utilization. In this chapter, the steady-state induction machine
operation, back-to-back converter system and basic vector-control techniques are
summarized, with practical application issues briefly summarized. Although topologies of
new systems with improved performance are emerging both in academia and industry (Chen
et al., 2009), DFIG is the most competitive option in terms of balance between the technical
performance and economic costs.

Fig. 2.10 DFIG rotor equivalent circuit with all protection schemes shown.

148

Chapter 3
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG) system
3.1- Modelling and Analysis of Direct-Drive Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
Wind Turbine Systems
The main components of a direct-drive permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)
wind turbine are the wind turbine and the PMSG. The wind turbine captures the power from
the wind for the system, and the PMSG transforms the mechanical power into electric power.
In this section, the basic principles of the electric power generation will be introduced, and the
mathematical models of the wind turbine and the PMSG will be developed and analyzed.
3.1.1 Modelling of Wind Turbines
In order to investigate the effectiveness of the energy conversion in wind energy conversion
systems, first the available energy stored in the wind needs to be determined. Actually, the
energy in the wind can be treated as the kinetic energy of a large amount of air particles with
a total mass, , moving at a wind velocity, . Assuming that all the air particles are moving
at the same speed and direction before affecting the rotor blades of the wind turbine, the
potential available kinetic energy stored in the wind can be expressed according to the
following expression:
1

E = 2 mVW 2

(3.1)

Where, E , is the kinetic energy of the moving air particles, and m the total mass of the air
particles, while, VW , is the velocity of the air particles (wind speed). Since the air particles are
moving at a speed, VW , the total mass, m ,of the particles for a period of time, t, can be
rewritten as follows:

E = = 2

(3.2)

Where, ,is the air density, and A is the swept area of the wind turbine rotor. Here, r,is
the radius of the wind turbine rotor. Substituting expression (3.2) into (3.1), the kinetic
energy of the air particles can be expressed as follows:
1

E = 2 r 2 VW 3 t

(3.3)

From expression (1.3), the actual wind power at any instant of time can be represented as:
Pwind =

E
t

= 2 r 2 VW 3

(3.4)

Where, Pwind ,is the potentially available power in the wind. From expression (3.4), we can
observe that the wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, which means
that a small increase of the wind speed will result in a large increase of the wind power.

149

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

Moreover, the power can also be increased by enlarging the wind turbine rotor radius since
the power is proportional to the square of this rotor radius. This is the reason that more and
more large scale wind turbine systems (up to 10MW) are being investigated and contemplated
nowadays. However, the power expressed in expression (3.4) can only stand for the maximum
potential power which is available when the wind with velocity, VW , passes through the swept
area of the wind turbine with radius, . In fact, only a portion of this potentially available power
can be captured by the wind turbine. In 1919, a German scientist Albert Betz had tried to
express the action of the air particles (the wind) passing through wind turbines. According to
Betz's idea, after impacting the rotor blades of the wind turbine, the velocity of the wind
decreases form VW to VW2 , which means that when the wind passes through the wind turbine
blades, there is still some kinetic power left in the wind. The relationship between the power
that is captured by the wind turbine and the potential maximum power in the wind can be
expressed as follows:
Cp =

PTurnine

(3.5)

PWind

Where, PTurnine is the mechanical power captured by the wind turbine, and Cp is the power
coefficient of the wind turbine which can be expressed as follows:
1

Cp = C1 (C2 C3 C4 C5 ) C6

(3.6)

Where,
1

1
+.08

.035

(3.7)

1+ 3

And,
= /

(3.8)

Where, , is the blade angle, and is the tip speed ratio of the wind turbine, while , , is
the angular speed of the wind turbine generator. The values of the coefficients (1 ~6) depend
on the type of the wind turbine.

150

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

(a) Blade angle schematic diagram

(b) Lift and drag force on the blade

(c) Blade at low medium and high angles of attack


Figure 3.1 Diagram of blade angle of wind turbine

151

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

As can be seen in Figure 3.1, the blade angle indicates how does the wind velocity impact the
wind turbine blades. The blade angle is the angle between the orientation of the blade and the
wind velocity vector. When, = 0 , the blade is fully impacted by the wind velocity, and the
wind turbine will capture the maximum power in the wind. The blade angle is usually
controlled at zero degree when the wind speed is lower than the rated wind speed of the
system to ensure a high efficiency of energy capture. When the wind speed becomes greater
than the rated value, the power captured by the system will exceed the rated power if the
blade angle stays unchanged at zero degree. It will make the generator and the power devices
work under higher than rated output, which is harmful to the system if sustained for any length
of time. Based on this concern, a control system for the modification of the blade angle
according to different wind conditions is needed for the wind turbine. Accordingly, the power
captured by the wind turbine can be rewritten as:

= (, )

(3.9)

3.2 Modelling of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines


Permanent magnet synchronous machines/generators (PMSMs/PMSGs) play key role in
direct-drive wind power generation systems for transforming the mechanical power into
electrical power. A rigorous mathematical modelling of the PMSG is the prerequisite for the
design of the machine control algorithms as well as the analysis of the steady state and
dynamic characteristics of wind energy conversion systems. In this section, the mathematical
model of a PMSG in both the natural three-phase stationary reference frame and
synchronously rotating reference frame will be developed, and the power and torque analysis
of PMSGs will be given as well.
3.2.1 Modelling of a PMSM in the natural three-phase stationary reference frame
Before developing the mathematical model of the PMSM, several important assumptions need
to be made: (1) the damping effect in the magnets and in the rotor are negligible; (2) the
magnetic saturation effects are neglected; (3) the eddy current and hysteresis losses are
neglected; (4) the back electromotive force (EMF) induced in the stator windings are
sinusoidal; (5) for simplicity, all the equations of PMSMs are expressed in motor
(consumer/load) notation, that is, negative current will be prevailing when the model refers
to a generator. Negative current means that at the positive polarity of the terminal of a device
the current is out of that terminal. Figure 3.2 shows the cross-sectional view of a three-phase,
two-pole PMSM. The fixed axes denote the direction of the MMFs ( , and ) of the
, and phase windings, which are induced by the time varying three-phase AC currents in
these stator phase windings. The flux caused by the permanent magnet is in the direction of
the d-axis fixed at the rotor. Here, the dq -axes are rotating at the same angular speed of the
PMs and rotor. Also, denotes the angle between the d-axis and the stationary a-axis.

152

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

Figure 3.2 Cross-section view of the PMSM

Figure 3.3: Stator voltage in reference frame transformation

153

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

The state space relationship of the terminal voltages of the PMSM to the phase currents and
the phase flux linkages due to the PMs and stator currents can be written as follows :
vas
Rs
v
[ bs ] = [ 0
vcs
0

0
Rs
0

as
0
ias
d
0 ] [ibs ] + [bs ]
dt
ics
Rs
cs

(3.10)

Where, , and are the instantaneous a, b, and c three-phase stator voltages, and
, and are the instantaneous three-phase stator currents. Here, is the stator winding
resistance per phase, and again, , and are the instantaneous flux linkages induced
by the three-phase AC currents and the PMs, which can be expressed in expanded form as
follows :
as
Laa
[bs ] = [Lba
Lca
cs

Lab
Lbb
Lcb

r cos(r )
Lac
ias
2
Lbc ] [ibs ] + [r cos(r 3 )]
2
ics
Lcc
r cos(r + 3 )

(3.11)

