Fundamentals of Geophysics (QBB 1022)

THE EARTHS SIZE, SHAPE

&
GRAVITATION
Dr. Ahmed Salim

Lecture 7

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this lesson you should be able to Know:

LO1: The size and shape of the Earth and their

effect on the Gravitational Attraction.

This learning outcome will let you achieve the following course outcomes:
CO 1: Apply principles of mathematics and physics to better understand the
Earth
CO 2:Understand the Earths structure and the physics governing many
Earth processes.

CONTENTS
1.Earths Size
2.Earths Shape
3.Gravitation

4.Conclusions

Earths Size
The first scientifically sound estimate of the size of the

terrestrial sphere was made by Eratosthenes (275195

BC), who was the head librarian at Alexandria.

He had been told that in the city of Syene (modern Aswan)

the Suns noon rays on midsummer day shone vertically
and were able to illuminate the bottoms of wells, whereas
on the same day in Alexandria shadows were cast.

Earths Size
Eratosthenes observed that
at the summer solstice the

Suns rays made an angle of

one-fiftieth of a circle (7.2o)
with the vertical in
Alexandria.

(after Strahler, 1963).

Earths Size
Eratosthenes knew that the approximate distance from
Alexandria to Syene was 5000 stadia (925 Km), possibly

estimated by travelers.
Stadia 185 meters.

From these observations he estimated that the circumference

of the global sphere was 250,000 stadia. i.e. 46,250 km,
about 15% higher than the modern value of 40,030 km.

Earths Size
In 1671 a French astronomer, Jean Picard completed an
accurate survey by triangulation of the length of a degree

of meridian arc.
From his results the Earths radius was calculated to be

6372 km, remarkably close to the modern value of 6371

km.

CONTENTS
1.Earths Size
2.Earths Shape

3.Gravitation
4.Conclusions

Earths Shape
Newton argued that the shape of the rotating Earth
should be that of an oblate ellipsoid; compared to a
sphere, it should be somewhat flattened at the poles and
should bulge outward around the equator
Assume that the Earth does not rotate and that holes

could be drilled to its center along the rotation axis and

along an equatorial radius

Earths Shape
If these holes are filled with water,

the hydrostatic pressure at the

center of the Earth sustains equal
water columns along each radius.
The rotation of the Earth causes a
centrifugal force at the equator but
has no effect on the axis of
rotation.

Earths Shape
At the equator the outward
centrifugal force of the rotation
opposes the inward gravitational
attraction and pulls the water

column upward.
At the same time it reduces the
hydrostatic pressure produced by
the water column at the Earths
center.

Earths Shape
The reduced central pressure is unable to support the height
of the water column along the polar radius, which subsides.
If the Earth were a hydrostatic sphere, the form of the rotating
Earth should be an oblate ellipsoid of revolution

Earths Shape
The larger radius of
curvature at the flattened
poles gives a longer arc
distance than is found at
the equator where the
radius of curvature is

smaller (after Strahler,

1963).

CONTENTS
1.Earths Size
2.Earths Shape
3.Gravitation

4.Conclusions

15

GRAVITATION CONTENTS
a. Newtons laws (The law of universal gravitation)
b. Gravitational Field
c. Gravitational acceleration
d. Gravitational Potential
e. The equipotential surface

16

Newtons laws
The first law states that an object either is at rest or
moves at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an
external force
The second law of motion states that the rate of change
of momentum of a mass is proportional to the force
acting upon it and takes place in the direction of the
force.

Newtons laws
For the case of constant mass, the second law serves as
the definition of force (F) in terms of the acceleration (a)
given to a mass (m):
F = ma .. (1)
The unit of force in the SI system of units is the Newton
(N). It is defined as the force that gives a mass of one
kilogram (1 kg) an acceleration of 1 m s-2.

The law of universal gravitation

What is Gravity?
Force that pulls two masses together.
Gravity is the tendency of objects with mass to
accelerate towards each other
Applying this law to two particles or point masses m and
M separated by a distance r, we get for the gravitational
attraction F exerted by M on m

The law of universal gravitation

Newton used Keplers empirical third law
to deduce
that the force of attraction between a planet and the Sun varied
with their masses and with the inverse square of the distance
between them
.. (2)
Where
o r is a unit vector in the direction of increase in coordinate r, which is directed away
from the center of reference at the mass M.
o The negative sign in the equation indicates that the force F acts in the opposite
direction, toward the attracting mass M.
oThe constant G, universal gravitational constant
G = 6.67 x10-11 Nm2/kg2 = 6.67421x10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2.

Example
Calculate the force of gravitation between two planets with
masses of 5*1020 kg and 2*1025 kg. the average distance

between the two is 2.0*1010m.

Solution

6.67421*10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 *5*1020 kg *2*1025 kg

F =(2*1010 m)2

F = - 1.67*1015 kg.m.s-2

Gravitational Field
In physics the field of a force is often more important than
the absolute magnitude of the force.
The gravitational field in the vicinity of an attracting mass is
the force it exerts on a unit mass.

Earths surface

On a large scale, gravity

is an attractive radial field

On a small scale gravity can

be regarded as a uniform
field

Gravitational Acceleration(aG)
In geophysical applications we are concerned with
accelerations rather than forces.
By comparing Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) we get the gravitational
acceleration aG of the mass m due to the attraction of the
mass M:
. (3)

Gravitational Acceleration(aG)
The SI unit of acceleration is the m s-2; this unit is unpractical
for use in geophysics.
The c.g.s. system unit is cm s-2, called a gal= 1000 mgal
The small changes in the acceleration of gravity caused by
geological structures are measured in mgal.
1 mgal = 10 g.u. gravity unit
The value of gravity at the Earths surface is about 9.8m s-2 =
980 cm/sec2 = 980 gal , and so the sensitivity of modern
measurements of gravity is about 1 part in 109.

Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential, U, is work that has to be
done in moving a unit mass from to distance r
from mass M: so integration over space of g
g is spatial derivative (gradient) of U

Equipotential Surface
It is the surface on which
(gravitational) potential
remains constant
No work can be done
moving along this surface
Or potential would have to
change

Equipotential Surface
Equipotential surfaces of
a spherical mass form a
set of concentric spheres.
=> gravitational force is
perpendicular to
equipotential surface

Conclusions
The size of the earth, in early time, estimated
using the degree of incidence of sun rays and
measuring distance between two cities.
Earths radius was calculated to be 6372 km
using an accurate survey by triangulation of the
length of a degree of meridian arc.
The ellipsoidal shape of the Earth resulting from
its rotation has important consequences for the
variation with latitude of gravity.

Conclusions
In geophysical applications we are concerned with
accelerations rather than forces.
In gravity survey small changes in the acceleration
of gravity caused by geological structures are
measured in mgal.
Gravitational potential remains constant over the
equipotential surface.