Experiment Central 2010

Experiment Central
Understanding Scientific Principles

Through Projects
Experiment Central
Understanding Scientific Principles
Through Projects
Second Edition
Experiment Central
Understanding Scientific
Principles Through Projects
Second Edition
M. Rae Nelson
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Experiment central : understanding scientific principles through projects.
2nd ed. / M. Rae Nelson, Kristine Krapp, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978 1 4144 7613 1 (set) ISBN 978 1 4144 7614 8 (vol. 1)
ISBN 978 1 4144 7615 5 (vol. 2) ISBN 978 1 4144 7616 2 (vol. 3)
ISBN 978 1 4144 7617 9 (vol. 4) ISBN 978 1 4144 7618 6 (vol. 5)
ISBN 978 1 4144 7619 3 (vol. 6)
1. Science--Experiments--Juvenile literature. I. Nelson, M. Rae. II. Krapp,
Kristine M.
Q164.E96 2010
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10
Table of Contents
VOLUME 1: A-CH
Readers Guide xxi

Parents and Teachers Guide xxv
Experiments by Scientific Field xxvii
Words to Know xxxix
1. Acid Rain 1
Acid Rain and Animals: How does acid rain affect brine shrimp? 5
Acid Rain and Plants: How does acid rain affect plant growth? 9
Acid Rain: Can acid rain harm structures? 12
2. Adhesives 19
Material Adhesion: How do various glues adhere to different

materials? 22
Adhesives in the Environment: Will different environmental
conditions affect the properties of different adhesives? 26
3. Air 33
Air Density: Does warm air take up less room than cool air? 36
Convection Currents: How can rising air cause weather
changes? 39
4. Air and Water Pollution 45
Pollutant Bioindicators: Can lichens provide clues to an areas

air pollution? 51
Eutrophication: The effect of phosphates on water plants. 55
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5. Animal Defenses 61
Camouflage: Does an animals living environment relate to the

color of the animal life? 63
Ladybug Threats: How do ladybugs defend themselves when
they feel threatened? 65
6. Annual Growth 71
Tree Growth: What can be learned from the growth patterns of

trees? 74
Lichen Growth: What can be learned from the environment by
observing lichens? 79
7. Bacteria 85
Bacterial Growth: How do certain substances inhibit or promote

bacterial growth? 90
Bacterial Resistance: Can bacteria gain resistance to a substance
after exposure? 95
8. Biomes 103
Building a Temperate Forest Biome 107

Building a Desert Biome 108
9. Bones and Muscles 113
Bone Loss: How does the loss of calcium affect bone strength? 116
Muscles: How does the strength of muscles affect fatigue over
time? 120
10. Caves 127
Cave Formation: How does the acidity of a substance affect the

formation of a cave? 132
Cave Icicles: How does the mineral content of water affect the
formation of stalactites and stalagmites? 135
11. Cells 141
Investigating Cells: What are the differences between a

multicellular organism and a unicellular organism? 144
Plant Cells: What are the cell differences between monocot and
dicot plants? 145
Yeast Cells: How do they reproduce? 147
12. Chemical Energy 151
Rusting: Is the chemical reaction exothermic, endothermic, or

neither? 152
vi
Experiment Central, 2nd edition
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Exothermic or Endothermic: Determining whether various

chemical reactions are exothermic or endothermic 156
13. Chemical Properties 163
Slime: What happens when white glue and borax mix? 167
Chemical Reactions: What happens when mineral oil, water, and
iodine mix? 170
Chemical Patination: Producing chemical reactions on
metal 173
14. Chemosenses 177
Supertasters: Is there a correlation between the number of taste

buds and taste perception? 180
Smell and Taste: How does smell affect the sense of taste? 186
15. Chlorophyll 191
Plant Pigments: Can pigments be separated? 193

Response to Light: Do plants grow differently in different colors
of light? 197
Budget Index lxxxv
Level of Difficulty Index xcvii
Timetable Index cix
General Subject Index cxxi
VOLUME 2: CO-E
Readers Guide xxi

Words to Know xxxix
16. Color 203
Color and Flavor: How much does color affect flavor

perception? 207
Temperature and Color: What color has the highest
temperature? 210
17. Comets and Meteors 215
Comet Nucleus: Linking a Comets Composition to its

Properties. 218
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Meteor Impact: How do the characteristics of a meteorite and its

impact affect the shape of the crater? 221
18. Composting/Landfills 229
Living Landfill: What effect do the microorganisms in soil have

on the decomposition process? 232
Composting: Using organic material to grow plants 235
19. Crystals 243
Crystal Structure: Will varying shape crystals form from varying

substances? 246
Cool Crystals: How does the effect of cooling impact crystal
growth? 250
20. Density and Buoyancy 257
Density: Can a scale of relative density predict whether one

material floats on another? 260
Buoyancy: Does water pressure affect buoyancy? 264
21. Dissolved Oxygen 271
Decay and Dissolved Oxygen: How does the amount of decaying

matter affect the level of dissolved oxygen in water? 274
Goldfish Breath: How does a decrease in the dissolved oxygen
level affect the breathing rate of goldfish? 279
22. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) 285
The Stuff of Life: Isolating DNA 289

Comparing DNA: Does the DNA from different species have
the same appearance? 291
23. Dyes 299
Applying Dyes: How does the fiber affect the dye color? 301
Holding the Dye: How do dye fixatives affect the colorfastness of
the dye? 304
24. Earthquakes 311
Detecting an Earthquake: How can movement of Earths crust

be measured? 314
Earthquake Simulation: Is the destruction greater at the
epicenter? 317
25. Eclipses 325
Simulating Solar and Lunar Eclipses 327

Phases of the Moon: What does each phase look like? 329
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
26. Electricity 333
Electrolytes: Do some solutions conduct electricity better than

others? 335
Batteries: Can a series of homemade electric cells form a pile
strong enough to match the voltage of a D-cell battery? 340
Electroplating: Using electricity to move one metal onto another
metal 344
27. Electromagnetism 349
Magnetism: How can a magnetic field be created and detected? 351

Electromagnetism: How can an electromagnet be created? 354
28. Enzymes 359
Finding the Enzyme: Which enzyme breaks down hydrogen

peroxide? 362
Tough and Tender: Does papain speed up the aging process? 365
Stopping Enzymes: Does temperature affect enzyme action? 368
29. Erosion 375
Erosion: Does soil type affect the amount of water that runs off a
hillside? 377
Plants and Erosion: How do plants affect the rate of soil
erosion? 381
30. Ethnobotany 389
Plants and Health: Which plants have anti-bacterial

properties? 392
Coiling Reeds: How does the tightness of the coil affect the
ability to hold materials? 396
Budget Index lxxxv
Timetable Index cix
VOLUME 3: F-K
Readers Guide xxi

Words to Know xxxix
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
31. Fish 401
Fish Breathing: How do different fish take in oxygen? 404

Fish Movement: How do fins and body shape affect the movement of fish? 407
32. Flight 413
Lift-Off: How can a glider be made to fly higher? 415

Helicopters, Propellers, and Centripetal Force: Will it fly
high? 418
33. Flowers 423
Self versus Cross: Will there be a difference in reproduction

between self-pollinated and cross-pollinated plants of the same
type? 427
Sweet Sight: Can changing a flowers nectar and color affect the
pollinators lured to the flower? 431
34. Fluids 439
Viscosity: How can temperature affect the viscosity of

liquids? 441
Spinning Fluids: How do different fluids behave when immersed
in a spinning rod? 444
35. Food Preservation 451
Sweet Preservatives: How does sugar affect the preservation of

fruit? 454
Drying Foods: Does drying fruits help prevent or delay
spoilage? 458
36. Food Science 463
Jelly and Pectin: How does acidity affect how fruit gels? 467
Rising Foods: How much carbon dioxide do different leavening
agents produce? 470
37. Food Spoilage 477
Preservatives: How do different substances affect the growth of

mold? 481
Spoiled Milk: How do different temperatures of liquid affect its
rate of spoilage? 485
38. Forces 491
Newtons Laws in Action: How do water bottle rockets

demonstrate Newtons laws of motion? 493
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Centripetal Action: What is the relationship between distance

and force in circular motion? 501
39. Forensic Science 507
Fiber Evidence: How can scientific techniques be used to

identify fiber? 511
Blood Patterns: How can a blood spatter help recreate the
crime? 515
40. Fossils 521
Making an Impression: In which soil environment does a fossil

most easily form? 526
Fossil Formation: What are the physical characteristics of an
organism that make the best fossils? 530
41. Fungi 537
Decomposers: Food source for a common fungi 541

Living Conditions: What is the ideal temperature for yeast
growth? 544
42. Genetics 553
Genetic Traits: Will you share certain genetic traits more with
family members than non-family members? 556
Building a Pedigree for Taste 559
43. Germination 565
Effects of Temperature on Germination: What temperatures

encourage and discourage germination? 566
Comparing Germination Times: How fast can seeds grow? 570
Seed Scarification: Does breaking the seed shell affect
germination time? 573
44. Gravity 579
Gravity: How fast do different objects fall? 581

Measuring Mass: How can a balance be made? 585
45. Greenhouse Effect 589
Creating a Greenhouse: How much will the temperature rise

inside a greenhouse? 592
Fossil Fuels: What happens when fossil fuels burn? 596
46. Groundwater Aquifers 601
Aquifers: How do they become polluted? 605

Groundwater: How can it be cleaned? 609
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
47. Heat 615
Conduction: Which solid materials are the best conductors

of heat? 618
Convection: How does heat move through liquids? 622
Heat Capacity: Which liquids have the highest heat
capacity? 625
48. Insects 631
Ant Food: What type of foods is one type of ant attracted to? 635
Lightning Bugs: How does the environment affect a fireflys
flash? 638
Budget Index lxxxv
Timetable Index cix
VOLUME 4: L-PH
Readers Guide xxi

Words to Know xxxix
49. Life Cycles 645
Tadpoles: Does temperature affect the rate at which tadpoles

change into frogs? 647
Insects: How does food supply affect the growth rate of
grasshoppers or crickets? 651
50. Light Properties 659
Looking for the Glow: Which objects glow under black light? 661
Refraction and Defraction: Making a rainbow 664
Refraction: How does the material affect how light travels? 666
51. Magnetism 671
Magnets: How do heat, cold, jarring, and rubbing affect the

magnetism of a nail? 674
Electromagnets: Does the strength of an electromagnet increase
with greater current? 678
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
52. Materials Science 685
Testing Tape: Finding the properties that allow tape to support

weight. 688
Developing Renewables: Can a renewable packing material have
the same qualities as a non-renewable material? 691
53. Memory 697
Memory Mnemonics: What techniques help in memory

retention? 701
False Memories: How can memories be influenced? 705
54. Microorganisms 711
Microorganisms: What is the best way to grow penicillin? 713

Growing Microorganisms in a Petri Dish 716
55. Mixtures and Solutions 723
Suspensions and Solutions: Can filtration and evaporation

determine whether mixtures are suspensions or solutions? 725
Colloids: Can colloids be distinguished from suspension using
the Tyndall effect? 730
56. Mountains 735
Mountain Plates: How does the movement of Earths plates

determine the formation of a mountain? 738
Mountain Formations: How does the height of the mountain
have an affect on desert formation? 741
57. Nanotechnology 747
Nanosize: How can the physical size affect a materials

properties? 750
Nanosize Substances: How can the physical size affect the rate of
reaction? 753
58. Nutrition 759
Energizing Foods: Which foods contain carbohydrates and

fats? 761
Nutrition: Which foods contain proteins and salts? 764
Daily Nutrition: How nutritious is my diet? 766
59. Oceans 771
Stratification: How does the salinity in ocean water cause it to

form layers? 775
Currents: Water behavior in density-driven currents 780
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
60. Optics and Optical Illusions 787
Optics: What is the focal length of a lens? 788

Optical Illusions: Can the eye be fooled? 791
61. Osmosis and Diffusion 797
Measuring Membranes: Is a plastic bag a semipermeable

membrane? 798
Changing Concentrations: Will a bag of salt water draw in fresh
water? 803
Changing Sizes: What effect does molecule size have on
osmosis 806
62. Oxidation-Reduction 811
Reduction: How will acid affect dirty pennies? 813

Oxidation and Rust: How is rust produced? 817
Oxidation Reaction: Can acid change the color of copper? 820
63. Periodic Table 827
Metals versus Nonmetals: Which areas of the periodic table have

elements that conduct electricity? 830
Soluble Families: How does the solubility of an element relate to
where it is located on the periodic table? 835
Active Metals: What metals give off electrons more readily than
others? 838
64. Pesticides 843
Natural versus Synthetic: How do different types of pesticides

compare against a pest? 848
Moving through Water: How can pesticides affect nontarget
plant life? 852
65. pH 859
Kitchen Chemistry: What is the pH of household chemicals? 861

Chemical Titration: What is required to change a substance from
an acid or a base into a neutral solution? 865
66. Photosynthesis 871
Photosynthesis: How does light affect plant growth? 873

Light Intensity: How does the intensity of light affect plant
growth? 877
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Budget Index lxxxv

Timetable Index cix
VOLUME 5: PL-SO
Readers Guide xxi

Words to Know xxxix
67. Plant Anatomy 883
Plant Hormones: What is the affect of hormones on root and

stem growth? 886
Water Uptake: How do different plants differ in their water
needs? 890
68. Plants and Water 897
Water Flow: How do varying solutions of water affect the

amount of water a plant takes in and its turgor pressure? 900
Transpiration: How do different environmental conditions
affect plants rates of transpiration? 904
69. Polymers 911
Polymer Strength: What are the tensile properties of certain

polymers that make them more durable than others? 914
Polymer Slime: How will adding more of a polymer change the
properties of a polymer slime? 919
Polymer Properties: How are the properties of hard plastics
different? 923
70. Potential and Kinetic Energy 929
Measuring Energy: How does the height of an object affect its

potential energy? 931
Using Energy: Build a roller coaster 934
71. Renewable Energy 941
Capturing Wind Energy: How does the material affect the

amount of wind energy harnessed? 944
Hydropower: How does water pressure affect water energy? 948
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
72. Rivers 955
Weathering Erosion in Glaciers: How does a river make a

trench? 957
Stream Flow: Does the stream meander? 960
River Flow: How does the steepness and rate of water flow affect
river erosion? 962
73. Rocks and Minerals 969
Mineral Testing: What kind of mineral is it? 971

Rock Classification: Is it igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic? 975
74. Rotation and Orbits 981
Foucault Pendulum: How can a pendulum demonstrate the

rotation of Earth? 985
Spinning Effects: How does the speed of a rotating object affect
the way centrifugal force can overcome gravity? 989
75. Salinity 995
Making a Hydrometer: How can salinity be measured? 997

Density Ball: How to make a standard for measuring density 1000
76. Scientific Method 1005
Using the Scientific Method: What are the mystery powders? 1009
Using the Scientific Method: Do fruit flies appear out of thin
air? 1013
77. Seashells 1019
Shell Strength: Which shell is stronger: a clam shell or lobster

shell? 1022
Classifying Seashells 1025
78. Separation and Identification 1031
Chromatography: Can you identify a pen from the way its colors
separate? 1034
Identifying a Mixture: How can determining basic properties of a
substance allow you to identify the substances in a mixture? 1039
79. Simple Machines 1047
Wheel and Axle: How can changing the size of the wheel affect
the amount of work it takes to lift a load? 1051
Lever Lifting: How does the distance from the fulcrum affect
work? 1055
xvi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Screw: How does the distance between the threads of a screw
affect the work? 1057
80. Soil 1063
Soil Profile: What are the different properties of the soil

horizons? 1067
Soil pH: Does the pH of soil affect plant growth? 1074
81. Solar Energy 1081
Capturing Solar Energy: Will seedlings grow bigger in a

greenhouse? 1084
Solar Cells: Will sunlight make a motor run? 1087
Retaining the Suns heat: What substance best stores heat for a
solar system? 1090
82. Sound 1095
Wave Length: How does the length of a vibrating string affect the
sound it produces? 1096
Pitch: How does the thickness of a vibrating string affect
sound? 1099
Soundproofing: How do different materials affect
sound? 1102
Budget Index lxxxv
Timetable Index cix
VOLUME 6: SP-Z
Readers Guide xxi

Words to Know xxxix
83. Space Observation 1109
Telescopes: How do different combinations of lenses affect the

image? 1113
Doppler Effect: How can waves measure the distance and speed
of objects? 1118
xvii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
84. Stars 1123
Tracking Stars: Where is Polaris? 1125

Tracking the Motion of the Planets: Can a planet be followed? 1128
85. Static Electricity 1133
Building an Electroscope: Which objects are electrically

charged? 1135
Measuring a Charge: Does nylon or wool create a stronger static
electric charge? 1139
86. Storms 1147
Lightning Sparks: Explore how separating charges causes an

attraction between objects 1152
Tornadoes: Making a violent vortex 1155
Forming Hailstones: How do temperature differences affect the
formation of hail? 1158
87. Structures and Shapes 1165
Arches and Beams: Which is strongest? 1167

Beams and Rigidity: How does the vertical height of a beam
affect its rigidity? 1170
88. Time 1175
Pendulums: How do the length, weight, and swing angle of a

pendulum affect its oscillation time? 1180
Water Clock: Does the amount of water in a water clock affect its
accuracy? 1185
89. Tropisms 1191
Phototropism: Will plants follow a maze to reach light 1193

Geotropism: Will plant roots turn toward the pull of gravity? 1197
Heliotropism: How does the Sun affect the movement of certain
plants? 1201
90. Vegetative Propagation 1207
Auxins: How do auxins affect plant growth? 1209

Potatoes from Pieces: How do potatoes reproduce
vegetatively? 1216
91. Vitamins and Minerals 1223
Vitamin C: What juices are the best sources of vitamin C? 1226

Hard Water: Do different water sources have varying mineral
content? 1231
xviii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
92. Volcanoes 1237
Model of a Volcano: Will it blow its top? 1240

Looking at a Seismograph: Can a volcanic eruption be
detected? 1242
93. Water Cycle 1247
Temperature: How does temperature affect the rate of

evaporation? 1248
Surface Area: How does surface area affect the rate of
evaporation? 1253
94. Water Properties 1259
Cohesion: Can the cohesive force of surface tension in water

support an object denser than water? 1261
Adhesion: How much weight is required to break the adhesive
force between an object and water? 1264
95. Weather 1271
Wind: Measuring wind speed with a homemade

anemometer 1273
Clouds: Will a drop in air temperature cause a cloud to
form? 1277
96. Weather Forecasting 1283
Dewpoint: When will dew form? 1286

Air Pressure: How can air pressure be measured? 1289
97. Wood 1295
Water Absorption: How do different woods absorb

water? 1298
Wood Hardness: How does the hardness of wood relate to its
building properties? 1302
Budget Index lxxxv
Timetable Index cix
xix
Readers Guide
Experiment Central: Understanding Scientific Principles Through Projects

provides in one resource a wide variety of science experiments covering
nine key science curriculum fieldsastronomy, biology, botany, chemistry, ecology, food science, geology, meteorology, and physicsspanning
the earth sciences, life sciences, and physical sciences.
Experiment Central, 2nd edition combines, expands, and updates the
original four-volume and two-volume UXL sets. This new edition includes
20 new chapters, 60 new experiments, and more than 35 enhanced experiments. Each chapter explores a scientific subject and offers experiments
or projects that utilize or reinforce the topic studied. Chapters are alphabetically arranged according to scientific concept, including: Air and
Water Pollution, Color, Eclipses, Forensic Science, Genetics, Magnetism,
Mountains, Periodic Table, Renewable Energy, Storms and Water Cycle.
Two to three experiments or projects are included in each chapter.
Entry format
Chapters are presented in a standard, easy-to-follow format. All chapters
open with an explanatory overview section designed to introduce students
to the scientific concept and provide the background behind a concept s
discovery or important figures who helped advance the study of the field.
Each experiment is divided into eight standard sections to help
students follow the experimental process clearly from beginning to end.
Sections are:
Purpose/Hypothesis

Level of Difficulty
xxi
READERS GUIDE
Materials Needed
Approximate Budget
Timetable
Step-by-Step Instructions
Summary of Results
Change the Variables
Chapters also include a Design Your Own Experiment section that

allows students to apply what they have learned about a particular concept and to create their own experiments. This section is divided into:

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept
Steps in the Scientific Method
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results
Related Projects
Special Features
A Words to Know sidebar provides definitions of terms used in each
chapter. A cumulative glossary collected from all the Words to Know
sections is included in the beginning of each volume.
The Experiments by Scientific Field section categorizes experiments by scientific curriculum area. This section cumulates all experiments across the six-volume series.
The Parents and Teachers Guide recommends that a responsible
adult always oversee a students experiment and provides several safety
guidelines for all students to follow.
Standard sidebars accompany experiments and projects.

What Are the Variables? explains the factors that may have an
impact on the outcome of a particular experiment.
How to Experiment Safely clearly explains any risks involved

with the experiment and how to avoid them.
Troubleshooters Guide presents problems that a student might

encounter with an experiment, possible causes of the problem, and
ways to remedy the problem.
Over 450 photos enhance the text; approximately 450 custom illustrations show the steps in the experiments.
xxii
READERS GUIDE
Four indexes cumulate information from all the experiments in this

six-volume set, including:
Budget Index categorizes the experiments by approximate cost.

Level of Difficulty Index lists experiments according to easy,

moderate, or difficult, or a combination thereof.
Timetable Index categorizes each experiment by the amount of

time needed to complete it, including setup and follow-through
time.
General Subject Index provides access to all major terms, people,

places, and topics covered in the set.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge and thank Laurie Curtis, teacher/
researcher; Cindy ONeill, science educator; and Joyce Nelson, chemist,
for their contributions to this edition as consultants.
Comments and Suggestions

We welcome your comments on Experiment Central. Please write:
Editors, Experiment Central, U*X*L, 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington
Hills, MI 48331-3535; call toll-free: 1-800-347-4253; or visit us at
www.gale.cengage.com.
xxiii
Pa ren ts a nd T ea c her s Gu i de
The experiments and projects in Experiment Central have been carefully

constructed with issues of safety in mind, but your guidance and supervision are still required. Following the safety guidelines that accompany
each experiment and project (found in the How to Experiment Safely
sidebar box), as well as putting to work the safe practices listed below, will
help your child or student avoid accidents. Oversee your child or student
during experiments, and make sure he or she follows these safety
guidelines:

Always wear safety goggle is there is any possiblity of sharp objects,

small particles, splashes of liquid, or gas fumes getting in someones
eyes.
Always wear protective gloves when handling materials that could

irritate the skin.
Never leave an open flame, such as a lit candle, unattended. Never

wear loose clothing around an open flame.
Follow instructions carefully when using electrical equipment,

including batteries, to avoid getting shocked.
Be cautious when handling sharp objects or glass equipment that

might break. Point scissors away from you and use them carefully.
Always ask for help in cleaning up spills, broken glass, or other

hazardous materials.
Always use protective gloves when handling hot objects. Set

them down only on a protected surface that will not be damaged
by heat.
xxv
PARENTS AND TEACHERS GUIDE
xxvi
Always wash your hands thoroughly after handling material that

might contain harmful microorganisms, such as soil and pond
water.
Do not substitute materials in an experiment without asking a

knowledgeable adult about possible reactions.
Do not use or mix unidentified liquids or powders. The result

might be an explosion or poisonous fumes.
Never taste or eat any substances being used in an experiment.
Always wear old clothing or a protective apron to avoid staining

your clothes.
Experiments by Scientific Field
Chapter name in brackets, followed by experiment name. The numeral

before the colon indicates volume; numbers after the colon indicate page
number.
ALL SUBJECTS
[Scientific Method] Using the Scientific Method: Do fruit flies

appear out of thin air? 5:1013
[Scientific Method] Using the Scientific Method: What are the
mystery powders? 5:1009
ASTRONOMY
[Comets and Meteors] Comet Nucleus: Linking a Comets

Composition to its Properties. 2:218
[Comets and Meteors] Meteor Impact: How do the characteristics of a meteorite and its impact affect the shape of the
crater? 2:221
[Eclipses] Phases of the Moon: What does each phase look
like? 2:329
[Eclipses] Simulating Solar and Lunar Eclipses 2:327
[Rotation and Orbits] Foucault Pendulum: How can a pendulum demonstrate the rotation of Earth? 5:985
[Rotation and Orbits] Spinning Effects: How does the speed of a
rotating object affect the way centrifugal force can overcome
gravity? 5:989
[Space Observation] Doppler Effect: How can waves measure
the distance and speed of objects? 6:1118
xxvii
EXPERIMENTS BY SCIENTIFIC FIELD
[Space Observation] Telescopes: How do different combinations

of lenses affect the image? 6:1113
[Stars] Tracking Stars: Where is Polaris? 6:1125
[Stars] Tracking the Motion of the Planets: Can a planet be
followed? 6:1128
BIOLOGY
[Animal Defenses] Camouflage: Does an animals living environment relate to the color of the animal life? 1:63
[Animal Defenses] Ladybug Threats: How do ladybugs defend
themselves when they feel threatened? 1:65
[Bacteria] Bacterial Growth: How do certain substances inhibit
or promote bacterial growth? 1:90
[Bacteria] Bacterial Resistance: Can bacteria gain resistance to a
substance after exposure? 1:95
[Bones and Muscles] Bone Loss: How does the loss of calcium
affect bone strength? 1:116
[Bones and Muscles] Muscles: How does the strength of muscles
affect fatigue over time? 1:120
[Cells] Investigating Cells: What are the differences between a
multicellular organism and a unicellular organism? 1:141
[Cells] Plant Cells: What are the cell differences between
monocot and dicot plants? 1:145
[Cells] Yeast Cells: How do they reproduce? 1:147
[Chemosenses] Smell and Taste: How does smell affect the sense
of taste? 1:186
[Chemosenses] Supertasters: Is there a correlation between the
number of taste buds and taste perception? 1:180
[DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)] Comparing DNA: Does the
DNA from different species have the same appearance? 2:291
[DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)] The Stuff of Life: Isolating
DNA 2:289
[Enzymes] Finding the Enzyme: Which enzyme breaks down
hydrogen peroxide? 2:362
[Enzymes] Stopping Enzymes: Does temperature affect enzyme
action? 2:368
[Enzymes] Tough and Tender: Does papain speed up the aging
process? 2:365
[Fish] Fish Breathing: How do different fish take in oxygen? 3:404
xxviii
[Fish] Fish Movement: How do fins and body shape affect the
movement of fish? 3:407
[Forensic Science] Blood Patterns: How can a blood spatter help
recreate the crime? 3:515
[Forensic Science] Fiber Evidence: How can scientific techniques be used to identify fiber? 3:511
[Fungi] Decomposers: Food source for a common fungi 3:541
[Fungi] Living Conditions: What is the ideal temperature for
yeast growth? 3:544
[Genetics] Building a Pedigree for Taste 3:559
[Genetics] Genetic Traits: Will you share certain genetic traits
more with family members than non-family members? 3:556
[Insects] Ant Food: What type of foods is one type of ant
attracted to? 3:635
[Insects] Lightning Bugs: How does the environment affect a
fireflys flash? 3:638
[Life Cycles] Insects: How does food supply affect the growth
rate of grasshoppers or crickets? 4:651
[Life Cycles] Tadpoles: Does temperature affect the rate at which
tadpoles change into frogs? 4:647
[Memory] False Memories: How can memories be
influenced? 4:705
[Memory] Memory Mnemonics: What techniques help in
memory retention? 4:701
[Microorganisms] Growing Microorganisms in a Petri Dish 4:716
[Microorganisms] Microorganisms: What is the best way to
grow penicillin? 4:713
[Nutrition] Daily Nutrition: How nutritious is my diet? 4:766
[Nutrition] Energizing Foods: Which foods contain carbohydrates and fats? 4:761
[Nutrition] Nutrition: Which foods contain proteins and
salts? 4:764
[Osmosis and Diffusion] Changing Concentrations: Will a bag
of salt water draw in fresh water? 4:803
[Osmosis and Diffusion] Changing Sizes: What effect does
molecule size have on osmosis 4:806
[Osmosis and Diffusion] Measuring Membranes: Is a plastic bag
a semipermeable membrane? 4:798
xxix
[Seashells] Classifying Seashells 5:1025

[Seashells] Shell Strength: Which shell is stronger: a clam shell or
lobster shell? 5:1022
BOTANY
[Annual Growth] Lichen Growth: What can be learned from the

environment by observing lichens? 1:79
[Annual Growth] Tree Growth: What can be learned from the
growth patterns of trees? 1:74
[Chlorophyll] Plant Pigments: Can pigments be separated? 1:193
[Chlorophyll] Response to Light: Do plants grow differently in
different colors of light? 1:197
[Ethnobotany] Coiling Reeds: How does the tightness of the coil
affect the ability to hold materials? 2:396
[Ethnobotany] Plants and Health: Which plants have antibacterial properties? 2:392
[Flowers] Self versus Cross: Will there be a difference in reproduction between self-pollinated and cross-pollinated plants of
the same type? 3:427
[Flowers] Sweet Sight: Can changing a flowers nectar and color
affect the pollinators lured to the flower? 3:431
[Germination] Comparing Germination Times: How fast can
seeds grow? 3:570
[Germination] Effects of Temperature on Germination: What
temperatures encourage and discourage germination? 3:566
[Germination] Seed Scarification: Does breaking the seed shell
affect germination time? 3:573
[Photosynthesis] Light Intensity: How does the intensity of light
affect plant growth? 4:877
[Photosynthesis] Photosynthesis: How does light affect plant
growth? 4:873
[Plant Anatomy] Plant Hormones: What is the affect of hormones on root and stem growth? 5:886
[Plant Anatomy] Water Uptake: How do different plants differ
in their water needs? 5:890
[Plants and Water] Transpiration: How do different environmental conditions affect plants rates of transpiration? 5:904
xxx
[Plants and Water] Water Flow: How do varying solutions of

water affect the amount of water a plant takes in and its turgor
pressure? 5:900
[Tropisms] Geotropism: Will plant roots turn toward the pull of
gravity? 6:1197
[Tropisms] Heliotropism: How does the Sun affect the movement of certain plants? 6:1201
[Tropisms] Phototropism: Will plants follow a maze to reach
light? 6:1193
[Vegetative Propagation] Auxins: How do auxins affect plant
growth? 6:1209
[Vegetative Propagation] Potatoes from Pieces: How do potatoes
reproduce vegetatively? 6:1216
CHEMISTRY
[Adhesives] Adhesives in the Environment: Will different environmental conditions affect the properties of different
adhesives? 1:26
[Adhesives] Material Adhesion: How do various glues adhere to
different materials? 1:22
[Chemical Energy] Exothermic or Endothermic: Determining
whether various chemical reactions are exothermic or
endothermic 1:156
[Chemical Energy] Rusting: Is the chemical reaction exothermic,
endothermic, or neither? 1:152
[Chemical Properties] Chemical Patination: Producing chemical
reactions on metal 1:173
[Chemical Properties] Chemical Reactions: What happens when
mineral oil, water, and iodine mix? 1:170
[Chemical Properties] Slime: What happens when white glue
and borax mix? 1:167
[Crystals] Cool Crystals: How does the effect of cooling impact
crystal growth? 2:252
[Crystals] Crystal Structure: Will varying shape crystals form
from varying substances? 2:246
[Dyes] Applying Dyes: How does the fiber affect the dye
color? 2:301
[Dyes] Holding the Dye: How do dye fixatives affect the colorfastness of the dye? 2:304
xxxi
[Materials Science] Developing Renewables: Can a renewable

packing material have the same qualities as a non-renewable
material? 4:691
[Materials Science] Testing Tape: Finding the properties that
allow tape to support weight. 4:688
[Mixtures and Solutions] Colloids: Can colloids be distinguished from suspension using the Tyndall effect? 4:730
[Mixtures and Solutions] Suspensions and Solutions: Can filtration and evaporation determine whether mixtures are suspensions or solutions? 4:725
[Oxidation-Reduction] Oxidation and Rust: How is rust
produced? 4:817
[Oxidation-Reduction] Oxidation Reaction: Can acid change
the color of copper? 4:820
[Oxidation-Reduction] Reduction: How will acid affect dirty
pennies? 4:813
[Periodic Table] Active Metals: What metals give off electrons
more readily than others? 4:838
[Periodic Table] Metals versus Nonmetals: Which areas of the
periodic table have elements that conduct electricity? 4:830
[Periodic Table] Soluble Families: How does the solubility of an
element relate to where it is located on the Periodic Table? 4:835
[pH] Chemical Titration: What is required to change a substance from an acid or a base into a neutral solution? 4:865
[pH] Kitchen Chemistry: What is the pH of household
chemicals? 4:861
[Polymers] Polymer Properties: How are the properties of hard
plastics different? 5:923
[Polymers] Polymer Slime: How will adding more of a polymer
change the properties of a polymer slime? 5:919
[Polymers] Polymer Strength: What are the tensile properties of
certain polymers that make them more durable than
others? 5:914
[Salinity] Density Ball: How to make a standard for measuring
density 5:1000
[Salinity] Making a Hydrometer: How can salinity be
measured? 5:997
[Separation and Identification] Chromatography: Can you
identify a pen from the way its colors separate? 5:1034
xxxii
[Separation and Identification] Identifying a Mixture: How can

determining basic properties of a substance allow you to
identify the substances in a mixture? 5:1039
[Water Properties] Adhesion: How much weight is required to
break the adhesive force between an object and water? 6:1264
[Water Properties] Cohesion: Can the cohesive force of surface
tension in water support an object denser than water? 6:1261
ECOLOGY
[Acid Rain] Acid Rain and Animals: How does acid rain affect
brine shrimp? 1:5
[Acid Rain] Acid Rain and Plants: How does acid rain affect
plant growth? 1:9
[Acid Rain] Acid Rain: Can acid rain harm structures? 1:12
[Air and Water Pollution] Eutrophication: The effect of phosphates on water plants. 1:55
[Air and Water Pollution] Pollutant Bioindicators: Can lichens
provide clues to an areas air pollution? 1:51
[Biomes] Building a Desert Biome 1:108
[Biomes] Building a Temperate Forest Biome 1:107
[Composting/Landfills] Composting: Using organic material to
grow plants 2:237
[Composting/Landfills] Living Landfill: What effect do the
microorganisms in soil have on the decomposition
process? 2:232
[Dissolved Oxygen] Decay and Dissolved Oxygen: How does
the amount of decaying matter affect the level of dissolved
oxygen in water? 2:274
[Dissolved Oxygen] Goldfish Breath: How does a decrease in the
dissolved oxygen level affect the breathing rate of goldfish? 2:279
[Erosion] Erosion: Does soil type affect the amount of water that
runs off a hillside? 2:377
[Erosion] Plants and Erosion: How do plants affect the rate of
soil erosion? 2:381
[Greenhouse Effect] Creating a Greenhouse: How much will the
temperature rise inside a greenhouse? 3:592
[Greenhouse Effect] Fossil Fuels: What happens when fossil fuels
burn? 3:596
xxxiii
[Groundwater Aquifers] Aquifers: How do they become

polluted? 3:605
[Groundwater Aquifers] Groundwater: How can it be
cleaned? 3:609
[Pesticides] Moving through Water: How can pesticides affect
nontarget plant life? 4:852
[Pesticides] Natural versus Synthetic: How do different types of
pesticides compare against a pest? 4:848
[Renewable Energy] Capturing Wind Energy: How does
the material affect the amount of wind energy
harnessed? 5:944
[Renewable Energy] Hydropower: How does water pressure
affect water energy? 5:948
[Rivers] River Flow: How does the steepness and rate of water
flow affect river erosion? 5:962
[Rivers] Stream Flow: Does the stream meander? 5:960
[Rivers] Weathering Erosion in Glaciers: How does a river make
a trench? 5:957
[Soil] Soil pH: Does the pH of soil affect plant growth? 5:1074
[Soil] Soil Profile: What are the different properties of the soil
horizons? 5:1067
[Solar Energy] Capturing Solar Energy: Will seedlings grow
bigger in a greenhouse? 5:1084
[Solar Energy] Retaining the Suns heat: What substance best
stores heat for a solar system? 5:1090
[Solar Energy] Solar Cells: Will sunlight make a motor run? 5:1087
[Water Cycle] Surface Area: How does surface area affect the rate
of evaporation? 6:1253
[Water Cycle] Temperature: How does temperature affect the
rate of evaporation? 6:1248
FOOD SCIENCE
[Food Preservation] Drying Foods: Does drying fruits help

prevent or delay spoilage? 3:458
[Food Preservation] Sweet Preservatives: How does sugar affect
the preservation of fruit? 3:454
[Food Science] Jelly and Pectin: How does acidity affect how
fruit gels? 3:467
xxxiv
[Food Science] Rising Foods: How much carbon dioxide do

different leavening agents produce? 3:470
[Food Spoilage] Preservatives: How do different substances
affect the growth of mold? 3:481
[Food Spoilage] Spoiled Milk: How do different temperatures of
liquid affect its rate of spoilage? 3:485
[Vitamins and Minerals] Hard Water: Do different water sources have varying mineral content? 6:1231
[Vitamins and Minerals] Vitamin C: What juices are the best
sources of vitamin C? 6:1226
GEOLOGY
[Caves] Cave Formation: How does the acidity of a substance

affect the formation of a cave? 1:132
[Caves] Cave Icicles: How does the mineral content of water
affect the formation of stalactites and stalagmites? 1:135
[Earthquakes] Detecting an Earthquake: How can movement of
Earths crust be measured? 2:314
[Earthquakes] Earthquake Simulation: Is the destruction greater
at the epicenter? 2:317
[Fossils] Fossil Formation: What are the physical characteristics
of an organism that make the best fossils? 3:530
[Fossils] Making an Impression: In which soil environment does
a fossil most easily form? 3:526
[Mountains] Mountain Formations: How does the height of the
mountain have an affect on desert formation? 4:741
[Mountains] Mountain Plates: How does the movement
of Earths plates determine the formation of a mountain? 4:738
[Oceans] Currents: Water behavior in density-driven
currents 4:780
[Oceans] Stratification: How does the salinity in ocean water
cause it to form layers? 4:775
[Rocks and Minerals] Mineral Testing: What kind of mineral
is it? 5:971
[Rocks and Minerals] Rock Classification: Is it igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic? 5:975
[Volcanoes] Looking at a Seismograph: Can a volcanic eruption
be detected? 6:1242
[Volcanoes] Model of a Volcano: Will it blow its top? 6:1240
xxxv
M E T EO RO LO G Y
[Air] Air Density: Does warm air take up less room than cool
air? 1:36
[Air] Convection Currents: How can rising air cause weather
changes? 1:39
[Storms] Forming Hailstones: How do temperature differences
affect the formation of hail? 6:1158
[Storms] Lightning Sparks: Explore how separating charges
causes an attraction between objects 6:1152
[Storms] Tornadoes: Making a violent vortex 6:1155
[Weather] Clouds: Will a drop in air temperature cause a cloud
to form? 6:1277
[Weather] Wind: Measuring wind speed with a homemade
anemometer 6:1273
[Weather Forecasting] Air Pressure: How can air pressure be
measured? 6:1289
[Weather Forecasting] Dewpoint: When will dew form? 6:1286
PHYSICS
[Color] Color and Flavor: How much does color affect flavor
perception? 2:207
[Color] Temperature and Color: What color has the highest
temperature? 2:210
[Density and Buoyancy] Buoyancy: Does water pressure affect
buoyancy? 2:264
[Density and Buoyancy] Density: Can a scale of relative density
predict whether one material floats on another? 2:260
[Electricity] Batteries: Can a series of homemade electric cells
form a pile strong enough to match the voltage of a D-cell
battery? 2:340
[Electricity] Electrolytes: Do some solutions conduct electricity
better than others? 2:335
[Electricity] Electroplating: Using electricity to move one metal
onto another metal 2:344
[Electromagnetism] Electromagnetism: How can an electromagnet be created? 2:354
[Electromagnetism] Magnetism:How can a magnetic field be
created and detected? 2:351
xxxvi
[Flight] Helicopters, Propellers, and Centripetal Force: Will it

fly high? 3:418
[Flight] Lift-Off: How can a glider be made to fly higher? 3:415
[Fluids] Spinning Fluids: How do different fluids behave when
immersed in a spinning rod? 3:444
[Fluids] Viscosity: How can temperature affect the viscosity of
liquids? 3:441
[Forces] Centripetal Action: What is the relationship between
distance and force in circular motion? 3:501
[Forces] Newtons Laws in Action: How do water bottle rockets
demonstrate Newtons laws of motion? 3:493
[Gravity] Gravity: How fast do different objects fall? 3:581
[Gravity] Measuring Mass: How can a balance be made? 3:585
[Heat] Conduction: Which solid materials are the best conductors of heat? 3:618
[Heat] Convection: How does heat move through liquids? 3:622
[Heat] Heat Capacity: Which liquids have the highest heat
capacity? 3:625
[Light Properties] Looking for the Glow: Which objects glow
under black light? 4:661
[Light Properties] Refraction and Defraction: Making a
rainbow 4:664
[Light Properties] Refraction: How does the material affect how
light travels? 4:666
[Magnetism] Electromagnets: Does the strength of an electromagnet increase with greater current? 4:678
[Magnetism] Magnets: How do heat, cold, jarring, and rubbing
affect the magnetism of a nail? 4:674
[Nanotechnology] Nanosize Substances: How can the physical
size affect the rate of reaction? 4:753
[Nanotechnology] Nanosize: How can the physical size affect a
materials properties? 4:750
[Optics and Optical Illusions] Optical Illusions: Can the eye be
fooled? 4:791
[Optics and Optical Illusions] Optics: What is the focal length of
a lens? 5:788
[Potential and Kinetic Energy] Measuring Energy: How does the
height of an object affect its potential energy? 5:931
xxxvii
[Potential and Kinetic Energy] Using Energy: Build a roller

coaster 5:934
[Simple Machines] Lever Lifting: How does the distance from
the fulcrum affect work? 5:1055
[Simple Machines] The Screw: How does the distance between
the threads of a screw affect the work? 5:1057
[Simple Machines] Wheel and Axle: How can changing the size
of the wheel affect the amount of work it takes to lift a
load? 5:1051
[Sound] Pitch: How does the thickness of a vibrating string affect
sound? 5:1099
[Sound] Soundproofing: How do different materials affect
sound? 5:1102
[Sound] Wave Length: How does the length of a vibrating string
affect the sound it produces? 5:1096
[Static Electricity] Building an Electroscope: Which objects are
electrically charged? 6:1135
[Static Electricity] Measuring a Charge: Does nylon or wool
create a stronger static electric charge? 6:1139
[Structures and Shapes] Arches and Beams: Which is
strongest? 6:1167
[Structures and Shapes] Beams and Rigidity: How does the
vertical height of a beam affect its rigidity? 6:1170
[Time] Pendulums: How do the length, weight, and swing angle
of a pendulum affect its oscillation time? 6:1180
[Time] Water Clock: Does the amount of water in a water clock
affect its accuracy? 6:1185
[Wood] Water Absorption: How do different woods absorb
water? 6:1298
[Wood] Wood Hardness: How does the hardness of wood relate
to its building properties? 6:1302
xxxviii
Words to Know
Abdomen: The third segment of an insect body.

Abscission: Barrier of special cells created at the base of leaves in
autumn.
Absolute dating: The age of an object correlated to a specific fixed time,
as established by some precise dating method.

Acceleration: The rate at which the velocity and/or direction of an object
is changing with respect to time.

Acid: Substance that when dissolved in water is capable of reacting with a
base to form salts and release hydrogen ions.

Acid rain: A form of precipitation that is significantly more acidic than
neutral water, often produced as the result of industrial processes and

pollution.
Acoustics: The science concerned with the production, properties, and
propagation of sound waves.

Acronym: A word or phrase formed from the first letter of other words.
Active solar energy system: A solar energy system that uses pumps or
fans to circulate heat captured from the Sun.

Additive: A chemical compound that is added to foods to give them
some desirable quality, such as preventing them from spoiling.