Where Laa , Lbb and Lcc are the self-inductances of the a, b, and c three-phases and Lab , Lac
, Lba , Lbc , Lca and Lcb are the mutual inductances between these phases, while , is the
rotor flux linkage caused by the permanent magnet. The self-inductances and mutual
inductances are all functions of . Thus, all of the inductances are time varying parameters.
3.2.2 Modelling of the PMSM in the -axes synchronously rotating reference frame:
The 0 Park's transformation is a mathematical transformation which aims to simplify the
analysis of synchronous machinery models, and was first introduced by R. H. Park in 1929 .In
the three-phase systems like PMSMs, the phase quantities which include stator voltages,
stator currents, and flux linkages, are time varying quantities. By applying Park's
transformation, which is in essence the projection of the phase quantities onto a rotating two
axes reference frame, the AC quantities are transformed to DC quantities, which are
independent of time. The to 0 transformation can be expressed in matrix form as
follows:
( )

[ ] = ( )

( +

( ) ( + ) [ ]

(3.12)

The inverse Park's transformation is:

( )

[ ] = ( )

[( + )

( )
(

( +

[ ]

(3.13)

154

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

In expressions (3.12) and (3.13), and 0 can represent the stator voltages, stator
currents or flux linkages of the AC machines, respectively. Considering that under balanced
conditions, 0 =0, the voltage function of the PMSM in the -axes reference frame can be
expressed as follows:
= +
= +

(3.14)

+ +

(3.15)

Where and are the instantaneous stator voltages in the -axes reference frame,
and and are the instantaneous stator currents in the dq-axes reference frame. Here
and are the d-axis and q-axis inductances, and is the electrical angular speed of the rotor,
while is the peak/maximum phase flux linkage due to the rotor-mounted PMs. According
to expressions (3.14) and (3.15), the equivalent circuits of the PMSM in the dq -axes reference
frame can be drawn as shown in Figure 3.4:

Figure 3.4 the -axes equivalent circuits of a PMSM

3.2.3 Power and torque analysis of a PMSM


For any PMSM, the electrical power input can be expressed in the reference frame as
follows:
= + +
3

= 2 ( + )

(3.16)
(3.17)

As a part of the input power, in the motoring mode, the active power is the power that is
transformed to mechanical power by the machine, which can be expressed as follows:
3

= 2 ( + )

(3.18)

Where,
= =

(3.19)

And

155

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

= + =

(3.20)

Here and are the back EMFs in the -axes reference frame, and and are the
-axes flux linkages. Substituting expressions (3.19) and (3.20) into (3.18), the active power can
be re-expressed as follows:
3

= 2 ( )

(3.21)

Hence, the electromagnetic torque developed by a PMSM can be deduced as follows:

= = 2 (2)( )

(3.22)

Or
3

= 2 (2)( ( ) )

(3.23)

Where is the number of poles in the machine.

3.3 Control of Generator-Side Converter


In wind turbine PMSG systems, three system variables need to be strictly controlled:
1. The optimal power generated by the PMSG at different wind speed Levels.
2. The active and reactive power injected into the grid.
3. The DC bus voltage of the back-to-back converter.
Figure 3.5 shows a direct-drive wind turbine PMSG fed by a back-to-back converter. In this
system, the generator-side converter regulates the speed of the PMSG to implement the MPPT
control. Meanwhile, the grid-connected converter controls the active and reactive power
injected into the grid.

Figure 3.5 Direct-drive PMSG system


This chapter will focus on analyzing the control methods for the generator-side converter.
The optimal tip speed ratio based maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control is analyzed
in this chapter.

156

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

Two important PMSG control algorithms, the direct torque control (DTC) and the field
oriented control (FOC), are analyzed and compared. Then, the simulation results of the
generator-side converter control are given to validate the principles of control algorithms.
3.3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking Control
Direct-drive PMSGs have the capability to work in a wide speed range. According to the
intensity of the wind, the wind turbine generators need to be controlled to operate in three
different modes.
the expression of the mechanical power captured by the wind turbine has been expressed as:
1

PTurbine = 2 r 2 Cp (, ) VW 3

(3.24)

The power coefficient, Cp (, ) , can be expressed in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Power coefficient characteristics

As shown in equation (3.24), to control the captured mechanical power, PTurbine , at given
wind speed, VW , the only controllable term is the power coefficient,Cp (, ).
The power coefficient characteristic is shown in Figure 3.6. As can be seen in this figure,
different power coefficient curves correspond to different blade angles. For each case, there
is an optimal tip speed ratio, , which contributes to a peak power coefficient value which, in
turn, leads to a maximum power capture, PTurbine . In the MPPT operation mode, the pitch
angle is usually kept at zero degree.

157

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

In order to achieve the peak power coefficient value in the zero degree pitch angle curve in
Figure 3.6, the tip speed ratio needs to be controlled at the optimal value. From expression
(1.8), the control of the tip speed ratio is actually the control of the rotor speed of the PMSG.
A simplified scheme of tip speed ratio control is shown in Figure 3.7. From this figure, the wind
speed information is sensed by a sensor and sent to a microcontroller, from which the
reference speed of the PMSG can be calculated according to the optimal tip speed ratio.
Consequently, the generator speed will reach its reference value in the static state, and then
the MPPT control is achieved.

Figure 3.7 Tip speed ratio control scheme


3.3.2 Comparison between Direct Torque Control and Field Oriented Control
Direct torque control (DTC) and field oriented control (FOC) are two of the most commonly
applied algorithms for the control of PMSMs. The DTC approach was first developed and
presented by I. Takahashi from Japan. The basic principle of the DTC approach is that the stator
flux linkage and the electromagnetic torque are estimated and compared with their reference
values. Based on the control algorithm of mitigating the errors between the reference and
estimated values, the reference torque and flux can be achieved by controlling the inverter
states. The FOC approach was pioneered by F. Blaschke in 1970s. The FOC approach has been
and continues to be a significant factor in PMSMs control, which makes it possible that PMSMs
can be controlled as easily as DC machines. In the FOC approach, the -axes are rotating at
the rotor electrical angular speed with the d-axis aligned with the rotor flux direction. Thus,
the flux producing current component, , and the torque producing current component, ,
are along the d-axis and q-axis, respectively. Thus, the -axes currents can be controlled
independently by two closed loop controls in the FOC approach, which indirectly controls the
speed and the torque of the PMSMs.

158

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

When choosing one control strategy of either DTC or FOC for the generator-side converter
control, their merits and drawbacks need to be analyzed and compared according to the
operation requirements of the direct-drive PMSG systems. The DTC approach has the
advantages that the electromagnetic torque can be changed very fast by changing the
reference, and no coordinate transforms and PI controllers are needed which decreases the
computational effort. On the other hand, the DTC approach also presents some disadvantages
such as: (1) the difficulty to control the torque at very low speed; (2) the high current and
torque ripples; and (3) the high noise level at low speed. When it comes to the FOC approach,
although its implementation requires large computational effort including PI control and
coordinate transformations, it possesses the following merits: (1) fast speed and torque
response; (2) outstanding low speed performance; and (3) low current and torque ripples. For
the application of direct-drive PMSG systems, the PMSGs are directly driven by the wind
turbine without a gearbox, which means that their operation speeds are always in a relatively
low range. Moreover, the torque ripples of the direct-drive PMSGs should be controlled at a
low level to decrease the mechanical stresses on the wind turbine. On the basis of the analysis
above, the FOC approach was found to be more suitable for the direct-drive PMSG systems
than the DTC approach.
3.3.3 Field Oriented Control based Generator-Side Converter Control
In Section 1, the torque expression of the PMSMs has been developed as follows:
3

= 2 (2)( ( ) )

(3.25)

For a surface mounted PM machine (SPM) which is applied in the case study system in this
thesis, the d-axis and q-axis inductances are equal ( = ). Thus, the torque expression can
be simplified and rewritten as follows:
3

= 2 (2)( )

(3.25.1)

In order to achieve the maximum torque per ampere, the d-axis current is set at zero ( = 0
). In expression (3.25.1), is the flux linkage due to the permanent magnets, which is a
constant. Thus, there will be a linear relationship between the electromagnetic torque and the
q-axis current, , such that the electromagnetic torque can be easily controlled by regulating
the q-axis current. The phasor diagram for the FOC approach is shown in Figure 3.8, and the
control scheme of the generator-side converter is shown in Figure 3.9.