Adhesion: Attraction between two different substances.
Adhesive: A substance that bonds or adheres two substances together.
xxxix
WORDS TO KNOW
Aeration: Mixing a gas, like oxygen, with a liquid, like water.

Aerobic: A process that requires oxygen.
Aerodynamics: The study of the motion of gases (particularly air) and
the motion and control of objects in the air.

Agar: A nutrient rich, gelatinous substance that is used to grow bacteria.
Air: Gaseous mixture that covers Earth, composed mainly of nitrogen
(about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%) with lesser amounts of argon,
carbon dioxide, and other gases.
Air density: The ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume it
occupies.
Air mass: A large body of air that has similar characteristics.
Air pressure: The force exerted by the weight of the atmosphere above a
point on or above Earths surface.

Alga/Algae: Single-celled or multicellular plants or plant-like organisms
that contain chlorophyll, thus making their own food by photosynthesis. Algae grow mainly in water.
Alignment: Adjustment in a certain direction or orientation.
Alkali metals: The first group of elements in the periodic table, these
metals have a single electron in the outermost shell.

Alkaline: Having a pH of more than 7.
Alleles: One version of the same gene.
Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals with properties different from
those metals of which it is made.

Amine: An organic compound derived from ammonia.
Amino acid: One of a group of organic compounds that make up
proteins.
Amnesia: Partial or total memory loss.
Amperage: A measurement of current. The common unit of measure is
the ampere or amp.

Amphibians: Animals that live on land and breathe air but return to the
water to reproduce.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement (difference between an original
position and a later position) of the material that is vibrating. Amplitude

can be thought of visually as the highest and lowest point of a wave.
Anaerobic: A process that does not require oxygen.
xl
WORDS TO KNOW
Anal fin: Fin on the belly of a fish, used for balance.

Anatomy: The study of the structure of living things.
Anemometer: A device that measures wind speed.
Angiosperm: A flowering plant that has its seeds produced within an
ovary.
Animalcules: Life forms that Anton van Leeuwenhoek named when he
first saw them under his microscope; they later became known as
protozoa and bacteria.
Anther: The male reproductive organs of the plant, located on the tip of
a flowers stamen.
Anthocyanin: Red pigment found in leaves, petals, stems, and other
parts of a plant.
Antibiotic: A substance produced by or derived from certain fungi and
other organisms, that can destroy or inhibit the growth of other

microorganisms.
Antibiotic resistance: The ability of microorganisms to change so that
they are not killed by antibiotics.

Antibody: A protein produced by certain cells of the body as an immune
(disease-fighting) response to a specific foreign antigen.

Antigen: A substance that causes the production of an antibody when
injected directly into the body.

Antioxidants: Used as a food additive, these substances can prevent food
spoilage by reducing the foods exposure to air.

Aquifer: Underground layer of sand, gravel, or spongy rock that collects
water.
Arch: A curved structure that spans an opening and supports a weight
above the opening.

Artesian well: A well in which water is forced out under pressure.
Asexual reproduction: A reproductive process that does not involve the
union of two individuals in the exchange of genetic material.

Astronomers: Scientists who study the positions, motions, and compo-
sition of stars and other objects in the sky.

Astronomy: The study of the physical properties of objects and matter
outside Earths atmosphere.

Atmosphere: Layers of air that surround Earth.
xli
WORDS TO KNOW
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at
Earths surface due to the weight of the air.

Atom: The smallest unit of an element, made up of protons and neu-
trons in a central nucleus surrounded by moving electrons.

Atomic mass: Also known as atomic weight, the average mass of the
atoms in an element; the number that appears under the element

symbol in the periodic table.
Atomic number: The number of protons (or electrons) in an atom; the
number that appears over the element symbol in the periodic table.
Atomic symbol: The one- or two-letter abbreviation for a chemical
element.
Autotroph: An organism that can build all the food and produce all the
energy it needs with its own resources.

Auxins: A group of plant hormones responsible for patterns of plant
growth.
Axis: An imaginary straight line around which an object, like a planet,
spins or turns. Earths axis is a line that goes through the North and
South Poles.
Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms that live in soil, water, plants,
and animals that play a key role in the decay of organic matter and the
cycling of nutrients. Some are agents of disease.
Bacteriology: The scientific study of bacteria, their characteristics, and
their activities as related to medicine, industry, and agriculture.

Barometer: An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure, used
especially in weather forecasting.

Base: Substance that when dissolved in water is capable of reacting with
an acid to form salts and release hydrogen ions; has a pH of more

than 7.
Base pairs: In DNA, the pairing of two nucleotides with each other:
adenine (A) with thymine (T), and guanine (G) with cytosine (C).
Beam: A straight, horizontal structure that spans an opening and sup-
ports a weight above the opening.

xlii
WORDS TO KNOW
Bedrock: Solid layer of rock lying beneath the soil and other loose
material.
Beriberi: A disease caused by a deficiency of thiamine and characterized
by nerve and gastrointestinal disorders.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5): The amount of oxygen micro-
organisms use over a five-day period in 68 F (20 C) water to decay

organic matter.
Biodegradable: Capable of being decomposed by biological agents.
Biological variables: Living factors such as bacteria, fungi, and animals
that can affect the processes that occur in nature and in an

experiment.
Bioluminescence: The chemical phenomenon in which an organism can
produce its own light.

Biomass: Organic materials that are used to produce usable energy.
Biomes: Large geographical areas with specific climates and soils, as well
as distinct plant and animal communities that are interdependent.

Biomimetics: The development of materials that are found in nature.
Biopesticide: Pesticide produced from substances found in nature.
Bivalve: Bivalves are characterized by shells that are divided into two
parts or valves that completely enclose the mollusk like the clam or
scallop.
Blanching: A cooking technique in which the food, usually vegetables
and fruits, are briefly cooked in boiling water and then plunged into
cold water.
Blood pattern analysis: The study of the shape, location, and pattern of
blood in order to understand how it got there.

Blueshift: The shortening of the frequency of light waves toward the
blue end of the visible light spectrum as they travel towards an

observer; most commonly used to describe movement of stars
towards Earth.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a substance changes from a
liquid to a gas or vapor.

Bond: The force that holds two atoms together.
Bone joint: A place in the body where two or more bones are connected.
Bone marrow: The spongy center of many bones in which blood cells are
manufactured.
xliii
WORDS TO KNOW
Bone tissue: A group of similar cells in the bone with a common
function.
Bony fish: The largest group of fish, whose skeleton is made of bone.
Boreal: Northern.
Botany: The branch of biology involving the scientific study of plant life.
Braided rivers: Wide, shallow rivers with multiple channels and pebbly
islands in the middle.

Buoyancy: The tendency of a liquid to exert a lifting effect on a body
immersed in it.
By-product: A secondary substance produced as the result of a physical
or chemical process, in addition to the main product.
Calcium carbonate: A substance that is secreted by a mollusk to create
the shell it lives in.

Calibration: To standardize or adjust a measuring instrument so its
measurements are correct.

Cambium: The tissue below the bark that produces new cells, which
become wood and bark.

Camouflage: Markings or coloring that help hide an animal by making
it blend into the surrounding environment.

Cancellous bone: Also called spongy bone, the inner layer of a bone that
has cells with large spaces in between them filled with marrow.
Canning: A method of preserving food using airtight, vacuum-sealed
containers and heat processing.

Capillary action: The tendency of water to rise through a narrow tube by
the force of adhesion between the water and the walls of the tube.
Caramelization: The process of heating sugars to the point at which they
break down and lead to the formation of new compounds.

Carbohydrate: A compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
found in plants and used as a food by humans and other animals.

Carbonic acid: A weak acid that forms from the mixture of water and
carbon dioxide.
Carnivore: A meat-eating organism.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment in plants.

Cartilage: The connective tissue that covers and protects the bones.
Cartilaginous fish: The second largest group of fish whose skeleton is
made of cartilage
Cast: In paleontology, the fossil formed when a mold is later filled in by
mud or mineral matter.

Catalase: An enzyme found in animal liver tissue that breaks down
hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water.

Catalyst: A compound that starts or speeds up the rate of a chemical
reaction without undergoing any change in its own composition.

Caudal fin: Tail fin of a fish used for fast swimming.
Cave: Also called cavern, a hollow or natural passage under or into the
ground large enough for a person to enter.

Celestial bodies: Describing planets or other objects in space.
Cell membrane: The layer that surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell
wall, allowing some molecules to enter and keeping others out of the
cell.
Cell theory: All living things have one or more similar cells that carry out
the same functions for the living process.

Cell wall: A tough outer covering over the cell membrane of bacteria and
plant cells.
Cells: The basic unit for living organisms; cells are structured to perform
highly specialized functions.

Centrifugal force: The apparent force pushing a rotating body away
from the center of rotation.

Centrifuge: A device that rapidly spins a solution so that the heavier
components will separate from the lighter ones.

Centripetal force: Rotating force that moves towards the center or axis.
Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain.
Channel: A shallow trench carved into the ground by the pressure and
movement of a river.
Chemical change: The change of one or more substances into other
substances.
Chemical energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Chemical property: A characteristic of a substance that allows it to
undergo a chemical change. Chemical properties include flammability and sensitivity to light.
Chemical reaction: Any chemical change in which at least one new
substance is formed.
Chemosense: A sense stimulated by specific chemicals that cause the
sensory cell to transmit a signal to the brain.

Chitin: Substance that makes up the exoskeleton of crustaceans.
Chlorophyll: A green pigment found in plants that absorbs sunlight,
providing the energy used in photosynthesis, or the conversion of

carbon dioxide and water to complex carbohydrates.
Chloroplasts: Small structures in plant cells that contain chlorophyll and
in which the process of photosynthesis takes place.

Chromatography: A method for identifying the components of a sub-
stance based on their characteristic colors.

Chromosome: A structure of DNA found in the cell nucleus.
Cilia: Hairlike structures on olfactory receptor cells that sense odor
molecules.
Circuit: The complete path of an electric current including the source of
electric energy.
Circumference: The distance around a circle.
Clay: Type of soil comprising the smallest soil particles.
Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to split along certain planes.
Climate: The average weather that a region experiences over a long
period.
Coagulation: The clumping together of particles in a mixture, often
because the repelling force separating them is disrupted.

Cohesion: Attraction between like substances.
Cold blooded: When an animals body temperature rises or falls to match
the environment.
Collagen: A protein in bone that gives the bone elasticity.
Colloid: A mixture containing particles suspended in, but not dissolved
in, a dispersing medium.

Colony: A mass of microorganisms that have been bred in a medium.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Colorfast: The ability of a material to keep its dye and not fade or change
color.
Coma: Glowing cloud of gas surrounding the nucleus of a comet.
Combustion: Any chemical reaction in which heat, and usually light, is
produced. It is commonly the burning of organic substances during

which oxygen from the air is used to form carbon dioxide and water
vapor.
Comet: An icy body orbiting in the solar system, which partially vapor-
izes when it nears the Sun and develops a diffuse envelope of dust and
gas as well as one or more tails.
Comet head: The nucleus and the coma of a comet.
Comet nucleus: The core or center of a comet. (Plural: Comet nuclei.)
Comet tail: The most distinctive feature of comets; comets can display
two basic types of tails: one gaseous and the other largely composed
of dust.
Compact bone: The outer, hard layer of the bone.
Complete metamorphosis: Metamorphosis in which a larva becomes a
pupa before changing into an adult form.

Composting: The process in which organic compounds break down and
become dark, fertile soil called humus.

Compression: A type of force on an object where the object is pushed or
squeezed from each end.

Concave: Hollowed or rounded inward, like the inside of a bowl.
Concave lens: A lens that is thinner in the middle than at the edges.
Concentration: The amount of a substance present in a given volume,
such as the number of molecules in a liter.

Condensation: The process by which a gas changes into a liquid.
Conduction: The flow of heat through a solid.
Conductivity: The ability of a material to carry an electrical current.
Conductor: A substance able to carry an electrical current.
Cones: Cells in the retina that can perceive color.
Confined aquifer: An aquifer with a layer of impermeable rock above it
where the water is held under pressure.

Coniferous: Refers to trees, such as pines and firs, that bear cones and
have needle-like leaves that are not shed all at once.

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WORDS TO KNOW
Conservation of energy: The law of physics that states that energy can be
transformed from one form to another, but can be neither created

nor destroyed.
Constellations: Patterns of stars in the night sky. There are eighty-eight
known constellations.
Continental drift: The theory that continents move apart slowly at a
predictable rate.
Contract: To shorten, pull together.
Control experiment: A set-up that is identical to the experiment but is
not affected by the variable that will be changed during the

experiment.
Convection: The circulatory motion that occurs in a gas or liquid at a
nonuniform temperature owing to the variation of its density and the

action of gravity.
Convection current: A circular movement of a fluid in response to
alternating heating and cooling.

Convex: Curved or rounded outward, like the outside of a ball.
Convex lens: A lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges.
Coprolites: The fossilized droppings of animals.
Coriolis force: A force that makes a moving object appear to travel in a
curved path over the surface of a spinning body.

Corona: The outermost atmospheric layer of the Sun.
Corrosion: An oxidation-reduction reaction in which a metal is oxidized
(reacted with oxygen) and oxygen is reduced, usually in the presence

of moisture.
Cotyledon: Seed leaves, which contain the stored source of food for the
embryo.
Crater: An indentation caused by an object hitting the surface of a planet
or moon.
Crest: The highest point reached by a wave.
Cross-pollination: The process by which pollen from one plant polli-
nates another plant of the same species.

Crust: The hard outer shell of Earth that floats upon the softer, denser
mantle.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Crustacean: A type of arthropod characterized by hard and thick skin,
and having shells that are jointed. This group includes the lobster,
crab, and crayfish.
Crystal: Naturally occurring solid composed of atoms or molecules
arranged in an orderly pattern that repeats at regular intervals.

Crystal faces: The flat, smooth surfaces of a crystal.
Crystal lattice: The regular and repeating pattern of the atoms in a
crystal.
Cultures: Microorganisms growing in prepared nutrients.
Cumulonimbus cloud: The parent cloud of a thunderstorm; a tall,
vertically developed cloud capable of producing heavy rain, high

winds, and lightning.
Current: The flow of electrical charge from one point to another.
Currents: The horizontal and vertical circulation of ocean waters.
Cyanobacteria: Oxygen-producing, aquatic bacteria capable of manu-
facturing its own food; resembles algae.

Cycles: Occurrence of events that take place on a regular, repeating
basis.
Cytology: The branch of biology concerned with the study of cells.
Cytoplasm: The semifluid substance inside a cell that surrounds the
nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles.
Decanting: The process of separating a suspension by waiting for its
heavier components to settle out and then pouring off the lighter
ones.
Decibel (dB): A unit of measurement for the amplitude of sound.
Deciduous: Plants that lose their leaves during some season of the year,
and then grow them back during another season.

Decompose: To break down into two or more simpler substances.
Decomposition: The breakdown of complex molecules of dead organ-
isms into simple nutrients that can be reutilized by living organisms.

Decomposition reaction: A chemical reaction in which one substance is
broken down into two or more substances.

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WORDS TO KNOW
Deficiency disease: A disease marked by a lack of an essential nutrient in
the diet.
Degrade: Break down.
Dehydration: The removal of water from a material.
Denaturization: Altering an enzyme so it no longer works.
Density: The mass of a substance divided by its volume.
Density ball: A ball with the fixed standard of 1.0 gram per milliliter,
which is the exact density of pure water.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Large, complex molecules found in the
nuclei of cells that carry genetic information for an organisms

development; double helix. (Pronounced DEE-ox-see-rye-bo-nooklay-ick acid)
Dependent variable: The variable in an experiment whose value depends
on the value of another variable in the experiment.

Deposition: Dropping of sediments that occurs when a river loses its
energy of motion.
Desert: A biome with a hot-to-cool climate and dry weather.
Desertification: Transformation of arid or semiarid productive land into
desert.
Dewpoint: The point at which water vapor begins to condense.
Dicot: Plants with a pair of embryonic seeds that appear at germination.
Diffraction: The bending of light or another form of electromagnetic
radiation as it passes through a tiny hole or around a sharp edge.

Diffraction grating: A device consisting of a surface into which are
etched very fine, closely spaced grooves that cause different wavelengths of light to reflect or refract (bend) by different amounts.
Diffusion: Random movement of molecules that leads to a net move-
ment of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of

low concentration.
Disinfection: Using chemicals to kill harmful organisms.
Dissolved oxygen: Oxygen molecules that have dissolved in water.
Distillation: The process of separating liquids from solids or from other
liquids with different boiling points by a method of evaporation and

condensation, so that each component in a mixture can be collected
separately in its pure form.
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WORDS TO KNOW
DNA fingerprinting: A technique that uses DNA fragments to identify
the unique DNA sequences of an individual.

DNA replication: The process by which one DNA strand unwinds and
duplicates all its information, creating two new DNA strands that are
identical to each other and to the original strand.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): Large, complex molecules found in nuclei
of cells that carry genetic information for an organisms development.

Domain: Small regions in iron that possess their own magnetic charges.
Dominant gene: A gene that passes on a certain characteristic, even when
there is only one copy (allele) of the gene.

Doppler effect: The change in wavelength and frequency (number of
vibrations per second) of either light or sound as the source is moving

either towards or away from the observer.
Dormant: A state of inactivity in an organism.
Dorsal fin: The fin located on the back of a fish, used for balance.
Double helix: The shape taken by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) mole-
cules in a nucleus.
Drought: A prolonged period of dry weather that damages crops or
prevents their growth.

Dry cell: A source of electricity that uses a non-liquid electrolyte.
Dust tail: One of two types of tails a comet may have, it is composed
mainly of dust and it points away from the Sun.

Dye: A colored substance that is used to give color to a material.
Dynamic equilibrium: A situation in which substances are moving into
and out of cell walls at an equal rate.
Earthquake: An unpredictable event in which masses of rock suddenly
shift or rupture below Earths surface, releasing enormous amounts

of energy and sending out shockwaves that sometimes cause the
ground to shake dramatically.
Eclipse: A phenomenon in which the light from a celestial body is
temporarily cut off by the presence of another.

Ecologists: Scientists who study the interrelationship of organisms and
their environments.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Ecosystem: An ecological community, including plants, animals and
microorganisms, considered together with their environment.

Efficiency: The amount of power output divided by the amount of
power input. It is a measure of how well a device converts one form

of power into another.
Effort: The force applied to move a load using a simple machine.
Elastomers: Any of various polymers having rubbery properties.
Electric charge repulsion: Repulsion of particles caused by a layer of
negative ions surrounding each particle. The repulsion prevents

coagulation and promotes the even dispersion of such particles
through a mixtures.
Electrical energy: Kinetic energy resulting from the motion of electrons
within any object that conducts electricity.

Electricity: A form of energy caused by the presence of electrical charges
in matter.
Electrode: A material that will conduct an electrical current, usually a
metal; used to carry electrons into or out of a battery.

Electrolyte: Any substance that, when dissolved in water, conducts an
electric current.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The complete array of electromagnetic radi-
ation, including radio waves (at the longest-wavelength end), microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays,
and gamma rays (at the shortest-wavelength end).
Electromagnetism: A form of magnetic energy produced by the flow of
an electric current through a metal core. Also, the study of electric

and magnetic fields and their interaction with charges and currents.
Electron: A subatomic particle with a single negative electrical change
that orbits the nucleus of an atom.

Electroplating: The process of coating one metal with another metal by
means of an electrical current.

Electroscope: A device that determines whether an object is electrically
charged.
Element: A pure substance composed of just one type of atom that
cannot be broken down into anything simpler by ordinary chemical

means.
Elevation: Height above sea level.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Elliptical: An orbital path which is egg-shaped or resembles an elongated
circle.
Elongation: The percentage increase in length that occurs before a
material breaks under tension.

Embryo: The seed of a plant, which through germination can develop
into a new plant.

Embryonic: The earliest stages of development.
Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction that absorbs heat or light
energy, such as photosynthesis, the production of food by plant cells.

Energy: The ability to cause an action or to perform work.
Entomology: The study of insects.
Environmental variables: Nonliving factors such as air temperature,
water, pollution, and pH that can affect processes that occur in

nature and in an experiment.
Enzyme: Any of numerous complex proteins produced by living cells
that act as catalysts, speeding up the rate of chemical reactions in

living organisms.
Enzymology: The science of studying enzymes.
Ephemerals: Plants that lie dormant in dry soil for years until major
rainstorms occur.
Epicenter: The location where the seismic waves of an earthquake first
appear on the surface, usually almost directly above the focus.

Equilibrium: A balancing or canceling out of opposing forces, so that an
object will remain at rest.

Erosion: The process by which topsoil is carried away by water, wind, or
ice action.
Ethnobotany: The study of how cultures use plants in everyday life.
Eukaryotic: Multicellular organism whose cells contain distinct nuclei,
which contain the genetic material. (Pronounced yoo-KAR-ee-ah-tic)

Euphotic zone: The upper part of the ocean where sunlight penetrates,
supporting plant life, such as phytoplankton.

Eutrophication: The process by which high nutrient concentrations in a
body of water eventually cause the natural wildlife to die.

Evaporation: The process by which liquid changes into a gas.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Exoskeleton: A hard outer covering on animals, which provide protec-
tion and structure.

Exothermic reaction: A chemical reaction that releases heat or light
energy, such as the burning of fuel.

Experiment: A controlled observation.
Extremophiles: Bacteria that thrive in environments too harsh to sup-
port most life forms.
False memory: A memory of an event that never happened or an altered
memory from what happened.

Family: A group of elements in the same column of the periodic table or
in closely related columns of the table. A family of chemical compounds share similar structures and properties.
Fat: A type of lipid, or chemical compound used as a source of energy, to
provide insulation and to protect organs in an animal body.

Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins such as A, D, E, and K that can be
dissolved in the fat of plants and animals.

Fault: A crack running through rock as the result of tectonic forces.
Fault blocks: Pieces of rock from Earths crust that press against each
other and cause earthquakes when they suddenly shift or rupture

from the pressure.
Fault mountain: A mountain that is formed when Earths plates come
together and cause rocks to break and move upwards.

Fermentation: A chemical reaction in which enzymes break down com-
plex organic compounds (for example, carbohydrates and sugars)

into simpler ones (for example, ethyl alcohol).
Filament: In a flower, stalk of the stamen that bears the anther.
Filtration: The mechanical separation of a liquid from the undissolved
particles floating in it.

Fireball: Meteors that create an intense, bright light and, sometimes, an
explosion.
First law of motion (Newtons): An object at rest or moving in a certain
direction and speed will remain at rest or moving in the same motion
and speed unless acted upon by a force.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Fish: Animals that live in water who have gills, fins, and are cold
blooded.
Fixative: A substance that mixes with the dye to hold it to the material.
Flagella: Whiplike structures used by some organisms for movement.
(Singular: flagellum.)
Flammability: The ability of a material to ignite and burn.
Flower: The reproductive part of a flowering plant.
Fluid: A substance that flows; a liquid or gas.
Fluorescence: The emission of visible light from an object when the
object is bombarded with electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet rays. The emission of visible light stops after the radiation
source has been removed.
Focal length: The distance from the lens to the point where the light rays
come together to a focus.

Focal point: The point at which rays of light converge or from which
they diverge.
Focus: The point within Earth where a sudden shift or rupture occurs.
Fold mountain: A mountain that is formed when Earths plates come
together and push rocks up into folds.

Food webs: Interconnected sets of food chains, which are a sequence of
organisms directly dependent on one another for food.

Force: A physical interaction (pushing or pulling) tending to change the
state of motion (velocity) of an object.

Forensic science: The application of science to the law and justice
system.
Fortified: The addition of nutrients, such as vitamins or minerals, to
food.
Fossil: The remains, trace, or impressions of a living organism that
inhabited Earth more than ten thousand years ago.

Fossil fuel: A fuel such as coal, oil, or natural gas that is formed over
millions of years from the remains of plants and animals.

Fossil record: The documentation of fossils placed in relationship to one
another; a key source to understand the evolution of life on Earth.

Fracture: A minerals tendency to break into curved, rough, or jagged
surfaces.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Frequency: The rate at which vibrations take place (number of times per
second the motion is repeated), given in cycles per second or in hertz

(Hz). Also, the number of waves that pass a given point in a given
period of time.
Friction: A force that resists the motion of an object, resulting when two
objects rub against one another.

Front: The area between air masses of different temperatures or densities.
Fuel cell: A device that uses hydrogen as the fuel to produce electricity
and heat with water as a byproduct.

Fulcrum: The point at which a lever arm pivots.
Fungi: Kingdom of various single-celled or multicellular organisms,
including mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and mildews, that do not

contain chlorophyll.
Funnel cloud: A fully developed tornado vortex before it has touched the
ground.
Fusion: Combining of nuclei of two or more lighter elements into one
nucleus of a heavier element; the process stars use to produce energy

to produce light and support themselves against their own gravity.
Galaxy: A large collection of stars and clusters of stars containing any-
where from a few million to a few trillion stars.

Gastropod: The largest group of mollusks; characterized by a single shell
that is often coiled in a spiral. Snails are gastropods.

Gene: A segment of a DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule contained
in the nucleus of a cell that acts as a kind of code for the production of
some specific protein. Genes carry instructions for the formation,
functioning, and transmission of specific traits from one generation
to another.
Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy,
Genetic engineering: A technique that modifies the DNA of living cells
in order to make them change its characteristics. Also called genetic

modification.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Genetic material: Material that transfers characteristics from a parent to
its offspring.
Geology: The study of the origin, history and structure of Earth.
Geothermal energy: Energy from deep within Earth.
Geotropism: The tendency of roots to bend toward Earth.
Germ theory of disease: The theory that disease is caused by micro-
organisms or germs, and not by spontaneous generation.

Germination: First stage in development of a plant seed.
Gibbous moon: A phase of the Moon when more than half of its surface
is lighted.
Gills: Special organ located behind the head of a fish that takes in oxygen
from the water.

Glacier: A large mass of ice formed from snow that has packed together
and which moves slowly down a slope under its own weight.
Global warming: Warming of Earths atmosphere as a result of an
increase in the concentration of gases that store heat, such as carbon

dioxide.
Glucose: A simple sugar broken down in cells to produce energy.
Gnomon: The perpendicular piece of the sundial that casts the shadow.
Golgi body: An organelles that sorts, modifies, and packages molecules.
Gravity: Force of attraction between objects, the strength of which
depends on the mass of each object and the distance between them.
Greenhouse effect: The warming of Earths atmosphere due to water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases in the atmosphere that trap
heat radiated from Earths surface.
Greenhouse gases: Gases that absorb infrared radiation and warm the
air before the heat energy escapes into space.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The time at an imaginary line that runs
north and south through Greenwich, England, used as the standard

for time throughout the world.
Groundwater: Water that soaks into the ground and is stored in the
small spaces between the rocks and soil.

Group: A vertical column of the periodic table that contains elements
possessing similar chemical characteristics.

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WORDS TO KNOW
Hardwood: Wood from angiosperm, mostly deciduous, trees.

Heartwood: The inner layers of wood that provide structure and have no
living cells.
Heat: A form of energy produced by the motion of molecules that make
up a substance.
Heat capacity: The measure of how well a substance stores heat.
Heat energy: The energy produced when two substances that have
different temperatures are combined.

Heliotropism: The tendency of plants to turn towards the Sun through-
out the day.

Herbivore: A plant-eating organism.
Hertz (Hz): The unit of measurement of frequency; a measure of the
number of waves that pass a given point per second of time.

Heterogeneous: Different throughout.
Heterotrophs: Organisms that cannot make their own food and that
must, therefore, obtain their food from other organisms.

High air pressure: An area where the air is cooler and more dense, and
the air pressure is higher than normal.

Hippocampus: A part of the brain associated with learning and memory.
Homogenous: The same throughout.
Hormones: Chemicals produced in the cells of plants and animals that
control bodily functions.

Hue: The color or shade.
Humidity: The amount of water vapor (moisture) contained in the air.
Humus: Fragrant, spongy, nutrient-rich decayed plant or animal
matter.
Hydrologic cycle: Continual movement of water from the atmosphere
to Earths surface through precipitation and back to the atmosphere

through evaporation and transpiration.
Hydrologists: Scientists who study water and its cycle.
Hydrology: The study of water and its cycle.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Hydrometer: An instrument that determines the specific gravity of a
liquid.
Hydrophilic: A substance that is attracted to and readily mixes with
water.
Hydrophobic: A substance that is repelled by and does not mix with
water.
Hydropower: Energy produced from capturing moving water.
Hydrotropism: The tendency of roots to grow toward a water source.
Hypertonic solution: A solution with a higher concentration of materials
than a cell immersed in the solution.

Hypha: Slender, cottony filaments making up the body of multicellular
fungi. (Plural: hyphae)

Hypothesis: An idea in the form of a statement that can be tested by
observation and/or experiment.

Hypotonic solution: A solution with a lower concentration of materials
than a cell immersed in the solution.
Igneous rock: Rock formed from the cooling and hardening of magma.
Immiscible: Incapable of being mixed.
Imperfect flower: Flowers that have only the male reproductive organ
(stamen) or the female reproductive organs (pistil).

Impermeable: Not allowing substances to pass through.
Impurities: Chemicals or other pollutants in water.
Inclined plane: A simple machine with no moving parts; a slanted surface.
Incomplete metamorphosis: Metamorphosis in which a nymph form
gradually becomes an adult through molting.

Independent variable: The variable in an experiment that determines
the final result of the experiment.

Indicator: Pigments that change color when they come into contact with
acidic or basic solutions.

Inertia: The tendency of an object to continue in its state of motion.
Infrared radiation: Electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength shorter than
radio waves but longer than visible light that takes the form of heat.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Inner core: Very dense, solid center of Earth.

Inorganic: Not containing carbon; not derived from a living organism.
Insect: A six-legged invertebrate whose body has three segments.
Insoluble: A substance that cannot be dissolved in some other substance.
Insulated wire: Electrical wire coated with a non-conducting material
such as plastic.
Insulation: A material that is a poor conductor of heat or electricity.
Insulator: A material through which little or no electrical current or heat
energy will flow.

Interference fringes: Bands of color that fan out around an object.
Internal skeleton: An animal that has a backbone.
Invertebrate: An animal that lacks a backbone or internal skeleton.
Ion: An atom or groups of atoms that carry an electrical chargeeither
positive or negativeas a result of losing or gaining one or more

electrons.
Ion tail: One of two types of tails a comet may have, it is composed
mainly of charged particles and it points away from the Sun.

Ionic conduction: The flow of an electrical current by the movement of
charged particles, or ions.

Isobars: Continuous lines that connect areas with the same air pressure.
Isotonic solutions: Two solutions that have the same concentration of
solute particles and therefore the same osmotic pressure.
Jawless fish: The smallest group of fishes, who lacks a jaw.
Kinetic energy: The energy of an object or system due to its motion.

Kingdom: One of the five classifications in the widely accepted classi-
fication system that designates all living organisms into animals,

plants, fungi, protists, and monerans.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Labyrinth: A lung-like organ located above the gills that allows the fish to
breathe in oxygen from the air.

Lactobacilli: A strain of bacteria.
Landfill: A method of disposing of waste materials by placing them in a
depression in the ground or piling them in a mound. In a sanitary

landfill, the daily deposits of waste materials are covered with a layer
of soil.
Larva: Immature form (wormlike in insects; fishlike in amphibians) of
an organism capable of surviving on its own. A larva does not

resemble the parent and must go through metamorphosis, or change,
to reach its adult stage.
Lava: Molten rock that occurs at the surface of Earth, usually through
volcanic eruptions.
Lava cave: A cave formed from the flow of lava streaming over solid
matter.
Leach: The movement of dissolved minerals or chemicals with water as it
percolates, or oozes, downward through the soil.

Leaching: The movement of dissolved chemicals with water that is
percolating, or oozing, downward through the soil.

Leavening agent: A substance used to make foods like dough and batter
to rise.
Leeward: The side away from the wind or flow direction.
Lens: A piece of transparent material with two curved surfaces that bend
rays of light passing through it.

Lichen: An organism composed of a fungus and a photosynthetic organ-
ism in a symbiotic relationship.

Lift: Upward force on the wings of an aircraft created by differences in air
pressure on top of and underneath the wings.

Ligaments: Tough, fibrous tissue connecting bones.
Light: A form of energy that travels in waves.
Light-year: Distance light travels in one year in the vacuum of space,
roughly 5.9 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers).

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WORDS TO KNOW
The Local Group: A cluster of thirty galaxies, including the Milky Way,
pulled together by gravity.

Long-term memory: The last category of memory in which memories
are stored away and can last for years.

Low air pressure: An area where the air is warmer and less dense, and the
air pressure is lower than normal.

Luminescent: Producing light through a chemical process.
Luminol: A compound used to detect blood.
Lunar eclipse: An eclipse that occurs when Earth passes between the Sun
and the Moon, casting a shadow on the Moon.

Luster: A glow of reflected light; a sheen.
Machine: Any device that makes work easier by providing a mechanical
advantage.
Macrominerals: Minerals needed in relatively large quantities.
Macroorganisms: Visible organisms that aid in breaking down organic
matter.
Magma: Molten rock deep within Earth that consists of liquids, gases,
and particles of rocks and crystals. Magma underlies areas of volcanic

activity and at Earths surface is called lava.
Magma chambers: Pools of bubbling liquid rock that are the source of
energy causing volcanoes to be active.

Magma surge: A swell or rising wave of magma caused by the movement
and friction of tectonic plates, which heats and melts rock, adding to
the magma and its force.
Magnet: A material that attracts other like materials, especially metals.
Magnetic circuit: A series of magnetic domains aligned in the same
direction.
Magnetic field: The space around an electric current or a magnet in
which a magnetic force can be observed.

Magnetism: A fundamental force in nature caused by the motion of
electrons in an atom.
Maillard reaction: A reaction caused by heat and sugars and resulting in
foods browning and flavors.

lxii
WORDS TO KNOW
Mammals: Animals that have a backbone, are warm blooded, have
mammary glands to feed their young and have or are born with hair.
Mantle: Thick dense layer of rock that underlies Earths crust and over-
lies the core; also soft tissue that is located between the shell and an
animals inner organs. The mantle produces the calcium carbonate
substance that create the shell of the animal.
Manure: The waste matter of animals.
Mass: Measure of the total amount of matter in an object. Also, an
objects quantity of matter as shown by its gravitational pull on

another object.
Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space.
Meandering river: A lowland river that twists and turns along its route to
the sea.
Medium: A material that contains the nutrients required for a particular
microorganism to grow.
Melting point: The temperature at which a substance changes from a
solid to a liquid.
Memory: The process of retaining and recalling past events and
experiences.
Meniscus: The curved surface of a column of liquid.
Metabolism: The process by which living organisms convert food into
energy and waste products.

Metamorphic rock: Rock formed by transformation of pre-existing rock
through changes in temperature and pressure.

Metamorphosis: Transformation of an immature animal into an adult.
Meteor: An object from space that becomes glowing hot when it passes
into Earths atmosphere; also called shooting star.

Meteor shower: A group of meteors that occurs when Earths orbit
intersects the orbit of a meteor stream.

Meteorites: A meteor that is large enough to survive its passage through
the atmosphere and hit the ground.

Meteoroid: A piece of debris that is traveling in space.
Meteorologist: Scientist who studies the weather and the atmosphere.
Microbiology: Branch of biology dealing with microscopic forms of life.
Microclimate: A unique climate that exists only in a small, localized area.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Microorganisms: Living organisms so small that they can be seen only
with the aid of a microscope.

Micropyle: Seed opening that enables water to enter easily.
Microvilli: The extension of each taste cell that pokes through the taste
pore and first senses the chemicals.

Milky Way: The galaxy in which our solar system is located.
Mimicry: A characteristic in which an animal is protected against pred-
ators by resembling another, more distasteful animal.

Mineral: An inorganic substance found in nature with a definite chem-
ical composition and structure. As a nutrient, it helps build bones

and soft tissues and regulates body functions.
Mixture: A combination of two or more substances that are not chemi-
cally combined with each other and that can exist in any proportion.
Mnemonics: Techniques to improve memory.
Mold: In paleontology, the fossil formed when acidic water dissolves a
shell or bone around which sand or mud has already hardened.

Molecule: The smallest particle of a substance that retains all the proper-
ties of the substance and is composed of one or more atoms.

Mollusk: An invertebrate animal usually enclosed in a shell, the largest
group of shelled animals.

Molting: A process by which an animal sheds its skin or shell.
Monocot: Plants with a single embryonic leaf at germination.
Monomer: A small molecule that can be combined with itself many
times over to make a large molecule, the polymer.

Moraine: Mass of boulders, stones, and other rock debris carried along
and deposited by a glacier.

Mordant: A substance that fixes the dye to the material.
Mountain: A landform that stands well above its surroundings; higher
than a hill.
Mucus: A thick, slippery substance that serves as a protective lubricant
coating in passages of the body that communicate with the air.

Multicellular: Living things with many cells joined together.
Muscle fibers: Stacks of long, thin cells that make up muscle; there are
three types of muscle fiber: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.

Mycelium: In fungi, the mass of threadlike, branching hyphae.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Nanobots: A nanoscale robot.

Nanometer: A unit of length; this measurement is equal to one-billionth
of a meter.
Nanotechnology: Technology that involves working and developing
technologies on the nanometer (atomic and molecular) scale.

Nansen bottles: Self-closing containers with thermometers that draw in
water at different depths.

Nebula: Bright or dark cloud, often composed of gases and dust, hover-
ing in the space between the stars.

Nectar: A sweet liquid, found inside a flower, that attracts pollinators.
Neutralization: A chemical reaction in which the mixing of an acidic
solution with a basic (alkaline) solution results in a solution that has

the properties of neither an acid nor a base.
Neutron: A subatomic particle with a mass of about one atomic mass
unit and no electrical charge that is found in the nucleus of an atom.

Newtonian fluid: A fluid that follows certain properties, such as the
viscosity remains constant at a given temperature.

Niche: The specific location and place in the food chain that an organ-
ism occupies in its environment.

Noble gases: Also known as inert or rare gases; the elements argon,
helium, krypton, neon, radon, and xenon, which are nonreactive

gases and form few compounds with other elements.
Non-Newtonian fluid: A fluid whose property do not follow Newtonian
properties, such as viscosity can vary based on the stress.

Nonpoint source: An unidentified source of pollution, which may
actually be a number of sources.

Nucleation: The process by which crystals start growing.
Nucleotide: The basic unit of a nucleic acid. It consists of a simple sugar,
a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. (Pronounced

noo-KLEE-uh-tide.)
Nucleus: The central part of the cell that contains the DNA; the central
core of an atom, consisting of protons and (usually) neutrons.

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WORDS TO KNOW
Nutrient: A substance needed by an organism in order for it to survive,
grow, and develop.

Nutrition: The study of the food nutrients an organism needs in order to
maintain well-being.
Nymph: An immature form in the life cycle of insects that go through an
incomplete metamorphosis.
Objective lens: In a refracting telescope, the lens farthest away from the
eye that collects the light.

Oceanographer: A person who studies the chemistry of the oceans, as
well as their currents, marine life, and the ocean floor.

Oceanography: The study of the chemistry of the oceans, as well as their
currents, marine life, and the ocean bed.

Olfactory: Relating to the sense of smell.
Olfactory bulb: The part of the brain that processes olfactory (smell)
information.
Olfactory epithelium: The patch of mucous membrane at the top of the
nasal cavity that contains the olfactory (smell) nerve cells.

Olfactory receptor cells: Nerve cells in the olfactory epithelium that
detect odors and transmit the information to the brain.

Oort cloud: Region of space beyond our solar system that theoretically
contains about one trillion inactive comets.

Optics: The study of the nature of light and its properties.
Orbit: The path followed by a body (such as a planet) in its travel around
another body (such as the Sun).

Organelle: A membrane-enclosed structure that performs a specific
function within a cell.

Organic: Containing carbon; also referring to materials that are derived
from living organisms.

Oscillation: A repeated back-and-forth movement.
Osmosis: The movement of fluids and substances dissolved in liquids
across a semipermeable membrane from an area of its greater concentration to an area of its lesser concentration until all substances
involved reach a balance.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Outer core: A liquid core that surrounds Earths solid inner core; made
mostly of iron.
Ovary: In a plant, the base part of the pistil that bears ovules and
develops into a fruit.

Ovule: Structure within the ovary that develops into a seed after
fertilization.
Oxidation: A chemical reaction in which oxygen reacts with some other
substance and in which ions, atoms, or molecules lose electrons.

Oxidation state: The sum of an atoms positive and negative charges.
Oxidation-reduction reaction: A chemical reaction in which one sub-
stance loses one or more electrons and the other substance gains one
or more electrons.
Oxidizing agent: A chemical substance that gives up oxygen or takes on
electrons from another substance.
Paleontologist: Scientist who studies the life of past geological periods as
known from fossil remains.

Papain: An enzyme obtained from the fruit of the papaya used as a meat
tenderizer, as a drug to clean cuts and wounds, and as a digestive aid

for stomach disorders.
Papillae: The raised bumps on the tongue that contain the taste buds.
Parent material: The underlying rock from which soil forms.
Partial solar/lunar eclipse: An eclipse in which our view of the Sun/
Moon is only partially blocked.

Particulate matter: Solid matter in the form of tiny particles in the
atmosphere. (Pronounced par-TIK-you-let.)

Passive solar energy system: A solar energy system in which the heat of
the Sun is captured, used, and stored by means of the design of a

building and the materials from which it is made.
Pasteurization: The process of slow heating that kills bacteria and other
microorganisms.
Peaks: The points at which the energy in a wave is maximum.
Pectin: A natural carbohydrate found in fruits and vegetables.
Pectoral fin: Pair of fins located on the side of a fish, used for steering.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Pedigree: A diagram that illustrates the pattern of inheritance of a
genetic trait in a family.

Pelvic fin: Pair of fins located toward the belly of a fish, used for stability.
Pendulum: A free-swinging weight, usually consisting of a heavy object
attached to the end of a long rod or string, suspended from a fixed

point.
Penicillin: A mold from the fungi group of microorganisms; used as an
antibiotic.
Pepsin: Digestive enzyme that breaks down protein.
Percolate: To pass through a permeable substance.
Perfect flower: Flowers that have both male and female reproductive
organs.
Period: A horizontal row in the periodic table.
Periodic table: A chart organizing elements by atomic number and
chemical properties into groups and periods.

Permeable: Having pores that permit a liquid or a gas to pass through.
Permineralization: A form of preservation in which mineral matter has
filled in the inner and outer spaces of the cell.

Pest: Any living thing that is unwanted by humans or causes injury and
disease to crops and other growth.

Pesticide: Substance used to reduce the abundance of pests.
Petal: Leafy structure of a flower just inside the sepals; they are often
brightly colored and have many different shapes.

Petrifaction: Process of turning organic material into rock by the
replacement of that material with minerals.

pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution referring to the
concentration of hydrogen ions present in a liter of a given fluid. The

pH scale ranges from 0 (greatest concentration of hydrogen ions and
therefore most acidic) to 14 (least concentration of hydrogen ions
and therefore most alkaline), with 7 representing a neutral solution,
such as pure water.
Pharmacology: The science dealing with the properties, reactions, and
therapeutic values of drugs.

Phases: Changes in the portion of the Moons surface that is illuminated
by light from the Sun as the Moon revolves around Earth.

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WORDS TO KNOW
Phloem: The plant tissue that carries dissolved nutrients through the
plant.
Phosphorescence: The emission of visible light from an object when the
object is bombarded with electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet rays. The object stores part of the radiation energy and the
emission of visible light continues for a period ranging from a
fraction of a second to several days after the radiation source has
been removed.
Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon in which light falling upon
certain metals stimulates the emission of electrons and changes

light into electricity.
Photosynthesis: Chemical process by which plants containing chloro-
phyll use sunlight to manufacture their own food by converting

carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates, releasing oxygen as a
by-product.
Phototropism: The tendency of a plant to grow toward a source of light.
Photovoltaic cells: A device made of silicon that converts sunlight into
electricity.
Physical change: A change in which the substance keeps its molecular
identity, such as a piece of chalk that has been ground up.