159

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

Figure 3.8 Phasor diagram of the FOC

Figure 3.9 Generator-side control scheme.

160

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

As stated earlier, the FOC approach coupled to the optimal tip speed ratio based MPPT control
strategy is applied here as the control algorithm for the generator-side power converter. In
Figure 3.9 In the control system the optimum control method has been applied. The MSC
control system is based on rotor flux field orientation control (FOC). The position of rotor flux
vector e is obtained from the encoder or from the integral of the signal of speed sensor. The
control scheme consists of outer control loop, which regulates optimum value wopt of the
generator speed in order to obtain maximum energy from wind. The inner control loops
regulate the components of the stator current vector to follow the reference values: ids and
iqs . According to the characteristic of wind turbine (Figure 3.6) at any values of wind speed
the rotational speed of the turbine rotor wm should be regulated to the optimal value wopt .
= /

From
We get that

(3.26)

= = /

The above equation shows the reference speed in order to obtain the optimal value for tip
speed ratio opt . At optimum wind turbine speed and at the Cp =Cpmax the turbine can operate
with the maximum power. The reference d-axis current, ids is always set at zero in order to
reach the maximum torque at the minimum stator current. Meanwhile, the q-axis stator
current reference iqs is achieved by the operation of optimal control block on the base of
measured mechanical turbine speed wm and the wind speed VW .
The reference dq -axis stator currents ids and iqs .are compared with measured stator phase
currents of PMSG ids and iqs . The both error signals are sent to the two PI controllers. The
resultant signals, vpd and vpq , are the dq -axis reference voltages for the MSC control. The
reference voltages value vpd and vpq , are controlled through PI controllers. The reference
voltages are transformed to the three-phase voltages and then are sent to the sinusoidal pulse
width modulation (SPWM) block to produce switching signals for machine side converter.
3.4 Control of Grid-Side Converter
In direct-drive PMSG wind turbine systems, grid-connected converters play an important role
in transforming the DC power to AC power. As introduced earlier in Section 3, there are three
system variables that need to be strictly controlled. Namely, these variables are the speed of
the PMSG, the DC bus voltage, and the complex power (active and reactive power) injected
into the grid. As the generator-side converter controls the speed of the PMSG, the grid-side
converter regulates the DC bus voltage while controlling the active power and reactive power
injected into the grid.
In this section, the control approach for the grid-side converter is analyzed. This converter is
assumed to be operating on the basis of the principle of the sinusoidal pulse width modulation
(SPWM).

161

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

3.4.1 Grid-Side Converter Control based on Voltage Oriented Control


The simplified system topology of the direct-drive PMSG wind generation system is shown in
Figure 4.1. In this figure , and are the grid currents, their directions are defined by
the arrows as shown in the figure. Thus, following the consumer/load notation in circuits,
when the grid currents are positive, it means that the electrical power flows from the grid to
the wind turbine system. Conversely, when the gird currents are negative, the power is
injected into the grid from the wind generation system. In the normal operating conditions of
the system, the grid currents are always negative.

Figure 3.9 Simplified topology of the direct-drive PMSG wind generation system

As stated earlier, the main objective of the grid-side converter control is to regulate the
active and reactive power. The expressions of the active power and reactive power injected
into this grid can be written as follows:
3

= 2 ( + )
3

= 2 ( )

(3.27)
(3.28)

Where and are the grid currents in -axes reference frame, and are the grid
voltages in -axes reference frame. As can be seen in expressions (3.27) and (3.28),
the -axis and -axis components of the grid currents and voltages are coupled in cross
product fashion in the reactive power term, which makes the active power and reactive
power hard to control, and decreases the dynamic performance of the grid-side converter
control. Based on this coupling issue, the voltage oriented control (VOC) approach is applied
as the grid-side converter control algorithm. The VOC approach is implemented here in the
grid voltage synchronous reference frame, the -axis of the rotating reference frame is aligned
with the rotating grid voltage space vector. Accordingly, the axis component of the grid
voltage space vector is equal to zero. The phasor diagram of the VOC approach is shown in
Figure 3.10.

162

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

Figure 3.10 Phasor diagram of the VOC


With the application of the VOC approach, the expressions of the active and reactive power
of equations (3.27) and (3.28) can be rewritten as follows:
3

= 2 =
3

= 2

(3.27.1)
(3.28.1)

Where and are the voltage and current of the dc bus, respectively. From equations
(3.27.1) and (3.28.1), it can be observed that the active and reactive power can be controlled
independently by the -axis and -axis components of the grid currents, respectively. The
control scheme of the grid-side converter is shown in Figure 3.11.

163

CHAPTER 3 PMSG SYSTEM

Figure 3.11 Control scheme of the grid-side converter


The equations of grid-side converter can be expressed in the axis reference frame as
follows:
= +
= +

(3.29)

+ +

(3.30)

Where, , represent components of the grid voltage vector in d and q axis; , represent components of the grid current vector in d and q axis; , represent voltage
vector of grid side converter in d and q axis; , - the inductance and resistance of the grid
filter; - angular frequency of the grid voltage.

164

REFERENCES

165

REFERENCES

Module 1: Home Automation


(1)-Home Automation & Wiring (1 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics. 1999-0331. ISBN 9780070246744.
(2)-"Tips: Smart Appliances | Department of Energy". energy.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
(3)- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-Home_Automation
(4)-https://nest.com/
(5)- https://www.smartthings.com/
(6)-http://mashable.com/
(7)-R-values of Building Materials-A listing of R-values from ASHRAEs 1997 Handbook of
Fundamentals, published by Arch Toolbox.
(8)-Donald R. Wulfinghoff, Energy Efficient Manual, Energy institute Press.
(9)-http://www.iba-hamburg.de/en/projects/the-building-exhibition-within-the-buildingexhibition/smart-material-houses/projekt/smart-material-houses.html
(10)-http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/domestic/home-insulation
(11)-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building insulation
(12)-http://www.southern-electric.co.uk/BeingGreen/EnergyEfficiency

Module 2: Solar Energy


(1)-Klaus Jger, Olindo Isabella - Solar Energy Fundamentals, Technology, and Systems [1st
edition] Delft University of Technology, 2014
(2)-R. J. van Overstraeten and R. P. Mertens, Physics, technology and use of photovoltaics (A.
Hilger, Bristol, United Kingdom, 1986).
(3)-I. Tobas, C. del Caizo, and J. Alonso, Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering,
edited by A. Luque and
(4)-S. Hegedus (John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, England, 2003)
(5)-N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland, and W. P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications,
and Design (John Wiley & Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ, 2003).
(6)-K. Mertens, Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technology and Practice (John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
Chichester, United Kingdom, 2014)
(7)-Utility aspects of grid connected photovoltaic power systems, International energy agency
photovoltaic power systems programme, IEA PVPS T5-01: 1998, 1998, www.iea-pvps.org.

166

REFERENCES

(8)-G. Boyle, Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future, Oxford University Press, ISBN:
0-1985-6452x, 1996.
(9)-H. Haeberlin, Evolution of inverters for grid connected PV-systems from 1989 to 2000, proc.
of the 17th European photovoltaic solar energy conference, 2001.
(10)-C.-J. Winter, L. L. Vant-Hull, R. L. Sizmann, Solar power plants, Springerverlag, ISBN: 03871-8897-5, 1991.

Module 3: Wind Energy


(1)-Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele (ed.), Wind power plants. Fundamentals, design, construction
and operation
(2)-Hermann-Josef Wagner, Jyotirmay Mathur, Introduction to wind energy systems. Basics,
technology and operation
(3)-Peter Jamieson, Innovation in Wind Turbine
(4)-http://www.michiganglowcouncil.org/
(5)-http://www.windpower.org/
(6)-R. Pena, J.C.Clare and G.M.Asher. Doubly fed induction generator using back-to-back PWM
converters and its application to variable speed wind-energy generation. ZEE Proceedings
online no. 19960288 Paper received 27th July 1995.The authors are with the Department of
Electrical & Electronic Engineering, The University of Nottingham, University Park,
Nottingham- NG72RD, UK
(7)-Jatin Nathwani and Artie Ng. (2010). Paths to Sustainable Energy, Chapter 14: Introduction
to Doubly-Fed Induction Generator for Wind Power Applications. By John Fletcher and Jin Yang
ISBN 978-953-307-401-6, 676 pages, Publisher: Intech, Chapters published December 30, 2010
under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license DOI: 10.5772/546
(8)-B. Wu, Y. Lang, N. Zargari, and S. Kouro, Power Conversion and Control of Wind Energy
Systems. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2011.
(9)-"WE Handbook-2-Aerodynamics and Loads", available: http://www.gurit.com
(10)-A. E. Fitgerald, J. C. Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1990.
(11)-R. M. Park, Two-reaction theory of synchronous machines, pt. I: Generalized method of
analysis, AIEE Trans., vol. 48, pp. 716730, July 1929.
(12)-T. Sun, Z. Chen, and F. Blaabjerg, "Voltage Recovery of Grid-Connected Wind Turbines
After a Short-Circuit Fault," Proc. of the 29th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial
Electronics Society, vol. 3, June 20-25, 2004, pp. 827-831.

167

APPEDICES

Appendix A
Tools and Technologies
A-CONTROLLER
1-Raspberry Pi 2
The Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is the second generation Raspberry Pi. it has:

A 900MHz quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 CPU

1GB RAM

4 USB ports

40 GPIO pins

Full HDMI port

Ethernet port

Combined 3.5mm audio jack and composite video

Camera interface (CSI)

Display interface (DSI)

Micro SD card slot

VideoCore IV 3D graphics core

Fig.A.1: Rasberry Pi 2 Model B

APPENDIX A

A-2

Why do we need raspberry pi 2 ?

Because it has an ARMv7 processor and it can run the full range of ARM
GNU/Linux distributions, including Snappy Ubuntu Core, as well as Microsoft
Windows 10.
It can be easily connected to the internet.
It can be connected to other microcontrollers via serial connections.

2- Tiva C TM4C123G
The TM4C123G LaunchPad Evaluation Kit is a low-cost evaluation platform for ARM
Cortex-M4F based microcontrollers from Texas Instruments.
The ARM Cortex-M4F Based MCU TM4C123G LaunchPad Evaluation Kit (EKTM4C123GXL) offers these features:

80MHz 32-bit ARM Cortex-M4F CPU

256KB Flash, 32KB SRAM, 2KB EEPROM

Two Controller Area Network (CAN) modules

USB 2.0 Host/Device/OTG + PHY

Dual 12-bit 2MSPS ADCs, motion control PWMs

8 UART, 6 I2C, 4 SPI

Fig.A.2: Tiva C TM4C123G LaunchPad

APPENDIX A

A-3

Why do we need Tiva C?

It has a similar logic level to the raspberry pi 2 (3.3V)


It offers a large number of gpio (General-purpose input/output) pins
It has a large number of ADCs and a 12 bit PWM
It is easily connected to raspberry pi via i2c
It has ready libraries for various of the used peripherals

3- Arduino UNO
The Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button.
Microcontroller

ATmega328P

Operating Voltage

5V

Input Voltage (recommended)

7-12V

Input Voltage (limit)

6-20V

Digital I/O Pins

14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

PWM Digital I/O Pins

Analog Input Pins

Flash Memory

32 KB (ATmega328P)
of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

SRAM

2 KB (ATmega328P)

EEPROM

1 KB (ATmega328P)

Clock Speed

16 MHz

APPENDIX A

A-4

Fig.A.3: Arduino UNO ATmega328P


Why do we use Arduino Uno ?

-Low price microcontroller


-It has ready libraries for various of the used peripherals
-It provides good number of gpio s
-AVR chip can be replaced if something goes wrong without replacing the
whole board

B-SENSORS
1- LM35
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature devices with an output
voltage linearly proportional to the Centigrade temperature. The LM35 device has an
advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not
required to subtract a large constant voltage from the output to obtain convenient
Centigrade The LM35 device does not require any external calibration or trimming to
provide typical accuracies of C at room temperature and Cover a full 55C to
150C temperature range.
Features
Calibrated Directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
Linear + 10-mV/C Scale Factor
0.5C Ensured Accuracy (at 25C)
Rated for Full 55C to 150C Range
Suitable for Remote Applications
Low-Cost Due to Wafer-Level Trimming
Operates from 4 V to 30 V

APPENDIX A

A-5

Less than 60-A Current Drain


Low Self-Heating, 0.08C in Still Air
Non-Linearity Only C Typical
Low-Impedance Output, 0.1 for 1-mA Load

Fig.A.4: LM35 Sensor


Why do we use LM35?

Low price sensor


No need for calibration or complicated equations (linear output)
High accuracy at wide range of tempreatures
Low current drain

2- LDR
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photocell) is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident
light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching
circuits.

APPENDIX A

A-6

Specifications:

Resistance: 10-20Kohms

Dark resistance: 1M

Resistance Tolerance: 0.1

Max. Voltage: 150VDC

Max. power: 100mw

Coated with epoxy

Fig.A.5: LDR Sensor


The circuit used:
A voltage divider circuit is created to
allow for both analog and digital
sensing of the light level. The variable
resistance allows to change the
sensitivity of the sensor.

Why do we use LDR?

Fig.A.6: Voltage Divider Circuit

Low price sensor


High sensitivity for wide range of light levels
Simple and reliable sensor circuit
Variable sensitivity
Allows for precise PID control of light level (Dimming)

APPENDIX A

A-7

3- IR Sensor
IR Sensors work by using a specific light sensor to detect a select light wavelength in
the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. By using an LED which produces light at the same
wavelength as what the sensor is looking for, you can look at the intensity of the
received light. When an object is close to the sensor, the light from the LED bounces
off the object and into the light sensor. This results in a large jump in the intensity,
which can be detected using a threshold.
Specifications:

IR TX RX size: 5mm diameter package


IR LED current rating: 30mA nominal,
600mA pulse loading at 1% duty cycle
IR LED wavelength: 940nM
Photodiode peak response wavelength:
940nM

The sensor circuit


Circuit can be used in both analog and digital
mode. In analog mode analog output varies from
3.1V at 4cm to 0.3V at 30cm with a supply voltage
between 4.5 and 5.5VDC. In digital mode the
sensitivity can be adjusted by the variable
resistance and the output is taken from the
OPamp
Fig.A.7: IR Sensor Mechanism

APPENDIX A

A-8

Why do we use IR?