Physical property: A characteristic that you can detect with your senses,
such as color and shape.

Physiologist: A scientist who studies the functions and processes of
living organisms.
Phytoplankton: Microscopic aquatic plants that live suspended in the
water.
Pigment: A substance that displays a color because of the wavelengths of
light that it reflects.

Pili: Short projections that assist bacteria in attaching to tissues.
Pistil: Female reproductive organ of flowers that is composed of the
stigma, style, and ovary.

Pitch: A property of a sound, determined by its frequency; the highness
or lowness of a sound.
Plant extract: The juice or liquid essence obtained from a plant by
squeezing or mashing it.

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WORDS TO KNOW
Plasmolysis: Occurs in walled cells in which cytoplasm, the semifluid
substance inside a cell, shrivels and the membrane pulls away from
the cell wall when the vacuole loses water.
Plates: Large regions of Earths surface, composed of the crust and
uppermost mantle, which move about, forming many of Earths

major geologic surface features.
Platform: The horizontal surface of a bridge on which traffic travels.
Pnematocysts: Stinging cells.
Point source: An identified source of pollution.
Pollen: Dust-like grains or particles produced by a plant that contain
male sex cells.

Pollinate: The transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs to
the female reproductive organs of plants.

Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs to the
female reproductive organs of plants.

Pollinator: Any animal, such as an insect or bird, that transfers the pollen
from one flower to another.

Pollution: The contamination of the natural environment, usually
through human activity.

Polymer: Chemical compound formed of simple molecules (known as
monomers) linked with themselves many times over.

Polymerization: The bonding of two or more monomers to form a
polymer.
Polyvinyl acetate: A type of polymer that is the main ingredient of white
glues.
Pore: An opening or space.
Potential energy: The energy of an object or system due to its position.
Precipitation: Any form of water that falls to Earth, such as rain, snow,
or sleet.
Predator: An animal that hunts another animal for food.
Preservative: An additive used to keep food from spoiling.
Primary colors: The three colors red, green, and blue; when combined
evenly they produce white light and by combining varying amounts

can produce the range of colors.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Prism: A piece of transparent material with a triangular cross-section.
When light passes through it, it causes different colors to bend

different amounts, thus separating them into a rainbow of colors.
Probe: The terminal of a voltmeter, used to connect the voltmeter to a
circuit.
Producer: An organism that can manufacture its own food from nonliving
materials and an external energy source, usually by photosynthesis.

Product: A compound that is formed as a result of a chemical reaction.
Prokaryote: A cell without a true nucleus, such as a bacterium.
Prominences: Masses of glowing gas, mainly hydrogen, that rise from
the Suns surface like flames.

Propeller: Radiating blades mounted on a rapidly rotating shaft, which
moves aircraft forward.

Protein: A complex chemical compound consisting of many amino acids
attached to each other that are essential to the structure and functioning of all living cells.
Protists: Members of the kingdom Protista, primarily single-celled
organisms that are not plants or animals.

Proton: A subatomic particle with a single positive charge that is found
in the nucleus of an atom.

Protozoa: Single-celled animal-like microscopic organisms that live by
taking in food rather than making it by photosynthesis. They must

live in the presence of water.
Pulley: A simple machine made of a cord wrapped around a wheel.
Pupa: The insect stage of development between the larva and adult in
insects that go through complete metamorphosis.
Radiation: Energy transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves or
subatomic particles.
Radicule: Seeds root system.
Radio wave: Longest form of electromagnetic radiation, measuring up
to 6 miles (9.6 kilometers) from peak to peak.

Radioisotope dating: A technique used to date fossils, based on the
decay rate of known radioactive elements.

lxxi
WORDS TO KNOW
Radiosonde balloons: Instruments for collecting data in the atmosphere
and then transmitting that data back to Earth by means of radio

waves.
Radon: A radioactive gas located in the ground; invisible and odorless,
radon is a health hazard when it accumulates to high levels inside

homes and other structures where it is breathed.
Rain shadow: Region on the side of the mountain that receives less
rainfall than the area windward of the mountain.

Rancidity: Having the condition when food has a disagreeable odor or
taste from decomposing oils or fats.

Reactant: A compound present at the beginning of a chemical reaction.
Reaction: Response to an action prompted by stimulus.
Recessive gene: A gene that produces a certain characteristic only two
both copies (alleles) of the gene are present.

Recycling: The use of waste materials, also known as secondary materials
or recyclables, to produce new products.

Redshift: The lengthening of the frequency of light waves toward the red
end of the visible light spectrum as they travel away from an observer;
most commonly used to describe movement of stars away from
Earth.
Reduction: A process in which a chemical substance gives off oxygen or
takes on electrons.
Reed: A tall woody perennial grass that has a hollow stem.
Reflection: The bouncing of light rays in a regular pattern off the surface
of an object.
Reflector telescope: A telescope that directs light from an opening at
one end to a concave mirror at the far end, which reflects the light
back to a smaller mirror that directs it to an eyepiece on the side of the
tube.
Refraction: The bending of light rays as they pass at an angle from
one transparent or clear medium into a second one of different

density.
Refractor telescope: A telescope that directs light through a glass lens,
which bends the light waves and brings them to a focus at an eyepiece
that acts as a magnifying glass.
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WORDS TO KNOW
Relative age: The age of an object expressed in relation to another like
object, such as earlier or later.

Relative density: The density of one material compared to another.
Rennin: Enzyme used in making cheese.
Resistance: A partial or complete limiting of the flow of electrical
current through a material. The common unit of measure is the ohm.

Respiration: The physical process that supplies oxygen to living cells and
the chemical reactions that take place inside the cells.

Resultant: A force that results from the combined action of two other
forces.
Retina: The light-sensitive part of the eyeball that receives images and
transmits visual impulses through the optic nerve to the brain.

Ribosome: A protein composed of two subunits that functions in
protein synthesis (creation).

Rigidity: The amount an object will deflect when supporting a weight.
The less it deflects for a given amount of weight, the greater its
rigidity.
River: A main course of water into which many other smaller bodies of
water flow.
Rock: Naturally occurring solid mixture of minerals.
Rods: Cells in the retina that are sensitive to degrees of light and
movement.
Root hairs: Fine, hair-like extensions from the plants root.
Rotate: To turn around on an axis or center.
Runoff: Water that does not soak into the ground or evaporate, but flows
across the surface of the ground.
Salinity: The amount of salts dissolved in water.

Saliva: Watery mixture with chemicals that lubricates chewed food.
Sand: Granular portion of soil composed of the largest soil particles.
Sapwood: The outer wood in a tree, which is usually a lighter color.
Saturated: In referring to solutions, a solution that contains the max-
imum amount of solute for a given amount of solvent at a given

temperature.
lxxiii
WORDS TO KNOW
Saturation: The intensity of a color.

Scanning tunneling microscope: A microscope that can show images of
surfaces at the atomic level by scanning a probe over a surface.

Scientific method: Collecting evidence and arriving at a conclusion
under carefully controlled conditions.

Screw: A simple machine; an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.
Scurvy: A disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C, which causes a
weakening of connective tissue in bone and muscle.

Sea cave: A cave in sea cliffs, formed most commonly by waves eroding
the rock.
Second law of motion (Newtons): The force exerted on an object is
proportional to the mass of the object times the acceleration produced by the force.
Sediment: Sand, silt, clay, rock, gravel, mud, or other matter that has
been transported by flowing water.

Sedimentary rock: Rock formed from compressed and solidified layers
of organic or inorganic matter.

Sedimentation: A process during which gravity pulls particles out of a
liquid.
Seed crystal: Small form of a crystalline structure that has all the facets of
a complete new crystal contained in it.

Seedling: A small plant just starting to grow into its mature form.
Seismic belt: Boundaries where Earths plates meet.
Seismic waves: Vibrations in rock and soil that transfer the force of an
earthquake from the focus into the surrounding area.

Seismograph: A device that detects and records vibrations of the ground.
Seismology: The study and measurement of earthquakes.
Seismometer: A seismograph that measures the movement of the
ground.
Self-pollination: The process in which pollen from one part of a plant
fertilizes ovules on another part of the same plant.

Semipermeable membrane: A thin barrier between two solutions that
permits only certain components of the solutions, usually the solvent,

to pass through.
Sensory memory: Memory that the brain retains for a few seconds.
lxxiv
WORDS TO KNOW
Sepal: The outermost part of a flower; typically leaflike and green.

Sexual reproduction: A reproductive process that involves the union of
two individuals in the exchange of genetic material.

Shear stress: An applied force to a give area.
Shell: A region of space around the center of the atom in which electrons
are located; also, a hard outer covering that protects an animal living
inside.
Short-term memory: Also known as working memory, this memory was
transferred here from sensory memory.

Sidereal day: The time it takes for a particular star to travel around and
reach the same position in the sky; about four minutes shorter than
the average solar day.
Silt: Medium-sized soil particles.
Simple machine: Any of the basic structures that provide a mechanical
advantage and have no or few moving parts.

Smog: A form of air pollution produced when moisture in the air
combines and reacts with the products of fossil fuel combustion.

Smog is characterized by hazy skies and a tendency to cause respiratory problems among humans.
Softwood: Wood from coniferous trees, which usually remain green all
year.
Soil: The upper layer of Earth that contains nutrients for plants and
organisms; a mixture of mineral matter, organic matter, air, and

water.
Soil horizon: An identifiable soil layer due to color, structure, and/or
texture.
Soil profile: Combined soil horizons or layers.
Solar collector: A device that absorbs sunlight and collects solar heat.
Solar day: Called a day, the time between each arrival of the Sun at its
highest point.
Solar eclipse: An eclipse that occurs when the Moon passes between
Earth and the Sun, casting a shadow on Earth.

Solar energy: Any form of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted by
the Sun.
Solubility: The tendency of a substance to dissolve in some other
substance.
lxxv
WORDS TO KNOW
Soluble: A substance that can be dissolved in some other substance.

Solute: The substance that is dissolved to make a solution and exists
in the least amount in a solution, for example sugar in sugar

water.
Solution: A mixture of two or more substances that appears to be uni-
form throughout except on a molecular level.

Solvent: The major component of a solution or the liquid in which
some other component is dissolved, for example water in sugar

water.
Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of
pure water.
Specific heat capacity: The energy required to raise the temperature of
1 kilogram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius.

Speleologist: One who studies caves.
Speleology: Scientific study of caves and their plant and animal life.
Spelunkers: Also called cavers, people who explore caves for a hobby.
Spiracles: The openings on an insects side where air enters.
Spoilage: The condition when food has taken on an undesirable color,
odor, or texture.
Spore: A small, usually one-celled, reproductive body that is capable of
growing into a new organism.

Stalactite: Cylindrical or icicle-shaped mineral deposit projecting down-
ward from the roof of a cave. (Pronounced sta-LACK-tite.)

Stalagmite: Cylindrical or icicle-shaped mineral deposit projecting
upward from the floor of a cave. (Pronounced sta-LAG-mite.)

Stamen: Male reproductive organ of flowers that is composed of the
anther and filament.

Standard: A base for comparison.
Star: A vast clump of hydrogen gas and dust that produces great energy
through fusion reactions at its core.

Static electricity: A form of electricity produced by friction in which the
electric charge does not flow in a current but stays in one place.
Stigma: Top part of the pistil upon which pollen lands and receives the
male pollen grains during fertilization.

Stomata: Pores in the epidermis (surface) of leaves.
lxxvi
WORDS TO KNOW
Storm: An extreme atmospheric disturbance, associated with strong
damaging winds, and often with thunder and lightning.

Storm chasers: People who track and seek out storms, often tornadoes.
Stratification: Layers according to density; applies to fluids.
Streak: The color of the dust left when a mineral is rubbed across a rough
surface.
Style: Stalk of the pistil that connects the stigma to the ovary.
Subatomic: Smaller than an atom. It usually refers to particles that make
up an atom, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Sublime: The process of changing a solid into a vapor without passing
through the liquid phase.

Substrate: The substance on which an enzyme operates in a chemical
reaction.
Succulent: Plants that live in dry environments and have water storage
tissue.
Sundial: A device that uses the position of the Sun to indicate time.
Supersaturated: Solution that is more highly concentrated than is nor-
mally possible under given conditions of temperature and pressure.

Supertaster: A person who is extremely sensitive to specific tastes due to
a greater number of taste buds.

Supplements: A substance intended to enhance the diet.
Surface area: The total area of the outside of an object; the area of a body
of water that is exposed to the air.

Surface tension: The attractive force of molecules to each other on the
surface of a liquid.
Surface water: Water in lakes, rivers, ponds, and streams.
Suspension: A temporary mixture of a solid in a gas or liquid from which
the solid will eventually settle out.

Swim bladder: Located above the stomach, takes in air when the fish
wants to move upwards and releases air when the fish wants to move
downwards.
Symbiosis: A pattern in which two or more organisms live in close
connection with each other, often to the benefit of both or all

organisms.
lxxvii
WORDS TO KNOW
Synthesis reaction: A chemical reaction in which two or more substan-
ces combine to form a new substance.

Synthesize: To make something artificially, in a laboratory or chemical
plant, that is generally not found in nature.

Synthetic: A substance that is synthesized, or manufactured, in a labo-
ratory; not naturally occurring.

Synthetic crystals: Artificial or manmade crystals.
Taiga: A large land biome mostly dominated by coniferous trees.

Taste buds: Groups of taste cells located on the papillae that recognize
the different tastes.

Taste pore: The opening at the top of the taste bud from which chem-
icals reach the taste cells.

Tectonic: Relating to the forces and structures of the outer shell of Earth.
Tectonic plates: Huge flat rocks that form Earths crust.
Telescope: A tube with lenses or mirrors that collect, transmit, and focus
light.
Temperate: Mild or moderate weather conditions.
Temperature: The measure of the average energy of the molecules in a
substance.
Tendon: Tough, fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.
Tensile strength: The force needed to stretch a material until it breaks.
Terminal: A connection in an electric circuit; usually a connection on a
source of electric energy such as a battery.

Terracing: A series of horizontal ridges made in a hillside to reduce
erosion.
Testa: A tough outer layer that protects the embryo and endosperm of a
seed from damage.

Theory of special relativity: Theory put forth by Albert Einstein that
time is not absolute, but it is relative according to the speed of the

observers frame of reference.
Thermal conductivity: A number representing a materials ability to
conduct heat.
lxxviii
WORDS TO KNOW
Thermal energy: Kinetic energy caused by the movement of molecules
due to temperature.
Thermal inversion: A region in which the warmer air lies above the
colder air; can cause smog to worsen.

Thermal pollution: The discharge of heated water from industrial proc-
esses that can kill or injure water life.

Thiamine: A vitamin of the B complex that is essential to normal
metabolism and nerve function.

Thigmotropism: The tendency for a plant to grow toward a surface it
touches.
Third law of motion (Newtons): For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
Thorax: The middle segment of an insect body; the legs and wings are
connected to the thorax.

Tides: The cyclic rise and fall of seawater.
Titration: A procedure in which an acid and a base are slowly mixed to
achieve a neutral substance.

Topsoil: The uppermost layers of soil containing an abundant supply of
decomposed organic material to supply plants with nutrients.

Tornado: A violently rotating, narrow column of air in contact with the
ground and usually extending from a cumulonimbus cloud.

Total solar/lunar eclipse: An eclipse in which our view of the Sun/Moon
is totally blocked.
Toxic: Poisonous.
Trace element: A chemical element present in minute quantities.
Trace minerals: Minerals needed in relatively small quantities.
Translucent: Permits the passage of light.
Transpiration: Evaporation of water in the form of water vapor from the
stomata on the surfaces of leaves and stems of plants.

Troglobite: An animal that lives in a cave and is unable to live outside of
one.
Troglophile: An animal that lives the majority of its life cycle in a cave
but is also able to live outside of the cave.

Trogloxene: An animal that spends only part of its life cycle in a cave and
returns periodically to the cave.

lxxix
WORDS TO KNOW
Tropism: The growth or movement of a plant toward or away from a
stimulus.
Troposphere: The lowest layer of Earths atmosphere, ranging to an
altitude of about 9 miles (15 km) above Earths surface.

Trough: The lowest point of a wave. (Pronounced trawf.)
Tsunami: A large wave of water caused by an underwater earthquake.
Tuber: An underground, starch-storing stem, such as a potato.
Tundra: A treeless, frozen biome with low-lying plants.
Turbine: A spinning device used to transform mechanical power from
energy into electrical energy.

Turbulence: Air disturbance that affects an aircrafts flight.
Turgor pressure: The force that is exerted on a plants cell wall by the
water within the cell.

Tyndall effect: The effect achieved when colloidal particles reflect a
beam of light, making it visible when shined through such a mixture.
Ultraviolet: Electromagnetic radiation (energy) of a wavelength just
shorter than the violet (shortest wavelength) end of the visible light
spectrum and thus with higher energy than the visible light.
Unconfined aquifer: An aquifer under a layer of permeable rock and soil.
Unicellular: Living things that have one cell. Protozoans are unicellular,
for example.
Unit cell: The basic unit of the crystalline structure.
Universal law of gravity: The law of physics that defines the constancy
of the force of gravity between two bodies.

Updraft: Warm, moist air that moves away from the ground.
Upwelling: The process by which lower-level, nutrient-rich waters rise
upward to the oceans surface.
Vacuole: An enclosed, space-filling sac within plant cells containing
mostly water and providing structural support for the cell.

lxxx
WORDS TO KNOW
Van der Waals force: An attractive force between two molecules based
on the positive and negative side of the molecule.

Variable: Something that can affect the results of an experiment.
Vegetative propagation: A form of asexual reproduction in which plants
are produced that are genetically identical to the parent.

Velocity: The rate at which the position of an object changes with time,
including both the speed and the direction.

Veneer: Thin slices of wood.
Viable: The capability of developing or growing under favorable
conditions.
Vibration: A regular, back-and-forth motion of molecules in the air.
Viscosity: The measure of a fluids resistance to flow; its flowability.
Visible spectrum: The range of individual wavelengths of radiation
visible to the human eye when white light is broken into its component colors as it passes through a prism or by some other means.
Vitamin: A complex organic compound found naturally in plants and
animals that the body needs in small amounts for normal growth and
activity.
Volatilization: The process by which a liquid changes (volatilizes) to a
gas.
Volcano: A conical mountain or dome of lava, ash, and cinders that
forms around a vent leading to molten rock deep within Earth.

Voltage: Also called potential difference; a measurement of the amount
of electric energy stored in a mass of electric charges compared to the

energy stored in some other mass of charges. The common unit of
measure is the volt.
Voltmeter: An instrument for measuring the amperage, voltage, or
resistance in an electrical circuit.

Volume: The amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object;
the amplitude or loudness of a sound.

Vortex: A rotating column of a fluid such as air or water.
Waste stream: The waste materials generated by the population of an
area, or by a specific industrial process, and removed for disposal.

lxxxi
WORDS TO KNOW
Water (hydrologic) cycle: The constant movement of water molecules
on Earth as they rise into the atmosphere as water vapor, condense

into droplets and fall to land or bodies of water, evaporate, and rise
again.
Water clock: A device that uses the flow of water to measure time.
Water table: The level of the upper surface of groundwater.
Water vapor: Water in its gaseous state.
Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins such as C and the B-complex
vitamins that dissolve in the watery parts of plant and animal

tissues.
Waterline: The highest point to which water rises on the hull of a ship.
The portion of the hull below the waterline is under water.

Wave: A means of transmitting energy in which the peak energy occurs
at a regular interval; the rise and fall of the ocean water.

Wavelength: The distance between the peak of a wave of light, heat, or
other form of energy and the next corresponding peak.

Weather: The state of the troposphere at a particular time and place.
Weather forecasting: The scientific predictions of future weather
patterns.
Weathered: Natural process that breaks down rocks and minerals at
Earths surface into simpler materials by physical (mechanical) or

chemical means.
Wedge: A simple machine; a form of inclined plane.
Weight: The gravitational attraction of Earth on an object; the measure
of the heaviness of an object.

Wet cell: A source of electricity that uses a liquid electrolyte.
Wetlands: Areas that are wet or covered with water for at least part of the
year.
Wheel and axle: A simple machine; a larger wheel(s) fastened to a
smaller cylinder, an axle, so that they turn together.

Work: The result of a force moving a mass a given distance. The greater
the mass or the greater the distance, the greater the work involved.
Xanthophyll: Yellow pigment in plants.

lxxxii
WORDS TO KNOW
Xerophytes: Plants that require little water to survive.

Xylem: Plant tissue consisting of elongated, thick-walled cells that trans-
port water and mineral nutrients. (Pronounced ZY-lem.)
Yeast: A single-celled fungi that can be used to as a leavening agent.
lxxxiii
Acid Rain
id you know that acid rain can also be acid snow, acid fog, or even
acid dust? Acid rain is a form of precipitation that is significantly
more acidic than neutral water. The pH scale offers a way to compare
the acidity of substances, including rain. pH (the abbreviation for
potential hydrogen) is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
The symbol pH refers to the concentration of hydrogen ions present in a
liter of fluid. The pH scale ranges from 0 (greatest concentration of
hydrogen ions and therefore most acidic) to 14 (least concentration of
hydrogen ions and therefore most alkaline). An alkaline solution is also
called a base. The number 7 represents a neutral solution, such as pure
water.
Water with a pH of 4 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH
of 5. A pH of 4 is 100 times more acidic than a pH of 6. So you can see
that a small increase or decrease in pH makes a big difference in acid
levels.
How does acid get in rain? Normal rainfall is slightly acidic, with a
pH of about 5.6. Rain with a pH below 5.6 is considered to be acid rain.
Acid rain is created when smoke and fumes from burning fossil fuels
coal, oil, and natural gasrise into the air. The smoke and fumes come
from oil- and coal-fired power plants, factory smokestacks, and automobile exhaust.
The main toxic (poisonous) chemicals in this pollution are sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These chemicals react with sunlight and
moisture in the air to produce rain or snow that is a mild solution of
sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Some of the pollutant particles fall to the
ground as acid dust. When acid rain falls, this dust dissolves in the water,
further increasing the rains acidity.
Why is acid rain a problem? Acid rain can make lakes and streams
so toxic that nothing can live there. Amphibians and the young of most
1
Acid Rain
The pH scale shows the acidity

and alkalinity of liquids.
GAL E GR OU P.
The taller the smokestacks, the

longeracidrainstaysintheairand
the farther it is likely to travel.
P HO TO R ESE AR CH ERS INC .
fish are sensitive to acidity, so they are the first to die. With water at a pH
of 5.0, most fish eggs are unable to hatch. If the pH level continues to
drop, adult animals begin to die. Experiment 1
will help you determine how sensitive brine
shrimp are to acid rain.
Acidity kills plants in the water, too, thus
upsetting the food chain. Even plant-eating fish
that can tolerate low pH levels are soon unable
to find enough to eat. With few plant-eating fish
able to survive, the fish-eating fish go hungry,
too.
Acid rain can slowly kill whole forests by
dissolving the toxic metals in soil and rock. In
their dissolved form, these metals damage tree
roots. Acid rain also dissolves nutrients in the
soil and washes them away before the trees and
plants can use them. In addition, acid rain burns
tree leaves and needles and wears away their
protective coatings, leaving them unable to produce enough food energy to meet the trees
needs. Viruses, fungi, and pests can then easily
finish off the weakened trees. Experiment 2 will
help you determine how acid rain affects plant
growth.
Acid Rain
Along with harming plants and life, acid

rain can also damage manmade structures.
Many buildings are made of limestone. Limestone is a type of rock that primarily contains
calcium carbonate. Statues are often made from
marble, a hard substance that is also composed of
calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with
the calcium and slowly dissolve the material. In
Experiment 3, you will test how acid rain can
affect structures.
What can be done? Acid rain was first
identified in 1852 by an English chemist
named Robert Angus Smith. He suggested that factories that burned
coal were sending sulfur dioxide into the air. Since then, the world
has gained many more factoriesand many more sources of air
pollution.
Trees take a long time to

recover from damage caused by
acid rain. P HO TO
RE SE ARC HE RS I NC .
Fortunately, scientists have found ways to wash the sulfur out of

coal before it is burned and to wash the sulfur out of smoke before it
leaves the smokestacks. In addition, new vehicles must now have a
device called a catalytic converter, which uses filters and chemicals to
change carbon monoxide and other air pollutants into carbon dioxide
pH levels in the United States.

GA LE G RO UP.
Acid Rain
WORDS TO KNOW
Acid rain: A form of precipitation that is significantly
more acidic than neutral water, often produced as
the result of industrial processes and pollution.
Alkaline: Having a pH of more than 7.
Amphibians: Animals that live both on land and in
water.
Base: A water-soluble compound that when dissolved in water makes an alkaline, or basic, solution with a pH of more than 7.
Control experiment: A set-up that is identical to
the experiment but is not affected by the variable that will be changed during the
experiment.
Fossil fuel: A fuel such as coal, oil, or natural gas
that is formed over millions of years from the
remains of plants and animals.
Hypothesis: An idea in the form of a statement
that can be tested by observation and/or
experiment.
Ion: An atom or groups of atoms that carry an

electrical chargeeither positive or negativeas a result of losing or gaining one or
more electrons.
Neutralization: A chemical process in which the
mixing of an acidic solution with a basic
(alkaline) solution results in a solution that
has the properties of neither an acid nor a
base.
pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution referring to the concentration of
hydrogen ions present in a liter of a given fluid.
The pH scale ranges from 0 (greatest concentration of hydrogen ions and therefore most
acidic) to 14 (least concentration of hydrogen
ions and therefore most alkaline), with 7 representing a neutral solution, such as pure water.
Toxic: Poisonous.
Variable: Something that might affect the results
of an experiment.
and water. This device nearly eliminates the nitrogen oxide released by
cars exhaust systems.
Lime, which is a natural base, can be added to streams and lakes to
neutralize their acidity. Neutralization is a chemical process in which an
acidic solution is mixed with a basic (alkaline) solution, resulting in a
solution that is neutralit has the properties of neither an acid nor a base.
However, neutralizing streams and lakes is expensive and must continue
as long as acid rain keeps falling.
Scientists are also researching more ways to use sources of energy that
do not pollute the air, including solar power. We all can help reduce acid
rain by reducing our own use of fossil fuels and by learning more about
the effects of acid rain.
4
Acid Rain
EXPERIMENT 1
Acid Rain and Animals:
How does acid rain affect
brine shrimp?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you
will use vinegar, which is an acid, to gradually

lower the pH level of water containing brine
shrimp. (As the pH level drops, acidity
increases.) You will measure the changing pH
level and observe how the shrimp react.
Before you begin, make an educated guess
about the outcome of this experiment based on
your knowledge of acid rain. This educated
guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
hypothesis should explain these things:
the topic of the experiment

the variable you will change
the variable you will measure
what you expect to happen
What Are the Variables?

Variables are anything that might affect the
results of an experiment. Here are the main
variables in this experiment:
the size and health of the brine shrimp
the number of brine shrimp in a given
amount of water
the temperature of the water
the kind and amount of food the brine
shrimp receive
the pH level of the water
In other words, the variables in this experiment
are everything that might affect the survival of
the brine shrimp. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the shrimps
survival.
A hypothesis should be brief, specific, and

measurable. It must be something you can test through observation.
Your experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is
correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: All the
brine shrimp will be dead by the time the pH level of the water
reaches 4.5.
In this case, the variable you will change is the pH level of the water,
and the variable you will measure is the number of brine shrimp that
remain alive. You expect them all to die by the time the pH level
reaches 4.5.
You will also set up a control experiment. It will be identical to the
real experiment, except that the pH level will remain the same in the
control water and decrease in the experimental water.
After each pH decrease in the experimental water, you will estimate
the number of brine shrimp that remain alive in the experimental and the
control water. If the shrimp in the experimental water are all dead by the
time the pH reaches 4.5, while most remain alive in the control water, you
will know your hypothesis is correct.
Acid Rain
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because of the time
How to Experiment Safely

Be careful in handling the glass jars. If possible,
wear goggles so the vinegar will not splash in
your eyes.
involved.
Materials Needed
1 tablespoon of live brine shrimp (Brine

shrimp are sold as fish food at tropical
and saltwater fish shops. The clerk will
measure 1 tablespoon of shrimp, which
contains several hundred shrimp, and pour it into a container
of water.)
2 wide-mouth jars
distilled water at room temperature (or tap water that has been in
an open container overnight to allow the chlorine in it to
evaporate)
2 small, clear containers
2 labels and a marker
litmus paper and a color scale
white vinegar
measuring spoons
a stirrer
2 medicine droppers
1 package dry yeast
Optional: small aquarium pump with two outlets and plastic
tubing
Approximate Budget $5 for the brine shrimp, litmus paper, and yeast.
(The other materials should be available in most households.)

Timetable One week.
1. Fill both glass jars half-full of water.

2. Use the two small, clear containers to divide the brine shrimp into
two equal portions.
3. Pour one portion of shrimp into each of the jars. Rinse the small
containers. Label one jar Control and one Experiment.
4. Dip a different strip of litmus paper into each jar, check the color
scale, and record the beginning pH level of each jar on a chart like
the one illustrated.
6
Acid Rain
5. Use the following steps to take a sample

of water from each jar and estimate the
number of live shrimp in it:
a. Gently stir the water in the experimental jar until the shrimp are distributed evenly.
b. Quickly use a medicine dropper to
take out a sample of water and
shrimp.
c. Deposit the sample in one of the clear
containers.
d. Count or estimate the number of live
brine shrimp in it.
e. Record the number on your chart.
f. Pour the sample back into the same jar.
g. Rinse the dropper and container.
h. Complete the same process with the control jar.
6. Use the other medicine dropper to slowly add 2 tablespoons
(30 ml) of vinegar to the experimental jar. Again measure and
record the pH level in that jar. Do not
add vinegar to the control jar.
7. Place both jars in a warm, lighted place
where they will not receive direct sun.
Add a pinch of dry yeast to both jars as
food for the brine shrimp.
8. Optional: Attach a length of plastic tubing to each outlet on the aquarium
pump. Insert one of the tubes into each
jar so it rests on the bottom of the jar.
Start the pump, which will keep the water
gently moving and increase its oxygen
content.
9. Each day for a week:
Step 4: Recording chart for

Experiment 1. G AL E GR OUP .
Step 5d: Brine shrimp in a

small, clear container. GA LE
GRO UP.
a. Add another pinch of dry yeast to

both jars.
b. Add 2 more tablespoons of vinegar to
the experimental jar.
Acid Rain
Troubleshooters Guide
Below are some problems that may arise during
this experiment, some possible causes, and
ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: All or nearly all the brine shrimp died
in both jars.
c. Measure and record the pH levels of

both jars.
d. Repeat Step 5 to monitor how many
live brine shrimp remain in both jars.
If no live brine shrimp remain in the
experimental jar before the end of the
week, end the experiment.
Possible causes:
1. The shrimp were old. The fish shop
might have kept those shrimp for some
time without feeding them. Try again
with a fresh batch of shrimp.
2. The water had too much chlorine or
other chemicals in it. Try again with
water from a different source or let the
water sit longer before using it.
3. The yeast polluted the water. Try again,
feeding the shrimp much less yeast or not
at all.
4. The water became too cold or too hot.
Make the necessary adjustments and try
again.
Problem: Very few of the shrimp died in the
experimental jar.
Possible cause: The pH did not reach a toxic
level. Continue the experiment, further
decreasing the pH level of the experimental
water.
Summary of Results Use the data on your chart
to create a line or bar graph of your findings.

Then study your chart and graph and decide
whether your hypothesis was correct. At what
pH level did the brine shrimp in the experimental jar start to die in greater numbers? At what
level were they all dead? Did most of the shrimp
in your control jar survive until the end of the
week? Write a paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining whether they supported your
hypothesis.
Change the Variables To vary this experiment,
consider these possibilities:

Try hatching your own brine shrimp from
eggs bought at a pet shop. The hatched
shrimp will be very small, but cheap,
available, and plentiful. Or use a plankton
net to collect small aquatic organisms
from pond water. You may need to use a
microscope to monitor them during the
experiment.
Change the water temperature. Put two jars of water with a pH of

4.8 (mildly acid rain) under different temperature conditions
to see if the shrimp tolerate acid rain better at higher or lower
temperatures.
Change the type of acid by using lemon juice. It is more
acidic than vinegar and will cause the pH level to drop more
quickly.
8
Acid Rain
EXPERIMENT 2
Acid Rain and Plants: How does
acid rain affect plant growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will
use cuttings of plants that are easy to grow, such

as ivy, philodendron, begonia, or coleus. You will
place two cuttings in water with a pH level of 7.0,
which is neutral, and two cuttings in water with a
pH of 4.0, which is in the range of acid rain. Your
goal is to determine how the acidity affects the
growth of roots.
or hypothesis about the outcome of this experiment based on your understanding of acid rain.
This educated guess, or prediction, is your
hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these
things:

the type, size, and health of the plant
cuttings
the air temperature where the jars of
cuttings are placed
the amount of sun the cuttings receive
the pH level of the water
are everything that might affect the growth of
roots. If you change more than one variable,
you will not be able to tell which one had the
most effect on root growth.

A hypothesis should be brief, specific, and measurable. It must be
something you can test through observation. Your experiment will prove
or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible
hypothesis for this experiment: Cuttings placed in water with a pH
level of 4.0 will not grow any roots, while cuttings in water with a pH of
7.0 will begin to grow roots during the experiment.
In this case, the variable you will change is the pH level of the water,
and the variable you will measure is the amount of roots that grow. You
expect no roots to grow in the water with a pH level of 4.0.
The cuttings in the water with a pH of 7.0 serve as a control experiment, allowing you to observe root growth when the pH of the water
remains neutral. After the two-week period of the experiment, if the
cuttings in the neutral water have grown roots, but those in the acid
water have not, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because of the time involved.
Acid Rain
Materials Needed

Be careful in handling glass jars.
4 small, clear jars

4 labels and a marker
2 large water containers
water
litmus paper and a color scale
white vinegar
baking soda
measuring cups and spoons
a stirrer
2 cuttings each of two easily grown plants, such as ivy, philodendron, begonia, or coleus (Make sure each cutting has the same
number of leaves and same amount of stem.)
Approximate Budget $5 for the plants and litmus paper. (Ask friends,
neighbors, or family members for cuttings so you will not need to

buy plants, and the other materials should be available in most
households.)
Timetable Two weeks to observe plant growth.
1. Label the four small jars in this way: (name of plant 1), neutral;
(name of plant 1), acid; (name of plant 2), neutral; (name of plant
2), acid.
2. Pour 2 cups of water into each of the large containers.
3. Use the litmus paper and a litmus color scale to measure the pH
level of the neutral or control container. It should be 7.0. If it is
higher, add a drop or two of vinegar, stir, and check it again. If
it is lower than 7.0, sprinkle in a little baking soda, stir, and
check again. Repeat until the color scale shows that the pH level
is 7.0.
4. Pour 1 tablespoon (15 ml) of vinegar into the acid or experimental
container, stir, and check the pH level. It should be 4.0. If it is
higher or lower, add vinegar or baking soda, as in Step 3.
5. Nearly fill the two small jars labeled Neutral with the neutral
water. Then pour the same amount of acid water into the two
10
Acid Rain
Step 6: Plant cuttings in labeled

jars of water. GAL E GR OU P.
6.
7.
8.
9.
small jars labeled Acid. Label and save any leftover water so you
can keep the small jars full of water with the correct pH level.
Place the four plant cuttings in their labeled jars. Make sure the
stem and part of the lowest leaf is under water.
Place all four jars in a warm, sunny place.
Create a chart like the one illustrated. Draw each cutting to show
how it looked at the beginning.
For the next two weeks:

Experiment 2. GA LE G ROU P.
a. Every day, make sure all cuttings are still

in the water. Add more acid or neutral
water to replace any that evaporates.
(Be careful to add the right kind to
each cup.)
b. Every other day, check the pH of the
water in each cup, and use vinegar or
baking soda to adjust it so it is 7.0
or 4.0.
c. Every day, record any changes or growth
on the chart. Clearly show any roots that
grow longer or branch out, leaves that
grow larger, and the emergence of new
leaves.
Summary of Results Study the drawings on your
chart and decide whether your hypothesis was

correct. Did both cuttings in acid water not
11
Acid Rain
Problem: None of the cuttings grew.
Possible causes:
1. The cuttings were infected with insects,
fungus, or something else. Try the
experiment again with fresh cuttings
from different plants. Use different jars or
wash the old jars well.
2. The cuttings were from old, woody sections of the plant. Try cuttings from the
growing tips of the plants.
3. The cuttings did not receive enough sun
or became too cold or too hot. Perhaps
their stems did not remain in the water.
Try again, placing the cups in a warm
(not hot) place where they will receive
several hours of sun every day. Check to
make sure the stems remain underwater.
Problem: All of the cuttings grew about the
same amount.
Possible causes:
1. The pH of the water in the acid jars might
not have remained at 4.0. Try the
experiment again, carefully checking the
pH levels during the observation period.
grow at all? Or did they grow some, but less than

those in neutral water? Was the cutting of one
plant more tolerant of acid water than the cutting of the other plant? Did both cuttings in
neutral water grow as you expected? Write a
paragraph summarizing your findings and
explaining whether they supported your
hypothesis.
Change the Variables Here are some ways you
can vary this experiment:

Use different kinds of plants.
Water potted plants with acid and neutral
water and compare their leaf and stem
growth and appearance, general health,
and frequency of blooming, if applicable,
over time.
Use water with different pH levels,
such as 5.0, 4.0, and 3.0 to determine
if growth decreases with each increase
in acidity.
EXPERIMENT 3
Acid Rain: Can acid rain
harm structures?
will observe how acid rain can harm buildings,

statues, and other structures. The acid you will
be using is vinegar, which is about 5% acid.
Vinegar is slightly more acidic than acid rain,
but acid rain works its reaction over a period of
years and this experiment will only take about a
week. You will test vinegars effect on two different forms of structural materials: marble and
limestone. For the limestone, you will use chalk, which is a type of
limestone. You can determine if some of the materials dissolve by noting
the weight and appearance. By weighing the materials both before and
2. Perhaps both kinds of plants are tolerant

of acid water. That would mean your
hypothesis is incorrect for these kinds of
plants.
12
Acid Rain
after they are exposed to vinegar, you can measure the effect of acid on structures.
about the outcome of this experiment based
on your knowledge of acid rain. This educated
the temperature of the solution
the room temperature
the size of the materials
the shape of the materials
are everything that might affect the rate at
measurable. It must be something you can test
which the materials dissolve. If you change
more than one variable at the same time, you
through further investigation. Your experiment
will not be able to tell which variable had the
will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is
most effect on the chalk and marble.
correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this
experiment: Acid will wear away some of the
materials, causing the substances to weigh less
after they are immersed in acid.
In this case, the variable you will change is the acidity. The variable
you will measure is the appearance and weight of the material.
Conducting a control experiment for each material will help you
isolate the variable and measure the changes in the dependent variable.
Only one variable will change between the control and your experiment.
In this experiment, you will have two controls: one for the marble and one
for the limestone (chalk). For the controls, you will use distilled water.
Level of Difficulty Moderate.
Materials Needed
crushed marbles (the size of small pebbles), available from a craft

or home garden store
white chalk
gram scale
wax paper
4 small jars with lids
distilled water
white vinegar
spoons
13
Acid Rain
Approximate Budget $8 (assuming gram scale is

Make sure the experiment is well labeled and
stored somewhere safe. Wash your hands after
setting up and finishing the experiment.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Step 2: The recording chart for

Experiment 3. I LLU STR AT IO N
10.
BY T EM AH NE LS ON.
Starting Ending
Weight Weight
Marble
Marble
control
Limestone
Limestone
control
14
a household item).
Timetable 20 minutes setup; about ten minutes
daily for five to 10 days.

1. Label each of the jars: Marble, Marble

Control, Limestone, and Limestone Control.
Make a chart listing the materials, starting weight, ending weight,
and appearance. (See chart).
Place a sheet of wax paper on the gram scale and weight out 2
grams of the crushed marble. (You can use less but make sure to
note the exact weight in your chart.) Carefully pour into the jar
labeled Marble.
Weigh another 2 grams of the marble and pour into the Control jar.
Break the chalk into roughly 1-inch (2.5 centimeters) pieces.
Using a fresh piece of wax paper, weigh 2 grams of the chalk and
place in the jar labeled Limestone. Weigh out another 2 grams
and place in the Control jar.
In both control jars, cover the chalk and marble with distilled water.
In both experimental jars, cover the chalk and marble with
vinegar.
After four days, note the appearance of the materials and solutions
in your chart. Does the chalk look smaller? Does the vinegar
appear cloudy?
After a minimum of a week, when it looks like the acid has affected
the material, carefully scoop out the marble and chalk onto
separate sheets of wax paper. You may
need to rinse them off. Scoop out the
control marble and chalk too. Make
sure to keep track of the test and control
Appearance
materials! You can either label the wax
papers or keep the material next to the
labeled jar.
11. Let the marble and chalk pieces dry
overnight.
12. When completely dry, weigh each of the
materials and note the results.
Acid Rain
Summary of Results Examine your results and

note the appearance of each of the materials.
Calculate the difference between the starting
and ending weights. Compare the chalk and
marble to the controls. How did the acid from
the vinegar affect the materials? Was your
hypothesis correct?
Change the Variables There are several ways you
can alter the variables in this experiment. You

can try different materials, such as metals. Dolomite is a rock that is similar to limestone. You
can also vary the strength of the acid. For a
weaker acid, more similar to acid rain, add
water to the vinegar. For a stronger acid, you
can carefully boil away some of the vinegars
water, leaving more of the acid.
Marble control
Design Your Own Experiment

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept You can explore many
other aspects of acid rain. Consider what puzzles you about this topic. For
example, what would happen if you added vinegar or another acid to a jar
of water with limestone (calcium carbonate) gravel in the bottom? Lime is
a base that can neutralize acid, so would the pH level of the water still
drop with the limestone in there?
How does ground lime affect plants that have been damaged by acid
rain? Will they begin growing well again if lime neutralizes the soil? What
if lime is applied first and then the plants are watered with acid rain? Will
the lime protect them? How does acid rain affect
the germination of seeds? Which plants are more
tolerant of acid rain than others?
Check the Further Readings section and talk
with your science teacher or school or communLimestone
ity media specialist to start gathering informaLimestone
tion on acid rain questions that interest you.
Step 3: Carefully pour into the

jar labeled Marble.&rdquo
ILL US TRA TI ON B Y TE MA H
NEL SO N.
Step 7: The controlled jars are

filled with distilled water. The
experimental jars are filled
with vinegar. I LL UST RA TI ON
BY T EMA H NE LS ON.
Marble
Marble control
control
Steps in the Scientific Method To do an original
experiment, you need to plan carefully and think

15
Acid Rain
Below is a problem that may arise during this
experiment, a possible cause, and a way to
remedy the problem.
Problem: The marble weighed the same, even
after ten days.
Possible cause: Marble is a much harder material than chalk. The pieces may have been too
large to dissolve. Try again with marble pieces
that are more finely crushed.
Problem: There was no notable difference in the
weight of the chalk, even though it appears
smaller.
Possible cause: The chalk may still contain
some of the liquid it absorbed, which would
add weight. Set the chalk aside in a warm
area for another day, then weigh again.
things through. Otherwise, you might not be

sure what question you are answering, what you
are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
Here are the steps in designing an
experiment:
State the purpose ofand the underlying
question behindthe experiment you
propose to do.
Recognize the variables involved, and
select one that will help you answer the
question at hand.
State a testable hypothesis, an educated
guess about the answer to your question.
Decide how to change the variable you
selected.
Decide how to measure your results.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In
the two acid rain experiments, your raw data

might include not only charts of brine shrimp survival rates and root
growth, but also drawings or photographs of these changes.
If you display your experiment, limit the amount of information you
offer, so viewers will not be overwhelmed by detail. Make clear your
beginning question, the variable you changed, the variable you measured,
the results, and your conclusions. Viewersand judges at science fairs
will want to see how your experiment was set up. You might include
photographs or drawings of the steps of the experiment. Viewers will
want to know what materials you used, how long each step took, and
other basic information.
Related Projects You can undertake a variety of projects related to
acid rain. For example, you might explore how acid rain affects
buildings, statues, and other outdoor structures. Which kinds of
stone are most susceptible to damage from acid rain? How do people
fare in regions with highly acidic rain? Do they have more respiratory
problems?
16
Acid Rain
For More Information

Edmonds, Alex. A Closer Look at Acid Rain.
Brookfield, CT: Copper Beech Books, 1997.
Examines the causes of acid rain; its effects on
plants, lakes, and human health; and ways to
tackle the problem.
Gutnik, Martin. Experiments That Explore Acid Rain.
Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1992. Outlines
projects and experiments dealing with acid rain.
Parks, Peggy J. Acid Rain. Detroit, MI: KidHaven
Press, 2006. Explanation and effects of acid rain.
Rainis, Kenneth. Environmental Science Projects for
Young Scientists. New York: Franklin Watts, 1994.
Outlines detailed projects easily completed by
middle school students.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Acid
Rain. http://www.epa.gov/acidrain (accessed on
January 17, 2008).
The sulphur in acid rain reacts

with the limestone in statues,
forming a powder that easily
washes away. PHO TO
RES EA RC HER S I NC.
17
Adhesives
n adhesive is any substance that binds or adheres objects together.