Low price sensor


High sensitivity for wide range of light
levels
Simple and reliable sensor circuit
Variable sensitivity

C-MISC
1- Motor Driver L298 H-Bridge

Fig.A.8: IR Sensor Circuit

The L298 is an integrated monolithic circuit in a 15- lead Multiwatt and PowerSO20
packages. It is a high voltage, high
current dual full-bridge driver designed
to accept standard TTL logic levels and
drive inductive loads such as relays,
solenoids, DC and stepping motors. Two
enable inputs are provided to enable or
disable the device independently of the
input signals. The emitters of the lower
transistors of each bridge are connected
together and the corresponding external
terminal can be used for the connection
of an external sensing resistor.
Fig.A.9: Motor Driver L298 H-Bridge
Specifications:

OPERATING SUPPLY VOLTAGE UP TO


46 V
TOTAL DC CURRENT UP TO 4 A
LOW SATURATION VOLTAGE
OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION
LOGICAL "0" INPUT VOLTAGE UP TO
1.5 V
(HIGH NOISE IMMUNITY)
Fig.A.10: Motor Driver L298 H Bridge

APPENDIX A

A-9

Driver L298 Circuit used


The circuit will allow you to easily and independently control two motors of up to 2A
each in both directions. It is well suited for connection to a microcontroller requiring
just a couple of control lines per motor. It can also be interfaced with simple manual
switches, TTL logic gates, relays, etc.
The circuit incorporates 4 direction LEDs (2 per motor), a heat sink, screw-terminals,
as well as eight Schottky EMF-protection diodes. An on-board user-accessible 5V
regulator is also incorporated which can also be used to supply any additional circuits
requiring a regulated 5V DC supply of up to about 1A. The circuit also offers a bridged
mode of operation allowing bidirectional control of a single motor of up to about 4A.
Why do we use lm298 motor driver?

Provides simple and independent control of two motors of up to 2A each in


both directions
Reliable circuit with multiple protections
Well suited for connection to microcontrollers

2- jqc-3f Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch.
Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch, but other
operating principles are also used, such as
solid-state relays. Relays are used where
it is necessary to control a circuit by a lowpower signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled
circuits)
Specifications:

Rated carrying current: 5A


Max. allowable voltage: AC 240V
DC 110V
Max. allowable current: 5A
Max. allowable power force:
600VA 150W

Fig.A.11: jqc-3f Relay

APPENDIX A

A-10

Relay Circuit
This circuit uses transistor to
energize the coil using a signal from
the controller

Why do we use relays?

Super miniature, High power.


Low price compared to same
rating driver
Control of 240 V AC lines
Low coil power consumption.
PC board mounting.
Fig.A.12: jqc-3f Relay Circuit
Suitable for household appliance, automation system, electronic equipment,
instrument and meter, communication.
Offers isolation between control circuit and power circuit.

3- Optocoupler PC8X6
In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical
isolator, is a component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits
by using light. Opto-isolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving
the signal.
Features:

High collector-emitter voltage (V CEO :


70V)
Compact dual-in-line package
PC816 : l-channel type
PC826 : 2-channel type
PC846 : 4-channel type
High isolation voltage between input
and output
Fig.A.13: Optocoupler PC86

APPENDIX A

A-11

Optocoupler circuit

The circuit isolates the control circuit from


the power circuit and has pulldown resistance
to hold the logic signal near zero volts when
no other active device is connected

Why do we use optocoupler pc 816?

Isolates the control circuit from the


power circuit
Low price
Suitable for signals
Low power usage
circuit
Fast response
Can be used to apply PWM control

Fig.A.14: Optocoupler

4- Power Supply Unit


Power supply unit (PSU) converts
mains AC to low-voltage regulated
DC power for the internal
components of a computer. Modern
personal computers universally use
switched-mode power supplies.
Power supplies have a manual switch
for selecting input voltage (110/220).
Features:

Maximum Power: 460W


Fans: 1 x 120mm fan
Efficiency: >70% Typically ( Energy-Efficient )
Unit
Over Voltage Protection: Yes
Input Voltage 110 - 120 V/ 220 - 240 V

Fig.A.15: Power Supply

APPENDIX A

A-12

Input Frequency Range 47 - 63 Hz


Input Current 8.5A @ 115V, 5A @ 220V
Output +3.3V@20A, +5V@20A, +12V1@18A, +12V2@18A, -12V@0.8A,
5VSB@2.5A
More than 70% efficiency at typical load operation
Multiple protection design (OVP / OCP / OPP / SCP)

Why do we use PSU?


-Most of our circuits runs on dc voltage so a safe and reliable source is needed with
enough power output to feed all the circuits and still have a reserve for any added
loads
-In this project we used a main power supply for all the power circuits and we used
another small auxiliary power supply to feed the controllers to have isolated control
and power circuits for the safety of controllers and to minimize the electric noise in
the control circuit.
5- Solar PV Panel
Solar PV refers to panel designed to absorb the suns rays as a source of energy for
generating electricity or heating. A photovoltaic (in short PV) module is a packaged,
connected assembly of typically 610 solar cells. Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute
the solar array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity
in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output
power
under
standard
test
conditions, and
typically ranges
from 100 to 365
watts.

Fig.A.16: Solar PV Panel

APPENDIX A

A-13

Features:

Silver anodized aluminum frame


polycrystalline module cells
-0/+5 Wp tolerance ratio
Output Cables: 4.0 mm2 (0.006 in2), 800mm (31.5 in)
Maximum Power: 100W
Optimum Operating Voltage (Vmp): 18.9V
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): 22.5V
Optimum Operating Current (Imp): 5.29A
Short-Circuit Current (Isc): 5.75A
Dimensions: 47 X 21.3 X 1.4 In
Weight: 16.5lbs

Why do we use solar PV?


-This Solar PV can power up our project with free renewable energy and provides Dc
voltage which can be directly used with simple regulators.
-It was provided by the college for free as part of solar energy projects support.

Appendix B
Implemented Boards
1- Power Supply Board
This board provides many ports with different voltage output for ease of connection
and also provides protection through fuses.

Fig.B.1: Power Supply Board

APPENDIX B

B-1

2- Controller Power Supply


This mini power supply provides separate power source for the controllers for
maximum isolation and protection. It provides 5+ DC voltage only and is terminated
with female USB connector for easy connection with the controllers.

Fig.B.2: Controller Power Supply Board

Fig.B.2: Controller Power Supply Schematic

APPENDIX B

B-2

3- Isolation Board
This board performs the isolation between control circuit and power circuit using
optocouplers

Fig.B.3: Optocouplers Board

Fig.B.4: Optocouplers Schematic

Appendix C
Programming Codes
Smart Power Supply Code
/// smart power supply ///
//// Graduation Project 2016 ////
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
#include <EEPROM.h>
#define Vcurrent A0
#define Scurrent A1
#define V3 A1
#define V5 A2
#define V12 A3
#define V3Check A4
#define V5Check A5
#define V12Check 6
#define V3Red 8
#define V5Red 9
#define V12Red 10
LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);
double currentRead;
double SolarCurrentRead;
double voltage3Read;
double voltage5Read;
double voltage12Read;
double current;
double SolarCurrent;
double voltage3;
double voltage5;
double voltage12;

APPENDIX C
double voltage3Check;
double voltage5Check;
double voltage12Check;
double new_times;
double old_times;
double times;
double cost;
double saved_cost;
float power;
float solarPower;
float energy;
float SolarEnergy;
float times_energy;
float str_energy;
float tot_energy;
float saved_energy;
float solar_times_energy;
float solar_str_energy;
float solar_tot_energy;
float solar_saved_energy;
int eeAddress = 0;
int ssAddress = 100;
void voltageRead();
void printReading();
void calculateVoltage();
void calculatePower();
void calculateEnergy();
void calculateCost();
void printValue();

C-2

APPENDIX C

void fuse();
void solar();
void lcdPrint(char* identity, double value , char* unit);
void setup () {
pinMode(Vcurrent , INPUT);
pinMode(Scurrent , INPUT);
pinMode(V3 , INPUT);
pinMode(V5 , INPUT);
pinMode(V12 , INPUT);
pinMode(V3Check , INPUT);
pinMode(V5Check , INPUT);
pinMode(V12Check , INPUT);
pinMode(V3Red, OUTPUT);
pinMode(V5Red , OUTPUT);
pinMode(V12Red , OUTPUT);
lcd.begin(16, 2);
Serial.begin(9600);
str_energy = EEPROM.get(eeAddress , str_energy);
solar_str_energy = EEPROM.get(ssAddress , solar_str_energy);
}
void loop () {
voltageRead();
//printReading();
calculateVoltage();
calculatePower ();
calculateEnergy ();
calculateCost();
printVoltage();
//fuse();

C-3

APPENDIX C

lcd.display();
delay(100);
lcdPrint( "CURRENT ", current , " mA " );
lcdPrint( "Solar CURRENT ", SolarCurrent , " mA " );
//lcdPrint( "Voltage +3.3V bus" , voltage3 ," V " );
lcdPrint( "Voltage +5V bus" , voltage5 , " V ");
lcdPrint( "Voltage +12V bus" , voltage12 , " V " );
lcdPrint( "Power Used " , power , " W " );
lcdPrint( "Solar Power Used " , solarPower , " W " );
//lcdPrint( " Energy Used " , abs(energy) , " W.h " );
if (abs (energy) < 1000)
{
lcdPrint( "Energy Used " , abs(energy) , " W.h " );
}
else
{
lcdPrint( "Energy Used " , abs(energy)/1000 , " kW.h " );
}
if (abs (tot_energy) < 1000)
{
lcdPrint( "Total Energy Used " , abs(tot_energy) , " W.h " );
}
else
{
lcdPrint( "Total Energy Used " , abs(tot_energy)/1000 , " kW.h " );

}
lcdPrint( " Total Energy Cost " , abs(cost) , " L.E " );
if (abs (SolarEnergy) < 1000)

C-4

APPENDIX C

{
lcdPrint( "Solar Energy Used " , abs(SolarEnergy) , " W.h " );
}

else
{
lcdPrint( "Solar Energy Used " , abs(SolarEnergy)/1000 , " kW.h " );
}
if (abs (solar_tot_energy) < 1000)
{
lcdPrint( "Total Solar E_Used " , abs(solar_tot_energy) , " W.h " );
}
else
{
lcdPrint( "Total Solar E_Used " , abs(solar_tot_energy)/1000 , " kW.h " );
}
lcdPrint( "Total Cost Saved " , abs(saved_cost) , " L.E " );
}
void voltageRead () {
currentRead = analogRead(Vcurrent);
SolarCurrentRead = analogRead(SolarCurrent);
voltage3Read = analogRead(V3);
voltage3Check = analogRead(V3Check);
voltage5Read = analogRead(V5);
voltage5Check = analogRead(V5Check);
voltage12Read = analogRead(V12);
voltage12Check = analogRead(V12Check);
delay(100);
}

C-5

APPENDIX C

void printReading(){
Serial.print(currentRead);
Serial.print(voltage3Read);
Serial.print(voltage5Read);
Serial.println(voltage12Read);
}
void calculateVoltage (){
current = (currentRead * 5 /(1024*0.24))*1000;
SolarCurrent = (SolarCurrentRead * 5 /(1024*0.22))*1000;
voltage3= voltage3Read * 5 / 1024 ;
voltage5 = voltage5Read * 5 / 1024 ;
voltage12 = voltage5Read * 5 / 1024 ;
}
void calculatePower (){
power = (current/1000) * 5;
solarPower = (SolarCurrent/1000)*5;
}
void calculateEnergy (){
new_times = millis();
times = new_times - old_times ;
times_energy = power * (times/(1000*60*60));
energy = energy + times_energy ;
tot_energy = str_energy + energy ;
EEPROM.put(eeAddress, tot_energy);
old_times = new_times ;
solar_times_energy = solarPower * (20000/(1000*60*60));
SolarEnergy = SolarEnergy + solar_times_energy ;
solar_tot_energy = solar_str_energy + SolarEnergy ;
EEPROM.put(ssAddress, solar_tot_energy); }

C-6

APPENDIX C

void calculateCost(){
if ((tot_energy/1000)>50){
cost = 50 *(7.5/100);
if ( (tot_energy/1000) > 100){
cost = cost + 50 * (14.5/100);
if ((tot_energy/1000)>200){
cost = cost + 100 *(16/100);
cost = cost + ((tot_energy/1000) - 200) * 24 ;
saved_cost = (solar_tot_energy/1000)*(24/100);
}
else {
cost= cost+ ((tot_energy/1000) - 100)*(16/100);
saved_cost = (solar_tot_energy/1000)*(16/100);
}
}
else{
cost = cost + ((tot_energy/1000) - 50)*(14.5/100);
saved_cost = (solar_tot_energy/1000)*(14.5/100);
}
}
else{
cost = (tot_energy/1000) *(7.5/100);
saved_cost = (solar_tot_energy/1000)*(7.5/100);
}
}
void printVoltage (){
Serial.print(current);
Serial.print(voltage3);
Serial.print(voltage5);

C-7

APPENDIX C

Serial.println(voltage12);
}
void lcdPrint(char* identity , double value , char* unit){
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print(identity);
// If we are writing the second line, move the cursor there
// and print the appropriate line.
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print(value);
lcd.print(unit);
delay(2000);
}
void fuse (){
if (voltage3Check< 100){
digitalWrite(V3Red,LOW);
}
else {
digitalWrite(V3Red,HIGH);
}
if (voltage5Check< 500){
digitalWrite(V5Red,LOW);
}
else {
digitalWrite(V5Red,HIGH);
}
if (voltage12Check==LOW){
digitalWrite(V12Red,LOW);
}

C-8

APPENDIX C

else {
digitalWrite(V12Red,HIGH);
}
}
void solar (){
if (SolarCurrent> 350){
digitalWrite(VC1,HIGH);
}
else {
digitalWrite(VC1,LOW);
}
if (SolarCurrent> 700){
digitalWrite(VC2,HIGH);
}
else {
digitalWrite(VC2,LOW);
}
if (SolarCurrent > 950){
digitalWrite(VC3,HIGH);
}
else {
digitalWrite(VC3,LOW);
}
}
Door lock code
/// smart Home ///
//// Graduation Project 2016 ////
#include <Wire.h>
#define SLAVE_ADDRESS 0x04

C-9

APPENDIX C

#include <Servo.h>
int out = GREEN_LED;
Servo myservo;
int Error = 0;
int last_Error = 0;
//General Room Structure
String retrive(int data);
typedef struct Room
{
int Light;
int AC;
int Curten[2];
int Room_Temp;
int Light_Level;
int temp;
int AC_Temp;
int Level;
int Sun_Light;
int Sun_Level;
boolean light_State;
boolean curten_State;
void get_Temperature(){
// int data = analogRead(this->Room_Temp);
this->temp = (5.0 * analogRead(this->Room_Temp) * 100.0) / 4096;
}
void getLight_Level(){
this->Level = map(analogRead(this->Light_Level), 0, 4096, 0, 1023) ;
this->Sun_Level = map(analogRead(this->Sun_Light), 0, 4096, 0, 1023) ;
}