Adhesives are generally out of sight, but they are all around us. They
are holding together the pages of a book, the wood in furniture, and the
cardboard in food packages. Adhesives are also a part of modern technologies, such as airplanes, sports equipment, and electronics. And as the
development of adhesives continues to improve, they are increasingly
becoming a part of products and structures.
Natures sticky stuff Before the development of synthetic (manmade) adhesives, people used natural adhesives. Many animals and plants
have sticky substances. Historians have found evidence that about 3,000
years ago Egyptians made an early form of paper called papyrus (pronounced pa-PI-rus) with a natural starch, like flour. Manuscripts were
bound with egg whites. Letters were sealed with beeswax.
Humans arent the only organisms that use adhesives. The gecko, for
example, can produce an adhesive on its feet that it uses to climb
vertically. The natural adhesive of this lizard is so strong it can support
the geckos weight but it can also detach itself from the surface easily.
Beetles and other insects also produce natural adhesives. Researchers
study the natural adhesives on animals to develop similar synthetic adhesives.
Glue it on The manufacturing of modern glues began about the turn
of the nineteenth century. The understanding and development of polymers helped advance the manufacturing of glues. Glues are polymers,
long chains of molecules made up of smaller, repeating molecules. Both
natural and synthetic polymers are all around us. Plastics are a type of
synthetic polymer. Natural polymers include silk and rubber, along with
other sticky substances in nature.
How glues cause materials to bond to one another depends upon the
glue polymer. In modern day, there are a variety of glue types. Some
examples of commonly used glues include:
19
Adhesives
The gecko can produce an

adhesive on its feet that it uses
to climb vertically. AP PH OT O/
K EYS TO NE, STE FF EN
S CHM ID T.
20
All purpose white glue, which is commonly used in schools and homes, is a
substance called polyvinyl acetate (PVA).
PVA is a water-based glue that bonds
many different types of surfaces together.
Cyanoacrylate glues are also known as
superglue. A small amount of this glue
will form an extremely strong bond.
Contact cement is a rubber-based glue
that can have both a lighter and stronger
bond, depending upon how it is applied.
Epoxies come as two parts that must be
mixed together. One part causes the other
part to link together in crosslinks and
harden, resulting in an extremely strong
bond.
One way that glue bonds surfaces together is
through a chemical change. Glue can cause the
molecules to become attracted to one another.
This attractive force is referred to as a van der
Waals force. Named after Dutch scientist
Johannes Diderik van der Waals (18371923),
the van der Waals forces relates to the attraction
between molecules that have a positive and negative end.
The water molecule, for example, is made up of two hydrogen atoms
and an oxygen atom. It has a positive hydrogen side and a negative oxygen
side. Because opposite charges attract, the hydrogen side of one water
molecule is attracted to the negative side of another oxygen molecule.
Even though these forces are relatively weak, when millions of separate
van der Waals forces occur in millions of water molecules it can form a
bond.
The PVA glue molecule also has positive charges on one side and
negative on the other. If the glue and surface molecules are close to one
another a bond can form.
Another way glue works is by mechanical bonding. When glue is
spread on a surface it seeps into all the tiny pores and cracks of the
material. When the glue hardens, a bond is formed.
PVA works mainly by evaporation. After spreading it on the surface,
the water evaporates and the chemicals bonds to one another. The
Adhesives
Van der Waals Force
The van der Waals forces relates

to the attraction between
molecules that have a positive and
negative end. I LL US TRA TI ON
BY TEM AH N EL SON .
cyanoacrylate glues also depend on water. Cyanoacrylate molecules begin

lining up into chains when they come into contact with water. When the
molecules can no longer move, the glue is hard.
Behind the tape Another form of familiar adhesive is tape. Tapes are
relatively new to the adhesive world, with the first tapes developed in the
1800s. Masking tape was invented in the 1920s. Soon after came the first
transparent tape. In modern day, there are a wide variety of tapes of all
stickiness levels.
There are two parts to what makes a tape adhere: the backing material
and the adhesive. The adhesive in tapes is also a form of polymer. Unlike
glues, which are liquid and harden over time,
tape adhesives are solid and remain solid. When
pressure is applied to the tape, van der Waals
forces are at work and there is stickiness.
Tape adhesives are also distinct from glue
because a piece of tape can be removed. Some
tapes have strong adhesives that can hold a lot of
weight and withstand force. These tapes are
removable, but they can cause harm the surface
of the taped material. Packing tape, for example,
can hold a box together, but when it is peeled
away it also likely remove some of the cardboard.
When glue is spread on a

surface it seeps into all the tiny
pores and cracks of the
material. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Glue moves between the

bers, creating a strong bond.
21
Adhesives
WORDS TO KNOW
Adhesive: A substance that bonds or adheres two
substances together.
Control experiment: A setup that is identical to the
experiment, but is not affected by the variable
that acts on the experimental group.
experiment.
Polyvinyl acetate: A type of polymer that is the
main ingredient of white glues.
Polymer: Chemical compound formed of simple

molecules (known as monomers) linked with
themselves many times over.
Synthetic: Something that is made artificially, in a
laboratory or chemical plant, but is generally
not found in nature.
Variable: Something that can affect the results of
an experiment
Van der Waals force: An attractive force between
two molecules based on the positive and negative side of the molecule.
Other tapes were developed with light adhesives so they are easily
removed without harming the surface. Sticky notes are an example of this
type of adhesive. They stick where they are placed and can be removed
without a trace of the stickiness.
Adhesives are a wide and fascinating group of materials. What kind of
adhesives do you have questions about? You will have an opportunity to
explore both glues and tapes in the following two experiments.
Sticky notes use a light adhesive
so that the item they are
attached to is not damaged
when the note is removed. A P
P HOT O/ JI M MO NE.
EXPERIMENT 1
Material Adhesion: How do various glues
adhere to different materials?
Purpose/Hypothesis How glues adhere to mate-
rials depend upon both the properties of the glue

and the material. Metals, plastics, and wood each
have unique properties. Wood, for example, has
tiny pores that the glue moves into.
In this experiment, you will use three types of
glue: rubber cement, a white glue, and a super
glue. The materials you can glue together are
wood, plastic, and metal (aluminum foil). By
gluing each material to itself, you can determine what glues adhere to which materials.
22
Adhesives
Do you think one glue will adhere to all the

materials?
To begin the experiment, use what you have
learned about adhesives and glue to make a guess
about what glue will adhere to what materials.
things:


the air temperature
the temperature of the glue
the material being glued
the amount of glue
are everything that might affect the bond
between the materials. If you change more than
one variable at a time, you will not be able to
determine which variable had the most effect
on whether the materials adhere to one
another.

through observation. Your experiment will prove
or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The super glue will adhere all materials to
one another; the white glue will only bond wood
together; and the rubber cement will not bond to any of the materials.
In this case, the variable you will change for each glue is the type of
materials being glued together. The variable you will measure is whether
there is a bond between the materials.
Step 5: Starting with the white

glue, use the cotton swabs to
spread the glue on the wood.
Press the wood together firmly
and note the time. IL LUS TR ATI ON B Y TE MA H NE LSO N.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (This experiment
requires monitoring over several hours.)

Materials Needed
white glue, such as an all purpose school

glue or wood glue
rubber cement, acid-free, craft
cyanoacrylate glue, such as Superglue or
Krazy clue, select a glue that says it will
not bond to skin instantly
strips of wood, about 0.125 inch (0.32
centimeter) thick and 1 foot (30 centimeter) long (available at craft stores)
aluminum foil
23
Adhesives

Make sure you purchase the cyanoacrylate
glue that states it will not bind instantly to skin.
Although this type of cyanoacrylate glue will
not bind instantly, it can still bond to skin and
cause irritation. Have an adult help you wipe
the cyanoacrylate glue on the materials. Be
careful not to get the glue on your skin. If you
do so, immediately follow the instructions on
the glue.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Step 7: Repeat Steps 5 and 6,
using first the rubber cement
and then the cyanoacrylate
glue. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
White
Glue
cyanoa
Rubber
Cement
24
cr yla
6.
plastic, from a container or bottle

scissors
cotton swabs
wax paper or paper towels
Approximate Budget $10.

Timetable 30 minutes to set-up; approximately
45 minutes to monitor results over at least a

12-hour period.
1. Break the long wood strip into six pieces,

each about 2 inches (5 centimeters) long.
Cut the plastic into six pieces, each about 2 inches long and
approximately matching the width of the wood strips.
Tear six pieces of aluminum foil, each about 2 inches long and
approximately matching the width of the wood strips.
Set all the materials on wax paper or paper towels to protect the
surface.
Starting with the white glue, use the cotton swabs to spread the glue
on the wood. Press the wood together firmly and note the time.
One by one, use the white glue to contine gluing a piece of each
material to every other material. You will have three test pieces for
each glue: wood to wood; plastic to plastic; and aluminum foil to
aluminum foil.
7. Repeat Steps 5 and 6, using first the
rubber cement and then the cyanoacrylate glue. See illustration.
8. Wait 15 minutes and test the adhesive
bond between the materials. Gently try
to move one of the pieces. Does one piece
of aluminum foil peel back? If one of the
pieces is not bonded, press the pieces back
together and set it down. If any of the
pieces are bonded, write down the results
in a chart and note the approximate time
it took.
Adhesives
9. Wait 15 minutes and test the adhesive

bond between the materials. Gently try
to move one of the pieces. Does one piece
of aluminum foil peel back? If one of the
pieces is not bonded, press the pieces back
together and set it down. If any of the
pieces are bonded, write down the results
in a chart and note the approximate time
it took.
10. Continue checking the adhesive bonds
between the materials every 30 minutes
over the next two to three hours. When
the materials are bonded together note
the time on a chart and you do not have
to test them anymore.
11. Allow the materials that have not bonded
to sit overnight or for a 12-hour period
before you test adhesion for the final
time.
Summary of Results Study the results of your
chart. Did one type of glue bond to all of the

materials? Was there a glue that only bonded
to one type of material? Consider how the
properties of plastic, wood, and aluminum
foil may have interacted with the glue. Write
a paragraph summarizing and explaining your
findings.
Its common for experiments to not work
exactly as planned but it can often offer a
learning experience. Below are some problems
that may arise during this experiment, some
possible causes, and ways to remedy the
problems.
Problem: The wood pieces did not bond to
anything.
Possible causes: The pieces may have needed
more pressure when forming a bond. Try
gluing two wooden pieces together and use
a weight to press them together. You can
use a heavy book or pot. Place a strip of wax
paper between the pieces and the weight so
as not to get any glue on the heavy item.
Problem: The foil and plastic keep slipping apart
when I test them.
Possible causes: You may have applied too
much glue to the surface and peeling them
apart causes them to slip. Try it again, applying
less glue. Once you know the general amount
of time it takes for the materials to set, wait
until that time period before you test the bond.
Change the Variables There are several ways you can change the
variables in this experiment. One way is by focusing on one glue
type. Rubber cement, for example, is available in several types and
can be applied in different ways. Wiping the adhesive to each side of
the material and pressing the materials together can give a stronger
bond. You can test this bond on all the materials. You can also focus
on one type of material. There are many kinds of woods, plastics, and
metals. Can the white glue bond certain woods together but not
others?
25
Adhesives
EXPERIMENT 2
the environmental conditions
Adhesives in the Environment: Will

different environmental conditions
affect the properties of different
adhesives?
Purpose/Hypothesis There are adhesives devel-
oped for strength and others that are meant to

have a weak adhesive. Sticky notes, for example,
was a completely new type of adhesive when it
the type of paper
was developed in the 1960s. The removable
the material the adhesive is stuck to
paper will adhere where it is placed and is easily
the age of the adhesive
removed. Tape made for painting is another
the strength of the fan
adhesive that can be removed without a trace.
the type of paper bag
All adhesives are designed to work in certain
the type of bottle used to test strength
environmental conditions.
This experiment explores how temperature
are everything that might affect the adhesion. If
and the environment affect adhesives. You will
you change more than one variable at the same
use two types of adhesives: the low-strength
time, you will not be able to tell which variable
sticky note, and a tape with a strong adhesive.
had the most effect on the adhesive properties.
You will expose each adhesives to a cold, hot, and
humid environment. By comparing how the
adhesive sticks both before and after each environmental change, you
can measure how the environment affects the properties of each adhesive.
Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this
experiment based on your knowledge of adhesives and the environmental
conditions. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
the amount of time in each environmental condition


something you can test through further investigation. Your experiment
will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one
possible hypothesis for this experiment: The cold and heat will change
the adhesive properties of the low-adhesive material but not the tape with
the strong adhesive.
26
Adhesives
White
Glue
Rubber
Cement
cyanoacryla
te
Materials needed.
IL LU STR AT IO N BY T EM AH
NE LS ON.
In this case, the variable you will change is the environmental conditions for each adhesive, one at a time. The variable you will measure is
the adhesion properties, as compared to the unchanged adhesive material.
Level of Difficulty Moderate (there are a lot of steps to this experiment; to
simplify, you can test adhesive strength for only hot and cold conditions,
leaving out the humidity).
Materials Needed
sticky notes
tape with a strong adhesive, such as Duct, packing, or masking
tape
paper
fan
3 blocks of wood, the same type of wood
clamp
3 small paper bags (lunch bags work well)
2-liter plastic bottle
27
Adhesives

Be careful when working with the heat lamp
after it has been turned on and use caution with
the boiling water. Part of this experiment can be
messy. If you have a workbench or other
movable bench you may want to clamp the
block of wood outside.
funnel
heat lamp, or a warm, sunny day
large container or garbage can
freezer
scissors
tall pot, such as a soup pot
chest grater, strainer, or other metal item
with holes in it that can sit on the top of
the pot
Timetable 1 to 2 hours working time; approximately 3 hours total time.

Step-by-Step Instructions Testing adhesive strength under normal envi-
ronmental conditions.
Steps 2 and 3: Stick one note on

a piece of paper and place the
paper directly in front of the
fan. Turn the fan on to the
highest setting and hold the
paper for 30 seconds.
I LLU ST RAT IO N BY T EM AH
NEL SO N.
28
1. Sticky note: Stick one note on a piece of paper and place the paper
directly in front of the fan. Use the tape measure to measure how
far the paper is from the fan.
2. Turn the fan on to the highest setting and hold the paper for 30
seconds and turn off the fan.
3. If the sticky adhesive did not hold the note in place during the 30
seconds, move the paper 1 to 2 inches (25 centimeter) farther away
from the fan. Sticky on a fresh sticky note, turn the fan on and
repeat. Continue moving the paper back until the sticky note does
not blow away. If the sticky does not blow away, move the paper 1
to 2 inches closer to the fan. Continue moving the paper forward
until the sticky cannot move any more before it blows away.
4. When you have the distance that the sticky
adhesive keeps the note on the paper, note
distance on a chart.
5. Tape: Tape the paper bag to the bottom
half of the piece of wood. Note the size
and direction you tape the bag.
6. Clamp the piece of wood to a work
bench, chair, or other sturdy item. Make
sure the clamp is not touching the bag.
7. Set the empty bottle inside the bag. The
bottle should be slightly higher than the
bag. You may need to cut the top of the
bag with the scissors.
Adhesives
8. If you are working inside, set a large

container or garbage can underneath the
bag/bottle. Place the funnel in the bottle.
9. Carefully add cup (about 2 ounces) of
water to the bottle, being careful not to
drip any water on the bag. Continue adding water in cup increments, remembering to note how much water you are
adding. When the tape can no longer
support the bottle, write down the
amount of weight the tape held.
Setup for adhesive strength under warm
1. Place a new sticky note on a fresh piece of
paper.
2. Tape a new paper bag to the wood block
in the same direction and using the same length of tape as the
normal environmental trial.
3. If it is a hot day outside and the sun is out, place both the paper
and wood (with the attached bag) out in the sun. If you are
working indoors, place both items under the heat lamp.
Setup for adhesive strength under cold environmental conditions.
Place a new sticky note on a fresh piece of paper.
Tape a new paper bag to a wood block in the same direction and
using the same length of tape as the normal environmental trial.
Place both items in the freezer.
Steps 59: Tape a paper bag to

the bottom half of the piece of
wood and clamp the piece of
wood to a chair. Set the empty
bottle inside the bag and insert
the funnel. Add cup (about 2
ounces) of water to the bottle.
I LL US TRA TI ON BY TE MAH
N EL SON .
Setup for adhesive strength under humid environmental conditions.

1. Place a new sticky note on a fresh piece of paper.
2. Tape a new paper bag to a wood block in the same direction and
using the same length of tape as the normal environmental trial.
3. Fill the pot about a quarter way with water and bring to a boil.
4. Remove the pot from the heat and allow it to cool for one to two
minutes. Carefully set the cheese grater (or other item) on top of
the pot.
5. Place the paper with the sticky and the wood block with the bag on
top of the grater with the tape facing upwards.
Testing adhesive strength.
29
Adhesives
Here are some problems that may arise during
Problem: The bag keeps breaking when the
water is poured in.
Possible cause: The funnel might be too narrow
and you may be dripping water onto the bag,
which would weaken the bag. Have a helper
hold the funnel upright while you carefully
pour. You may also need a larger funnel. Repeat
the tests.
Problem: The tape and sticky completely peeled
off when it was placed above the hot water.
Possible causes: There may have been too
much steam. Try it again, allowing the pot to
cool another couple minutes before placing the
adhesives over the pot.
Wait approximately three hours.

Sticky note: Hold the paper with the
sticky that was under the hot environmental conditions in front of the fan.
Use your chart and tape measure to determine where the paper should be (it
should be the same distance as it was in
the normal environmental conditions).
Again, turn the fan on the highest setting
for 30 seconds and note if the sticky
adhesive holds.
Repeat this step with the sticky note that
was undergoing cold conditions and then
the humid conditions.
Tape: Use your chart to determine how
much weight the tape should hold.
Repeat the setup in Steps 7 and 8 for
each block of wood, carefully pouring in
the water.
After testing the adhesives that underwent
hot, cold, and humid conditions, note the
results on a chart.
Summary of Results Examine your data and compare the results of the
tests with your hypothesis. Did your hypothesis prove true? How did the
adhesive undergoing each of the different environmental conditions
compare to the normal condition? Was there one environment that
affected the adhesive the most? Compare each of the two adhesives against
one another. Consider why it might be important for different adhesives
to withstand certain types of environments. You may want to write a
summary of your results.
Change the Variables Variables you can change in this experiment
include:
Changing the type of adhesives to determine if there are patterns
to environmental conditions and the strength of the tape.
Change the material the adhesive adheres to.
Focus on one environmental condition and measure at what point
the environment breaks down the adhesive.
30
Adhesives

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept You make use of adhesives
every day. Think about what interests you about adhesion and what
questions you have. Do you want to know about how the materials
play a role in adhesion? Or how synthetic glues differ from natural
glues? Make a list of all the types of adhesives and where they are applied.
Check the Further Readings section and talk with your science teacher
to learn more about adhesives. Because adhesives are so diverse, there are
many different types of scientists who work with them. Ask family,
teachers, and friends if they know someone who works a lot with adhesives.
It could be a carpenter or researcher.
Steps in the Scientific Method To do an original experiment, you need to
plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise, you might not be
sure what question you are answering, what you are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
Here are the steps in designing an experiment:
State the purpose ofand the underlying question behindthe
experiment you propose to do.
Recognize the variables involved and select one that will help you
answer the question at hand.
State your hypothesis, an educated guess about the answer to your
question.
Decide how to change the variable you selected.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Your data should include
charts and graphs such as the one you did for these experiments. They
should be clearly labeled and easy to read. You may also want to include
photographs and drawings of your experimental setup and results, which
will help other people visualize the steps in the experiment.
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may want to display your results,
such as any experimental setup you designed. If you have completed a
nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research question was
and illustrate your findings.
Related Projects You can use the materials around you to think of
projects related to adhesives. They are in furniture, school supplies, and

many products that you purchase. You could examine how adhesives play
31
Adhesives
a role in everyday products. If you are interested in natural adhesives, you

can make your own and test the adhesives against commercial brands.
Consider the adhesive properties of tape. Sticky notes and envelopes,
for example, make use of adhesives. What makes their adhesive properties
unique and why are they important? How does waterproofing play a role
in choosing the right adhesive? You could also experiment with what
materials can remove adhesives.

Roach, John. Gecko, Mussel Powers Combined in New Sticky Adhesive.
National Geographic News. July 18, 2007, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/
news/2007/07/070718 geckel glue.html (accessed on April 1, 2008).
This to That. http://www.thistothat.com (accessed on April 1, 2008).
Suggestions on what glue to use to adhere one material to another, along with
trivia facts and glue news briefs.
Fix It Club. Glues. HowStuffWorks. http://home.howstuffworks.com/glues.htm
(accessed on April 1, 2008). Explanation of how different types of glues adhere.
VanCleave, Janice. Janice VanCleaves 204 Sticky, Gloppy, Wacky and Wonderful
Experiments. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley, 2002.
Weiss, Malcolm E. Why glass breaks, rubber bends, and glue sticks: how everyday
materials work. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977.
32
Air
ven though you cannot feel it, see it, or smell it, air surrounds you and
extends far upward for miles. Air is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen
and oxygen, with about four times as much nitrogen as oxygen. With few
exceptions, all living things on Earth need air to survive. It is what makes
all flight possible, from airplanes to birds. It allows fuels to burn and it
shields Earth from the suns harmful rays. Air is also what gives us our
weather patterns. Airs temperature, pressure, density, and volume all
create the weather.
Surrounded by air All the air that covers Earth is called the atmosphere. Earths gravity holds the atmosphere in place around our planet.
The atmosphere is a blanket of air over 600 miles (1,000 kilometers)
high. Scientists have divided the atmosphere into five layers, according to
differences in the temperature of the air. The layer closest to Earth is
called the troposphere. The troposphere extends about 9 miles upward
(15 kilometers). It contains almost all of what makes up Earths weather,
including clouds, rain, and snow.
Like any gas, air has pressure, mass, and a temperature. Air is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and the remaining 0.1%
a handful of other gases, including carbon dioxide. The molecules in airs
gases are constantly flying around at high speeds. This air can feel completely still because there are billions of individual molecules zipping in all
directions. When the molecules travel in one direction, it results in wind.
Oh, the pressure Winds begin with differences in air pressure. Air
always moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure. The greater the
difference in pressures, the stronger the winds force.
Airs pressure is caused by the weight of the air in Earths atmosphere
pushing down on the air below. Air in the troposphere has the highest
pressure of all the layers. The air at the top of the atmosphere has little
weight above it to push it down, so its pressure is less. The air at the
33
Air
Air Composition
78%
Nitrogen
bottom of the atmosphere is being pushed down

by the hundreds of miles of air above it. This
results in air low to the ground having more
pressure than air high in the atmosphere. The
air pressing down on you weighs about 1 ton
(0.9 metric ton). You cannot feel this pressure
because you are supported by equal air pressure
on all sides, and your body is filled with gases
and liquid that push back with equal pressure.
21%
Oxygen
Meteorologists, or people who study

weather, measure air pressure with a barometer.
Changes in the air pressure or barometric pressure occur during changes in the weather. The
mercury barometer uses the heavy liquid metal
.9% Argon
mercury, which is about 14 times heavier or
.1% other gases
denser than water. An empty glass tube with
the upper end closed is inserted into a dish of
mercury. The height of the column of mercury
The air on Earth is composed of
in the glass tube is controlled by the air pressing down on the mercury in
several different gases. G AL E
GRO UP.
the dish. Normal air pressure lifts the mercury to a height of about 30
inches (760 millimeters). When air pressure falls, the air does not push on
the mercury in the dish as much, and the column of mercury falls. When
air pressure increases, the column of mercury will rise. In general, falling
air pressure means that clouds and rains or snow are likely. Rising air
pressure signals that clear weather is likely.
In the mid 1600s Italian mathematician Evangelista Torricelli
(160847) designed the first barometer to prove that air had weight
and pressure. Then in 1648 French philosopher and mathematician
Blaise Pascal (163262) hypothesized that air pressure decreased with
altitude. He sent his brother-in-law up to the peak of a mountain in
France with a barometer. The column of mercury dropped lower and
lower the higher he went. Today, the international unit of pressure is
called the Pascal, in his honor.
Changing densities Quick changes in the weather are caused by
movements of large bodies of air called air masses. Air masses usually
cover very large areas. All the air in an air mass has nearly the same
properties. When two air masses that have different densities meet, they
mix slowly and form an area between them called a front.
34
Air
The density of an air mass is related to its

pressure and temperature. Air density is the
amount of matter or mass in a specific volume.
Increasing the temperature of a gas pushes its
molecules farther apart. When the sun heats up
the air, the space between the molecules
increases and the hot air expands. The air
becomes less dense and has less pressure. When
the temperature of air decreases its molecules
move closer together and the air contracts. The
air becomes more dense and has greater pressure.
600 miles
increasing
air pressure
There are three main types of fronts: cold

fronts, warm fronts, and occluded fronts. A cold
front forms when a cold air mass meets and
pushes under a warm air mass. Violent storms
are associated with a cold front. Fair, cool weather usually follows. A
warm front forms when a mass of warm air moves into a cold air mass.
Rain and showers usually accompany a warm front. Hot, humid weather
usually follows. An occluded front happens when a cold front catches up
and merges with a warm front. An occluded front often brings heavy rain.
Troposphere
Air presses down from the

upper atmosphere, causing
more pressure in the layer
closest to Earth, the
troposphere. GA LE G ROU P.
The closer air lies to the surface of Earth, the denser it is because there are
more molecules of air compressed into a smaller volume. The troposphere
Warm Air
Mass
Cold Air
Mass
A cold front occurs when a cold
air mass meets and pushes
under a warm air mass. GA LE
GR OU P.
35
Air
When mountain climbers trek

up high mountains, they often
bring tanks of oxygen with
them because the air contains
less oxygen for them to breathe.
layer is so compressed that it contains about 80%

of the air found in the entire atmosphere by mass.
The higher up in the atmosphere someone goes,
the less dense the air. When mountain climbers
trek up high mountains, they often need to bring
tanks of oxygen with them because the air is less
dense and contains less oxygen for them to breathe.
The up-and-down movement of air due
to different densities is called convection currents. When the air becomes less dense it rises
upward through the denser, cool air above it. As
this warm air moves through the cold air it cools
off, becomes more dense again, and eventually
sinks back to the bottom.
EXPERIMENT 1
AP/ WI DE W OR LD P HOT OS.
The up-and-down movement of

air due to different densities is
called convection currents.
Air Density: Does warm air take up less room

than cool air?
Purpose/Hypothesis Density is the mass of anything divided by the
volume it occupies. As the temperature of a given mass of air increases,

its volume expands and the air gets less dense as
a resultsame mass, but larger volume, means
o
less dense. As the temperature of a given mass
o
l
c
s
air
of air decreases, its volume contracts and the air
gets more dense. In this experiment, you will
examine the density of air by causing a mass of
air in a closed container to become both more
warm
cool
and less dense by changing the temperature. To
light air
dense
see these changes you will place a balloon over
rises
air sinks
the open end of a bottle. When the trapped air
expands, the balloon should get bigger; when
the air contracts, the balloon should get
smaller.
air warms up
your knowledge of air density. This educated
heat source
GAL E GR OU P.
36
Air
WORDS TO KNOW
Air: Gaseous mixture that covers Earth, composed
mainly of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen
(about 21%) with lesser amounts of argon,
carbon dioxide, and other gases.
Air density: The ratio of the mass of a substance to
the volume it occupies.
Air mass: A large body of air that has similar
characteristics.
Air pressure: The force exerted by the weight of
the atmosphere above a point on or above
Earths surface.
the variable that acts on the experimental

group.
Convection currents: Circular movement of a gas in
response to alternating heating and cooling.
Front: The area between air masses of different
temperatures or densities.
Hypothesis: An idea in the form of a statement that
can be tested by observation and/or experiment.
Meteorologists: Professionals who study Earths

atmosphere and its phenomena, including
weather and weather forecasting.
Barometer: An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure, used especially in weather

forecasting.
Troposphere: The lowest layer of Earths atmosphere, ranging to an altitude of about 9 miles
(15 km) above Earths surface.
Control experiment: A setup that is identical

to the experiment, but is not affected by
Variable: Something that can affect the results of an

experiment.

possible hypothesis for this experiment: As the air gets warmer and less
dense it will cause the the balloon to get larger; as the air gets cooler and
less dense it will cause the balloon to get smaller.
In this case, the variable you will change is the temperature of the air
inside the bottle by warming and cooling the outside of the bottle. The
variable you will measure is the balloons circumference.
Conducting a control experiment will help you isolate each variable
and measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable will
37
Air

thickness of the plastic bottles
change between the control and the experimental

trials. Your control experiment will not heat or
cool the air in the bottles.
Level of Difficulty Easy.
Materials Needed
2 rubber balloons
ice
hot water
2 plastic bottles, such as plastic soda
bottles
2 containers that go at least midway up
the sides of the bottles (one should be
heatproof)
material the balloons are made from

are everything that might affect the density of
the air. If you change more than one variable at
the same time, you will not be able to tell which
variable had the most effect on air density.

Steps 3 and 4: Heat causes the
air in the bottle to warm; ice
causes the air in the bottle to
cool. GA LE GRO UP.
Timetable 15 minutes.
1. Place a balloon over the mouth of each

plastic bottle. Leave one bottle out as
your control.
2. Fill up one container with very hot water.
Fill up the other container with a little ice
and some cold water.
3. Place the experimental bottle in the container of cold water and hold it there for
roughly one minute. (Another option is
to place the bottle in a freezer for one
minute.) Note the size of the balloon
compared to the control balloon.
4. Place the experimental bottle in the container of hot water for one minute. (Another
option is to carefully hold the bottle under
running hot tap water.) Note the size of the
balloon compared to the control balloon.
38
Air
5. Again, place the experimental bottle in

the pan of cold water and hold for 30
seconds.
Summary of Results Examine how much the

Have an adult present when working with the
hot water.
balloon grew or shrunk in your experiment.

Was your hypothesis correct? How did the size
of the experimental balloon compare to the control balloon? Did the
experimental balloon shrink more or at a different rate the second time
you placed it in the cold water? Draw a picture of the results of your
experiment and write a brief summary.
EXPERIMENT 2
Convection Currents: How can rising air cause
weather changes?
Purpose/Hypothesis Convection currents occur as rising gas carries heat
upward and the cooler gas is brought downward. In the atmosphere,

convection currents rise above warm areas on Earths surface. These rising
air currents produce differences in air pressure, which cause changes
in the weather. Small convection currents can produce winds and
rain. Larger convection currents can cause severe thunderstorms and
hurricanes.
When convection occurs in an enclosed container, the currents help distribute the heat
throughout the container. The entire process is
driven by the differences in air density. In this
experiment, some possible causes, and some
experiment, you will create a convection current
in a closed container and look at the airs actions.
Problem: Nothing happened to the balloon.
You will cool the air in one glass jar and warm the
Possible cause: Your water may not have been
air in another. Visible smoke from an incense
hot or cold enough. You may also not given
stick will go into the warm jar. Then you will
enough time to allow the air temperature to
observe what occurs to the movements of the
change. Try the experiment again, placing
smoke.
your bottles deeper into the hot and cold
water.
Possible cause: Your balloon may have a slight
your knowledge of air convection. This educated
leak. Try the experiment again with a new
balloon.
39
Air



The amount of smoke
The temperature of the warm air
The temperature of the cold air
experiment: Air in the warmer container will
rise, pushing the cold air above it downward, and
are everything that might affect the movement
of the smoke. If you change more than one
creating movement of the smoke.
variable at the same time, you will not be able to
In this case, the variable you will change is
tell which variable had the most effect on the
the temperature of the air in the glass jar. The
convection currents.
variable you will measure is the visible movement of the smoke.
Conducting a control experiment will help
you isolate each variable and measure the changes in the dependent
variable. Only one variable will change between the control and the
experimental trial. Your control experiment will use jars that have not
been heated or cooled.
Level of Difficulty Easy/Moderate (the experiment is simple, but working
with burning incense increases the difficulty level).

Materials Needed
four glass jars of equal size with equal-sized openings (mayonnaise

jars work well; you do not need the lids)
incense stick (do not use smokeless incense)
matches
small piece of thick paper (big enough to cover the opening of the
jars)
lamp with at least a 100-watt bulb
black piece of paper or cardstock about the size of the jars
access to freezer or cold-water bath
40
Air
1. Place one jar in the freezer or cold-water

bath for about five minutes.
Ask an adult for help with lighting the match.
2. While the first jar is cooling, run hot
Make sure an adult is present when you burn
water over the outside of the second jar.
the incense. Always wet the match and any
3. When about three minutes have passed,
leftover incense before you throw them away.
turn on the lamp and position the warm
jar upside down in front it. Fold the black
paper in half and lean it closely against the side of the jar opposite
the lamp to help heat the air.
4. After five minutes, take the jar out of the freezer or cold-water bath
and have the small piece of thick paper nearby. (You may need to
wipe off the outside of the jar so that you can see inside it.)
5. Light the stick of incense, lift up the warm jar (with the opening
still facing downward), and hold the burning incense underneath
the opening of the warm jar. The incense stick should give off
Step 6: Turn the warm jar right
black smoke. Blow out the incense stick and capture any remainside up while you hold the thick
paper in place. Turn the cold
ing black smoke inside the warm jar.
jar upside down and set it
6. Quickly place the small piece of thick paper firmly over the
directly on top of the warm jar
opening in the warm jar to hold the smoke inside. Turn the
so their openings line up exactly
warm jar right side up while you hold the thick paper in place.
and the thick piece of paper is
Turn the cold jar upside down and set it directly on top of the
between them. GA LE G RO UP.
warm jar so their openings line up exactly
and the thick piece of paper is between
them.
7. Lift the cold jar slightly and pull the
paper out from between the jars. Observe
what happens to the smoke.
8. For the control experiment, repeat Steps
5 through 7 with two room-temperature
glass jars. Note the results.
Summary of Results Was your hypothesis correct? Compare the results between the movement in the air of the control jars and the cold
and warm jars. Use arrows to draw what was
happening to both the cold and warm air in the
jars. What do you hypothesize would occur if the
41
Air
remedy the problem.
cold jar was placed on the bottom and the warm

jar was placed on top of it. Write a brief description of how air of different temperatures causes
weather change.
Modify the Experiment You can experiment
with convection currents in air without matches

in a simple test that illustrates the principles
Possible cause: You may have used a smokeless
behind hot air balloons. You will need at least
incense stick. Try purchasing another type
two black balloons, string, and a hot, sunny day.
and repeating the experiment.
Blow up both balloons about half way. Knot the
balloons and tie a piece of string about 4 feet (1.2
meters) long to the knot. Place one balloon in a basement or air conditioned room where the air is cool. Place the second balloon outside in
the sun and tie the string to something on the ground. Make a note
whether both balloons lie on the ground. Leave the balloons alone for
several hours.
Look at the balloon outside. Is it still on the ground? It will rise if the
air inside the balloon is lighter than the surrounding air. Untie the outside
balloon and place it next to the balloon that is sitting in the cool room.
What happens? Does the balloon with the warmer air rise? Observe the
two balloons for several minutes, as the hot air balloon cools. You can try
the experiment again with varying size balloons or at higher outside
temperatures.
Problem: No black smoke was visible.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Whenever you step
outside you are feeling the effects of airs properties and movement.
Consider what types of weather-related topics are of interest to you.
Watch the weather forecast carefully and write down what terms and
pictures look interesting to you.
Check the Further Readings section and talk with your science
teacher to learn more about air properties and weather. As you consider
possible experiments, make sure to discuss them with your science teacher
or another adult before trying them.
42
Air

experiment:
propose to do.
Recognize the variables involved and
question at hand.
State your hypothesis, an educated guess
about the answer to your question.
selected.
any experiment you conduct, you should look

for ways to clearly convey your data. You can do
this by including charts and graphs for the
experiments. They should be clearly labeled
and easy to read. You may also want to include
will help others visualize the steps in the experiment. You might decide to
conduct an experiment that lasts several months. In this case, include
pictures or drawings of the results taken at regular intervals.
The less-dense hot air in a hot

air balloon allows it to rise high
above the ground. # DU OM O/
COR BI S.
Related Projects There are many related projects you can undertake
related to air and the weather. Because air is not visible to the naked
eye, there are instruments that enable people to see how the air reacts.
To explore air temperature, you could make a radiometer, an instrument
that uses reflection and absorption to measure the suns rays. A radiometer will allow you to see how the suns energy causes the warm air to
move. You could also make a barometer to measure air pressure. By
43
Air
watching changes in the barometer, you can observe how varying air
pressures result in changes in the weather.
To further explore convection, you can make a convection box as
another way to see how air currents with clashing temperatures act. The
cyclical process of convection currents also occurs in liquids, which follow
the same density rules as gases. Warm water, less dense than cold water,
rises to the surface as the cooler water sinks to the bottom. The results
cause currents in the water. You can examine convection currents in
bodies of water by adding drops of different food colorings to the hot
and cold water.