C-10

APPENDIX C

void Temp_Control(){
int Kp = 20;
int Kd = 5;
this->get_Temperature();
Error = abs(this->AC_Temp - this->temp);
int Motor_Input = Kp*Error + Kd*last_Error;
if(Motor_Input > 255)
{
analogWrite(this->AC,255);
}
else if(Motor_Input < 50 && Motor_Input > 0)
{
analogWrite(this->AC,0);
}
else
{
analogWrite(this->AC,Motor_Input);
}
last_Error = Error;
//

this->get_Temperature();

//

if(this->temp > 35)

//

//

digitalWrite(this->AC,HIGH);

//

//

else if(this->temp < 30)

//

//

digitalWrite(this->AC,LOW);

//

}
}

C-11

APPENDIX C

//
void Light_Control()
{

if(this->light_State)
{
if(this->curten_State)
{
myservo.write(0);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], LOW);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], HIGH);
delay(2000);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], HIGH);
}
else{
myservo.write(180);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], LOW);
delay(2000);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], HIGH);
}
if(this-light_State)
{
this->getLight_Level();
}
else {
analogWrite(this->Light,0);

C-12

APPENDIX C

C-13

}
}
if(this->Sun_Level > 300)
{
digitalWrite(this->Light,LOW);
myservo.write(180);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], LOW);
delay(3000);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], HIGH);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(this->Light,HIGH);
myservo.write(0);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], LOW);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], HIGH);
delay(3000);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[0], HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Curten[1], HIGH);
}
}
// For test
void Test(boolean Light,boolean ac)
{
if(this->Light != 0)
{
digitalWrite(this->Light,Light);

APPENDIX C

}
if(this->AC != 0)
{
digitalWrite(this->AC,ac);
}
}
}Room;
typedef struct Luxury
{
int Light;
int Door[3];
int Sensor;
int Bell;
int Sunshade;
void Door_Operation()
{
digitalWrite(this->Light,HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Door[0],LOW);
digitalWrite(this->Door[1],HIGH);
//digitalWrite(this->Door[2],HIGH);
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(this->Door[1],LOW);
delay(2000);
digitalWrite(this->Door[0],HIGH);
digitalWrite(this->Door[1],LOW);
//digitalWrite(this->Door[2],HIGH);
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(this->Door[0],LOW);
digitalWrite(this->Light,LOW);
}

C-14

APPENDIX C

C-15

}Luxury;
int count = 0;
Room Bed_Room = {40,39,0,0,A3,0,0,29,0,0,0,false,false};
R1AC:PF_3
Room Living_Room = {37,36,30,4,A5,A4,0,0,0,A2,0,false,true};
R2AC:PC_5 / R2T:PD_2 /R2le:PD_3
Room Reception_Room = {35,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,false,false};
Luxury Garage = {34,33,13,12,11,0,0};
/ GDE:PA_3/ Gsen:PA_2
Luxury Main_Door = {}; //MD
void setup()
{
// put your setup code here, to run once:
//R1 Setup
pinMode(Bed_Room.Light,OUTPUT);
pinMode(Bed_Room.AC,OUTPUT);
pinMode(Bed_Room.Room_Temp,INPUT);
myservo.attach(PE_5);
//R2 Setup
pinMode(Living_Room.Light,OUTPUT);
pinMode(Living_Room.AC,OUTPUT);
pinMode(Living_Room.Room_Temp,INPUT);
pinMode(Living_Room.Light_Level,INPUT);
pinMode(Living_Room.Curten[0],OUTPUT);
pinMode(Living_Room.Curten[1],OUTPUT);
//R3 Setup
pinMode(Reception_Room .Light,OUTPUT);
//G Setup
pinMode(Garage.Light,OUTPUT);
pinMode(Garage.Door[0],OUTPUT);

//G

//R1 -> R1L:PF_2 /


//R2 -> R2L:PC_4 /
//R3 -> R3L:PC_6

-> GL:PC_7 / GD+:PD_6 / GD-:PA_4

APPENDIX C

pinMode(Garage.Door[1],OUTPUT);
pinMode(Garage.Door[2],OUTPUT);
pinMode(Garage.Sensor,INPUT);
//MD
pinMode(Main_Door.Light,OUTPUT);
pinMode(Main_Door.Door[0],OUTPUT);
pinMode(Main_Door.Door[1],OUTPUT);
pinMode(Main_Door.Door[2],OUTPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
// initialize i2c as slave
Wire.begin(SLAVE_ADDRESS);
Wire.setModule(1);
// define callbacks for i2c communication
Wire.onReceive(receiveData);
Wire.onRequest(sendData);
//Serial.begin(9600);
}
int oldSun = 0;
void loop()
{
//

int average = 0;

//

int data = 0;

//

for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

//

//

Bed_Room.get_Temperature();

//

data += Bed_Room.temp;

//

delay(100);

//

//

Bed_Room.temp = data/10;

C-16

APPENDIX C

//Bed_Room.Temp_Control();
//Serial.println(Bed_Room.temp);
Living_Room.getLight_Level();
int newSun = Living_Room.Sun_Level;
if((oldSun < 300 && newSun > 300) || (oldSun > 300 && newSun < 300)){
Living_Room.Light_Control();
}
//Reception_Room.Test(HIGH, LOW);
//Bed_Room.Test(HIGH,LOW);
//digitalWrite(Bed_Room.Light,HIGH);
//Living_Room.Test(LOW,LOW);
//Living_Room.Light_Control();
if(digitalRead(Garage.Sensor))
{
Garage.Door_Operation();
}
//Serial.println(Bed_Room.temp);
//delay(500);
oldSun = newSun;
}
// callback for received data
void receiveData(int byteCount){
while(Wire.available()) {
int data = Wire.read();
int room_id = data/10;
int states = data%10;
int ac_id = data/100;
int ac_temp = data%100;
if(ac_id == 1)

C-17

APPENDIX C

{
Bed_Room.AC = ac_temp; // change with user value
}
if(ac_id == 3)
{
Living_Room.AC_Temp = ac_temp;
}
if(room_id == 11)
{
//Bed_Room
String out = retrive(states);
if(out[3] == '0')
{
//digitalWrite(Bed_Room.Light,LOW);
Bed_Room.light_State = false;
}
else
{
//digitalWrite(Bed_Room.Light,HIGH);
Bed_Room.light_State = true;
}
}
else if(room_id == 13)
{
//Living_Room
String out = retrive(states);
if(out[3] == '0')
{

C-18

APPENDIX C

//digitalWrite(Living_Room.Light,LOW);
Living_Room.light_State = false;
}
else
{
Living_Room.light_State = true;
}
if(out[2] == '0')
{
Living_Room.curten_State = false;
}
else
{
Living_Room.curten_State = true;
}
}
else if(room_id == 14)
{
//Reception_Room
String out = retrive(states);
if(out[3] == '0')
{
//digitalWrite(Reception_Room.Light,LOW);
Reception_Room.light_State = false;
}
else
{
//digitalWrite(Reception_Room.Light,HIGH);
Reception_Room.light_State = true;
}

C-19

APPENDIX C

}
}
}
// callback for sending data
void sendData(){
}
String retrive(int data)
{
String Data;
switch(data)
{
case 0:
Data = "0000";
break;
case 1:
Data = "0001";
break;
case 2:
Data = "0010";
break;
case 3:
Data = "0011";
break;
case 4:
Data = "0100";
break;
case 5:
Data = "0101";
break;