Atmospheric science resources. USA Today. December 19, 2001. http://
www.usatoday.com/weather/wworks0.htm#pressure (accessed February 26,
2008). Graphics and clear text that explains various weather phenomena.
Elsom, Derek. Weather Explained. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1997.
From basic weather and air questions to weather extremes, this book answers
how weather forms, with lots of colorful pictures.
Met Office. Secondary Students. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/
secondary/students/index.html (accessed February 26, 2008). Information
on weather topics, including air masses and fronts.
Wright, David. How Much Does the Sky Weigh? Chain Reaction. http://
chainreaction.asu.edu/weather/digin/wright.htm (accessed February 26,
2008). Article on air and its pressure with ideas for experiments.
44
Air and Water Pollution
ir or water that is contaminated with impurities is described as

polluted. The contamination is the pollution. Directly or indirectly,
the overwhelming majority of pollution results from human activity, yet
nature can also release pollutants. Pollution usually is in the form of gas,
liquid, and solid materials; it results from anything that alters the natural
environment, such as a temperature shift and noise. Air and water
pollution has become a significant problem since the growth of cities,
industry, and travel in the late nineteenth century.
All life on Earth depends on air and water to live and grow. Pollution
of these substances harms and destroys plants, animals, and microscopic
organisms. It causes health problems and death in humans. Pollution
upsets the natural cycles on which all life depends, causing a ripple effect
that can harm organisms hundreds of miles away from the pollutant. For
example, pollutants in a body of water can harm the sea life and poison
the plants that depend on the water. In turn, surrounding animals that
depend on the plants for food and shelter, such as birds, will need to
either move to another location or die. Water and air pollution also
destroy Earths natural beauty.
What you cant see . . . Air is essential for life on Earth. It provides
oxygen for animals and carbon dioxide for plants. It encircles Earth to
form its atmosphere, protecting the planet against harmful rays and
causing its weather. Air pollution comes in the form of gasessuch as
nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxideas well as solid
and liquid particles called particulate matter. Measuring about 0.0001
inch (0.0025 millimeters, also called 2.5 microns) in diameter, particulate
matter is small enough to be suspended, or float, in the air.
There are several major categories of air pollution produced by
humans. Pollutants include the gases nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
and carbon monoxide, along with lead pollution and particulate matter.
45
Gases: In most industrial nations the majority of air pollution comes from the automobile.
The exhaust in cars and trucks releases carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and
clean water allows
sulfur dioxide. Automobiles, especially diesel
fish to thrive
animals have adequate
vehicles, also release smoke particles. The burning
food supply
of fossil fuelssuch as gas, oil, and coalis also a
major source of air pollution. Power plants that
burn coal and oil release nitrogen oxides, sulfur
oxides, carbon dioxide, and particles. Various
industrial processes also produce large amounts
Clean air and water support a
of these pollutants.
healthy life cycle for all
Scientists generally agree that the greenhouse effect, also called global
organisms. GA LE GRO UP.
warming, comes from the buildup of carbon dioxide, methane, and other
gases in the atmosphere. The increased levels of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases trap heat close to Earth, resulting in an overall increase
in temperature. This warmer climate could produce extreme weather
events, such as droughts and floods, raise the sea level, and alter the life
populations.
Another planetwide effect of air pollution is the breakdown of the
layer of air in Earths upper atmosphere. The upper atmosphere protects
people and animals from dangerous ultraviolet rays produced by the Sun.
In humans, exposure to ultraviolet rays is linked to skin cancer and harm
to the immune system. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases are one of the
main pollutants that bore holes in Earths upper atmosphere.
Air and water pollutants can
Lead: Lead is a toxic or lethal metal that was once a common
affect a wide variety of
component of gasoline, paints, and various industrial processes.
surrounding life. GA LE
Unleaded gasoline and paint, along with improvements in industrial
GR OU P.
processes, have brought about a decrease in the
release of lead in the air. Especially harmful to
young children, lead can slow down mental
air pollutants
oil
development, and can harm the kidneys, liver,
nervous system, and other organs.
chemicals,
heat, metals
Particulates: Particulate matter varies in size.
No food supply
for animals
Larger particles settle near their source after a few
Fish can't live in this water
minutes in the air; small particles can remain in
the air for several days and spread over a wide
area. Particles that are especially small can cause
health problems in humans and animals.
46
sunlight enters atmosphere,

heating the Earth
greenhouse gases
cause some of the
heat to be trapped
carbon dioxide
an
d
ot
h
er
heat is reflected back

into the atmosphere
Carbon dioxide and other gases
trap heat close to Earth, causing
a warming in Earths climate.
GA LE G RO UP.
Particles enter the respiratory system and penetrate deeply into

the lungs. Brief exposure can result in symptoms ranging from
coughing to a sore throat. Long-term exposure can cause asthma
In a thermal inversion, a layer
and congestion.
of warm air traps the cool air
Suspended particles in the atmosphere are seen as dust, smoke, soot,
close to Earth. When this
and haze. These particles can also cause smog. Smog is a type of large-scale
happens the polluted air cannot
rise and disperse into the
outdoor pollution caused by reactions between strong sunlight and differatmosphere, causing pollution
ent pollutants, primarily automobile exhaust and
to build up to dangerous levels.
industrial emissions. Smog appears as a haze over
GAL E GR OU P.
wide areas.
Smog often worsens in warm temperatures
when a thermal inversion can occur. In a thermal
inversion, a layer of warm air traps the cool air
warm air
close to Earth. When this happens the polluted air
cannot rise and disperse into the atmosphere. The
cooler polluted air
pollution can build up to dangerous levels. In
1952, thermal inversion caused a London smog
that killed over four thousand people. In the
United States, Los Angeles, California, is the
city most profoundly affected by smog, according
to a 2009 American Lung Association report.
47
Pollutants from nature Air inside homes

can also become polluted. Trapped in an
enclosed area, indoor pollution can cause people serious health problems because of the large
amount of time people spend indoors. Cigarette smoke, cooking and heating appliances,
paints, and some cleaning products are all possible sources of indoor pollution. Radon, an
odorless natural gas released from the ground,
is another possible pollutant. Radon can enter
buildings through cracks and can seep into
basements of homes. Lung cancer is one health
effect of radon.
Radon is an example of a natural pollutant.
Other types of naturally occurring pollutants
include erupting volcanoes, which produce
large amounts of sulfur oxides and particulate
matter. Some microorganisms that break down
plant material also release methane gas, a contributor to the greenhouse effect. Among the
places these microorganisms live is in cows
stomachs to help with their digestion. When
the cows belch, methane gas gets released.
Smog appears as a haze over
large areas. Here, the skyline of
New York City is wrapped in a
veil of smog. NA TIO NA L
AR CH IVE S AN D RE CO RD S
ADM IN IS TRA TI ON.
Sickly water About 70% of Earth is covered by the ocean, which makes up almost all the water on the planet.
All life on Earth needs water to survive. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and other
bodies of water hold a rich diversity of animal, plant, and microscopic
life that organisms in both the water and on land depend upon to live.
Oil, pesticides, fertilizers, litter, wastes, heat, and toxic chemicals are
several major sources of water pollution. Polluted water kills sea life
and causes disease in humans.
Oils: While oil spills from cargo ships make headline news,
these accidents make up only a fraction of the oil released into
the oceans. The majority of oil in North American waters comes
from industry and road runoff, along with boating. Other sources of
oil pollution include drilling, shipping, and improper disposal of oil
waste. Oils are also released naturally from eroding rocks at the
bottom of the ocean.
48
The impact of oil on marine life depends

upon the amount of oil, where it is located, and
the amount of toxic chemicals in the oil. Oils
spills form a visible film on the water called an
oil slick. Oil in a slick sticks to birds, fish, and
plants, blocking their breathing and possibly
causing death. The reduced food supply can
have a long-term impact for whole ecosystems.
Oils also wash up on beaches and other human
recreational areas. Researchers are working to
discover how the steady, relatively small release
of oil affects ocean and human life.
Chemicals: Chemical water pollutants are
substances not naturally occurring in the waters.
Industrial compounds, such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides, along with herbicides and pesticides
are common chemicals released into the waters.
Rainwater can carry chemicals from the land
into waterways. Heavy metals, such as copper,
lead, and mercury, enter the water from industries, automobile exhaust,
mines, and even natural soil.
Heat: When hot water is poured into a cooler body of water it is
called thermal pollution. All life forms have a range of temperature in
which they can live. If the water temperature is outside of that range it will
upset and kill organisms. Thermal pollution is common near factories
and power plants, where water is heated to high temperatures. Although
the water is cooled before it is added to natural bodies of water, it often
remains hotter than the natural water. Thermal pollution is also caused by
the removal of trees and vegetation that shade bodies of waters.
An oil-soaked bird washes up

on a beach in northern Spain in
November 2002, after a tanker
leaked 3,000 tons of oil off the
western coast of Spain before
eventually sinking. A P/W ID E
WOR LD
Natural substances: Upsetting the balance of nutrients can also

pollute the waters in a process called eutrophication. Nitrates and phosphates are natural nutrients that plants such as algae use for growth.
Fertilizers and untreated sewage can contain many of these nutrients.
Rain washes the nutrients into bodies of water where they accumulate and
stimulate algae growth. The algae grow more rapidly than fish can eat
them, causing two major effects. When the algae die it causes decomposing organisms to thrive, depleting the water of oxygen. The lack of oxygen
causes fish and surrounding plants to die. Also, the abundance of algae
49
sunlight passes
through water
plants produce oxygen

that sea life need to live
sunlight cannot pass

through water
overgrowth of algae
causes depletion of
oxygen
clog the waters and block sunlight for the plants

underneath. These plants, which provide food
and shelter for sea life, then die.
Solid matter: Along with blemishing
waters natural beauty, litter can significantly
harm sea life. Litter is often made of plastic,
which takes hundreds of years to break down.
Birds and fishes can mistake such litter for food.
When enough litter is consumed, the animals
intestines become blocked and it dies. Plastic
bags can also suffocate small sea life. Plastic fishing lines and other debris can entangle seabirds
and other life. Some estimates put the number of
plastic-related deaths at two million seabirds and
100,000 marine mammals each year.
sea life cannot live in water
The process of eutrophication

depletes the water of oxygen
and blocks needed sunlight,
causing fish and plant life to
die. GA LE GRO UP.
Pollution prevention In the mid-to-late

1900s, the U.S. government began to enact
regulations on pollutants that have helped
clear much of the waters and air. In 1970
the Clean Air Act established standards for
air quality and emissions. The act required automobile manufacturers
to produce cars that use unleaded fuel, which has reduced pollutants,
and to install pollution-control devices on the exhaust. Factories,
incinerators, and power plants were also required to install pollution-control mechanisms. In the 1970s the Safe Water Drinking Act
and the Clean Water Act were enacted. These acts set water standards
for public water systems and established regulations for the discharge
of pollutants into waters.
Other governments also have enacted regulations against releasing
pollutants. Companies have developed improved methods to clean up
pollution, such as a genetically modified type of bacteria that eats oil from
oil spills. As almost all pollutants are the result of human activity, there
are multiple ways that individuals can help reduce pollutants. Producing
less garbage by recycling, not littering, avoiding disposing of oil or oilrelated products down the drain, and driving less and using a car that
conserves fuel are a few ways that one person can reduce air and water
pollutants.
50
WORDS TO KNOW
that affects the experimental group.
Eutrophication: The process by which high
nutrient concentrations in a body of water
eventually cause the natural wildlife to die.
Greenhouse effect: The warming of Earths
atmosphere due to water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and other gases in the atmosphere that
trap heat radiated from Earths surface.
Radon: A radioactive gas located in the ground;

invisible and odorless, radon is a health hazard
when it accumulates to high levels inside homes
and other structures where it is breathed.
Smog: A form of air pollution produced when
moisture in the air combines and reacts with the
products of fossil fuel combustion. Smog is characterized by hazy skies and a tendency to cause
respiratory problems among humans.

that can be tested.
Thermal inversion: A region in which the warmer

air lies above the colder air; can cause smog to
worsen.
Particulate matter: Solid matter in the form of tiny

particles in the atmosphere. (Pronounced parTIK-you-let.)
Thermal pollution: The discharge of heated water

from industrial processes that can kill or injure
water life.
Pollution: The contamination of the natural environment, usually through human activity.

experiment.
EXPERIMENT 1
Pollutant Bioindicators: Can lichens provide
clues to an areas air pollution?
Purpose/Hypothesis Lichens are organisms that are extremely sensitive to
air pollution. These life forms are actually two types of organisms living in
partnership: fungi and either a green algae or a blue-green bacterium.
Lichens grow on rocks, buildings, and on trees. These organisms receive
virtually all their water and nutrients from the air. Lichens are especially
sensitive to certain air pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide. When lichens are
exposed to these pollutants they will die. Automobile emissions and some
industrial processes can produce these pollutants. Because of this, scientists use lichens as indicators of pollution, or bioindicators.
The quantity, diversity, and colors of the lichens all provide evidence
of the areas pollutants. These organisms are colored red, orange, yellow,
gray, black, brown, and green. When lichens are affected by pollutants,
they turn from their usual color and can peel away from the surface they
51
crustose
foliose
fruticose
There are three main types of

lichens. GAL E GR OU P.
live on. There are three main types of lichens: Fruticose lichens look like
miniature 1-inch (25-mm) tall shrubs or lettuce leaves and hang from
branches; foliose lichens appear like flat leafs; and crustose lichens sit
closely to their surface and appear crustlike. The crustose lichens are the
most resistant to air pollution, and are often seen in cites. Fruticose
lichens are the most sensitive to pollutants.
In this experiment you will measure an areas air pollution by using
lichens as the bioindicator. You will choose three different areas and
randomly select three trees of similar sizes in each area. You may need
to look at pictures of the different types of lichens before you begin. By
placing a transparent grid over the tree you can count the amount and
type of lichens covering each tree.
experiment based on your knowledge of air pollution and lichens. This
educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should
explain these things:
possible hypothesis for this experiment: There will be fewer and less
diversity in the lichens living near high traffic and/or industrial areas than
the lichens in more remote areas.
52

the location. The variable you will measure is the
quantity and type of lichens.
Materials Needed

the location
three locations (sites) of different environments; all should have trees (example: a city street, in a park, near a school
parking lot)
trees in each area, of the same or similar
species (kinds)
magnifying glass
ball of string or twine
tape measure
transparent piece of grid paper (11 inch
squares work well, or slightly larger squares)
marking pen
partner (optional but helpful)
types of trees
the size of trees
lichens. If you change more than one variable at
variable had the most effect on inhibiting lichen
growth.

Timetable 2.5 hours (including travel time).
1. Create a chart for each area, listing Tree 1, Tree 2, and Tree 3
across the top columns. Label the rows: Fruticose, Foliose,
Crustose, Bark, and Other.
2. Choose a tree at random in the first area of study. The tree should
have lichen growing on it. Circle the string
around the trunk at a height that you can
comfortably observe, such as 3 feet
(0.9 meters).
3. Tie a knot in the string and cut. Mark the
If studying trees near the road, be careful of
string with a 1 or one mark.
traffic. Try to conduct your experiment during a
4. Starting at the marked line, place the
low-traffic time of the week and day; and ask an
transparency directly below the string.
adult to accompany you to a high-traffic area.
Count and note the squares covered by
53
Problem: All the lichen looked the same.
Possible cause: It is possible that much of the
lichen was the same, especially if the sites
were close to one another. To categorize
lichens it is also helpful to refer to reference
material. If possible, take a book out of the
library with pictures of the different types of
lichen and repeat the experiment, using the
photographs as a guide.
each group of lichens, bare bark, and

other life forms, such as moss. You may
want to use the magnifying glass. Have
your partner write down the results for
each grid. Continue this along the tree
until you have made a complete circle.
Repeat the process above the string.
5. Add up the numbers of squares covered by
each lichen, bark, and any other growth
and then note those numbers on the chart.
6. Also note the color of the lichens on the
chart.
7. Repeat this process with two more randomly chosen trees nearby at the same
site. For each tree, tie a fresh piece of
string at the same height. Mark the second string with a 2 or two marks and the third tree with a 3 or
three marks.
Step 4: Count the squares that

each type of lichen, plain bark,
and other life form(s) takes up
on the tree. GA LE GRO UP.
8. At the second site, use the three pieces of string that are marked.
Try to measure three trees that have roughly the same circumference as each of the trees at the first site. Again, note the types of
lichens and the number of squares each fills.
9. Repeat the process at the third site,
choosing three trees randomly that are
roughly the same diameter.
Summary of Results Calculate the average num-
bers for each site. Use the averages of your data to

create a graph of the three sites. How do the
numbers of lichens compare between the sites?
Is your hypothesis correct? For the same type of
lichens, is there a difference in their colors?
Determine if there was one dominant type of
lichen in each area. How does that dominant
type compare to the lichens in the other two
areas? Examine the possible pollutants in each
area. Write a brief summary of your findings and
analysis.
54
Change the Variables To change the variables in this experiment you can
focus on one location and measure the lichens on different trees. You can
focus on specific parts of the trees also, such as a shady or sunny section.
You can also concentrate your research on different pollutants, such as
automobile exhaust and industrial processes. You can then find areas where
you observe each pollutant occurring, and determine its effect on the lichen.
EXPERIMENT 2
Eutrophication: The effect of phosphates on
water plants.
Purpose/Hypothesis Phosphorus is a vital nutrient that both plants and
people need. Plants use phosphorus for converting sunlight into energy,
cell growth, and reproduction. Organisms usually take in phosphorous in
the form of phosphate, a phosphorous compound. Because they promote
plant growth, phosphates are one of the nutrients in many agricultural
and garden fertilizers. Many dishwasher detergents add phosphates to
reduce spotting on glasses and dishes. Laundry detergents can contain
phosphates to soften the water.
In this experiment, you will explore how an excess of phosphates can
affect life in lakes, streams, and oceans. When too many nutrients accumulate in a body of water, it can spark eutrophication. This process begins
with the growth of algae. Algae are simple water plants that are found near
the surface of waters. There are many types of algae, and sea life depends
upon them for food. In waters, phosphorous is naturally present in low
concentrations, as algae require only small amounts of it to live.
In this experiment you will add phosphates to healthy water plants
that are living in water with a natural amount of algae. You will add two
different concentrations of the phosphate and then observe their effect on
the plant. By observing the water plants daily you will be able to
determine the effect of the phosphate.
experiment based on your knowledge of water pollution and eutrophication. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis
should explain these things:
55

experiment: Water with the highest concentrations of phosphates will cause the algae to clog
the type of plant
the waters and cause the plants to die.
the soap
In this case, the variable you will change is the
the quantity of soap
amount of phosphate added to the water. The
the environmental conditions (sunlight,
variable you will measure is the plants health.
air temperature, water temperature, etc.)
To measure the plants health you can observe its
height, color, root structure, and leaves.
the plants. If you change more than one variayou isolate each variable and measure the
ble at the same time, you will not be able to tell
which variable had the most effect on how the
changes in the dependent variable. Only one
algae affected the plants health.
variable will change between the control and
the experimental setup, and that is the amount
of phosphate-soap added to the water. The control in this experiment will
be to add no additive to the plants water.
Note: When making a solid/liquid solution, it is standard to use
weight/weight (grams/grams) or weight/volume (grams/milliliters). With
water, 1 gram of water equals 1 milliliter. In this experiment, teaspoons
and tablespoons are used to measure the solid.
Materials Needed
three small water plants of the same type with roots; elodea work
well (available at pet shops)
pond water (preferred) or water that plants were living in: collect
enough to fill each of the jars about three-quarters full
three glass jars, large enough to hold plants
detergent with high phosphate content (preferably, a detergent
with 7% or higher phosphate content)
masking tape
marking pen
measuring spoons
56

Timetable 20 minutes to set up; five minutes
daily for about 10 days.

There are no safety hazards in this experiment.
1. Label the jars High Phosphate, Low Phosphate, and Control. Fill each jar with the pond water.
2. Create a chart with Day 1, Day 5, and Day 10 written
across the top and the jar labels written down the side.
3. Measure out 1 tablespoon of the detergent and mix into the High
Phosphate water.
4. Measure out 1 teaspoon of the detergent and mix into the Low
Phosphate water.
5. Place one of the plants in each of the three jars. Do not add
detergent to the Control jar.
6. Fill in the physical description of the plant and water for Day 1 on
the chart.
7. Place the three jars in the same sunny location.
8. Observe each plants health and its water daily for about 10 days
(time will vary depending on the amount of algae in the control
water and the amount of sun).
9. On Day 5 and Day 10, note in a chart the color of the water
for each jar and any physical properties of the plant.
Summary of Results Examine the results of your data chart. Hypothesize
Measure the water color and
plant health at Day 1, Day 5,

how phosphates would have different effects in shallow and slow-moving
and Day 10. GAL E GR OU P.
waters compared to that of deep and flowing waters. In which types of
water would sea life be the most in danger? Many
states now limit the use of phosphates in their
detergents. You can research if your state has
regulations on phosphate usage and calculate
how those amounts compare to the amount
used in your experiment.
high phosphate
low phosphate
control
Change the Variables There are several ways

that you can alter this experiment. Try using
different brands of detergent, either dishwashing
or laundry. You can use the same amount of
57
Problem: The water in the experiment jars
remained the same as the Control.
detergent in the water and place the jars in varying environments, by placing them in a hot- or
cold-water bath (you will have to change it
daily). Will a cool, sunny environment stimulate
algae growth more than a warm, sunny environment? You can also change the type of water
plant that you use.
Modify the Experiment This experiment measures how water pollution can harm sea life. You
can make this experiment more challenging by
experiment with methods of cleaning up water
pollution and the affected sea life.
Possible cause: Algae grow best in a sunny
The water pollution you used in this experienvironment. It also might look like nothing
ment dissolved in water. For you to better see and
is growing when they will suddenly bloom.
test cleaning water pollution, you can pollute the
Make sure the jars are in a sunny window and
water with oil. Pluck several leaves from the water
continue your observations.
plants and place them in a container of water.
You may want to add other plant life to each
container, such as grasses, along with feathers. Pour about a quarter-cup of
oil into the container, and gently move it back and forth several times.
Collect cotton cloth, string, paper towels, tubing, straws, and liquid
soap. Try to remove as much oil as you can with the tools you have
collected. Tubing can contain the oil; cloth can absorb it; straws can pull it
up, and string can collect it. You may need to conduct several tests before
you find a technique that you find effective. When you have cleaned up the
pollution as best you can, carefully remove the organisms and note how
each is affected by the oil. What happens if you gently rub drops of soap on
the sea life? Experiment with methods of removing the pollution from the
organisms. Could the same techniques be practiced on actual organisms?
Consider how soap may affect sea plants, birds, and animals.
Possible cause: You may not have collected

enough algae to foster growth. Try to find a
pond in your area or use water from another
shop. Repeat the experiment with this new
water.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Air and water pollution is
all around, no matter what your location. To think of a topic, you can
first observe the pollution in the waters, cities, and roadways. Think
about methods of measuring the air and water pollution. Check the
Further Readings section and talk with your science teacher to learn
58
more about air pollution. You may also want to explore any companies in
your area that measure pollutants.
Steps in the Scientific Method To conduct an original experiment, you
need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise, you might
not be sure what question you are answering, what you are or should be
measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.

question.
Related Projects Projects related to air and water pollution include
examining their effect on organisms. You can visit a lake or stream in

your area and collect water samples to determine its pollutants, then
compare that to its plant and animal life. You can collect samples of
particulate matter in the air by hanging papers smeared with petroleum
jelly. After collecting the data, you can compare the test sites to the animal
and plant life in the area. For a research project, you could examine how
pollutants affect peoples health and determine if those health problems
are correlated to locations with high levels of pollution. Other projects
include examining methods that scientists have developed to clean up
pollutants. Taking a look at pollution around the world and its impact is
another area of exploration.
59

Loveable Lichens. Earthlife. http://www.earthlife.net/lichens/intro.html
(accessed on March 19, 2008) Photos and information on all types of lichens.
Macmillian Encyclopedia of Science: The Environment. New York: Macmillan
Publishing USA, 1997. Covers all aspects of our environment and how
pollution affects it.
Spilsbury, Louise. Environment at Risk: The Effects of Pollution. Chicago:
Raintree, 2006. Information and case studies of the effects of pollution.
Students and Teachers. NOAAs Office of Response and Restoration.
response.restoration.noaa.gov/kids/kids.html (accessed on March 19, 2008)
Information and activities on oil spills.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air. EPA Student Center. http://
www.epa.gov/students/air.htm (accessed on March 19, 2008) A
comprehensive web site with links and information on a wide range of
environmental issues including air pollution, air quality standards, and more.
60
Animal Defenses
f youve ever smelled the odor of a skunk or been hissed at by a cat,

youve experienced an animal defense. Animals have developed a lot of
clever defenses to protect them from harm. When attacked by a predator,
an animal can run away or fight. Some types of defenses protect the
animal from ever being seen by predators (the attacking animal). Other
defenses defend the animal when it is attacked.
Playing dead In general, meat-eating animals dont like to eat

animals that they find dead. An animal that is dead could be carrying
disease and cause illness. The opossum uses this instinct as a defensive
strategy. When threatened or wanting to avoid an attack, the opossum
can fall down and play dead. Its tongue rolls out, eyes become glazed and
it releases a foul odor. The predator might sniff or poke the opossum but
it lies completely still. After the would-be predator leaves, the opossum
returns to life. Several types of snakes also use the playdead defense.
Blending into the scene One way to avoid danger is to avoid being
spotted by a predator. Camouflage is the markings or colors that blend in
to the environment. Most animals exhibit some type of camouflage and
blending in is a common animal defense. The green color of many
insects matches leaves; the brown earth tones of deer, squirrels, and other
woodland animals matches the woods colors; the patterns and stripes of
animals, such as a zebra, break up the animals shape so a predator does
not identify it.
Many insects, mammals, and birds have colors or patterns that match
the natural environment so well they are hard to spot, even when you
know they are there. At night, the colorful parrot fish covers itself with a
dark substance that it makes while breathing. The protective coat shields
the parrot fish from its predators. The skin of mossy frogs has the same
colors, bumps, and texture as the moss that they live in. A leaf frog
features bumps over its eyes and a pointed nose, taking on the color
61
Animal Defenses
WORDS TO KNOW
Camouflage: A coating that allows an animal to
blend in to its surrounding environment.
Mimicry: A characteristic in which an animal is

protected against predators by resembling
another, more distasteful animal.
Ecosystem: An ecological community, including

plants, animals and microorganisms, considered
together with their environment.
Predator: An animal that hunts another animal for

food.


an experiment.
and shape of a leaf. The walking stick insect can easily be mistaken for a
twig from its appearance and its stillness.
The skunk can omit a strong,

foul odor when in danger. AP
PH OT O/P HI L CO AL E.
In camouflage, an animal appears as something in its environment.

When animals appear as another, more-dangerous or inedible animal, it
is called mimicry.
Often one type of animal will take on the appearance of a poisonous,
similar animal. There are butterflies in the Amazon that take on the
appearance of poisonous butterflies. Several species of harmless snakes
have the bright red, yellow, and black strips as the venomous (poisonous)
coral snake. Some animals simply dont want to
have predators think they taste good. A type of
butterfly in Brazil has developed the appearance
of another butterfly species that tastes foul.
There are also animals that can mimic the
appearance of animals that are different species.
Several types of jumping spiders mimic ants.
One of these spiders is the same size, shape,
and color as a weaver ant, which has a sharp
bite and painful venom. The mimic octopus
gets its nickname from its ability to take on the
appearance of several venomous ocean creatures,
including a lionfish and sea snake.
The smell that scares When an animal is
struck with a bad odor, it is usually not going to
enjoy eating. After a skunk has tried to scare or
move away from a threat, it defends itself with a
62
Animal Defenses
smelly spray. The odor is so strong and foul it

can cause nausea. The skunk will often aim for
the face of the predator because the spray can
also sting. Weasels, bedbugs, and snakes are
other animals that use foul odors to ward off
predators.
Wild and strange defenses There are many
other defense strategies animals have evolved.
The horned lizards are ant-eating lizards in
North America. When attacked or threatened,
the lizard shoots blood out of the tear ducts in its
eyes. The blood contains substances that make it
foul tasting. Having an imposing look is the
defense strategy for several animals, including
the puffer fish. When the puffer fish is threatened, it can increase up to three times its size by
gulping water.
The electric eel is one of several animals that
defends itself with a jolt of electricity when a
predator attacks. Octopi and cuttlefish are just
two marine animals that squirt out a black ink
for defense.
PROJECT 1
Camouflage: Does an animals living environment
relate to the color of the animal life?
The electric eel uses a jolt of

electricity when a predator
attacks. G EOR GE GRA LL .
NAT IO NAL GEO GR APH IC ,
GET TY I MA GES .
Purpose/Hypothesis How an animal defends itself is strongly influenced

by its living environment. A wide variety of animals use camouflage as a
form of defense. The purpose of this project is to observe the camouflage
that small animals use in one isolated outside environment. The area you
choose could be the bark of a tree, a grassy patch, leaves, or a stretch of
dirt. You will record the animal colors living in that particular environment. You will then compare the percentage of animals living in the first
environment to animals living in another type of habitat.
Depending upon the environment, common animals you can look

for include butterflies, stick insects, moths, beetles, grasshoppers, frogs,
rabbits, squirrels, and crickets.
63
Animal Defenses
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (This project

requires careful observation and patience.)
Materials Needed
camera (optional)
magnifying glass (optional)
paper and pencil
a nice day

A wide variety of animals use
camouflage as a form of
defense. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Use a similar chart to compare

the two environments.
NEL SO N.
Habitat 1
(color)
Organi
Org
n sms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
64
color
Timetable Varies widely, depending upon the
area, animals, and number of animals you want to locate.

1. Once you decide on a specific habitat, spend some time looking

for insects or other small animals that live in that environment.
When you spot an insect or other animal, write down the insect
or describe it if you dont know its nameand note its color. You
may want to use a magnifying glass. If you have a camera, take a
picture of each organism you find.
2. Continue looking for small animals until
you have located at least five to 10 different organisms living in the environment
you selected. In some environments, this
Habitat 2
may take time and careful attention.
(color)
Organisms
color
Remember, some animals might be
camouflaged!
3. Determine the percent of organisms that
are the color of its surrounding environment. (You can determine the percent by
dividing the number of organisms that
were a certain color by the total number
of organisms located.)
4. Repeat the entire process for another
environment, which is a different color.
Again, try to located at least five to 10
organisms.
Animal Defenses
Summary of Results Compare the percent of
insects the color of the first environment to the

percent in the second environment. If you took
pictures, compare the pictures of the animals in
each environment. Does the color of the environment predict the color of the organisms that live
there? You may want to chart your results. You
could also use your notes or pictures to try and
identify any unknown animals.

Never touch the insects/animals or disturb their
living environment; simply observe them.
EXPERIMENT 2
Ladybug Threats: How do ladybugs defend
themselves when they feel threatened?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will determine how lady-
bugs defend themselves when they sense a threat. Ladybugs have three
methods of defense that help keep them safe. The distinct red color of a
ladybug is in itself a defense mechanism. Many animals instinctively
know not to eat bright colors organisms because they are often poisonous
(many red berries, for example). Ladybugs also can give off a foul odor
when threatened and this helps to keep their predator away. Lastly,
ladybugs will play dead when approached by a potential predator or
when unsure of their surroundings. Many insects and animals will not eat
dead things and so they move away from the ladybug. In time, the
ladybug will resume its activity.
You will test different stimuli on the ladybug
that it may see as threatening or unknown, and
then observe how the ladybugs defend themselves. For the stimuli, you will expose the ladybugs to light, air movement, gentle nudging,
vibrations, and sound. You can then observe its
reactions for each.
Before you begin the experiment, make an
educated guess about the outcome based on your
knowledge of animal defenses and ladybugs.
things:
Not locating enough organisms in each environment is the major problem that can occur in
this project. Finding organisms can take
patience and care. Many animals are more
active in the beginning and end of the day,
rather than during midday. If you are having
trouble locating organisms, look for the organisms another time in the day, such as early
morning. You could also try searching in
another place, using the same environment.
65
Animal Defenses

light intensity the ladybug is exposed to
wind movement
movement the ladybug experiences
physical proximity to object
physical proximity to another insect
sound intensity in the background
are everything that might effect the reaction of
the ladybug to various situations. If you change
more than one variable, you will not be able to
reaction of the ladybug.


or disprove your hypothesis. Here is one possible
hypothesis for this experiment: The ladybug
will play dead when it is in a threatening or
unknown situation.
In this case, the variables you will change are
situations that may be perceived as threatening
or unknown to the ladybug. The variable you
will measure is the reaction of the ladybug to
these various new situations.
Materials Needed
Step 8: Approach the ladybug

with the pencil and note the
reaction. IL LU STR AT ION BY
TE MAH NEL SO N.
35 ladybugs, found or purchased from local nursery or online

plastic container with cover, approximately 5 to 7 inches (1318
centimeter) long
flashlight
12 ants, caterpillars, inchworms, or
spiders (found)
1 pencil
Approximate Budget $1015 if you have to
purchase ladybugs; $0 if you can find the bugs.

Timetable Approximately one hour.
1. Place two ladybugs in the plastic container with lid. If one of the ladybugs
flies away, replace it with another.
2. Observe and note the ladybugs behavior
for several minutes. Wait for them to
66
Animal Defenses
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
become comfortable in their new environment and move around slightly.

Shine a flashlight into the plastic container. Note whether the ladybugs react
Ladybugs are living animals and should be
to the change in light.
handled with care so that they are not harmed
during the experiment. After the experiment is
Wait about two to three minutes until the
complete, you can release them into a garden
ladybugs resume activity.
where they help manage pests.
Lift off the lid of the container and blow
softly onto one or both of the ladybugs.
Note the reaction. Change the intensity of
your breath, blowing slightly harder. Note whether the reaction of
the ladybug change as well.
After waiting for ladybugs to resume activity (two to three minutes)
introduce another insect (ant, caterpillar, inchworm, spider) into
the box. Note the reaction of the ladybugs. Be careful that the insect
does not actually attack the ladybug (if so, remove the insect).
Remove the second type of insect and again, wait for the ladybugs
to resume normal activity.
Without poking the ladybug, approach it with the pencil and note
reaction. Gently nudge the ladybug with the pencil and note its
reaction. Repeat this on the second ladybug.
Wait several minutes until both ladybugs resumes activity.
Try clapping your hands at different sound intensities close to the
Step 10: Clap your hands at
different sound intensities close
ladybug. Start with a soft clap and increase to a loud noise. Note
to the ladybug. I LLU ST RAT IO N
which, if any, sound intensity appears to
threaten the ladybug and note its
reaction.
Wait several minutes until the ladybugs
resumes normal activity.
Try gently shaking the container with the
ladybug in it. Does this sudden movement cause the ladybug to react?
Summary of Results Study the observations of
the ladybugs reactions to various situations and

decide whether your hypothesis was correct. In
what situation did the ladybug appear to feel
threatened and how did it react? If it played
dead, how long did it take for it to start moving
67
Animal Defenses
Below is the main problem that may occur
during this project and ways to remedy the
problem.
Problem: Ladybug doesnt play dead.
Possible cause: The ladybugs may not feel
threatened. Sometimes there is safety in numbers
and ladybugs may feel more vulnerable by
themselves. Separate ladybugs from one another
and try various scenarios with one ladybug.
Possible cause: You may have tested possibly
very old or sick ladybugs. Try collecting new
ladybugs and repeat the tests.
again? Write a summary of your results. You may

want to include pictures.

Test other stimuli that may be potentially
threatening to the ladybug, such as strong
smells (onion or garlic).
Alter the environment: Conduct the
experiment outside in the ladybugs natural environment, as opposed to a plastic
container.
Change the insect: For example the pill
bug, a common insect found in soil, will
curl itself into a ball when it senses
danger.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept As you think about
experiments and projects relating to animal defenses, consider animals

that are familiar to you. What are some behaviors of cats, dogs, and fish?
Consider animals that you have seen in zoos or in the movies.
teacher to start gathering information on animal defense questions that
interest you. You may want to speak with people who are knowledgeable
about different types of animals. As you consider possible experiments, be
sure to discuss them with your science teacher or another knowledgeable
adult before trying them. Remember that some animals can be dangerous
and you should never provoke any animal. Work with someone familiar
with the animal and plan how you will care for or handle any animal that
you collect or purchase.
68
Animal Defenses

Recognize the variables involved, and select one that will help you
State a testable hypothesis, an educated guess about the answer to
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results The most important part
of the experiment is the information gathered from it. Think of how you
can share your results with others. Charts, graphs, and diagrams of the
progress and results of the experiments are helpful in informing others
about an experiment. You may also want to take photographs.
Related Experiments Many experiments or projects with animals can be
made through simple observation. You may want to observe how different animals species interact with one another when they feel threatened or
excited. You can observe the interactions between dogs, cats, squirrels,
and other familiar animals, or you can observe the behavior of insect
interactions. You could also observe the many camouflage adaptations
animals have by visiting a local zoo or aquarium. You could conduct a
research project on one type of animal that lives in your area or are curious
about.

Camouflage. BBC: Walking with Beasts. http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/
fossilfun/camouflage/camouflage.swf (accessed on May 11, 2008). An
interactive game on animal camouflage.
Exploring Mammals. Natural History Museum. http://www.nhm.org/
mammals/home.html (accessed on May 31, 2008). Information on animal
behavior and defenses.
Kaner, Etta. Animal Defenses: How Animals Protect Themselves. Toronto, ON:
Kids Can Press, 1999.
National Geographic. Animals, http://animals.nationalgeographic.com
(accessed on May 11 2008). Information on animal features, with pictures
and video.
69
Annual Growth
id you ever measure your height to see how much taller you were than
the year before? This change is your annual growth. In humans, annual
growth depends on factors such as your age (babies grow at a faster rate than
teenagers) and your genes (which make sure your growth pattern is similar to
that of your parents and grandparents). How can we determine the annual
growth of other organisms, and what factors can we find that affect their
growth?
Trees are probably the tallest living organisms you will see in your life.
Yet most trees around you grew from seeds no larger than the eraser on a
pencil. The process by which these tiny seeds become trees is fascinating and
easy to observe, when you know what to look for.
How does a tree grow? A tree grows in two ways. The tips of its
branches and tips of its roots contain cells that reproduce, making the tree
taller and its roots deeper. Another layer of dividing cells increases the width
of the trees trunk little by little, increasing its support and providing a route
for water to reach the upper branches. While a tree is alive, scientists can
determine its growth rate by measuring the change in its diameter and also
by observing the patterns of new growth on branches and twigs. When a tree
has fallen or been cut down, scientists can learn much about the trees
growth throughout its life and can even learn about changes in climate and
soil composition long ago by examining the growth rings inside the
main trunk.
The growth rings that are visible on a tree stump result from the trees
cycle of growth and dormancy. The interior of a trees trunk contains
special tube-like vertical cells called xylem, which function as a vital part
of the trees water-transport system. Each year, new xylem is produced near
the outer layer of bark. In the spring, when conditions are usually wettest,
the tree produces large xylem cells. During the drier months of summer, the
tree produces smaller xylem cells. In the winter, the trees growth cycle
71
Annual Growth
When a tree has fallen or been

cut down, its annual growth
rings become visible. G AL E
GRO UP.
You can learn about a trees

growth pattern by observing the
segments of twigs on the tree.
GA LE GRO UP.
72
goes into a state of dormancy, a period of inactivity to keep its energy in reserve while water is
scarce.
This alternating pattern of fast and slow
growth causes the dark and light pattern of rings
you can see on the tree stump. Each ring represents
a growing season. Generally, a larger, more prominent ring marks a longer, wetter growing season.
In this way, scientists have been able to pinpoint
when climatic changes occurred long ago in a
regions history. A skilled scientist with the right
tools can learn even more from a trees rings, such as when the tree
experienced changes in soil composition, forest fires, and floods.
We can also learn about a trees growth pattern by observing the
segments of twigs on the tree. Each spring, the tree will put out a bud at
the end of each twig. That bud forms the beginning of that years new
growth. Once the twig grows beyond the point where the bud first formed,
the remnants of the bud create a scar, or ring. These rings mark off each
year of the trees growth. The most recent segment is the one closest to the
end of the twig (assuming the twig has not been broken).
Some twigs exhibit growth rings going back many years. Once a
growing season is completed, that seasons segment will not grow any
longer. The segments can give you a rough indication of how much growth
a tree experienced in one season compared to other seasons. Remember that
growth may not be the same from one side of a tree to the other, especially
in large trees. The segment indicates most accurately how much growth
occurred on that branch of the tree in a given growing season.
In the first experiment, you will compare the annual growth pattern of
twigs on several trees in your area with the rainfall
figures for each year. You will then determine if
precipitation in your area has had a measurable
effect on the trees annual growth.
Lichens: Another kind of annual
growth Have you ever noticed the patches of colorful plant life that sometimes grow on rocks and
buildings? Some resemble greenish-brown stains,
while others look like blotches of mold. When
examined closely, some appear to be tiny forests
of hairy branches. These are actually a unique and
Annual Growth
On many trees, twigs exhibit

evidence of past growing seasons
by the distance separating their
scars or annual growth rings.
GA LE G RO UP.
fascinating life form called lichens. Scientists who study lichens are known as
lichenologists. One of the most renowned lichenologists was Beatrix Potter,
the author of The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Though better known for her childrens
stories, Potter devoted much of her time to the study of lichens and produced
detailed watercolor illustrations of different lichen forms.
Lichens are far more complex than they appear. Each lichen contains
two partners, usually a fungus and an alga, that bond together in a symbiotic relationship. Symbiosis occurs when two organisms form a relationship that benefits both. By combining the advantages of fungus with the
advantages of algae, the lichen is able to survive where other organisms
would perish.
The most visible part of the typical lichen is a fungus. Fungi are plant-like
organisms that differ from true plants in that they are heterotrophs, organisms
that must get their food from other organisms. Fungi usually get their food
from dead and decaying matter. Fungi are composed of thin strands that form
73
Annual Growth
Lichens are actually complex

partnerships of different
organisms working together.
P ETE R AR NO LD I NC.
a network that becomes a home for the funguss

partner. That partner is usually an alga, although
some lichens contain cyanobacteria instead. If you
examine a cross-section of a lichen, you will usually
see the alga as a thin layer of green just under the
organisms top layer. Algae are tiny plants that use
photosynthesis to create nutrients, making them
autotrophs.
Lichens can survive harsh environments The
symbiotic relationship between the fungus and the
algal cells of the lichen depends on the structure
and functioning of each. The fungus is capable of
securing itself to inhospitable surfaces, such as bare
rock or even plastic. Often, however, a fungus
would not find sufficient nutrients in such a habitat. The algal cells, on the other hand, can produce food by photosynthesis, but they could not
survive on their own on a bare rock. The two form
a symbiotic union. The fungus provides the algae
with protection from the harsh environment,
while the algae provide the fungus with food.
Cyanobacteria are among the most ancient
organisms on Earth. They are usually found in
water, sometimes joining together in colonies.
Cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll and perform photosynthesis, and thus
they sometimes are found in lichens in place of algae.
Lichen growth patterns can be used to determine the age of rocks and
rock formations because the rate of growth is extremely slow and regular.
Lichens serve as a good indicator of air pollution levels because of their
sensitivity to impurities in the atmosphere. In the second experiment, you
will utilize two samples of living lichen to measure differences in air
quality in different places.
EXPERIMENT 1
Tree Growth: What can be learned from the
growth patterns of trees?
Purpose/Hypothesis For this experiment, you will examine and collect
growth data from branches of different trees. Then you will determine
74
Annual Growth
whether these data correspond to the precipitation in your region. Before you begin, make an
educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of plant growth.
things:


something you can test through observation. Your experiment will
prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one
possible hypothesis for this experiment: The branches of trees in
this area will show similar growth patterns over the past few years
because they all received the same amounts of rainfall during each
growing season.
In this case, the variable you will change is the type of tree, and the
variable you will measure is the growth pattern over the past few years.
You expect the growth patterns to be similar.
Cyanobacteria are single-celled

organisms that perform
photosynthesis. PH OTO
The fungus in a lichen provides

a protecting structure for the
algal cells, which provide food.
GAL E GR OU P.

Materials Needed
sketchbook and pencil

ruler (one showing millimeters or sixteenths of an inch)
pruning shears (optional)
camera (optional)
Timetable This experiment should be done in
two periods of at least 15 minutes each: one

period to collect and organize data, and the
other to interpret the data and present the
results.
75
Annual Growth
WORDS TO KNOW
Alga/Algae: Single-celled or multicellular plants or
plant-like organisms that contain chlorophyll,
thus making their own food by photosynthesis.
Algae grow mainly in water.
Autotroph: An organism that can build all the food
and produce all the energy it needs with its own
resources.
Chlorophyll: A green pigment found in plants that
absorbs sunlight, providing the energy used in
photosynthesis, or the conversion of carbon
dioxide and water to complex carbohydrates.
Cyanobacteria: Oxygen-producing, aquatic
bacteria capable of manufacturing its own
food; resembles algae.
Dormancy: A state of inactivity in an organism.
Fungi: Kingdom of various single-celled or
multicellular organisms, including mushrooms,
molds, yeasts, and mildews, that do not contain
chlorophyll.
Gene: A segment of a DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
molecule contained in the nucleus of a cell that
acts as a kind of code for the production of some
specific protein. Genes carry instructions for
the formation, functioning, and transmission
of specific traits from one generation
to another.
Heterotrophs: Organisms that cannot make their

own food and that must, therefore, obtain their
food from other organisms.
that can be tested by observation and
experiment.
Lichen: An organism composed of a fungus and a
photosynthetic organism in a symbiotic
relationship.
Niche: The specific location and place in the food
chain that an organism occupies in its
environment.
Photosynthesis: Chemical process by which
plants containing chlorophyll use sunlight to
manufacture their own food by converting
carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates,
releasing oxygen as a by-product.
Symbiosis: A pattern in which two or more
organisms live in close connection with each
other, often to the benefit of both or all
organisms.
an experiment.
Xylem: Plant tissue consisting of elongated, thickwalled cells that transport water and mineral
nutrients.
1. Choose branches or twigs that exhibit the visible signs of annual

growth described above. Select different trees in different locations.
If you use fallen branches, make sure they are recently fallen. Otherwise, you will not be sure when the most recent growth occurred.
Branches that have been split or damaged, especially at the growth tip,
may not provide useful results.
76
Annual Growth
2. Ask your teacher or an adult before cutting

any branches or twigs. Remember that any
change you make to the natural environment will probably have a lasting effect, so
avoid damaging trees whenever possible. If
you decide to cut a branch to illustrate your
project, do not cut the branch too close to
the trunk or greater branch, as this could
harm the tree.
3. Note the number of segments you can
find on the branch you have selected.
Determine which is from the most
recently completed growing season and
then note how many growth seasons are
visible on your branch.

the species of tree being examined
the condition of the branches (damaged
or not damaged, for example)
variations in rainfall among the areas
where the trees are growing
the amount of fertilizer or other nutrients
each tree receives
other factors influencing growth, such
as the amount of sunlight, level of air
pollution, and the presence of disease
in the trees
4. Sketch or photograph the branch. Note as

If you change more than one variable, you will
much information as possible about the tree
not be able to tell which variable had the most
and its immediate environment. What kind
effect on the growth patterns. Try to keep all
of tree is it? Is it competing with other trees
variables the same except the one you are
for water and sunlight? Might there be
examining: the amount of annual growth.
some other environmental factors affecting
its growth, such as air pollution or drainage
from parking lots or sidewalks? Check
whether the tree is receiving water from an irrigation or sprinkler
system. This would have a clear effect on your data, and may make an
interesting comparison for your study.
5. Measure each segment and record your data. Use a chart to keep
your information consistent. Your chart should look something like
the illustration.
6. Once you have found and examined a number of different samples,
use your data to test your hypothesis. For each sample, find the year
in which the least growth occurred. Then find the year in which the
greatest growth occurred. Use the different samples you have for
each growing season to find an average growth for that year. Ask
your teacher or librarian for help in finding annual rainfall figures
for the years for which you have sample. Compare these figures to
the results of your branch measurements.
77
Annual Growth

If you choose to cut a branch or branches to
illustrate your findings, be sure to ask permission
before cutting. Use proper protective wear and
be careful with the pruning shears.

determine whether your hypothesis is correct.
Did the samples show consistently greater or lesser
growth for one or more growing seasons? If so, did
those years have more or less rainfall than usual?
Change the Variables You can vary this experi-
ment by changing the variables. Instead of comparing growth seasons, try simply comparing growth
rates from one type of tree to another. See if you can find which tree branches
in your area exhibit the most growth in a season. Which tree branches grow
the least?
Modify the Experiment In this experiment, you learned about how the
growing pattern of trees is affected by the rainfall in an area. For a more

in-depth understanding of tree growth, you can use the branches you
collected to determine if water absorption differs among trees in the
same area.
You know that water is an important source of nutrients that trees need
to grow. But do all trees in the same area absorb equal amounts of available
water? First, make a hypothesis. Select two of the branches you collected
from two different types of trees growing in the same area. A twig from a
Step 5: Example of tree growth

recording chart. GAL E GR OU P.
78
Annual Growth
tree with needles and a twig from a tree with large

leaves would work well. Snap off two twigs (about
the same size) from each of the two branches. You
should have four twigs: two from one type of tree
Here is a problem that may arise, a possible
and two from another, all about the same size.
cause, and a way to remedy the problem.
Prepare two clear measuring cups. Place the
Problem: The amount of growth varies greatly
two twigs that are the same in one cup and the
from tree to tree.
two other twigs in the second cup. Fill each
Possible cause: Different types of trees can have
of the cups half-full with water, leaving the top
drastically different growth rates. Remember
of the twigs not immersed. Make sure that the
that you are looking for which years had the
two cups contain equals amounts of water. For
greatest and the least growth for each treea
example, if the twigs stand slightly past a two-cup
factor that may be consistent from tree to tree
measuring cup, you may want to fill each cup
regardless of each ones growth rate.
with 1.5 cups of water. Write down the amount
of water and mark the water line with a piece of
masking tape.
Cover the tops of the cups with paper. You may need to poke the twigs
through the paper so that the paper rests on the cup. Set aside for two days
and then note the water level. Was the amount of water absorbed different
for each type of tree? What twig absorbed the most water? Place another
piece of tape at the water level and wait another day. Continue for several
days or until the water is almost gone. Graph your results. What does this
tell you about the water usage of different types of trees? What types of trees
would fare better in a drought?
EXPERIMENT 2
Lichen Growth: What can be learned from the
environment by observing lichens?
Purpose/Hypothesis For this experiment, you will need to locate different
lichens in various habitats around your school and/or home. Counting and
measuring the number of lichens you find growing in different areas will
give you a rough idea of the amounts of air pollution present. Lichens are
nearly everywhere. You will need, however, to find samples large enough to
examine and measure. In rural environments, this should not be difficult.
Lichens can frequently be found on trees, dead wood, and rocks. Before
you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment
based on your knowledge of lichens. This educated guess, or prediction, is
your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
79
Annual Growth

the species of lichen being examined
the surface on which the lichen is
growing
the amount of sunlight and rainfall the
lichen receives
the location of the lichen relative to
sources of air pollution
are everything that might affect the size and
numbers of the lichens. If you change more
than one variable, you will not be able to tell
which variable had the most effect on lichens.


Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Fewer and smaller lichens will grow in
areas with higher levels of air pollution (near
roads and factories) than in areas with cleaner air.
the location of the lichens, and the variable you
will measure is their number and size. You
expect fewer and smaller lichens will be found
near sources of air pollution.
Materials Needed
sketchbook and pencil

magnifying glass
ruler (one showing millimeters or sixteenths of an inch)
camera (optional)

Timetable This experiment requires a commitment of several hours
searching and cataloging lichens.

1. Your research for this experiment should begin in the library. It

will be worthwhile to photocopy photographs and illustrations of
different forms of lichen and bring this information with you
when you go out looking for lichen.
2. Remember that lichens can be quite fragile. Treat lichens gently
while measuring and sketching them.
80
Annual Growth
3. If you are working together with a group,

you might find it useful to divide the
responsibilities. Have one group member
sketch the lichen while others measure or
write brief descriptions of the lichens habitat. Prepare a chart on which you will
record your observations for each lichen
you find. Your chart should look something like the illustration.

This project puts you in contact with fungus
from the wild. NEVER eat any wild fungus, even
one that looks familiar. Fungi that closely
resemble edible mushrooms can in fact be highly
toxic. Treat lichens the same way. Though some
are edible, many are not. You should also wear
gloves when handling the fungus.
4. Once you have found a lichen, take note

on your chart of the habitat. Is the lichen
growing on a tree or rock, or on some
other object, such as a rusted barrel? How close is the lichen to the
nearest source of air pollution? Note all other environmental factors
that might affect the rate of lichen growth, such as shelter from rain
and sun. Next examine the lichen itself. Describe it as clearly as
possible, identifying its color, form, and texture.
5. Measure the lichen using your ruler. Lichen that grow in patches start
with one tiny spore-like structure and then grow outward, like mold
on bread. Therefore, try to locate the largest single sample instead of
measuring two that have grown together. Measure the lichens greatest
Step 3: Example of the lichen

recording chart. GA LE G ROU P.
81
Annual Growth
Problem: No lichens can be found.
Possible cause: Some areas, particularly urban
environments with high levels of air pollution,
may not have any lichens. If you think this may
be possible, check with your teacher before
attempting this experiment.
horizontal length and greatest vertical length

and record this data on your chart.
6. Select different sites that are more likely to
show the effects of air pollution. Try to find
lichens at different distances from highways,
airports, or factories. Roadway intersections
often produce increased pollution levels due
to cars and trucks stopping and starting.

Did you find a consistent difference in the size
(or presence) of lichens on trees closer to roads or
parking lots? What other factors did you note that might be affecting lichen
growth? Write a summary of your findings.
Change the Variables There are several ways you can vary this experiment.
Try measuring the effect of changes on the lichen, such as treatment of

sunlight and moisture, competition with other plants, or exposure to
lichen-eating animals.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Try growing lichen in a
controlled environment. If you find lichen growing on an easily movable
object, such as a piece of dead wood or a small rock, try carefully moving that
rock into your classroom or laboratory. Remember that the lichen needs light
and moisture. If you are able to transport lichen, you can design an experiment
that will more accurately test the effects of different air qualities on the lichen.
teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering
information on annual growth or lichen questions that interest you.
plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise, you might not be sure
what question you are answering, what you are or should be measuring, or
what your findings prove or disprove.
82
Annual Growth
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the experiments
included here and in any experiments you develop, you can try to display
your data in more accurate and interesting ways. Collecting samples of the
lichen you measure for your experiment will make the results more
interesting to viewers. Photographs of the lichen you find can be helpful,
but you may discover that careful sketches can reproduce details that are
not clear in photographs.
Related Projects Projects and experiments in annual growth can reveal
much about our environment that usually occurs too slowly for us to
notice. Some fascinating experiments can be conducted over longer
periods of time if you establish a structure for other students to follow
later on. Talk with your teacher and classmates about starting a project to
monitor long-term tree or lichen growth in your area. Take measurements of the circumference of the tree trunks near your school and record
your data for comparison next year. Look for sources of information on
tree growth in the past. Old photographs cannot provide exact measurements, but they can show roughly how much a tree has changed over a
period of years or even decades.

Arbor Day Foundation. Fantastic Arborday.org Tree Guide. http://www.
arborday.org/trees/treeguide (accessed on January 19, 2008). Information
about classification of trees.
Menninger, Edward. Fantastic Trees. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1995. A fun
and fascinating look at strange and little known facts about trees.
Oregon State University. Fantastic Lichenland. http://ocid.nacse.org/lichenland
(accessed on January 19, 2008). Information about types of lichen.
Platt, Rutherford. 1001 Questions Answered About Trees. New York: Dover
Publishing, 1992. A question and answer format book covering practically
everything about trees.
Pollick, Steve. Find Out Everything About Plants. London: BBC Publishing,
1996. Contains a number of interesting and clearly illustrated project ideas
on plant and growth related topics.
83
Bacteria
ou cannot see them with the naked eye, but the world is teeming with
bacteria. They live around you, inside of you, and are found in environments that would kill most every other life form. Bacteria are microbes,
organisms that are so small they can only been seen with a microscope. They
are the simplest, most abundant, and oldest life form on Earth, having
evolved roughly 3.5 billion years ago. That beats other life forms by a long
shot including dinosaurs, which only arrived on the scene 250 million years
ago, and humans, who appeared a mere 2 million years ago. Scoop up a
teaspoon of soil and, if you could see them, you would count about a billion
bacteria.
While bacteria often make headline news as the cause of disease, the vast
majority are either harmless or helpful to humans. Many bacteria live in the
soil and decompose dead plants and animals. This process returns needed
nutrients back into the environment, which plants and animals then use to
live and grow. Other bacteria change the nitrogen gas from the air into a form
of nitrogen that plants needs to survive. For humans, they are used to produce
foods, such as yogurt and cheese. Humans and some animals depend on
bacteria in their digestive tract to break down the plants they eat so they can
process the food. Bacteria are an integral part to all life on Earth.
Wretched beasties The discovery that bacteria exist is one of the major
breakthroughs in science. It began with the development of the microscope.
In the late 1600s Dutch merchant and amateur scientist Antony van
Leeuwenhoek (16321723) had built microscopes that magnified objects
up to 200 times their size. While he was examining water droplets and the
white matter on teeth he noted the existence of these wretched beasties
wriggling about. Although he did not know it, this was the first recorded
sighting of bacteria.
Two hundred years later researchers connected these tiny microbes to
some of the deadly diseases that were sweeping through the world and killing
hundreds of millions of people. For thousands of years, people did not
85
Bacteria
understand the cause of disease; they often blamed

a disease on evil spirits or as a punishment to the
victim.
Then in the 1860s scientists Louis Pasteur
found in mouth, causes
(18221895) and Robert Koch (18431910) conplaque
bacteroides fragilis
ducted a series of experiments that showed
microbes could cause disease. They called their
evidence the germ theory of disease. Pasteur discovered bacteria could cause food to spoil and he
found in large intestine,
produces Vitamin K
developed a method to destroy these bacteria, now
lactobacillus acidophilus
called pasteurization. Koch isolated the individual
bacteria that caused the deadly diseases anthrax,
tuberculosis, and cholera. Understanding that
helps digestion, inhibits
microbes acted upon other life forms opened the
undesirable bacteria and
door to an entirely new field of research. Scientists
yeasts
learned how to destroy and protect against these
microbes, saving millions of lives.
What they look like There are thousands of species of bacteria, yet all
share some basic features. Bacteria are single-celled organisms and fall into a
category of life called prokaryotes. Prokaryotes do not have certain specialized structures in their cells and they do not have a cell nucleus, which
humans have. A nucleus is a cellular compartment inside cells that surrounds
DNA and other organelles. An organelle is an enclosed structure in a cell
that performs a specific function, much like the role of an organ in the body.
What the typical bacteria does have is a fluid called cytoplasm inside
its cell. Cytoplasm is a gooey, gel-like substance that holds everything and
helps move materials around inside the cell. All the genetic information is
contained in the deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) molecule. The DNA in
bacteria sits loosely in the cytoplasm. Also located
in the cytoplasm are the ribosomes. Ribosomes
play a key role in translating the information
pili
DNA
from DNA into proteins.
The cytoplasm is surrounded by a simple cell
membrane, which has a variety of functions,
including bringing nutrients and chemicals into
the cells. The cell membrane is enclosed by a rigid
cell wall that provides the overall shape. Bacteria
come in three basic shapes. There are bacteria
ribosome
shaped like rods, those that are spherical or
round, and those that are helical or spiral.
streptococcus mutans
staphylococcus aureus
lives in the nose and

prevents harmful
microbes from
entering lungs
escherichia coli
lives in the
gut and plays
role in digestive
system
The human body houses

trillions of bacteria. Bacteria
can cause disease if they get out
of control, yet many help
humans stay healthy. G AL E
GRO UP.
Cell structure of the typical

bacterium. GA LE GRO UP.
flagellum
cytoplasm
cell wall
86
Bacteria
Some bacteria have whiplike structures called

flagella that they use to move forward. Some also
have small hairlike projections from the cell surface
called pili. Pili help the cell stick to surfaces or to
each other.
The typical bacteria range in size from 1 to 5
micrometers (m). One micrometer equals one
millionth of a meter. Scientists use micrometers as
the unit of measurement because bacteria are too
small to be measured in inches or millimeters.
A large clump of bacteria growing together is
called a colony. A colony can have millions of
individual bacteria and is visible to the naked eye.
Closeup of the Leptospira

bacteria. C US TOM MED IC AL
STO CK P HO TO
Living and eating Bacteria have survived on Earth for billions of years
because they are able to adapt relatively quickly to changing environments.
One of the ways they adapt is by having a speedy reproduction rate. Bacteria
usually reproduce by simply dividing into two cells. All the genetic information, the DNA, is passed along to each of the cells. Sometimes bacteria
reproduce sexually: one bacterium transferring part of its DNA to another
Bacteria come in three basic
bacterium. This allows bacteria to quickly create or pass along new traits that
shapes: rod, spherical or round,
help them adapt to different environments.
and spiral. GA LE GRO UP.
Given ideal conditions, bacteria can reproduce
about every twenty minutes. That means one
bacterium could multiply to more than five billion
in about ten hours. If all bacteria really were to
reproduce this quickly, the world would soon be
overtaken with these microorganisms. Luckily, in
the real world, conditions are never ideal. Once
there are too many bacteria in one place their food
rod
runs out, they crowd each other, and eventually they
start dying.
Bacteria have a wide range of diets and living
spherical
conditions. Some bacteria eat other organisms.
Many of these feed off dead organisms, the waste
of other organisms, or get their food from living in
or on other organisms. Many of these bacteria
depend on such foods as sugars, proteins, and vitaspiral
mins. The bacteria in the human gut, for example,
get their food from digested food. Other bacteria
make their own food either from sunlight, like
87
Bacteria
Bacteria that live in extreme

habitats, such as the boiling hot
geysers at Yellowstone National
Park, are called extremophiles.
# PAT O H AR A/C OR BI S.
plants, or from different chemicals in their environment. The chemicals these

bacteria use for foods are often unusual, such as iron and sulfur.
Scientists have found bacteria in practically every known locale and
environment. Until the late 1960s, it was thought that no organism could
survive in certain extreme environments, meaning environments that would
kill other creatures such as humans. Then a researcher discovered there were
bacteria living in the hot springs of Yellowstone National Park, which reached
temperatures over 158F (70C). The bacteria that live in these extreme
habitats are called extremophiles. Since that time scientists have discovered
an increasing number of extremophiles. There are extremophiles that live in
sub-freezing temperatures under sheets of ice; thrive in highly acidic environments; and withstand blasts of radiation thousands of times greater than the
level that would kill a human.
Extremophiles are of great interest to both industry and basic research.
Researchers are interested in how these organisms survive. NASA is conducting experiments on extremophiles to investigate survival in outer space.
The biotechnology industry uses extremophiles to manufacture items, such
as detergents, diagnostics, and food products.
Building up resistance While most bacteria are harmless or helpful
to humans, there are a number of bacteria that do cause disease. Lyme
88
Bacteria
WORDS TO KNOW
Antibiotic: A substance derived from certain
fungi, bacteria, and other organisms that
can destroy or inhibit the growth of other
microorganisms; widely used in the prevention
and treatment of infectious diseases.
Extremophiles: Bacteria that thrive in environments

too harsh to support most life forms.
Antibiotic resistance: The ability of microorganisms to change so that they are not killed by
antibiotics.
Germ theory of disease: The theory that disease is

caused by microorganisms or germs, and not by
spontaneous generation.
Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms found in

soil, water, plants, and animals that play a key
role in the decay of organic matter and the
(Singular: bacterium.)

Colony: A visible growth of microorganisms,

containing millions of bacterial cells.
Cytoplasm: The semifluid substance inside a
cell that surrounds the nucleus and other
membrane-enclosed organelles.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Large, complex
molecules found in the nuclei of cells that carry
genetic information for an organisms
development.
Flagella: Whiplike structures used by some organisms for movement. (Singular: flagellum.)
Nucleus, cell: Membrane-enclosed structure within

a cell that contains the cells genetic material and
controls its growth and reproduction. (Plural:
nuclei.)
Organelle: A membrane-enclosed structure that
performs a specific function within a cell.
Pili: Short projections that assist bacteria in attaching to tissues.
Prokaryote: A cell without a true nucleus, such as a
bacterium.
Ribosome: A protein composed of two subunits
that functions in protein synthesis (creation).
experiment.
disease, anthrax, tuberculosis, and salmonellosis are examples of diseases

caused by bacteria. Many bacterial diseases are deadly without treatment
and can cause widespread infections.
Antibiotics are substances that harm or kill bacteria. Erythromycin and
penicillin are examples of commonly used antibiotics. Discovered in the
1920s, these substances are produced naturally by a variety of organisms,
such as bacteria themselves and fungi. The production and use of antibiotics has dramatically reduced the number of deaths and illnesses from
bacterial disease.
89
Bacteria

the size of the paper disks
the growth substance
the temperature of the bacterias
environment
the substance placed on the bacteria
the type of bacteria
are everything that might affect the zone of
inhibition. If you change more than one variable
at a time, you will not be able to tell which
variable impacted bacterial growth.
In the modern day, people are facing the

growing public-health problem of antibiotic
resistance. This is when disease-causing bacteria
have become resistant to an antibiotic, thereby
lessening the effectiveness of the drug. Resistance
can occur when a single bacterium acquires the
genetic ability to resist, or block, the antibiotic.
This one bacterium will rapidly reproduce and
produce an antibiotic-resistant population. An
overexposure to an antibiotic is one way bacteria
can acquire resistance. The antibiotic will kill the
weak bacteria and allow the stronger, resistant
ones to survive. Patients who are prescribed antibiotics but do not take the full dosage can also
contribute to resistance. If all the bacteria are not
killed, the strong, resistant bacteria that live can
pass on resistance to the next generation.
EXPERIMENT 1
Bacterial Growth: How do certain substances
inhibit or promote bacterial growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis There are many kinds of bacteria, but a great many
of the bacteria that you encounter daily share similar growth

requirements.
In this experiment you will investigate substances that affect the growth
of common household bacteria. You will collect a sample of bacteria from
one of numerous possible sources. You can use your imagination on where
to collect the bacteria. Because bacteria need moisture to live, possible
sources include the base of a faucet, on someones hands, inside someones
cheek, or on a bathroom doorknob. You will then streak the bacteria on a
growth substance. Bacteria grow well on a substance called agar. Nutrient
agar is a jellylike substance that contains food for the bacteria. You can order
prepared nutrient agar in a petri dish.
You will use paper disks to place the substances on a section of the
bacteria. You can use the suggested liquids or select different ones. Saturate
each paper disk with the item to be tested, and place the disk on the bacteria.
After giving the bacteria time to grow, you will measure the diameter of the
clear area around the paper disk where the bacteria did not grow. This area is
called the zone of inhibition. If there is a large zone of inhibition, the
90
Bacteria
substance inhibits bacteria growth. If there is no

clear zone of inhibition, the substance does not
inhibit bacterial growth. If there is a larger amount
of bacteria around and under the disk than when
you started, the substance promotes growth.
In this experiment, you will be using more than
one type of bacteria. Different types of bacteria often
live together. When you collect your sample, you
will probably gather more than one type. The
experiment will still be valid because bacteria that
grow together naturally usually do so because they
respond the same way to their environmentsomething that promotes growth for one of them will be
good for all of them, and something that inhibits
growth for one will be bad for all.
your knowledge of bacteria. This educated guess,
or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis

When working with bacteria, you should
consider the bacteria capable of causing disease
and follow the appropriate safety procedures.
Handle the cultures carefully. If there is a spill,
wipe up the material using a disinfectant-soaked
paper towel, then throw the towel away
immediately. Throw away or sterilize all items
that touch the bacteria.
Always wash your hands after using live
materials. Thoroughly wipe your working area
with a disinfectant cleansing agent after you
have finished with the setup. Keep your plate
closed and store it in a safe area that will not be
disturbed. Keep younger children away from the
experiment area.
Be careful when working with the hot water.


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The acidic and cleaning substances
will inhibit bacterial growth; the protein and sugary substances will promote
bacterial growth.
In this case, the variable you will change is the substance you place on
the bacteria. The variable you will measure is the distance from the disk to
the bacterial growth.
change between the control and the experimental bacterial growth. The
control experiment will have no substance on the paper disk. At the end of
the experiment, you will compare the growth of the control bacteria with
the experimental bacteria.
91
Bacteria
Level of Difficulty Medium to Difficult.

Materials Needed
rubbing alcohol
small cup
tweezers
paper hole puncher
white nonglossy paper
cotton swab
nutrient agar plates* (available from a
biological supply company)
bacteria source
test substances: chicken broth (can be
made from bouillon), coffee, lemon juice,
syrup, vinegar, liquid soap
distilled water
Step 5: Spread the bacteria over

the entire plate. GA LE GRO UP.
Step 11: Lift the petri lid just

high enough to place the paper
disk into its marked section.
GAL E GR OU P.
5 small cups or plates

marking pen
filter paper
ruler, with millimeters
microscope (optional)
Depending on how many bacteria experiments you
plan to conduct, you may consider less expensive
options than that of purchasing ready-made
nutrient agar plates. You can order the nutrient
agar and plates separately and pour the agar into
the plates yourself. You can also order nutrient agar
that needs to be made. This process may take some
practice so allow yourself extra time. There are also
recipes for agar using common household items.
Gelatin is also an alternative for nutrient agar. Look
on the Internet for these recipes or ask your science
teacher. Allow extra time for this process, as you
may have to experiment with what recipe best
promotes bacterial growth.
Approximate Budget3 $25.
92
Bacteria
Timetable One hour setup and followup; two
days waiting.
1. Turn the covered petri dish upside down.

Use the marker to divide the dish into six
even sections, like a pie. On each section
write the name of one of the five substances.
Write Control on the sixth section.
2. Write the date on the side of the dish.
3. Dip a cotton swab in distilled water.
4. Run the swab over the source of bacteria.
0 cm
5. Spread the bacteria over the entire plate.
Hold the swab flat or at a slight angle so
as not to puncture the agar.
6. Cover the plate and throw the swab away.
7. Use a hole puncher to make at least five
paper disks.
8. Sterilize the tweezers: Pour rubbing alcohol into a small cup to
cover the bottom. Hold or place the end of the tweezers into the
alcohol and wait at least one minute. Rinse in water and shake any
excess off the tweezers.
9. Pour several drops of each of the substances you are to test into its
own cup or small plate.
10. Pick up a paper disk with the tweezers and dip it into one of the
liquids. The disk should be wet but not dripping.
11. Lift the petri lid just high enough to place the paper disk into the
middle of its marked section.
12. Hold the tweezers under running water for at least five seconds to
clean.
13. Continue wetting each paper disk in the liquid, and placing the
disk in its allotted section. Rinse the tweezers in hot water between
each paper disk.
14. With clean tweezers, put a plain paper disk in the Control section.
15. Invert or turn the plate upside down. (Condensation may collect on
the top lid. Turning the plates upside down prevents the condensation from falling on the bacteria and allows a clear view of growth.)
16. Store the plate in a warm, nonbright area for 24 hours.
Step 19: Measure the diameter

of the zone of inhibition, in
millimeters, from the left edge
of the clear area to the right
edge. G AL E GR OUP .
93
Bacteria
some ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: Bacteria grew in some areas of the
plate but not in others.
Possible cause: You may not have streaked the
entire plate with the bacteria. Repeat the
experiment, spreading the bacteria around so
that the entire plate is covered with the
microorganism.
Problem: There was no growth.
Possible cause: You may have stored the plate
in an environment that harmed the bacteria or
caused it not to grow, such as if it was too
cold. Repeat the experiment, storing the plate
in a warm environment.
Possible cause: You may not have picked up
enough bacteria on the swab. Make sure the
cotton swab is wet and repeat the experiment, using the same or a different source for
the bacteria.
Problem: My results were not as expected.
Possible cause: You may not have rinsed off the
tweezers thoroughly after touching each
paper disk, mixing together some of the substances on a disk. Repeat the experiment,
making sure to rinse the tweezers in the hot
water after each disk is complete.
94
17. Check the plate for growth. If there is little

to no growth, wait another 24 hours.
18. Observe each section for zones of inhibition, the clear area around the disk in
which bacteria have not grown.
19. Measure the diameter of the zone of
inhibition, in millimeters, from the left
edge of the clear area to the right edge.
Repeat this step for all 6 substances.
20. Record the measurements in a data chart.
Note also if there is no zone of inhibition,
or if there is increased growth compared
to that of the Control.
21. When you have completed the summary,
throw away the agar plate.
Summary of Results Create a graph illustrating
the data chart. Make sure you label the graph

carefully. Can you tell if the bacteria grew more
in certain substances than in others? What substances inhibited bacterial growth the greatest
amount? Were there any substances that promoted bacterial growth?
Compare each substance to the control
experiment. Examine the differences between the
growth in the Control section and growth in any
substances that were not inhibited by the substance. Analyze the main ingredient in each of
your substances that may have inhibited or promoted growth,
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways:
Change the substance on the paper disks
Use one substance and change the concentration of that substance
Alter the growing temperature of the bacteria
Isolate one type of bacteria before you begin the experiment (the
easiest way is to purchase a single type of bacteria from a biological
supply company; you could also streak a bacteria mix onto an agar
Bacteria
plate to thin out the population until a

bacteria of one color and shape grow).
Grow the bacteria under different lighting conditions
EXPERIMENT 2
Bacterial Resistance: Can
bacteria gain resistance to a
substance after exposure?
Purpose/Hypothesis Antibiotic resistance is a

the concentration of soap
the type of soap
the environmental conditions of each
plate

growing health problem around the world. In
are everything that might affect the zone of
this experiment, you will explore bacterial resistinhibition. If you change more than one variable
ance by experimenting with bacteria and antiat a time, you will not be able to tell which
bacterial soap.
variable impacted bacterial growth.
Ever since the mid 1990s, soap manufacturers have put antibacterial agents in their products, such as body washes, toothpaste, and hand
soaps. The number of antibacterial soaps has increased over the years. In
modern day, the majority of soaps carry some antibacterial agent. Researchers have theorized that bacteria may develop a resistance to antibacterial
agents over time. If the bacteria develop a resistance to the agent, the agent
will no longer be effective in slowing down their growth or killing them.
In this experiment, you will collect a sample of bacteria and spread it on a
growth substance. Bacteria grow well on a substance called agar. Nutrient
agar is a jellylike substance that contains food for the bacteria. You can order
prepared nutrient agar in a petri dish. On top of the nutrient agar you will
spread a low concentration of antibacterial soap. The bacteria that survive this
concentration of soap will be introduced to a higher concentration of soap.
You will continue this process for five growth cycles. After the last plate of
bacteria has grown, you can compare the surviving bacteria with the bacteria
that have had no exposure to antibacterial soap. You will measure the
bacterial growth by counting the number of colonies.
The concentrations of soap provided in this experiments are guidelines.
The type of soap you use and the bacteria you collect will influence how
bacteria respond to the different concentrations. If you want to determine
the concentration that would best suit your materials, read the Troubleshooters Guide before you begin.
95
Bacteria

When working with bacteria, you should
consider the bacteria capable of causing disease
and follow the appropriate safety procedures.
Handle the cultures carefully. If there is a spill,
wipe up the material using a disinfectant-soaked
paper towel, then throw the towel away
immediately. Throw away or sterilize all items
that touch the bacteria.
Always wash your hands after using live materials.
Thoroughly wipe your working area with a disinfectant cleansing agent after you have finished
with the setup. Keep your plate closed and store it
in a safe area that will not be disturbed. Keep
younger children away from the experiment area.
In this experiment, you will be using more than

one type of bacteria. Different types of bacteria live
together. When you gather a swab of bacteria you
have gathered a number of different populations. To
draw conclusions about a single type of bacteria, you
can order one from a biological supply house.
your knowledge of bacteria and resistance. This
educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
A hypothesis should explain these things:


through further investigation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether
your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment:
Bacteria that are exposed to an increasingly greater concentration of soap will
survive a concentration that will kill unexposed bacteria.
In this case, the variable you will change is the concentration of the soap.
The variable you will measure is the number of bacteria colonies that grow.
Conducting a control experiment will help you isolate each variable and
measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable will change
between the control and the experimental bacterial growth. Each phase of this
experiment will have a control. The control bacteria will grow on nutrient agar
with no soap. At each phase of the experiment, you should compare the
growth of the control bacteria with the experimental bacteria.
Level of Difficulty Difficult.
Materials Needed
cotton swabs
6 (at least) nutrient agar plates* (available from a biological supply
company)
antibacterial liquid soap
measuring cups
96
Bacteria
measuring spoons
5 containers with covers
stirring spoons
marking pen
microscope (optional)
*Depending on how many bacteria experiments

you plan on conducting, you may consider less
expensive options than that of purchasing readymade nutrient agar plates. You can order the
nutrient agar and plates separately and pour the
agar into the plates yourself. You can also order
nutrient agar that needs to be made. This process
may take some practice so allow yourself extra
time. There are also recipes for agar using common
household items. Gelatin is also an alternative for
nutrient agar. Look on the Internet for these recipes
or ask your science teacher. Allow extra time for
this process, as you may have to experiment with
what recipe best promotes bacterial growth.
Plate 1
.0001%
control
Plate 2
.001%
control
Plate 3
.01%
control
Plate 4
.1%
control
Plate 5
1%
Plate 6
control

Timetable One hour and 30 minutes working time; six days waiting time.
1%
control
Experiment 2 setup. Plate

progression: Bacteria exposed to
soap move to increasingly
higher concentrations; the
control bacteria are never
exposed to soap. GAL E GR OU P.
1. Turn the covered petri dish upside down and use a pen to divide the
plate in half. Mark the left half .0001% and the right half Control. Write the date on the side of the dish.
2. Make up the concentrations by first mixing a 1% concentration of
soap water. Stir 1 teaspoon (5 milliliters) of liquid soap with 2 cups
and 4 teaspoons (500 milliliters) of water. Mix thoroughly, cover, and
label 1%.
3. To make a .1% concentration: Measure 1 teaspoon of the 1%
solution and add to a clean container. Mix in 9 teaspoons of water.
Mix thoroughly, cover, and label 1%.
4. To make a .01percent concentration: Measure 1 teaspoon of the .1%
solution and add to another clean container. Mix in 9 teaspoons of
water. Mix thoroughly, cover, and label .01%.
97
Bacteria
5. To make a .001% concentration: Measure 1 teaspoon of the .01%

solution and add to another clean container. Mix in 9 teaspoons of
water. Mix thoroughly, cover, and label .001%.
6. To make a .0001% concentration: Measure 1 teaspoon of the
.001% solution and add to another clean container. Mix in 9
teaspoons of water. Mix thoroughly, cover, and label .0001%.
7. Use a fresh cotton swab to spread the .0001% solution over the agar
that is marked .0001%. Keep the swab flat or at a slight angle so as
not to puncture the agar.
8. Dip a cotton swab in distilled water.
9. Run the swab over a source of bacteria and spread the bacteria over
the agar in the soap half of the dish.
10. Get a new cotton swab. Use the same source of bacteria and spread
the bacteria over the Control half of the dish.
11. Place the lid on Plate 1 and turn it upside down. Store it in a warm
temperature for 24 hours. (If there is little to no growth on both the
Control and soap sides, let sit another 24 hours.)
12. Repeat Step 1 with Plate 2, marking the left half .001%.
13. With a fresh cotton swab, collect bacteria from the soap water side of
Plate 1 and spread it on the half of the agar marked .001% in
Plate 2.
14. Use a fresh cotton swab to collect bacteria from the Control side of
Plate 1 and spread it on the half of the agar marked Control in Plate
2. Throw Plate 1 away. Place the lid on Plate 2 and turn it upside
down. Store in a warm temperature for 24 hours.
15. Repeat this process for the .01% (Plate 3) and .1% (Plate 4),
waiting 24 hours or longer between new plates.
16. Have ready Plate 5 and Plate 6. After dividing the plates, mark the
left-hand side of both plates 1%.
17. Use a cotton swab to collect bacteria from the .1% side of Plate 4
and spread it on the 1% half of Plate 5.
18. With a new swab, collect some of the Control bacteria from Plate 4
and spread it on the Control on Plate 5, the Control for Plate 6, and
the 1% on Plate 6. This bacteria has had no exposure to any soap.
19. Place lids on Plates 5 and 6 and turn them upside down. Store in a
warm temperature for 24 hours.
20. Count the colonies on the 1% solution on both Plate 5 and Plate 6.
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Bacteria
Summary of Results Examine your data. How do
the bacterial growths on Plates 5 and 6 compare

with each other? Was your hypothesis correct?
Write a description of the bacteria on both plates.
If you have a magnifying glass or microscope you
could take a closeup look at the bacteria. What
was the main difference between the bacteria
spread on both plates? Write a summary of the
experiment that explains each step in the process
and the reason for it.
Change the Variables There are several variables
you can change in this experiment to provide new

data:
Change the brand or type of soap, to a
nonantibacterial soap, for instance, or to
an antibacterial soap that has a different
main ingredient
Use a cleansing agent instead of soap
Alter the growing temperature of the
bacteria
Use one type of bacteria by isolating one
type before you begin the experiment (the
easiest way is to purchase a single type of
bacteria from a biological supply company;
you could also streak a bacteria mix onto an
agar plate to thin out the population until a
bacteria of one color and shape grow)
Use a mixture of different bacteria by
collecting it from another source
this experiment, some possible causes, and some
Problem: There was no difference in the amount
of growth between the bacteria on Plates 5
and 6.
Possible cause: The soap that you used may
need a higher concentration than 1% to
inhibit bacterial growth. Spread varying
concentrations of the soap on nutrient agar
plates and grow bacteria on each concentration. When you have determined the
concentration that kills most of the bacteria,
use that figure as the end concentration that
will go on Plates 5 and 6. Dilute that concentration one thousand fold and repeat the
experiment, increasing the concentration by
tenfold each growth period.
Problem: At one point there was no growth on
a plate.
Possible cause: You may have stored the plate
in an environment that harmed the bacteria
or caused it not to grow, such as if it was too
cold. Continue the experiment at the last
plate with growth, storing the plate in a
warm environment.
Modify the Experiment This experiment requires numerous steps and
careful measuring. For a simpler variation that also explores antibacterial

soaps and bacteria you can compare how antibacterial and non-antibacterial
soaps affect bacteria. Make a hypothesis on whether antibacterial soap will
get rid of the amount of bacteria more, less, or the same as the nonantibacterial counterpart.
You will need an antibiotic and non-antibiotic soap that are the same
brand and type (such as liquid or a bar), cotton swabs, and three nutrient
99
Bacteria
agar plates (or other growth medium). You can use your fingers for a source
of bacteria so find a time right before your hands are ready to be washed.
Gently rub a cotton swab down the side of one finger and spread the swab
over the agar in a plate labeled Control. Wash one of your fingers with
bacterial soap, rinse and allow your finger to dry. Make sure you dont rub
your finger against your clothes or other item where bacteria may live. Rub a
swab along your finger and spread this swab over the agar in a plate labeled
Antibacterial. Wash a third finger with non-antibacterial, plain soap.
Rinse, dry, swab, and spread the swab to a Plain Soap agar plate. Cover
and place all three plates in a warm area.
After several days examine the three plates for bacteria. How does the
control compare to the soap plates? If there is no growth on the control,
your fingers may have been too clean! Do the two plates from the different
soaps contain about the same amount of bacteria? Was your hypothesis
correct? Consider when using antibacterial soap might or might not be a
good idea. You may want to allow the plates to sit for several more days to
observe bacteria growth.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept There are thousands of
species of bacteria living and growing around you, in you, and on you. For
a project, you could examine the differences among different types of
bacteria. You could also examine bacterias growth requirements, or how
bacteria have impacted life on Earth.
Check the Further Readings section and talk with your biology teacher to
learn more about bacteria. You could also try to get access to a microscope so
that you can look at the bacteria in more detail.

100
Bacteria

selected.
any experiment you conduct, you should look for

ways to clearly convey your data. You can do this
by including charts and graphs for the experiments. They should be clearly labeled and easy
to read. You may also want to include photographs and drawings of your experimental setup and results, which will
help others visualize the steps in the experiment. You might decide to
A decomposing house plant is a

common example of bacteria at
work. Many bacteria live in soil
and decompose dead plants,
returning needed nutrients
back into the environment.
# KE LL Y A. QUI N.
Related Projects Bacteria are in and around people every day, opening the
door to many projects that are interesting and inexpensive. You could
experiment with different growth mediums, making your own or adding
variables to one medium. You could explore bacterias role in the life
cycle, conducting a project with plants and bacteria. You could look at
how different plants use bacteria. Other bacteria roles you could look at
are in the soil and natural water sources. People and animals also house
thousands of different bacteria. You could try to isolate some types of
bacteria and determine their role and growing requirements.
You can also examine peoples use of bacteria. Foods make use of
these microorganisms natural role. You could also examine how bacteria
cause foods to spoil. Bacteria are the key to making cheeses. Yogurt and
buttermilk are made from the bacteria in milk. You could experiment
with using bacteria to grow yogurt. In biotechnology, people use bacteria
to produce medicines, improve cleaning products, and make proteins.
You could conduct a research project on how extremophiles and other
more common types of bacteria are used.
101
Bacteria

American Museum of Natural History. The Microbe Size O Meter. Meet the
Microbes! http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/infection/01 mic/01d size01.
html (accessed on March 2, 2008). A look at the sizes of bacteria relative to
familiar objects.
American Society of Microbiologists. Meet the Microbes. http://www.
microbeworld.org/microbes (accessed on March 2, 2008). Clear information on
bacteria and other microorganisms, and the people who study them.
The Germ Theory of Disease. Timeline Science. http://www.
timelinescience.org/resource/students/pencilin/pencilin.htm (accessed on
March 2, 2008). A brief history of the many people and events that led to
understand microorganisms and disease.
Microbiology. Cells alive! http://www.cellsalive.com/toc micro.htm (accessed
on March 2, 2008). Interactive animations, articles, and real time bacteria
growing.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The Bad Bug Book: Foodborne
Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook. Center for Food
Safety & Applied Nutrition. http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/mow/intro.html
(accessed on March 2, 2008). Detailed information on microbes that can
contaminate food and cause diseases.
102
Biomes
f you have ever hiked in a forest or driven through a desert, what you saw was
a biome. Biomes are large geographical areas with specific climates and soils,
as well as distinct plant and animal communities that are all interdependent.
Most biomes are on land. Our oceans make up a single biome. Besides
temperate forest and desert, the major land biomes include tundra, taiga
(pronounced TIE-gah), temperate deciduous (pronounced deh-SID-youus) forest, tropical rainforest, and grassland. To understand how biomes
work, let us look at some of them.
Into the woods Maybe you have hiked in a taiga biome, the biome that
receives the most snow. Unlike its neighboring biome, the tundra, which is
treeless and characterized by low-lying plants, the taiga is sometimes called the
boreal (pronounced BORE-e-al) coniferous (pronounced CONE-if-er-us)
forest and is probably the largest of all the land biomes. The taiga biome
extends across the northern parts of North America, Asia, and Europe. It is
dominated by coniferous, or cone-bearing, trees such as pine, spruce, larch, and
fir. These trees resist cold, which is a good thing, because temperatures have
been recorded as low as90F (67C) and reach an average of only 59F
(15C). The tree roots do not penetrate deeply and tend to interconnect with
other tree roots around them. Each tree is basically held down by its neighbors
on all sides.
Trees in the taiga biome survive in soil that is frozen for most of the
year. Soil moisture comes from melted snow and summer rains, but
during the winter, the cold temperatures make water absorption difficult
because the ground is frozen. So these trees have built-in adapters to help
them survive. For example, spruce and fir trees have long, thin, waxcovered needles. The waxy surface acts as an insulator, helping them
retain water and heat. Snow slides off more easily, avoiding branch
breakage. These needles conduct photosynthesis so efficiently that they
can make food even during winter, when the Suns rays are weaker.
103
Biomes
Pine, spruce, and fir trees form

part of the taiga biome. PH OT O
RE SEA RC HE RS I NC.
Trees are not the only inhabitants of this

biome. About 50 species of insects, including
mites, live here. Moose, snowshoe hares, deer,
and elk make their home in the taiga as well as
wolves, porcupines, lynxes, and martens, who
roam the taiga during the summer. Seeds from
the cones of the trees are food for red squirrels and
for birds such as crossbills and siskins.
Life in the desertwith air conditioning
If you drive through a desert, do you see much
life from your car window? Do not be fooled.
There is more living here than just cactus plants. Desert biomes are on
every major continent and cover more than a fifth of Earths surface.
While these biomes receive less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rainfall
a year, with temperatures that range from 75F (23C) to 91F (32C),
desert plants and animals thrive here. Deserts can usually be found in the
centers of continents and in the rain shadows of mountains.
Lizards, snakes, and other animals pop up at sundown when the soil is
cool, then wriggle back into their habitats when the temperature becomes too
chilly. They can reappear again at dawn, remaining until the temperature
gets too hot. Some of the rodents and other animals that burrow under the
soil actually enjoy a kind of underground air-conditioning. They form
elaborate tunnels where the Suns heat cannot penetrate. And moisture
from the animals exhaled breath cools the air and makes their burrows a
Low-growing bushes in
Monument Valley are part of
this biomes vegetation. PHO TO
R ES EAR CH ER S IN C.
104
Biomes
comfortable 85F (29C). Kangaroo rats in the American Southwest and the
gerbils of North African and Asiatic deserts choose foods that reduce the
amount of water needed for digestion. These rodents can actually absorb
water from their urine before excreting wastes.
Many desert plants are xerophytes (pronounced ZERO-fights), plants
that require little water to survive. There are also ephemerals (pronounced ehFEM-er-als), plants that can suspend their life processes for years when the soil
becomes too dry. When major rainstorms occur, they burst into life. Succulents are another type of plant. They retain water in thick fleshy tissues. Birds
use the giant saguaro (pronounced sah-GWA-ro; from the Spanish word for
the Pima Native American name of this plant) cactus, a succulent plant that
grows 50 feet (15 m) high, as nesting and resting areas in place of trees.
The saguaro cactus is a good example of the interdependence that takes
place in a biome. Red-tailed hawks use the branches to nest. Hollowed-out
trunk and arm spaces are a home for elf owls and gila woodpeckers. The
cactus fruits are eaten by rodents, birds, and bats.
Why save the rainforests? Many people are concerned about saving
rainforests because these biomes contain a large number of unique plants.
Several acres of rainforest in Borneo may contain 700 different species of trees.
More than 50,000 plant species make their home in the rainforests of the
Amazon Basin in South America. Up to 80 different species of plant life might
grow on one tree. Tropical rainforests are found only in regions north of the
Heat and humidity helped form

this lush Costa Rican rainforest.
PH OTO RE SEA RC HER S I NC.
105
Biomes
WORDS TO KNOW
Biomes: Large geographical areas with specific
climates and soils, as well as distinct plant and
animal communities that are interdependent.
Boreal: Northern.
Coniferous: Refers to trees, such as pines and firs,
that bear cones and have needle-like leaves that
are not shed all at once.
Deciduous: Plants that lose their leaves during some
season of the year, and then grow them back
during another season.
Desert: A biome with a hot-to-cool climate and dry
weather.
Desertification: Transformation of arid or semiarid
productive land into desert.
Fungus (fungi): Various single-celled or multicellular organisms, including mushrooms, molds,

yeasts, and mildews, that do not contain
chlorophyll.
experiment.
Succulent: Plants that live in dry environments and
have water storage tissue.
Taiga: A large land biome mostly dominated by
coniferous trees.
Temperate: Mild or moderate weather conditions.
Tundra: A treeless, frozen biome with low-lying
plants.

together with their enviroment.

an experiment.
Ephemerals: Plants that lie dormant in dry soil for

years until major rainstorms occur.
Xerophytes: Plants that require little water to

survive.
Materials for Project 1. GA LE

GR OU P.
106
equator on the Tropic of Cancer and south of the equator in the Tropic of
Capricorn. Destroying the rainforests reduces the diversity of life on Earth.
If you have ever been in a steamy greenhouse,
then you can imagine what a rainforest is like.
Warm temperatures average 75F (23C) and
humidity peaks at a dripping 90% for days at a
time. This climate encourages an explosion of plant
life that supports many different animals. Some
scientists estimate that half the living species on
Earth live in the rainforests.
Constructing your own mini-biome will
help you understand some of the major factors
that influence these important areas of life and
can cause them to survive or fail.
Biomes
PROJECT 1
Building a Temperate
Forest Biome
Purpose/Hypothesis Biomes are strongly influ-

Ask for assistance when carrying and lifting
the fish tank. Do not leave the light fixture
on for more than 10 hours at a time.
enced by the climate and soil type in a particular

region. These same factors determine the success
of a mini-biome model. In this project, you will
attempt to build, grow, and maintain a temperate forest biome. This
particular biome is characterized by a temperature range of 32 to 68F
(0 to 20C). It has an annual precipitation of 20 to 95 inches (50 to 240
cm) and a fairly deep soil layer. The purpose of this project is to try to
maintain the correct climate, soil, and vegetation in the temperate forest
biome.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (This project requires continuous tending and
attention to maintain a proper climate.)