C-20

APPENDIX C

case 6:
Data = "0110";
break;
case 7:
Data = "0111";
break;
case 8:
Data = "1000";
break;
case 9:
Data = "1001";
break;
}
return Data;
}

C-21

APPENDIX C

Connecting to the internet


Model-Snippet

// user.rb
class User < ActiveRecord::Base
has_secure_password
has_many :rooms
end
// room.rb
class Room < ActiveRecord::Base
belongs_to :user
has_many :devices, dependent: :destroy
end
// device.rb
class Device < ActiveRecord::Base
belongs_to :room
validates_inclusion_of :light, in: [true, false]
validates_inclusion_of :shade, in: [true, false]
validates_inclusion_of :door, in: [true, false]
validates_inclusion_of :camera, in: [true, false]
validates :ac, presence: true
end
Controller Snippet
//application_controller.rb
class ApplicationController < ActionController::Base
# Prevent CSRF attacks by raising an exception.
# For APIs, you may want to use :null_session instead.
protect_from_forgery with: :exception
before_action :ensure_login
helper_method :logged_in?, :current_user
protected
def ensure_login
redirect_to login_path unless session[:user_id]
end
def logged_in?
session[:user_id]
end
def current_user
@current_user ||= User.find(session[:user_id])
End

C-22

APPENDIX C
end
//rooms_controller.rb
class RoomsController < ApplicationController
before_action :set_room, except: [:index, :new, :create]
helper_method :check_state, :add_active
# GET /rooms
def index
@rooms = current_user.rooms.all
end
# GET /rooms/new
def new
@room = current_user.rooms.new
end
# POST /rooms
def create
@room = current_user.rooms.new(room_params)
respond_to do |format|
if @room.save
format.html { redirect_to @room, notice: 'Room was successfully created.' }
format.json { render :show, status: :created, location: @room }
else
format.html { render :new }
format.json { render json: @room.errors, status: :unprocessable_entity }
end
end
end
# PATCH/PUT /rooms/1
def update
respond_to do |format|
if @room.update(room_params)
format.html { redirect_to @room, notice: 'Room was successfully updated.' }
format.json { render :show, status: :ok, location: @room }
else
format.html { render :edit }
format.json { render json: @room.errors, status: :unprocessable_entity }
end
end
end
# DELETE /rooms/1
def destroy
@room.destroy
respond_to do |format|
format.html { redirect_to rooms_url, notice: 'Room was successfully destroyed.' }
format.json { head :no_content }
end

C-23

APPENDIX C
end
def check_state(arg)
if arg == :ac
@devices_log? @devices_log.ac : 21
else
@devices_log? @devices_log[arg] : false
end
end
def add_active(arg, state)
if state
check_state(arg) ? "active" : ""
else
!check_state(arg) ? "active" : ""
end
end
private
# Use callbacks to share common setup or constraints between actions.
def set_room
@room = current_user.rooms.find(params[:id])
@devices_log = @room.devices.last
end
# Never trust parameters from the scary internet, only allow the white list through.
def room_params
params.require(:room).permit(:name, :description)
end
end
//devices_controller.rb
class DevicesController < ApplicationController
before_action :set_room
def create
@device = @room.devices.new(room_params)
if @device.save
flash[:success] = "Successfuly updated"
redirect_to @room #, notice: "Successfuly updated"
else
flash[:danger] = "Unable to update"
redirect_to @room #, alert: "Unable to update"
end
end
private
def set_room
@room = Room.find(params[:room_id])
end
def room_params
params.require(:device).permit(:light, :ac, :shade, :camera, :door)
end
end

C-24

APPENDIX C

View Snippet
// index.html.erb
<div class="container">
<p id="notice"><%= notice %></p>
<h2>Rooms</h2>
<div class="container">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-xs-12 col-md-10 - col-md-offset-1 text-center">
<ul class="list-inline list-room">
<% @rooms.each do |room| %>
<li class="list-rooms-item">
<div class="room-item">
<%= link_to room do %>
<%= image_tag(cycle("room_1.png", "room_2.png", "room_3.png",
"room_4.png"), alt: "room", size: "300x300", class: "room-img") %>
<span class="room-title-block">
<span class="room-title"><%= room.name %> </span>
<span class="ranking">Show</span>
</span>
<% end %>
</div>
</li>
<% end %>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
// show.html.index
<div class="device">
<div class="container">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-xs-12 col-md-6 col-md-offset-3">
<% if @room.devices.blank? %>
<h3>Add Devices </h3>
<% else %>
<div id="dynamic"><%= render @devices_log %></div>
<% end %>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="row">
<% if @room.devices.blank? %>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-md-4 col-md-offset-4">
<a class="btn btn-default btn-lg btn-block" role="button" data-toggle="collapse"
href="#collapseExample" aria-expanded="false" ariacontrols="collapseExample">Create</a>

C-25

APPENDIX C
</div>
<% else %>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-md-4 col-md-offset-4">
<a class="btn btn-default btn-lg btn-block" role="button" data-toggle="collapse"
href="#collapseExample" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="collapseExample">
Edit
</a>
</div>
<% end %>
</div>
<div style="padding:25px;"></div>
<div class="row">
<div class="collapse" id="collapseExample">
<div class="col-xs-6 col-xs-offset-3">
<%= render 'devices/create_form' %>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Web Service Snippet
// route.rb
Rails.application.routes.draw do
resource :homes
root "homes#index"
get "/login" => "homes#new", as: "login"
delete "/logout" => "homes#destroy", as: "logout"
resources :rooms do
resources :devices
end
namespace :api do
resources :rooms, only: [:show] do
resources :devices, only: [:create]
end
end
end

C-26

Appendix D
Simulation of Some Wind Turbines Systems
1-Simulation Results of Doubly-fed Induction Generator (DFIG)

Fig.D.1: DFIG Discrete Model

APPENDIX D

D-2

Fig.D.2: Discrete Model for the Wind Turbine

APPENDIX D

D-3

Fig.D.3: Discrete Control Model

APPENDIX D

D-4

Fig.D.4: Grid Side Converter

APPENDIX D

D-5

Fig.D.5: Rotor Side Converter

APPENDIX D

D-6

Fig.D.6: Discrete Model Results

APPENDIX D

D-7

Fig.D.7: DFIG Phasor Model

APPENDIX D

D-8

Fig.D.8: Phasor Results

APPENDIX D

D-9

2- Simulation Results and Analysis of PMSG generator


Simulation studies were carried out in MATLAB-Simulink to validate the chosen casestudy system.
Number of wind turbines
Rated L-L Voltage(V)

100
575

Rated Power(VA)

4e6

Rated Frequency(Hz)

60

Grid-side coupling impedance(p.u.)

[0.003 0.3]

DC bus capacitance (F)

10000e-6

DC capacitor voltage(V)

1150

Number of pole pairs

48

Table D.1: Parameters of PMSG wind turbine

APPENDIX D

D-10

Fig.D.9: PMSG Model

APPENDIX D

D-11

Fig.D.10: Control Block


Phase Locked Loop (PLL) system can be used to synchronize on a set of variable
frequency, three-phase sinusoidal signals.

Fig.D.11: Phase Locked Loop (PLL) system

APPENDIX D

D-12

Fig.D.12: DQ Transformation

PMSG Simulation Results


Input wind speed

APPENDIX D

Rotor speed

Voltage difference across machine side converter

D-13

APPENDIX D

Dc-Link Voltage

Voltage difference across grid side converter

D-14

APPENDIX D

D-15

Grid voltage

Grid Current

Fig.D.13: PMSG Model Results

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