Materials Needed
l0-gallon fish tank (plastic, if possible, for safety)

indoor/outdoor thermometer
watering container
gravel
sand
topsoil
incandescent light fixture with a 40-watt bulb (optional)
plants and/or seeds (choose oak, maple, sassafras, hickory, tulip
trees, sweet gum, dogwood)
Maple and oak leaves, examples

of deciduous trees. GA LE
GRO UP .
Note: Choose all deciduous trees. Seeds may

be hard to grow unless they have been chilled.
If you use trees, they should be very small
saplings.
Approximate Budget $25. (Try to use an old fish
tank if possible.)
Timetable One hour to set up the project and at
least six months to maintain the trees and observe

changes.
107
Biomes
1. l. Place a 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) layer of

gravel on the bottom of the fish tank.
When you are building a natural environment,
2. Place a 1-inch (2.5- centimeter) layer of
many forces of nature can affect the experisand over the gravel.
ment. These include fungus, insects, and too
3. Mix 2 parts of topsoil to 1 part of sand. Place
much or too little water. Here are some
a 2- to 3-inch (5- to 7.5- centimeter) layer of
common problems and a few tips to maintain
the sand/topsoil mixture over the sand layer.
the best environment.
4.
Plant four to six trees. Be sure to cover all the
Mushrooms, a kind of fungus, may grow.
roots. If seeds are being used, place them
Water less, but never allow the soil to dry
1 inch (2.5 cm) down in the soil and allow
completely.
one month for them to sprout.
Pests such as insects and spiders may
make this biome their home. If they are
5. Place the thermometer inside the terraeating the plants, remove the pests. If
rium against the back wall.
not, keep them. They are performing
6. Water gently until approximately 0.25
their natural role in the ecosystem. Their
inch (0.6 centimeter) of water has accupresence is a sign of a healthy biome.
mulated in the gravel layer.
Drastic temperature changes overnight
7.
Place the fish tank outside or in a sunny
can kill the plants. Do your best to mainplace indoors. You must maintain the temtain an acceptable climate in the fish
perature of the fish tank in the range of 32
tank. You may have to move it inside or
place it in a shady spot outside, protected
to 60F (0 to 15C). If you need to provide
from too much rain.
artificial light, place the incandescent fixture above the fish tank and provide five to
10 hours of light per day.
8. Check the project daily, and maintain 0.25 inch (0.6 centimeter)
of water in the gravel.
Steps 1 to 5: Set-up for fish tank
9. Record the growth of the plants and the temperature range.
with plants and overhead light.
GA LE GRO UP.
Summary of Results Graph the data you have

collected over the six-month period. The overall
growth of the plants will demonstrate the health
of the biome environment.
PROJECT 2
Building a Desert Biome
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will
build, grow, and maintain a desert biome. The

desert biome is characterized mainly by its lack of
108
Biomes
water, which causes harsh growing conditions.

Maintaining the right climate, soil, and vegetation
is the goal. This particular biome is characterized
by a temperature range of 23 to 60F (6 to 30C).
Level of Difficulty Moderate to difficult because

Ask for assistance when moving the fish tank.
Do not leave the light fixture on for more than
10 hours at a time, as it will get too hot.
of the length of time needed for the project.

Materials Needed
10-gallon fish tank

indoor/outdoor thermometer
watering container
gravel
sand
topsoil
incandescent light with 60-watt bulb
succulent plants, such as jade plant, strawberry cactus, barrel
cactus, etc.
Note: Most plants are easily found in local nursery stores selling
houseplants.
Approximate Budget $25. (Try to get an old fish tank to use.)
Timetable One hour to set up the project and at least six months to
maintain the plants and observe changes.

1. Place a 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) layer of

gravel in the bottom of the fish tank.
2. Mix 1 to 2 cups of topsoil with 6 to 10
cups of sand. Place this mixture over the
gravel layer.
3. Place 2 inches (5 centimeter) of sand over
the sand/topsoil layer.
4. Plant the cactus and succulents in the fish
tank and cover the roots completely.
5. Place the thermometer inside the fish
tank, against the back wall.
Strawberry and barrel cactuses.

GA LE G RO UP.
109
Biomes
In this model, climate conditions are designed to
be extreme. The plants have special adaptations
to adjust. If insects become a problem, remove
them.
6. Water sparingly. Pour 2 cups of water on

the sand to start. Water the fish tank with
1 cup of water every week after that.
7. Place the light fixture above the fish tank
and leave it on for eight to 10 hours a day.
8. Check the fish tank daily. Record any
differences in the plants growth and in
the temperature range.
Summary of Results Graph the data you collected
during the project, as illustrated in the Desert Biome Growth Chart. You will
notice very little change, as the plants have a very slow growth cycle.
Modify the Experiment For a more in depth understanding of desert
biomes, you can further investigate how organisms have adapted to life in
the desert. In Project 2 you constructed a desert biome, concentrating on
the physical features of a desert. Now you can measure one way in which
desert plants have adapted to their environment.
Cacti have many adaptations that help them collect and store water. Do
you think if cacti were given the same amount of water as a leafy, temperate
forest plant it would release the same amount of water? Begin the experiment
in the morning. Collect one of the leafy plants you used in the temperate
biome project and one cacti from the desert biome. Both should be healthy,
Steps 1 to 5: Set-up for fish tank

with cactus, light, thermometer,
and sand and gravel layers.
GAL E GR OU P.
110
Biomes
Desert Biome Growth Chart.

GA LE G RO UP.
growing in a pot. Gently place a small baggie over the top of the cactus and
tie with a twisty-tie or string. Tie a small baggie over the leaf of the temperate
plant. Pour one-quarter cup of water in each pot. If the plants are large, you
may want to use more water. The exact amount does not matter, as long as it
is the same for both plants. Place both plants in the sun or under a plant light.
At the end of the day, examine the bags. Are there droplets of water in
one bag and not the other? Take off the bags and replace them the next
morning (the plants need oxygen to live). Did you see the same thing at
the end of the second day? Examine the structure of the cactus compared
to the temperate plant. Where do you think it is storing water?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The fish tank projects are
models of what takes place in a biome. Many plants and animals have
specific adaptations that are suited to that biome or region. What happens
when you change the climate of a biome? How does the introduction of a
plant from a different biome affect the other plants? There are many
experiments you could design to investigate the interactions of plants and
animals with their biomes.
111
Biomes
or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on
biome questions that interest you.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results It is important to docu-
ment as much information as possible about your experiment. Part of

your presentation should be visual, using charts and graphs. Remember,
whether or not your experiment is successful, your conclusions and
experiences can benefit others.
Related Projects More specific projects can be performed to get more
detailed information about biomes. For instance, scientists are finding
that many rainforests are getting drier. Also, a phenomenon called
desertification has been occurring, turning naturally dry land into desert.
Try an experiment in desertification, reducing water to see what happens.

Morrison, Marion. The Amazing Rain Forest and Its People. New York:
Thompson Learning, 1993. Provides a good summary of this ecological
community and how interdependency affects this biome.
Rainis, Kenneth. Environmental Science Projects for Young Scientists. New York:
Franklin Watts, 1994. Describes biome and related projects for young people.
Sayre, April Pulley. Taiga. New York: Twenty First Century Books, 1994. Explores
the taiga biome, its animals, plant life, the people who live there, and their impact.
University of California Museum of Paleontology. The worlds biomes.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/index.php (accessed on
January 18, 2008).
112
Bones and Muscles
henever you run, sit, walk, or even stand, your bones and muscles are
working together in the activity. Bones are similar to the framework
of a building; they provide the shape and protection. Our bones also produce
our much-needed supply of daily blood cellsabout 200 billion a day! They
are the holding places for minerals and other key substances the body needs.
Many muscles are attached to bones and they pull the bones for movement. Other muscles provide much-needed functions for daily life. Even
when you are just sitting still, your muscles are at work. They are allowing
you to breath, swallow, smile, and even move your eyes. And it is a muscle
that powers your entire bodythe heart muscle. Working nonstop through
a persons life, this vital muscle beats an average of seventy times per minute.
Bones, bones, bones An adult body has about 206 bones. The
number varies from person to person because of differences in the number
of small bones. Some bones are responsible for movement, including bones
in the hands, feet, and limbs. Other bones primarily give protection to the
internal structures, such as the skull protecting the brain and the ribs
shielding the heart, lungs, and liver.
When looking at animal bones or at a skeleton, bones may appear to be
static and dead, but in the body they are actually full of activity. Bones grow
and change along with the person. They are made of living and nonliving
materials: About 70% of an adults bones are composed of minerals. The
remaining part is bone tissue, a group of similar cells with a common
function. Bone tissue is constantly building new bone. In fact, about every
seven years your bone tissue makes essentially a whole new skeleton.
Wherever two bones meet there is a joint. In some places, such as the
bones in the skull, the joints are locked together and do not move. Most
joints are movable, though, and are coated with a fluid that acts as a
lubricant. Ligaments are a tough connective tissue that links bones together
at the joints. Ligaments prevent the bones at the joints from becoming
113
Bones and Muscles
dislocated. Cartilage is another connective tissue

found at the end of the bones and in the joints.
This is a smooth and flexible tissue that lets one
bone slide smoothly over another.
Hard and spongy Almost every bone in the
body is made of the same materials: The outside
of the bone is the hard layer that is strong. It is
made of living cells and is called compact or hard
bone. Holes and channels run through the compact bone, carrying blood vessels and nerves to its
inner parts. Inside this layer is cancellous bone or
spongy bone. Cancellous bone has cells with large
spaces in between them like a honeycomb. The
spaces in this network are filled with a jellylike
red-and-yellow bone marrow. Red bone marrow,
found mainly at the ends of bones, makes most of
our bodys blood cells. Red bone marrow also
produces white blood cells, which help fight
infection, and platelets, which help blood clot.
Yellow bone marrow stores fat and releases it
when it is needed somewhere in the body.
Full frontal view of a human

skeleton. PH OT O
Bones contain large amounts of a protein

called collagen as well as minerals, including calcium and phosphorous. Collagen gives bones their
elasticity. Calcium is what gives bones their
strength. Extra minerals are stored in the bone,
and the bones release them when they are needed
by other parts of the body. The amount of minerals that a person eats affects
how many minerals the bones contain and store.
As a person gets older, the amount of new bone created slows down and
bones break down at a faster rate than they are being made. Women
especially may lose the stored calcium in their bodies that helps keep their
bones strong and healthy. This causes the bones to become weak, which can
lead to breaks. The disease osteoporosis occurs most often among older
people. In osteoporosis bone tissue becomes brittle and thin. Bones break
easily, and the spine can begin to collapse. Building up adequate stores of
calcium in the bones as a young adult is one important way people can
prevent or delay the development of this disease.
114
Bones and Muscles
Muscular strength Bones are moved by

muscles attached to them. These muscles are
fastened to bones by a thin, tough tissue called
tendons, which also link muscles to other
muscles.
Muscles come in all shapes and sizes. The
human body has about 650 muscles, which
make up about 40% of a persons body weight.
Muscles are classified as voluntary or involuntary.
Voluntary muscles are those you can control at
will, such as moving your arm. Involuntary muscles act automatically, such
as your stomach muscles digesting food. Some muscles fit into both
categories, such as the muscle used in blinking your eyes.
Muscles are made of stacks of long, thin cells called muscle fibers. Each
muscle fiber is a single cell and contains at least one nucleus. The nucleus
(plural: nuclei) is an enclosed structure that contains the cells genetic material
and controls its growth and reproduction. There are three types of muscle
fibers: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle fibers are attached to
bone and are voluntary muscles. They are the most abundant and largest of
the three, with some fibers running more than a foot long. Each skeletal
muscle fiber has several nuclei. Smooth muscle
fibers are involuntary, as in the stomach and intestines. They are smaller than the skeletal muscles
and are narrow at the ends, with one nucleus in
each cell. Cardiac muscles are found only in the
heart. These muscles have fibers that are tightly
packed together and have branches. A cardiac
muscle cell usually has a single nucleus.
When muscles go into action they work in
terms of contractions and relaxations. Muscles can
only pull bones because they can only contract, or
get shorter. They cannot push bones back into
their original position. Because of this, muscles
work in pairs. When one muscle contracts it can
bend a limb; then when that muscle is finished
contracting, its partner muscle contracts to extend
or straighten the limb. Whenever you bend your
arm, for example, the bicep muscle in the front
of the upper arm contracts. When the arm
Cancellous (spongy) Bone

Yellow Marrow
Compact (hard) Bone

space containing
Red Marrow
Parts of the human bone. GA LE

GRO UP .
The three types of muscle fibers.

GAL E GR OU P.
Skeletal Muscle
Fiber
Muscle Cell
Smooth Muscle
Fiber
Nucleus
Cardiac Muscle
Fiber
115
Bones and Muscles
straightens, the bicep relaxes and the tricep muscle

at the back of the upper arm contracts.
All the energy that muscles use is created
when muscle cells process the carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins in foods. Healthy muscles
burn nutrients efficiently. The amount a person
exercises and his or her general health will make
muscles work better and become less fatigued.
Muscle fatigue occurs when the muscle stops
contracting. When muscle cells run out of oxygen, they reach a point where the muscles have a
reduced ability to contract. When a person
builds his or her muscles, the muscle fibers
grow. This increases the blood flow in the fibers,
increasing their ability to contract.
EXPERIMENT 1
Bone Loss: How does the
loss of calcium affect bone
strength?
A humped back is a sign of

osteoporosis. Elderly women
especially are prone to
developing this disease.
Purpose/Hypothesis Your bones are lightweight

and incredibly strong. Bones get their strength
from a hard outer shell that contains the mineral calcium carbonate. The
calcium keeps the bone stiff and rigid. A strong acid can chemically react
with the bones and remove much of the calcium carbonate.
# LESTER V. BERGMAN/CORBIS.
Muscles work in pairs because

they can only contract. Here,
one contracts to bend the arm;
its partner muscle contracts to
straighten it. GAL E GR OU P.
116
Biceps contracts
Triceps contracts
Bones and Muscles
WORDS TO KNOW
Bone joint: A place in the body where two or more
bones are connected.
Bone marrow: The spongy center of many bones
in which blood cells are manufactured.

Bone tissue: A group of similar cells in the bone

with a common function.
Ligaments: Tough, fibrous tissue connecting bones.
Cancellous bone: Also called spongy bone, the

inner layer of a bone that has cells with large
spaces in between them filled with marrow.
Muscle fibers: Stacks of long, thin cells that make

up muscle; there are three types of muscle fiber:
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
Cartilage: The connective tissue that covers and

protects the bones.
Nucleus, cell: Enclosed structure within a cell that

contains the cells genetic material and controls
its growth and reproduction. (Plural: nuclei.)
Collagen: A protein in bone that gives the bone

elasticity.
Compact bone: The outer, hard layer of the bone.
Contract: To shorten, pull together.
Tendon: Tough, fibrous connective tissue that

attaches muscle to bone.
experiment.
In this experiment you will determine how the loss of calcium

carbonate affects the strength of bones. You will use vinegar as the
acid. The vinegar will react with three bones for varying lengths of
time. The longer the vinegar reacts with the bone, the more calcium the
vinegar will remove from the bone. How much you can bend the bone
will allow you determine the bones strength.
experiment based on your knowledge of bones and the mineral calcium.
This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should
117
Bones and Muscles

experiment: The more calcium a bone loses, the
weaker the bone will be and the more it will bend.
the type of bone you use
the thickness of the bone
amount of time the bones react with the vinegar
the cleanliness of the bone
or acid. The variable you will measure is the
the solution the bone is soaked in
bones strength or how much the bone bends.
residue in the jars
the environment of the bones when they
you isolate each variable and measure the
are not soaking
are everything that might affect the vinegar
the experimental bones, and that is the solution
reacting with the bone. If you change more
that immerses the bones. For the control, you
than one variable at the same time, you will not
will soak a bone in plain water, which does not
be able to tell which variable had the most
effect on bone strength.
react with the bone. At the end of the experiment
you will compare the water-soaked bone with
each of the vinegar-soaked bones.
For your experiment you will select four bones of the same type that
are of equal thickness and general appearance. You will soak three of the
bones in vinegar and one of the bones in water. Every four days you will
remove each of the vinegar-soaked bones and test its strength. To compare
the bones again at the end of the experiment, you will wrap each of the
bones after the allotted period of time. If you leave them in the open air,
the bone will react with the carbon dioxide in the air and harden again.
Level of Difficulty Easy/Moderate.
Materials Needed
4 similar chicken bones (drumsticks from chicken wings work

well)
vinegar, white
4 glass jars with lids, large enough to hold a bone
marking pen
masking tape
plastic wrap
118
Bones and Muscles

Timetable 20 minutes initial setup time; another
30 minutes spread out over the next 12 days.


Vinegar is an acid. Be careful about getting any
of the vinegar in your eyes. Do not eat any of
the vinegar-soaked bones. Throw them out
after the experiment is complete.
1. Clean the four bones thoroughly, scrubbing

them with water.
2. Place a piece of masking tape on each jar
and label the first jar Control, the second jar 4 Days, the third
8 Days, and the last 12 Days.
3. In the control jar, cover the bone with water. In the other three
jars, cover the bones with vinegar. Set the jars aside.
4. After four days, open the 4 Day jar and rinse off the bone with
water. Test the strength of the bone by trying to bend it. While the
bone is still wet, wrap it in plastic wrap thoroughly. Rinse the jar
clean and place the wrapped bone back in the jar, screw on the lid
and set it aside.
5. Repeat Step 4 after another four days for the bone in the 8 Day
jar. Repeat again four days later for the 12 Day jar, except do not
place the bone in plastic wrap.
Control
4 days
8 days
12 days
Steps 2 and 3: Label each jar.

Cover the bone in the control
jar with water; cover the bones
in the other jars with vinegar.
GA LE G RO UP.
119
Bones and Muscles
remedy the problem.
Problem: The bones all have the same strength,
even after 12 days.
Possible cause: The bones you used may be too
thick. Try repeating the experiment, increasing the amount of soaking time by doubling
the days. You could also repeat the experiment using bones that are thinner.
6. Unwrap the other bones and examine

how far each bone bends. Rinse the control bone with water and compare the
strength of the three bones to the control.
7. Create a graph of the results, using an
estimate of the degree the bones bend
for the y-axis, and the number of days of
calcium loss on the x-axis.
Summary of Results Examine your graph of the
data. How did the control bone compare to the

bone with the greatest calcium loss? What do the
bones feel like? Do they feel different from each
other? Think about how the loss of calcium in
bones would affect a person. What can this experiment teach you about
osteoporosis in older people?
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment by changing the
thickness or type of bone you use. Do you get the same results with a
turkey bone as a chicken bone? You could also try leaving the bones out in
the air for several days after they have finished soaking in vinegar and
compare the results. You could also try comparing the same type bone from
a young animal and an old animal. You may have to talk with your local
butcher for help in selecting the bones.
EXPERIMENT 2
Muscles: How does the strength of muscles
affect fatigue over time?
Purpose/Hypothesis Skeleton muscles are the muscles attached to bones
that are at work during physical activity. A muscle contracts when it is

flexed or at work. The number of contractions a muscle can make is
affected by fatigue.
In this experiment you will examine if a muscle can increase the
number of contractions with muscle use, thereby reducing muscle fatigue.
You will measure your muscle contractions through squats. The quadriceps
muscles in the front of the upper legs are one of the main muscles used in a
squat. A squat also uses the gluteus, hamstrings, and calf muscles.
120
Bones and Muscles
A friend or family member will time the length

of time you conduct the activity before you are
fatigued. This partner will also count the number
of squats you carry out and note them in a chart
that you should not look at until you have comvariables in this experiment:
pleted the entire experiment. Not allowing you to
know the number of muscle contractions you have
the time of day
completed will make the experiment more objec your nutritional level before you conduct
tive by not giving you a number to beat. Try to
the trial
think of something else during the experiment so
you do not count the squats for yourself.
are everything that might affect how many
You will repeat the experiment every other
times you can complete a squat. If you change
day, until you have completed 10 trials.
most effect on fatigue.
your knowledge of muscle strength and fatigue.


something you can test through further investigation. Your experiment will
prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible
hypothesis for this experiment: The stronger muscles will become less
fatigued and will gain strength over time.
In this case, the variable you will change is the strength of the muscles.
The variable you will measure is the number of times your muscles can
contract. To equate all the other variables, conduct the experiment at
roughly the same time of day. At the end of the experiment you will
examine how your muscles have changed over time.
Level of Difficulty Easy
Materials Needed
partner
watch with second hand
121
Bones and Muscles

Working a muscle too hard can cause soreness
and damage to your muscle. Stop the activity if
you feel dizzy or experience physical discomfort. Keep your feet firmly on the floor at all
times and breathe regularly. If you have knee
problems, do not do this experiment. Check
with a parent or physical education teacher for a
replacement activity.
2.
3.
Step 3: Squat until your knees
are above your toes; stop when
you get fatigued. G ALE GRO UP.
4.
5.
Timetable Approximately five minutes per trial
for a period of 10 trials.

1. Have your partner begin timing when you

start your first squat. Your partner will
count the number of squats you do at
each trial. Try to think of something else
during the experiment so you do not count
the squats for yourself.
To conduct the squat, get into a comfortable upright stance, with
your feet shoulder-width apart and your toes pointed straight ahead.
Dont point your toes inward, because this will put a lot of strain on
your knees.
Extend your arms. Squat down until your knees are over your toes.
Pretend you are sitting in a chair.
Make sure to keep your heels planted firmly on the floor.
Return in an upright position and repeat at a regular pace.
6. When your muscles become fatigued
then stop. Have your partner note the
number of squats and the amount of
time. Do not look at the chart.
7. Repeat this process every other day for a
period of 10 trials.
Summary of Results Graph the results of your
data from your first trial to the last trial, making

the x-axis the number of squats and the y-axis the
trial number. Does the number of muscles contractions change over time? Construct a second
graph that marks the length of time of each trial
on the x-axis with the trial number on the y-axis.
How does the length of time you were able to
contract your muscles change over time? Write a
brief summary of the experiment that relates your
results to muscle strength and movement.
122
Bones and Muscles
Modify the Experiment You can alter this experiment by simplifying the activity and focusing on
how nutrition contributes to muscle fatigue. The
body converts nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins) into energy. Carbohydrates are the
remedy the problem.
nutrient most quickly turned into energy for
muscles. If you match muscle fatigue to nutrient
Problem: There is no change in muscle fatigue
over the trials.
intake, you can gather data about how nutrients
Possible
cause: You may be squatting further
may affect muscles. You will need to test several
down
over
the trials, which uses more
people (you can be one of them). First, make a
muscle. Repeat the experiment making sure
hypothesis about how nutrient intake will affect
to stop your squat each time when your
muscle fatigue.
knees are over your toes.
For the physical activity, look for a hard rubber ball that fits in your hand. You will also need a
clock with a minute hand. You will measure how many times you can
squeeze the ball in a 30 second time period. Make a note of the number in
a chart.
Conduct the test two to four times throughout the day, both before you
have eaten and after. You could conduct the activity in the morning, both
before you eat breakfast and 30 minutes after breakfast. Test several people,
also before and after they eat. If possible, test people outside of your family.
Make sure you always use about the same time period both before and after
eating. For example, if you count the number of times you squeeze the ball
after you have not eaten for four hours and then 30 minutes after eating, test
other people using those same times. You also may want to note what
nutrients you and your test subjects ate. Write down the results in a chart.
When you finish, look for any patterns in the chart. Was your hypothesis
correct? Aside from nutrients, consider what other factors might contribute
to muscle fatigue.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept To select a related project,
you can explore the different ways that you use your bones and muscles
throughout the day. An experiment with bones could include comparing
bones from different species. An experiment with muscles could work to
identify the characteristics of each of the three muscle fibers. Check the
Further Readings section and talk with your science, health, or physical
education teacher to learn more about bones and muscles.
123
Bones and Muscles

sure what question you are answering, what
you are or should be measuring, or what your
findings prove or disprove.
experiment:
Regular exercise allows muscles

to burn nutrients more
efficiently and increases their
ability to contract. # KA RL
W EAT HE RLY /C OR BI S.

propose to do.
question.
will help others visualize the steps in the experiment.
Related Projects You can design your own experiments on bones and
muscles. Think of some other reasons why people might experience bone
decalcification. Investigate a method for testing the impact of other
minerals in a bone. You could explore how the bones in different species
compare to each other. Do species that are physically similar have similar
bone structures?
For a muscle experiment, you could examine the characteristics of each
of the three types of muscle fibers by purchasing the three different muscles
from a butcher. Examine muscle fatigue further by investigating if fatigue is
greater at certain times of the day. You could investigate if there are
124
Bones and Muscles
particular activities that women find fatiguing and men do not. Are there
different muscles in the bones of women and men?

KidsHealth. The Big Story on Bones. My Body. http://www.kidshealth.org/
kid/body/bones noSW.html (accessed February 25, 2008). Basic
information and diagrams about bones and muscles.
MyHealthScore.com. Human Anatomy Online. http://www.innerbody.com/
htm/body.html (accessed February 25, 2008). An interactive look at the
skeleton and muscular systems, with descriptions and animations.
Simon, Seymour. Bones: Your Skeleton System. New York: Morrow Junior Books,
1998. Clear introduction to the skeleton system using photographs.
Simon, Seymour. Muscles: Your Muscular System. New York: Morrow Junior
Books, 1998. Clear introduction to the muscular system using photographs.
White, Katherine. The Muscular System. New York: Rosen Publishing, 2001.
Basic information about the muscular system.
125
10
Caves
aves, also called caverns, are natural hollow areas inside the ground that
are large enough for a person to fit inside. There are millions of caves on
Earth. Some caves, are only a few yards (meters) deep. Others stretch
hundreds of miles underground, splitting into numerous rooms and passageways. There are caves underwater, on the sides of mountains, and beneath
flat land. Interiors of caves often contain unique landscapes and life forms
that are spectacular sights.
Along with their awesome beauty, caves have provided people with
important clues to ancient life and geology. The scientific study of caves is
called speleology (pronounced spee-lee-AH-lu-gy), from the Greek words
for cave, spelaion, and knowledge, logos. Scientists who study these caves are
known as speleologists and they are only beginning to unearth the treasure of
information that caves contain. Speleologists have found unique animals,
new plant life, and clues to Earths history.
Forming the holes Caves take hundreds of thousands of years to
form. There are caves in the process of forming right now, and alreadyformed caves that are undergoing continuous change. The majority of
caves are made out of the rock limestone. Limestone is a rock formed
millions of years ago out of the hardened remains of layers of sea animals.
The formation of a limestone cave begins with water. When rain falls it
collects a small amount of the gas carbon dioxide from the air. As the water
trickles into the soil, it passes through tiny pockets of air in the soil. The soil
is where it picks up most of the carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide that mixes
with water causes the water to change into an acid, called carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid water slowly eats away at the soft limestone. It seeps into small
cracks, causing the cracks to widen and allowing more water to flow
through. Gradually, the water causes the rock to dissolve. The dissolved
area grows into a hole, then a larger hole, and still larger. Eventually, over a
few million years, the water carves an underground room where there was
127
Caves
stream
soil
Cave formation begins: Water

mixes with carbon dioxide to
form carbonic acid, which seeps
into small cracks in the
limestone. GAL E GR OU P.
soil
carbonic acid
carbon dioxide
limestone
once only rock. In time, that room increases in size and can become many
rooms with passageways between them.
A newly formed cave is filled with water. This water can stay in the cave for
hundreds or thousands of years. Water drains out of the cave only when some
type of geological shift occurs. The cave may be lifted above the water by a
soil
Cave formation continues: The

dissolved rock grows in an
increasingly larger hole,
eventually forming a cave.
limestone
GAL E GR OU P.
128
Caves
gradual uplifting of the ground. Or a nearby stream

of water can flow through the cave, slicing a deep
swath through the cave and causing the water level
to drop. Caves often contain remnants of the water
in streams or ponds. When the cave is lifted above
the water, water flows out of the hole and the cave
fills with air.
There are several other types of caves also. Sea
caves form along rocky shores from the constant
pounding of ocean waves. The waves wear away
the base of the rocky cliff where the rock is soft or
has cracks in it. Seawater carries the rock away
and, over time, a cave forms. Lava caves are made
after a volcano erupts and the molten, hot lava
flows down the side of the volcano. The outer
layer of the lava cools and hardens; hot lava continues to flow underneath. When this hot lava
drains away it can leave a cave behind.
More recently, scientists have discovered that
caves can also form from a type of bacteria that live
deep beneath Earth. These bacteria use oil for food
and release the gas hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen
sulfide reacts with oxygen to produce sulfuric acid,
which can dissolve limestone. The Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico is an
example of a limestone cave carved out of sulfuric acid. These caverns
contain 83 caves and include the nations deepest limestone cave at 1,567
feet (478 meters), and one of the worlds largest chambers.
Natural extensions The slow drainage of carbonic acid water can cause
the formation of dramatic cave features created after the underground
chamber is formed. These features come in many shapes and several different
colors. Two types of attributes common in limestone caves are icicle-like
extensions that sprout up from the floor or hang down from its ceiling.
Stalactites are cave features that hang from the ceiling; stalagmites grow
upward from the floor.
The formation of these two types of features begins with water droplets. After most of the water has drained from a cave, water continues to
flow through layers of the limestone rocks. All the water droplets contain a
small amount of dissolved limestone, which carries the mineral calcite. A
stalactite begins when a drop of this water hangs from the ceiling. The
Sea caves form along rocky

shores from the constant
pounding of ocean waves.
FIE LD M AR K PU BL ICA TI ONS .
129
Caves
water evaporates or drips to the ground and the

calcite in the water remains. One droplet builds
upon another, the calcite deposits increase and a
stalactite grows. Stalactites can reach down hundreds of meters, but watching one grow is a
lengthy process. On average, a stalactite grows
only about half an inch every hundred years.
The upward-growing stalagmites form when
stalactite
water droplets drip from the ceiling or a stalactite
above. When the water droplet hits the floor it
stalagmite
spatters the calcite deposits outward, but close
together. The calcite builds up over time to create
finger-like shapes with rounded tops. Stalagmites
can grow to both amazing widths and heights, some
growing more than 45 feet (13 meters) wide and
30 feet (9 meters) tall.
Stalactites and stalagmites are often white or
nearly white because the most common form of
Stalactites and stalagmites,
calcite is white. Iron and other minerals or materials mixing with the calcite
common in limestone caves,
create rich-colored stalactites and stalagmites, including red, yellow, orange,
form gradually over time from
and black.
the buildup of calcite. G AL E
Life in the dark lane A caves darkness may deter many life forms from
GRO UP.
making a home inside, but caves are crawling with organisms that like what a
cave offers. Scientists have separated cave animals into three distinct types.
Animals that can only survive in the deep interior of caves pitchblackness are called troglobites, from the Greek word meaning cave life. Types
of troglobites include species of shrimp, insects, and spiders. Many of these
animals feature small eyes or blindness, no pigment, and a well-developed
sense of touch and smell. Other animals are part-time cave dwellers. Called
trogloxenes, meaning cave guest, these animals stay in the cave for sleep,
warmth, protection, and to raise their young. Bats are an example of this
type of animal. The nocturnal bats doze away the sunny hours in the darkness
of a cave. Bats live in colonies and feed at night, catching insects such as moths,
beetles, and mosquitoes. Bat colonies are among the largest grouping of
mammals in the world. The Bracken Cave in Texas houses twenty million
Mexican free-tail bats that eat more than 250,000 pounds of insects every
night. Bears, crickets, and pack rats are other examples of trogloxenes.
The last type, troglophiles, meaning cave lovers, are animals that live
most of their lives in caves but also have the ability to live outside. They
like the dampness of the cave and may venture outside to forage for food.
130
Caves
Cave life includes three general

categories of animals that live in
different areas of the cave. GA LE
GR OU P.
Troglophiles include species of salamanders, frogs, beetles, millipedes,

snails, and mites.
Because green plants need light to live, plants only grow near the entrance
where light penetrates. Mosses and ferns are the plants commonly found near
the cave opening; algae grows on the rocks. Caves are also teeming with fungi
and bacteria that keep the chain of cave life flowing. Droppings from animals,
such as bats, can provide the major food source for other cave life, yet few
animals can feed on these. Bacteria and fungi decompose these materials into
simple foods and nutrients. Small animals, such as insects, also munch on
fungi and bacteria for their food supply. These insects then become food, in
turn, for larger predators.
Fruit bats hang from the walls

of a cave in Bali, Indonesia.
# R OBE RT GIL L/ COR BI S.
131
Caves
WORDS TO KNOW
Carbonic acid: A weak acid that forms from the
mixture of water and carbon dioxide.
Spelunkers: Also called cavers, people who

explore caves for a hobby.
Cave: Also called cavern, a hollow or natural

passage under or into the ground large enough
for a person to enter.
Stalactite: Cylindrical or icicle-shaped mineral

deposit projecting downward from the roof of a
cave. (Pronounced sta-LACK-tite.)

Stalagmite: Cylindrical or icicle-shaped mineral

deposit projecting upward from the floor of a
cave. (Pronounced sta-LAG-mite.)

Troglobite: An animal that lives in a cave and is

unable to live outside of one.
Lava cave: A cave formed from the flow of lava

streaming over solid matter.
Troglophile: An animal that lives the majority of its

life cycle in a cave but is also able to live outside
of the cave.
Sea cave: A cave in sea cliffs, formed most

commonly by waves eroding the rock.
Speleologist: One who studies caves.
Trogloxene: An animal that spends only part of its

life cycle in a cave and returns periodically to the
cave.
Speleology: Scientific study of caves and their plant

and animal life.

an experiment.
Some like it dark Speleologists are not the only people who like to
study caves. People who explore caves for a hobby are called cavers or
spelunkers. Spelunking can be a somewhat dangerous hobby. There are
narrow passages, steep cliffs, and long distancesall in the dark. With
caves that stretch steeply downward, spelunkers need to have many of the
skills and equipment of mountain climbers. The darkness of a cave and its
vastness also take some skill to navigate.
EXPERIMENT 1
Cave Formation: How does the acidity of a
substance affect the formation of a cave?
Purpose/Hypothesis The majority of caves are formed when limestone is
dissolved by carbonic acid. In this experiment you will determine why acidic
substances form caves by comparing how acidic and nonacidic solutions
132
Caves
react with different geologic materials. You will use

chalk, seashells, and rocks as the geologic materials.
Chalk and seashells are both types of limestone.
Carbonic acid, a mixture of carbon dioxide and
water, is the same compound found in soda. Carbonic acid is a weak acid. It is carbonic acid that
makes soda fizz. A liquid can also be a base or it can
be neutral. Pure water is an example of a neutral.
A mixture of baking soda in water is an example
of a base.
After determining the acidity of the liquids,
you will place drops of the liquids on each material and note the results.
your knowledge of limestone and carbonic acid.
This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:

the solid material
the liquid
the liquids acidity
the amount of liquid poured
are everything that might affect the limestones
reaction with the liquid. If you change more
effect on dissolving the limestone.

hypothesis for this experiment: Only the limestone materials will have a
reaction with the acidic liquids.
In this case, the variable you will change is the acidity of the solution. The
variable you will measure is the reaction of the liquid on the geologic
substance.
Conducting a control experiment will help you isolate each variable and
measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable will change
between the control and the experimental setup, and that is the solution you
drop on the solid material. For the control in this experiment you will use
plain water.
Level of Difficulty Easy to Moderate.
133
Caves
Materials Needed
acid/base indicator strips

baking soda
clear soda pop
distilled water
dropper or spoon
six clear or plastic cups
spoon
measuring spoon
dropper
three pieces pure white chalk
three small rocks/pebbles
three seashells or seashell pieces

Some of the materials needed

for Experiment 1. G ALE
G RO UP.
134
1. Create a data chart, listing the liquids across the top columns and
the different substances in the rows.
2. Prepare a basic solution: Mix 1 teaspoon (5 milliliters) of baking soda
with one cup of water. Stir thoroughly and label the cup Baking
soda.
3. Pour water in another cup and label as Water; pour soda in yet
another cup and label as Soda.
4. With an acid/base indicator strip, first test the water, then the bakingsoda solution, and, finally, the soda for
acidity. Use a new strip for each test and
dip the strip briefly in each liquid. An acid
will turn the paper red, a base will turn the
paper blue, and a neutral substance will not
change the color of the strip. Note on your
Soda
chart whether each liquid is an acid, base, or
neutral.
5. Take three new, empty cups: Place one
piece of chalk in one; one pebble in a
second; and one seashell piece in the
third.
Caves
6. Use a dropper to drip 3 to 4 drops of the

soda on the limestone chalk. Note in your
chart a description of the sound and
appearance. Does the limestone absorb the
soda? Does the soda give any indication
that it is dissolving the chalk?
7. Drip the same amount of soda over a piece
of the seashell and the pebble. Describe the
reaction of each on the seashell and the
pebble.
8. Repeat Steps 6 and 7, replacing the soda
with the baking-soda solution, and then
with the water. (You may use the same
cups to test all three liquids.) Note the
reactions in the chart.
remedy the problem.
Problem: There was no reaction with any of the
substances.
Possible cause: You may have used soda that
was flat, meaning that all the carbonic dioxide has escaped and there is no carbonic acid.
Repeat the experiment, making sure to use a
fresh, fizzy can of soda.
Summary of Results Examine the reactions of each liquid on the solid
material. How did the acidity level of the liquid affect the reaction? Was
your hypothesis correct? Hypothesize what would occur to each material
if you soaked it in the liquids for several weeks. What would happen to
each substance if you dropped a stronger acid on it? Write a brief
summary of the experiment and your analysis.
Change the Variables There are several ways you can modify the experiment
by changing the variables. You can change the type of geologic substance,
using different types of rocks or granite, for example. You can vary the acidity
level of the liquid, such as by using vinegar (an acid) or soap (a base).
There are charts available where you can look up the strengths of the acids
and bases. Many cleaning products also contain strong acidic substances: Use
these carefully and with adult supervision. You can also alter the experiment
by lengthening the amount of time the liquid sits on the substance.
EXPERIMENT 2
Cave Icicles: How does the mineral content
of water affect the formation of stalactites
and stalagmites?
Purpose/Hypothesis The formation of stalactites and stalagmites in a cave
is a slow process that depends on the mineral content of the water and the
135
Caves
evaporation rate. In this experiment, you will

form your own mini-cave icicles using two differWhat Are the Variables?
ent types of minerals.
Most caves are formed in limestone. LimeVariables are anything that might affect the
stone is a form of the mineral calcite, which is
made up largely of calcium carbonate. In this
experiment, you will use two compounds made
the saturation level of solution
from similar minerals: baking soda and Epsom
the environment allowed to grow
salt. Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate, a min the string
eral that is a form of carbonate; Epsom salt is
the mineral
magnesium sulfate, another type of mineral, but
In other words, variables in this experiment are
not a carbonate.
everything that might affect the formation of
In order for the minerals to join together to
the stalactites. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which
make a stalactite or stalagmite, you have to
variable impacted their formation.
make a water solution brimming with the minerals. Hot water can dissolve more minerals
than cold water. When as much of a substance
as possible is dissolved in hot water and the water is allowed to cool, that
solution is called supersaturated. The molecules in a supersaturated
solution are so crammed together that they readily stick to each other.
When you dip a length of yarn in this solution, the solution will creep
up the yarn. As the air evaporates some of the water, the solid material
will remain on the string. Just as stalactites and stalagmites form in a
cave, the minerals will build up over time.
experiment based on your knowledge of the formation of stalactites and
stalagmites. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
A hypothesis should be brief, specific, and measurable. It must be something you can test through further investigation. Your experiment will prove
or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis
for this experiment: The cave formations will accumulate better when they
are made out of baking soda, the same carbonate mineral that is in a cave.
136
Caves

type of mineral in each solution. The variable you
will measure is the formation of the stalactites and
(perhaps) stalagmites.

Have an adult present when handling hot
water. Be careful when handling the scissors.
Materials Needed
four clear glasses or small glass jars (same size)

hot water
baking soda
Epsom salt
two spoons
dark construction paper, 8.5 x 11 inches (22 x 28 centimeters)
four small washers (or paper clips)
scissors
bowl
thick woolen yarn, about 2 feet (0.6 meters)
masking tape
marking pen

Timetable 45 minutes for setup and followup; 5 to 10 minutes per day for
about 8 to 12 days to observe and record the results.

1. Pour 2 cups of very hot water into a bowl

and dissolve as much baking soda as you
can to make a saturated solution. Stir
after every addition. When the solution
is saturated, small bits of baking soda will
fall to the bottom and will not dissolve no
matter how hard you stir.
2. Pour half the water in one cup and half in
another cup.
3. Cut the construction paper in half. Place
the two glasses close to either end of the
dark paper.
Step 6: The yarn should sag

slightly in the center. GA LE
GRO UP .
137
Caves
Problem: No crystals grew in one or more of
the solutions.
Possible cause: The solution may not have
been saturated when the water was hot.
You may not have stirred enough to dissolve
the solids. Pour the solution back in the
saucepan. Reheat the solution, adding more
of the substance and stirring well after each
addition until you see bits of the substance
fall to the bottom.
Possible cause: The water may not have been
hot enough. It does not need to be at the
boiling point, but it does need to be hot.
Pour the solution back in the saucepan.
Reheat the solution, adding more of the
substance and stirring well after each addition until it is saturated.
4. Stretch the yarn between the glasses and

cut a piece that is about double that length.
The yarn should be long enough to go
inside each glass and hang loosely.
5. Tie a washer or paper clip to each end of
the yarn.
6. Carefully lower the weighted ends of the
yarn into the two glasses. The yarn should
sag slightly in the center.
7. Label the two glasses sodium
bicarbonate.
8. Repeat Steps 1 through 7, replacing the
baking soda with Epsom salt. Label the
second set of glasses magnesium sulfate.
9. Allow the glasses to sit undisturbed for at
least 8 to 12 days. (A warm, sunny area
works well.)
10. Illustrate what happens each day.
Summary of Results Look at your progression of
pictures over the time of the experiment. What has

formed on the string? Has anything begun to form
on the construction paper? Compare the pictures of
the two types of minerals? Write up a summary of the experiment, explaining the process of the mineral formations.
Change the Variables There are several ways you can vary this experiment.
You can use a different type of mineral to form the solution, such as sodium
carbonate (washing soda) or sodium chloride (salt). You can also alter the
environment that the minerals form in, such as a humid or a dry environment.
Modify the Project For an advanced project, you could combine all the
concepts you learned about caves to produce a model of a cave. This project
will take about two weeks, as you will probably want to grow several
stalactites or stalagmites. You can look at the color of different minerals in
caves and add dye to the solutions to produce red, yellow or other color cave
formations.
Once you have grown stalactites or stalagmites, you can form a cave
with clay or another hard, moldable material. You can tape the mineral
138
Caves
formations onto the cave floor or ceilings. You

can also use the minerals from Experiment 2 to
make other cave formation, such as popcorn.
Popcorn is a small mineral cluster that often
grows on cave walls. Think about where the
water will flow in relation to the growth of the
cave formations? Consider if you want water at
the bottom of your cave. You could also add
some plant life at the cave opening. Write down
the explanations behind the features and formations of your cave.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Cave formations are often
intriguing to view and study. These structures are continuing to provide new
information to spelunkers, speleologists, and other explorers. For a related
project, you could investigate the history, geology, life, and formation of
caves. You could also find out if there are any caves in your area that are open
to visitors.
Check the Further Readings section and talk with your science teacher to
learn more about caves. If you decide to visit a cave, make sure you are
accompanied by an adult knowledgeable about caving.
A Native American cave

dwelling at Canyonlands
National Park, Utah. # PBN J
PRO DU CTI ON S/C OR BI S.

need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise, you might not
be sure what question you are answering, what you are or should be

experiment you propose to do
answer the question at hand
question
Decide how to change the variable you selected
Decide how to measure your results
139
Caves
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may want to display your results, such
as any experimental setup you designed. If you have completed a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research question was and illustrate
your findings.
Related Projects There are multiple projects related to caves that you can
undertake. You can study the animal and plant life in a cave through
research and visits to museums or other facilities that may house some
cave creatures. If there is a cave in your area that is open to the public,
you could visit the cave and use a magnifying glass to examine the plant and
animal life. Make sure you do not collect or touch any of the plant or animal
life so as not to disturb their habitat. This project could also include an
examination of how each type of animal and plant has adapted to the cave
environment. If you decide to conduct a cave exploration, make sure an
adult who is knowledgeable in caving accompanies you.
You can also investigate the formation of different types of caves, such as
caves that form from volcanoes or out of ice. You could conduct a research
project on the information that caves have provided in many fields of study.
Another research project could be to examine how cultures throughout
history have used caves in their daily life and rituals.

Good Earth Graphics. The Virtual Cave. http://www.goodearth
graphics.com/virtcave (accessed on February 3, 2008). Images of different
types of caves from around the world.
Groleau, Rick How Caves Form. NOVA. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/
caves/form.html# (accessed on February 3, 2008). Animated depiction of the
formation of caves with clear explanations.
Hadingham, Evan. Subterranean Surprises. Smithsonian Magazine, October
2002, pp. 68 74. This article can also be found online at http://www.
smithsonianmag.com/science nature/subterranean.html (accessed February 3,
2008). Detailed article on information scientists are learning about caves.
Taylor, Michael Ray and Ronal C. Kerbo. Caves: Exploring Hidden
Realms.Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2001.
The National Speleological Society. http://www.caves.org/ (accessed on February 3,
2008). Homepage for the National Speleological Society describing their
purpose and activities.
140
11
Cells
hat do slimy earthworms, majestic lions, and giant redwood trees

have in common with humans? We all have cells, tiny units of life
that grow and duplicate, gather fuel and building materials, and make
energy. Cells are present in all living things. Some living things, such as
bacteria and some plants, consist of only one cell where all the functions
of life take place. They are known as unicellular. The average human has
50 to 100 trillion cells. Living things with a great many cells that are
joined together are called multicellular.
Based on his observations from

his microscope, Robert Hooke
wrote the book Micrographi in
1665, which was the first to
describe the structure of plant
and animal cells. LI AIS ON
AG ENC Y.
Looks like a monks cell to me All humans begin life as a single cell. It
weighs no more than a millionth of an ounce. The naked eye cannot see
anything that tiny. So no one could have known cells existed until the
compound microscope was invented in the late sixteenth century. Between
1590 and 1609, Dutchmen Hans Janssen, his son Zacharias, and Hans
Lippershey designed several compound microscopes. In a compound microscope, two or more lenses are arranged to produce a greatly enlarged image.
In 1660, a Dutch drape maker named Anton
van Leeuwenhoek (16321723) used a microscope
to peer at his textiles. He began studying the
invisible worlds of nature. Leeuwenhoek designed
250 different microscopes to further his studies.
Around that time, Robert Hooke (16351703),
an English scientist, slid a piece of cork under a
microscope. The mass he saw seemed to be made
of chambers, like monks cells in a monastery. He
called these chambers cells.
Developing the cell theory Hookes cells
were from a cork trees dead and dry bark. The
fact that cells are units of life was not understood
until the nineteenth century. Between 1838 and
141
Cells
In this slide of a plant, can you

find the nucleus and cytoplasm?
PH OT O RE SEA RC HE RS I NC.
Genetic researchers in
silhouette against magnified
DNA strands. PH OT O
R ES EAR CH ER S, I NC.
142
1839 Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden,

both German zoologists, independently said that
all living things have one or more cells, that all cells
are similar, and that in order to exist, these cells
carry out the same functions. These facts are now
called the cell theory. The study of cells is called
cytology. Rudolf Virchow, a German pathologist,
took the cell theory further in 1855 and suggested
that all cells are formed by the division of preexisting cells. Without the cell theory we would
never know how organisms grow and develop. We
could not treat diseases or pains in our joints, for instance, without knowing
what cells do and how they function.
Whats in there? Cells are not lifeless blobs. Chemical changes within
each cell accomplish many functions, including digestion and breathing.
There are two basic types of cells, plant cells and animal cells. Almost all cells
share similar features, such as a cell membrane, which surrounds the cell.
The cell membrane is a thin wall that lets gases, such as oxygen, and fluids,
such as nutrients, pass through. Cytoplasm (pronounced CY-tow-pla-sim) is
the gray, jellylike substance inside the cell membrane. It consists mostly of
water but also has many other substances important for cells to function.
Think of a cell as a factory with each division performing specific jobs.
Organelles (pronounced OR-gan-ells) in the cytoplasm represent those divisions. For instance, Golgi bodies are organelles that act as the cleaning crew.
Golgi absorb waste, package it up, and send it out for disposal. Vacuoles
(pronounced VAC-u-ols) are organelles that act as the storage crew. They store
food, waste, and chemicals. While there are similarities in cells, there are differences between plant and
animal cells. The cytoplasm of plants, for example,
contains chloroplasts, which gives the plant the
ability to make its own food.
Its what makes your hair curly The
nucleus, another organelle, is the cells library. It
lies in the center of the cell and contains DNA.
DNA, an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid,
are molecules that store information. They tell
each cell how to develop into a nerve cell, a blood
cell, and so on. What makes you unique, as well
as what makes you similar to other people, was
Cells
WORDS TO KNOW
Cells: The basic unit for living organisms; cells are
structured to perform highly specialized
functions.
Cell membrane: A thin-layered tissue that surrounds a cell.
Cell theory: All living things have one or more
similar cells that carry out the same functions for
the living process.
Chloroplasts: Small structures in plant cells that
contain chlorophyll and in which the process of
photosynthesis takes place.
Cytology: The branch of biology concerned with
the study of cells.
Cytoplasm: The semifluid substance inside a cell
that surrounds the nucleus and the other
membrane-enclosed organelles.
Dicot: Plants with a pair of embryonic seeds that
appear at germination.
DNA: Large, complex molecules found in nuclei of
cells that carry genetic information for an
organisms development.
Embryonic: The earliest stages of development.
Germination: The beginning of growth of a seed.

Golgi body: An organelles that sorts, modifies, and
packages molecules.
Monocot: Plants with a single embryonic leaf at
germination.
Multicellular: Living things with many cells joined
together.
Organelles: Membrane-bounded cellular organs
performing a specific set of functions within a cell.
Pnematocysts: Stinging cells.
Protozoan: Minute, one-celled animals.
Unicellular: Living things that have one cell.
Protozoans are unicellular, for example.
Vacuoles: A part of plant cells where food, waste,
and chemicals are stored.
experiment.
programmed into your DNA. Each cell contains many strands of DNA. If you
put them all together, they would stretch thousands of miles.
Cells are like little companies. They contain tiny workers with functions
that help the living organism survive. A companys main goal is to make a
profit. A cells main goal is sustaining life. Cells also reproduce themselves by
dividing. Cell division is a process where a cell divides into two cells. Yeast
cells undergo a process of cell division called budding. The parent cell forms a
bud on the outside of the cell wall. This bud continues to grow until it
reaches the size of the parent cell and then it separates from the parent cell and
143
Cells

Use caution when collecting cells with toothpicks.
When carrying the compound microscope, use
two hands. After collecting pond water, wash
your hands. Be careful not to stain your clothes or
furniture when using the iodine.
the process starts again. Conducting projects with a

microscope will enable you to see the way in which
cells function and reproduce as a life force.
PROJECT 1
Investigating Cells: What are the
differences between a multicellular
organism and a unicellular
organism?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will collect, prepare, mount, and
compare cells from a multicellular organism and a single-celled protozoan.

This will allow you to observe the differences between these two basic
forms of organisms.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/difficult, because it requires the use of a
compound microscope. (If you are unfamiliar with its use, please ask a
teacher or other adult for assistance.)
Materials Needed
Step 4: Cell culture slide, with

cover slip tipping over the cell
culture. GAL E GR OU P.
compound microscope (try to borrow one from a school or friend)

slides and cover slips, glass or plastic (Note: If your slides are
plastic, use plastic cover slips.)
stain (iodine from drugstore is good; avoid any solution with
alcohol, as it will kill any organisms)
toothpicks (flat-end toothpicks work best)
eye dropper
small jar filled with pond water, the dirtier the better
Approximate Budget $10 for stain, slides, cover
slips, and eye dropper.

Timetable About 1 hour.
1. Use the flat end of a toothpick to gently

scrape the inside of your cheek. Dont
press too hard! Scrape gently five to 10
times.
144
Cells
2. Smear the cells from the end of the toothpick onto a clean slide.
3. Place one drop of stain onto the slide,
covering the cells.
4. Gently place the cover slip over the cell
culture. (Hint: Gently rest one side on the
Problem: Nothing appears on the slide.
slide and slowly lower the cover slip until it
Possible cause: You are probably out of focus.
rests flat.)
Place a small piece of paper on the slide and
5. Examine the slide under the microscope,
focus until it is clear. Use the fine focus knob.
using low power.
6. Draw what you see and label any parts
you recognize.
7. Place two drops of pond water on the center of the slide.
8. Place a drop of stain on the pond water drops.
9. Place the cover slip over the slide using the same technique as with
the cheek cells.
10. Examine the slide under the microscope, using low power.
11. Draw what you see and label the parts.
Summary of Results Compare your diagrams and data of the cheek cells
and protozoans from the pond water. Determine which cells had a more
complex structure. Record a list of the differences between cheek cells and
protozoan cells. Note differences such as movement, shape, presence of a
cell membrane, and the presence of other cell
stuctures. Summarize your observations with
sketches and in writing.
Step 7: Pond water cheek cells

on low power. GAL E GR OU P.
PROJECT 2
Plant Cells: What are the
cell differences between
monocot and dicot plants?
will collect, prepare, and mount cells from two

multicellular plants. The multicellular plants
you will be working with are monocot, that is,
plants with a single embryonic leaf at germination, and dicot, plants with a pair of embryonic
leaves at germination.
145
Cells

When carrying the compound microscope, use
two hands. Ask an adult to use the razor blade.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/difficult, because it

requires the use of a compound microscope. (If
you are unfamiliar with its use, please ask a
Materials Needed
compound microscope (try to borrow one

from a school or friend)
slides and cover slips, glass or plastic (Note: If you are using plastic
slides, use plastic cover slips.)
single-edge razor blade
thread spool
plant stemstulip and daisy preferred (Go to a local florist and
ask for a clipping of the stem.)
Approximate Budget $6 for the slides and cover slips.

1. Push the tulip stem through the hole in the thread spool until it
pokes out the opposite end.
Step 1: Tulip stem in the thread

spool. GAL E GR OU P.
146
Cells
2. Have an adult use the razor to trim the tulip

stem, flush to the thread spool. Discard the
trimmed piece.
3. Push the tulip stem through the thread
spool so about .03 inch (1.0 millimeter)
of stem is exposed.
4. Carefully using the razor, trim the .03 inch
(1 millimeter) of tulip stem flush to the
thread spool. Save the trimmed stem.
5. Place the stem slice on the slide and cover
with the cover slip.
6. Place the slide on the microscope and examine under low power.
Record your observations using drawings and descriptions.
7. Repeat steps 1 through 6 for the daisy stem.
8. Record and compare your observations.
Basic differences between

monocot and dicot stems: Dicot
stem cells are more orderly;
monocot stem cells are more
random. G AL E GR OUP .
Summary of Results Compare your diagrams of the tulip and daisy stems.
Which stem had cell patterns that were more orderly? Which stem had more
random patterns? A tulip is a monocot, and a daisy is a dicot. Can you tell the
difference between monocot and dicot plants by examining their stems?
PROJECT 3
Yeast Cells: How do they reproduce?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will prepare a yeast solution
and mount these cells on slides to be viewed under the microscope.

Yeast need water, food, and warmth to thrive. The food source you will
use is sugar. Once the yeast are in a comfortable environment with food,
you can observe the reproduction of the cells.
Step 4: Slice of tulip stem

trimmed off spool by razor.
GA LE G RO UP.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/Difficult, because

it requires the use of a compound microscope.
(If you are unfamiliar with its use, please ask a
Materials Needed
compound microscope (try to use one

from your school, local community college, or university)
147
Cells
Problem: You cannot see anything.
Possible cause: The stem is too thick. Try
cutting the plant stem thinner so the light passes
through it.
slides and cover slips, glass or plastic

(Note: If you are using plastic slides, use
plastic cover slips.)
yeast, available in grocery stores
shallow, glass dish
sugar
warm water
eye dropper
Approximate Budget $6
1. Prepare the yeast as recommended on the

back of the package, using the warm
When lifting or carrying the compound microwater and sugar to activate the yeast.
scope, use two hands. If you have not used a
2. Using the eye dropper, place one drop of
compound microscope before, you may need
water onto the slide.
an adult to help you set up.
3. When the yeast mixture begins to froth,
place a dab of the frothy yeast onto the
drop of water on the slide. Cover with cover slip.
4. Place the slide under the microscope and observe the cells. You
will need a magnification of 650 to see the cells.
5. Look for cells that have another smaller cell attached to it. This is
Step 1: Warm water and sugar,
the beginning of the cell separation known as budding. If you
combined with the yeast,
look at the cells long enough (about 20 minutes), you should see
creates a frothy mixture.
the beginning of cell reproduction.
6. Record your observations using drawings
NE LS ON.
and descriptions.
Summary of Results What did you see? Were
you able to see the yeast cells budding? If possible, continue to observe the yeast every five
minutes. Diagram your observations.

If you choose a topic in biology, you can

148
Cells
generally involve the topic of cells. For example,

you may be interested in jellyfish and sea anemones. These two creatures share a type of stinging cell called a pnematocyst, which paralyzes
and kills their prey. The small differences in cell
structure give rise to different behaviors and
structure of animals and plants.
with your science teacher or school or community
media specialist to start gathering information on
cell questions that interest you.
your question.
selected.
Step 2: A small amount of

yeast is placed on the slide.
NE LS ON.
Step 4: Budding can be

observed after about
20 minutes. IL LU STR AT ION
Your experiment can be useful to others studying

the same topic. When designing your experiment,
develop a simple method to record your data. This
method should be simple and clear enough so
that others who want to do the experiment can
follow it. Your final results should be summarized
and put into simple graphs, tables, and charts to
display the outcome of your experiment.
Related Projects Creating a project about cells
Yeast Cell Budding
offers endless possibilities. You can create a slide

149
Cells
Problem: You cannot see anything.
Possible cause: You do not have the correct
level of magnification. Make sure the microscope is set with a high enough magnification
power in order to observe the cells.
Problem: The yeast cells are too close together
to observe budding.
Possible cause: You may have too much of the
yeast mixture on your slide. Take another slide,
add a droplet of water and place a smaller
amount of the yeast mixture onto the slide.
Problem: The yeast cells are not budding.
Possible cause: The yeast may not have been
alive Purchase a fresh container of yeast. Try
again, making sure that the water is not too hot
or it may kill the yeast.
150
collection of cells from many different plants

(stem, seed, leaf, needle, root, etc.). You can
create a model of a cell labeling the parts and
functions. Making a model from colored plastic
clay is inexpensive and informative.

Andrew Rader Studios. Cell Structures. Raders
Biology4kids.com. http://www.biology4kids.com/
files/cell main.html (accessed on January 19,
2008). Information on cell structures and
functions.
Bender, Lionel. Atoms and Cells. Glouster, ME:
Glouster Press, 1990 Provides background and
functions of atoms and cells.
Cells Alive! http://cellsalive.com Interactive graphics
and pictures of cells in motion.
Young, John K. Cells: Amazing Forms and Functions.
New York: Franklin Watts, 1990. Good,
understandable overview of these units of life for
young people.
12
Chemical Energy
hemical energy is the energy stored within the bonds of atoms. A bond is
the force that holds two atoms together. Different substances have bonds
held together by different amounts of energy. When those bonds are released,
a chemical reaction takes place, and a new substance is created. Chemical
reactions that break these bonds and form new ones sometimes release the
excess energy as heat and sometimes absorb heat energy from whatever is
around them.
Thus, heat energy can be produced or absorbed during a chemical

reaction. Reactions that release heat energy are called exothermic. Reactions
that take in heat energy from the surrounding environment are called
endothermic. Whether heat energy is given off or absorbed during a
chemical reaction depends on the bonds that hold the atoms together.
In a chemical reaction, the original substances are called reactants. The
new substances that are formed are called products. When the bonding
structure of the products requires less energy than the bonding structure of
the reactants, the excess energy may be released as heat. When the bonding
structure of the products requires more energy than the structure of the
reactants, it gets that energy by removing heat from its surroundings.
For example, when iron rusts, the iron atoms are combining with
oxygen molecules in the air to form iron oxide. The chemical reaction of
rusting breaks the bonds in the oxygen molecules, releasing heat energy. The
bonds between the oxygen atoms and the iron atoms do not require as much
heat energy as the bonds within the oxygen molecules, so a small amount of
energy is released, making the reaction exothermic. The amount of heat
released is quite small, and the reaction is normally quite slow, so rusting
iron does not feel hot to us. Yet, the energy released can be measured with a
thermometer. In the first experiment, you will observe the change in
temperature resulting from rusting.
151
Chemical Energy
The chemical reaction that

occurs when iron rusts actually
gives off small amounts of
heat energy. PH OT O
This hot pack releases an

exothermic reaction. PH OT O
Some exothermic reactions are quite common. One is combustion, the burning of organic
substances during which oxygen is used to form
carbon dioxide and water vapor. The substances
formed (ashes, for example) hold less heat energy
than the substances burned held. The excess
energy is released as heat. The reactions between
some chemicals, such as aluminum oxide and iron
oxide, can produce great amounts of heat. This
reaction is used to produce very high temperatures
for industrial purposes.
Endothermic reactions are more rare in
nature, but scientists have found ways to create
them. For example, an endothermic reaction occurs when you use a chemical cold pack. These packs contain a chemical in powder form that reacts
with water. Squeezing the pack breaks down the wall separating the powder
from the water. The reaction that occurs absorbs more energy than it
releases, making the pack feel cold to you. In the second experiment, you
will compare four chemical reactions and determine whether each one is
exothermic or endothermic.
EXPERIMENT 1
Rusting: Is the chemical
reaction exothermic,
endothermic, or neither?
measure the heat energy released or absorbed by

the chemical reaction of rusting, the transformation of iron and atmospheric oxygen into iron
oxide. Before you begin, make an educated guess
your knowledge of rusting. This educated guess, or
prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should
152
Chemical Energy
WORDS TO KNOW
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, made up
of protons and neutrons in a central nucleus
surrounded by moving electrons.
Bond: The force that holds two atoms
together.
Chemical energy: Energy stored in chemical
bonds.
Chemical reaction: Any chemical change in which
at least one new substance is formed.
Combustion: Any chemical reaction in which
heat, and usually light, is produced. It
is commonly the burning of organic
substances during which oxygen from the
air is used to form carbon dioxide and water
vapor.
the experiment but is not affected by the
variable that will be changed during the
experiment.
Endothermic: A chemical reaction that takes in heat

energy.
Exothermic: A chemical reaction that gives off heat
energy.
Heat: A form of energy produced by the motion of
molecules that make up a substance.
Molecule: The smallest particle of a substance that
retains all the properties of the substance and is
composed of one or more atoms.
Product: A compound that is formed as a result of a
chemical reaction.
Reactant: A compound present at the beginning of
a chemical reaction.
experiment.

something you can test through observation. Your experiment will prove or
disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis
for this experiment: A rise in air temperature will show that rusting is an
exothermic reaction.
In this case, the variable you will change is the number of rusting pads in
each cup, and the variable you will measure is any
change in air temperature. You expect the temperature to go up in the cups with rusting pads and the
temperature to go up the most in the cup with the
most pads.
As a control experiment, you will leave one cup
Wear protective gloves when handling the steel
empty and monitor any change in temperature
wool and vinegar.
there. If the temperature is higher in the cup with
153
Chemical Energy

more pads and does not change in the empty cup,

your hypothesis will be supported.
Materials Needed
4 large Styrofoam cups

aluminum foil
7 steel wool pads (not pads treated with
detergent or soap)
vinegar
4 digital laboratory thermometers
rubber or surgical gloves
paper towels
large bowl
the type of reactants used (iron in the

pads and atmospheric oxygen)
the temperature of the environment in
which the samples are tested
the number of rusting pads in each cup
are everything that might affect the temperature in the cup. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the temperature.
Approximate Budget $10. (If four thermometers
are unavailable, the four parts of this experiment can

be performed separately with one thermometer.)
Timetable About 45 minutes.
1. Line the inside of each of the four cups with aluminum foil.
2. Place the seven steel wool pads in the large bowl and soak
them thoroughly in vinegar (to remove any coating and encourage
rusting). Blot them dry with paper towels.
3. Place one pad in the first cup, two pads in the second cup, and
four pads in the third cup. The fourth cup will be emptyyour
control.
4. Push the bulb of one thermometer gently into the steel wool in the
first cup. Do not push the bulb down to or near the bottom of the
cup. Cover the opening of the cup with aluminum foil. The stem on
the thermometer must be visible.
5. Repeat Step 4 for the second, third, and fourth (control) cups.
6. Place all four cups where no other heat sources will affect their
temperature.
7. Prepare a chart similar to the one illustrated so you can record your
observations.
154
Chemical Energy
Step 4: Illustration of rusting

set-up. GAL E GR OU P.
8. Observe and record any change in temperature in any of the four

cups every 10 minutes. The rusting process will begin immediately, but the resulting change in temperature will be gradual and
Step 7: Temperature recording

chart. GA LE GRO UP.
155
Chemical Energy
Few problems should arise if the steps in this
experiment are followed closely. However,
when doing experiments involving the mixing
of substances, be aware that a number of
variablessuch as temperature and impurity
of substancescan affect your results. Here is
a problem that may arise, a possible cause,
and a way to remedy the problem.
Problem: You observed little or no temperature
change in the cups.
Possible cause: The steel wool is not rusting.
Try soaking it in vinegar again for several
minutes to remove any protective layers and
then repeat the experiment.
small. Make sure that external factors are

not affecting the temperature, such as
sunlight or heat from a lamp.

Did the temperature rise higher when more
wool pads were in the cup? Did it rise in the
empty cup? If the reactions resulted in an increase
in temperature, then rusting is indeed exothermic. Make sure that your chart shows clearly the
result of the tests on each sample.
ment. Here are some possibilities:
Other metals will oxidize, though at

much slower rates. See if you can measure
the temperature change resulting from the
oxidation of copper (loops of copper wire
may be best).
Compare the heat energy released by different kinds of oxidation.
What about the oxidation you can see occurring on the cut surface
of an apple? Find a way to determine if that reaction is exothermic.
Always check first with your teacher before altering the materials
used in your experiments.
EXPERIMENT 2
Exothermic or Endothermic: Determining
whether various chemical reactions are
exothermic or endothermic
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will measure the heat energy
released or absorbed as four different chemicals (see the materials list) are
mixed with water. You expect that the temperature of the solution will go
up if the reaction is exothermic and go down if the reaction is endothermic. Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of
each reaction based on your knowledge of the chemicals and reactions
involved. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
156
Chemical Energy



the type of reactants used
the purity of the reactants
the temperature of the environment in
Here is one possible hypothesis for one of the
which the samples are tested
reactions in this experiment: Mixing water with
calcium chloride will produce an exothermic
are everything that might affect the temperareaction.
ture of the solutions. If you change more than
one variable, you will not be able to tell which
the chemical being reacted with water, and the
variable had the most effect on the
temperature.
variable you will measure is the resulting temperature of the solution. In the case of calcium
chloride, you expect the temperature to go up.
As a control experiment, you will measure the
Wear gloves and safety glasses
or goggles at all times while
temperature in a beaker of distilled water with no chemical in it. If the
performing this experiment.
temperature changes in the beakers with chemicals as predicted and
GAL E GR OU P.
remains steady in the control beaker, you will
know your hypothesis is supported.
Level of Difficulty Moderate; an adults super-
vision is required.
Materials Needed
5 glass beakers
1 graduated cylinder
1 glass stirring rod
1 small spoon or spatula
1 digital laboratory thermometer
1 pint (500 milliliters) distilled water
1 tablespoon (14 grams) calcium chloride
1 tablespoon (14 grams) sodium
hydrocarbonate
1 tablespoon (14 grams) ammonium
nitrate
157
Chemical Energy

This experiment involves dangerous and toxic
substances. No part of this experiment should
be performed without adult supervision. You
must be especially careful handling the sulfuric
acid, which is highly corrosive. Wear gloves and
safety glasses or goggles at all times! When
you are finished with the experiment, the
chemicals used must be disposed of properly
and with supervision. Ask your teacher for help
in handling, neutralizing, and disposing of the
sulfuric acid.
2 teaspoons (10 milliliters) concentrated

sulfuric acid
safety glasses or goggles
rubber or surgical gloves
Approximate Budget $25. (This experiment
should be performed only with the appropriate

lab equipment and materials. Ask your teacher
about ordering the chemicals.)
Timetable One hour.
1. Place the five beakers on a clean, stable

surface and use the graduated cylinder to
Step 2: Exothermic vs.

endothermic recording chart.
GAL E GR OU P.
158
Chemical Energy
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
measure and pour 3 tablespoons (about 50 milliliters) of distilled water into each one.
Prepare a chart on which you will record your observations. Your
chart should look something like the illustration.
Place the thermometer in the first beaker and record the temperature on your chart. This sample, which contains only the distilled
water, will be your control.
Using the spoon or small spatula, add about half the sample of
calcium chloride to the second beaker. Stir it gently until it is
mixed with the distilled water.
Place the thermometer in the beaker and note the temperature
once each 30 seconds for five minutes. Record the temperatures on
the chart. When you are done, be sure to rinse the thermometer
with room-temperature distilled water.
Repeat Steps 4 and 5 for the sodium hydrocarbonate and the
ammonium nitrate. Remember to rinse the thermometer, stirring
rod, spatula, or spoon in distilled water after each test.
In the last beaker, slowly and gently add all of the sulfuric acid to
the water. Be careful not to spill or splash the acid. Place the
thermometer in the beaker and note the temperature once each
30 seconds for five minutes. Record the temperature changes on
your chart. When you are done, be sure to rinse the thermometer.
Summary of Results Examine your results and determine whether each
of your hypotheses is correct. If any reactions resulted in an increase in

temperature, those reactions are exothermic. If any reactions resulted in
Steps 3 to 7: Exothermic vs.

endothermic set-up beakers.
GA LE G RO UP.
159
Chemical Energy
When doing experiments involving the mixing
of substances, be aware that a number of
variablessuch as temperature and impurity
of substancescan affect your results. When
mixing substances, you must keep the mixing
containers and utensils clean. Even tiny
impurities in a mixture can drastically alter
your results.
a decrease in temperature, they are endothermic.

Make sure that your chart shows clearly the
result of the tests on each set of reactants. It
may be helpful to those viewing your results to
see a diagram outlining the procedure you
followed.

ment by trying reactions involving different household materials or chemical compounds. Do not
mix them with anything other than water. Always
check first with your teacher before altering the
materials used in your experiments.
Problem: You observed little or no temperature

change in the beakers.
Possible cause: You are not placing enough of

the solid reactants in the water. Try increasing
the amount of solid reactant.
How to Select a Topic Relating to this

Concept Other kinds of experiments can reveal
interesting facts about endothermic and exothermic reactions. Our bodies produce exothermic
reactions when we turn food into energy. Can
you measure the amount of food energy available in a sample by burning
it and measuring the resulting temperature change in a sample of water?
Review the description of how cold packs work. Can you think of a way to
design a homemade cold pack?
chemical reaction questions that interest you.
your question.
160
Chemical Energy

selected.
Recording Data and Summarizing the
Results In the experiments included here and in
any experiments you develop, strive to display

your data in accurate and interesting ways.
Remember that those who view your results
may not have seen the experiment performed, so
you must present the information you have gathered as clearly as possible. Including photographs or illustrations of the
steps in the experiment is a good way to show a viewer how you got from
your hypothesis to your conclusion.
Related Projects Chemical energy is a basic and crucial part of life
Some cold packs use a chemical

reaction that starts when
you squeeze the pack. The
pack cools off in an
endothermic reaction. PHO TO
RE SE AR CHE RS I NC .
processes as well as technological processes. Projects that determine the

energy produced by different fuels and compare the by-products of those
fuels can help to demonstrate the necessity for developing alternative
energy sources. Examining different reactions and determining their
endothermic or exothermic rate can help us understand where so much
of the energy we use goes.

BBC. Mixtures. Schools. Science: Chemistry. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/
ks3bitesize/science/chemistry/index.shtml (accessed on February 18, 2008).
Basic information on the chemistry of mixtures.
California Energy Commission. What is Energy? Energy Story. http://
www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter01.html (accessed on February 28,
2008). Explanation of the different types of energy.
Gillett, Kate, ed. The Knowledge Factory. Brookfield, CT: Copper Beech Books,
1996. Provides some fun and enlightening observations on questions
relevant to this topic, along with good ideas for projects and demonstrations.
161
13
Chemical Properties
ow many ways can you describe a substance? Two common ways are
by listing its physical properties and its chemical properties. A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that you can detect with your
senses, such as its color, shape, size, smell, taste, texture, temperature,
density, or volume. For example, a lemon is yellow, oval-shaped, and
smaller than a grapefruit. It has a sharp smell and a rough texture.
A physical change changes a physical property but does not change the
identity or molecular makeup of the substance. One example of a physical
change is salt crystals dissolving in water, which changes their shape. When
the water evaporates, you can see the salt crystals again, unchanged by being
dissolved in the water. Tearing paper into small pieces is also a physical
change. The bits of paper look different, but they are still composed of the
same molecules as when they were joined together.
A chemical property is the ability of a substance to react with other
substances or to decompose. For example, a chemical property of iron is
that it reacts with oxygen and rusts. A chemical property of a substance
allows it to undergo a chemical change. A chemical change is the change of
one or more substances into another substance. A chemical change is also
called a chemical reaction.
During some chemical reactions, two or more substances are combined to form one new substance. An example is oxygen combining with
iron to form rust. This is called a synthesis reaction. During other chemical
reactions, one substance is broken down into two or more new substances.
An example of this is hydrogen peroxide, which is used to treat small cuts. It
breaks down into oxygen and water in the presence of light, which is why
hydrogen peroxide is stored in dark bottles. This is called a decomposition
reaction. A chemical reaction can be very quick, such as paper burning, or
very slow, such as food digesting in your stomach.
163
Chemical Properties
Ice melting is an example of a

physical change. FI EL DM ARK
PUB LI CAT IO NS.
Burning is a chemical change

or reaction, producing new
substances. Some substances are
more flammable than others.
A P IM AG ES.
164
What are some examples of chemical

properties? Chemical properties include flammability (the ability to catch on fire), toxicity (the
ability to be poisonous), oxidation (the ability to
react with oxygen, which causes apple slices to turn
brown and iron to rust), radioactivity (spontaneously emitting energy in the form of particles or
waves by the disintegration of their atomic nuclei),
and sensitivity to light (which causes newspaper to
turn yellow).
Being acidic or basic is another kind of
chemical property. An acid is a substance that can
react with, or corrode, other substances. A base is a substance that feels slippery
when dissolved in water. When an acid and a base are combined, they react
chemically with each other to produce new substances: a salt and water.
Many foods contain acids, including tomatoes, lemons, oranges, and
carbonated soft drinks. For most people, eating the small amounts of acid in
these foods does not cause a problem. In fact, the hydrochloric acid in our
stomachs helps produce the chemical reaction called digestion. However, the
acid in tomatoes reacts so strongly with aluminum
that foods containing tomato sauce should not be
stored in aluminum foil. The acid in tomatoes can
actually burn holes in the foil.
Acids can also damage the environment.
Burning coal produces nitric and sulfuric acids
that combine with the water vapor in the air to
create acid rain. Acid rain burns trees and plants.
It can cause lakes and rivers to become so acidic
that fish and plants can no longer survive there.
Many cleaning products are bases, including
soaps, drain cleaners, and ammonia. Basic substances, too, can damage the skin and eyes. For example, some people who breathe ammonia fumes get
nosebleeds as the fumes react with the sensitive
tissues in their noses.
What happens during a chemical
reaction? In a chemical reaction, the substances
you begin with are called reactants. The new
substances that are formed are called products.
Chemical Properties
The explosion of fireworks

produces heat, light, and sound
energy in an exothermic
reaction. PHO TO R ES EA RCH ER S I NC.
For example, when the acetic acid in vinegar and baking soda (reactants)
are combined, the products are bubbles of carbon dioxide gas, water, and
sodium acetate.
The chemical properties of the reactants determine what happens
during the reactionand how quickly it happens. For example, one
chemical property of magnesium is that it reacts strongly with hydrochloric
acid to produce bubbles of hydrogen gas. Not all metals have this property.
Dipping a strip of copper into hydrochloric acid produces no hydrogen
bubbles. Dipping zinc into the acid results in some bubbles, but fewer than
for the magnesium.
In the same way, iron reacts strongly with oxygen to produce rust.
However, other metals, such as silver and gold, do not react with oxygen (do
not have this chemical property) and so do not rust when exposed to the air.
Many chemical reactions produce energy. For example, when something burns, it produces heat energy. Thus, smoke is one sign of a chemical
reaction. Other signs of chemical reactions include foaming, a smell, a
sound, and a change in color. A chemical reaction that releases heat or light
energy is called an exothermic reaction. Examples include fireworks explosions, luminescent light sticks, and the digestive process in your body.
Some chemical reactions absorb heat or light energy and are called
endothermic reactions. One example is the way green plants absorb
sunlight and change it into the chemical energy in sugar and in oxygen.
165
Chemical Properties
WORDS TO KNOW
Acid: Substance that when dissolved in water is
capable of reacting with a base to form salts and
release hydrogen ions.
Exothermic reaction: A chemical reaction that

releases heat or light energy, such as the
burning of fuel.
Base: Substance that when dissolved in water is

capable of reacting with an acid to form salts and
Hypothesis: An idea phrased in the form of a

statement that can be tested by observation
and/or experiment.
Chemical change: The change of one or more

substances into other substances.
Chemical property: A characteristic of a substance
that allows it to undergo a chemical change.
Chemical properties include flammability and
sensitivity to light.
Chemical reaction: Any chemical change in which
at least one new substance is formed.
Control experiment: A set-up that is identical to the
experiment but is not affected by the variable
Decompose: To break down into two or more
simpler substances.
Decomposition reaction: A chemical reaction in
which one substance is broken down into two or
more substances.
Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction that
absorbs heat or light energy, such as photosynthesis, the production of food by plant cells.
Luminescent: Producing light through a chemical

process.
Physical change: A change in which the substance
keeps its molecular identity, such as a piece of
chalk that has been ground up.
Physical property: A characteristic that you can
detect with your senses, such as color and
shape.
Product: A compound that is formed as a result of
a chemical reaction.
Reactant: A compound present at the beginning
of a chemical reaction.
Synthesis reaction: A chemical reaction in which
two or more substances combine to form a new
substance.
Variable: Something that can change the results
of an experiment.
In the two experiments that follow, you will have an opportunity to

produce chemical reactions by using the chemical properties of certain substances. In one experiment, you will combine white glue and borax (a mineral
that acts as a laundry booster) to create an entirely new substance. In the second
experiment, you will combine water, iodine, and oil to see what kind of
chemical reaction occurs. The more you understand about chemical reactions,
the better you will understand the workings of the world aroundand
insideyou.
166
Chemical Properties
EXPERIMENT 1
Slime: What happens when white
glue and borax mix?

results of an experiment. Here are the variables
in this experiment:
mix two substances to see if a chemical reaction

occurs. The chemical name of one of the substan the amounts of the substances used in the
ces, white glue, is polyvinylacetate. You will mix
actual experiment and the control
the polyvinylacetate with borax, a laundry booster
experiment
(sodium borate). Borax is a natural mineral, found
the length of time the mixtures are shaken
in the ground. Its made of boron, sodium, oxyIf you change more than one variable between
gen, and water. It is used to strengthen the cleanthe actual experiment and the control experiing power of laundry detergents.
ment, you will not be able to determine which
To begin the experiment, make an educated
variable affected the results.
guess about what will happen when you combine
these two substances. Will there be a chemical
reaction? Will it produce a new substance? If so,
what might the substance look like? This guess, or
prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
hypothesis for this experiment: Mixing polyvinylacetate with borax will
create a chemical reaction and produce a new substance.
In this experiment, the variable you will change is the mixing of the two
substances, and the variable you will measure (or examine) is the product of
this mixture. As a control experiment, you will observe a sample of polyvinylacetate that is not mixed with borax to see if a chemical reaction occurs.
If only the mixture with the borax in it produces a new substance, your
hypothesis will be supported.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate.
Materials Needed
white glue
water
167
Chemical Properties

Wear goggles to protect your eyes from any
splashes. Do NOT taste any mixtures or the
product that results from the chemical reaction.
Avoid getting the product from this experiment
on clothing, carpeting, or furniture, as it might
leave a stain.
food coloring
3 jars with lids
borax
labels
spoons
measuring spoons
sealable plastic bag
goggles
Approximate Budget Up to $5.

Timetable 10 minutes to set up; 1 hour to
observe.
Step 7: Use a spoon to scrape the

wet borax mixture into the
experiment jar. GA LE G RO UP.
168
1. Measure 3 tablespoons (44 milliliters) of water and the same

amount of white glue into one jar.
2. Add several drops of food coloring to the jar.
3. Close the jar and shake the mixture vigorously until the glue
dissolves in the water. Label the jar experiment.
4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3, using another jar, and label this jar control.
5. In the third jar, put 3 tablespoons (44 milliliters) of water. Slowly
pour in 2 tablespoons (30 milliliters) of
borax. Allow the mixture to settle for a
minute.
6. Carefully pour the excess water from the
third jar down a sink drain.
7. Use a spoon to scrape the wet borax
mixture into the experiment jar.
8. With the lids closed, shake both the experiment and control jars for at least two
minutes.
9. Record your observations of the experiment jar and the control jar in a table
similar to the one illustrated. Wait half
an hour and record them again. After
another half an hour, record your final
observations.
Chemical Properties
Step 9: Recording table for

10. Open the experimental jar and remove the product you have
created. Observe and experiment with its new physical properties.
11. Store your slime in the sealable plastic bag to keep it from
spoiling.
Summary of Results Study your observations and
decide whether your hypothesis was correct. Did

the combination of white glue and borax produce
a chemical reaction? How do you know? Did the
same reaction occur in the control jar without the
borax?
What happened here? In a liquid form, the
molecules in polyvinylacetate are separate,
allowing the glue to flow. When you added the
borax, a chemical reaction caused the molecules
in the white glue to wrap around each other,
forming a soft ball. The combination of the
two substances produced an entirely new substance that looks and feels like slime.
Write a paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining whether they support your
hypothesis.
Step 10: Observe and

experiment with the slime
you have created. G ALE
GRO UP .
169
Chemical Properties

the amount of iodine added to the water
in the experiment
the temperature of the ingredients (they
will remain at room temperature to
control this variable)
the kind of oil used (other kinds of oil
may react differently)
effect on the chemical reaction.
Step 3: Add about five drops of

iodine to the experiment jar.
GA LE G RO UP.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment by changing the amount of borax you mix
with the white glue solution. Your products will
range from sticky slime, to a bouncy ball, to a
very hard ball.
You might also experiment with other types of
glue, such as gel glue and washable glue, to see if
they form the same kind of product when mixed
with borax.
EXPERIMENT 2
Chemical Reactions: What
happens when mineral oil,
water, and iodine mix?
mix water with iodine and then add mineral oil to

see whether a chemical reaction occurs. Remember the possible signs of a chemical reaction: the production or absorption
of heat or light energy, smoke, bubbles of gas, a smell, a sound, and a
change in color.
You know that water and oil do not mix. Instead, they remain as
separate layers. You probably also know that a combination of water and oil
does not produce any sign of a chemical reaction. If such a reaction is to
occur, it must be caused by the iodine. Make an educated guess about the
outcome of this experiment. This guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Iodine will cause a chemical reaction
when mixed with mineral oil and water.
170
Chemical Properties

presence of iodine. The variable you will measure
or observe is evidence of a chemical reaction. As
your control experiment, you will combine mineral oil and water, without adding iodine, and
watch for signs of a chemical reaction. If a change
occurs only in the mixture with the iodine, your

Wear goggles to protect your eyes from
possible splashes of iodine. Avoid getting iodine
or mineral oil on your clothing or furniture, as it
will stain.

Materials Needed Note: All ingredients should be at room temperature.
2 jars with lids, such as peanut butter jars

labels
water
a container of iodine with a dropper
mineral oil
measuring cups
goggles
Approximate Budget $5 for iodine and mineral oil; other materials
should be available in the average household.
Step 4: Recording table for

171
Chemical Properties
remedy the problem.
Problem: The mixture with iodine did not
change color.
Possible cause: You did not shake it long
enough. Shake it some more and observe what
happens.
1. Label one jar experiment and one jar

control.
2. Pour 14 cup (60 milliliters) of water into
each jar.
3. Add about five drops of iodine to the
experiment jar.
4. Record your observations on a table similar to the one illustrated.
5. Pour 14 cup (60 milliliters) of mineral oil
into each jar. Record your observations in
the table.
6. Shake both jars, one in each hand, for two minutes. Again, record
any changes you observe.
Summary of Results Study the observations on your table and decide
Step 6: Shake both jars, one in
each hand, for two minutes.
GA LE GRO UP.
whether your hypothesis was correct. Did a chemical reaction take place in
the mixture containing iodine? How can you tell? Did a chemical reaction
occur in the mixture without the iodine? Write a paragraph summarizing
your findings and explaining whether they support your hypothesis.
When you shook the mixture containing
iodine, the iodine moved from the water into
the oil, causing a color change, which is evidence of a chemical reaction. If you shake the
experiment jar long enough, all the iodine will
move into the oil, and the water will become
clear again. The iodine causes the chemical
reaction, so the mixture without iodine did
not change.

Use other kinds of oil, such as safflower
or peanut oil, to see if the same color
change results.
172
Chemical Properties
Use very hot or icy-cold water to see how a

change in temperature affects this chemical
reaction.
PROJECT 3
Chemical Patination: Producing
chemical reactions on metal

Work in a well-ventilated area because
ammonia can have an odor that may cause
irritation. Wash your hands after the experiment and dispose of the contents carefully.
Never mix ammonia with a substance without
first asking a knowledgeable adult.
A patina is a change in an objects surface layer,

which can occur from natural weathering or a
controlled reaction. Outdoor copper and bronze
are examples of natural greens and browns that are possible. Patinas form
from a chemical reaction called oxidation. Chemical patination is often
used for decorative effect to produce metals that are black, blues, and
greens.
The color a chemical patination produces depends upon the type of
metal and the chemistry of the solutions applied to the metal. It also
depends upon the way the treatment is applied, such as the length of time
and temperature. In the project, you will experiment with chemical
patination on copper to observe how different solutions react with the
metal. In two of the tests, the metal will react with the vapor of the
solution while also reacting with oxygen. For the third test, you will wipe
the solution onto the metal.
Materials Needed
white vinegar
ammonia
salt
lemon juice
measuring cup
small bowl
3 sheets of thin copper, several inches long, available from craft or
art stores
3 lidded plastic containers that the copper sheet fits into
sandpaper
washers, brass nuts, or other metal objects that fit inside the plastic
containers
173
Chemical Properties
aluminum foil
cloth
Timetable 30 minutes to set up; at least eight
hours to three days to observe changes.

1. If the copper sheets are not clean, wash

with soap and allow them to dry.
2. Lightly sand the copper sheets and wipe
well.
Test 1
Step 3: Place a metal object,
such as a several washers or a
brass nut, on the bottom of the
container. The copper sheet will
sit on the object.
NE LS ON.
Step 4: Pour vinegar slightly

below the top of the object.
NEL SO N.
3. Place a metal object, such as a several

washers or a brass nut, on the bottom of
the container. The copper sheet will sit on the object. You will
want the sheet resting slightly above the solution. See illustration.
4. Pour vinegar slightly below the top of the object.
5. Place the copper sheet on the washers (or other object) and loosely
cover (do not seal the cover). Leave overnight or for at least eight
hours.
Test 2
6. Place a metal object, such as a several washers or a brass nut, on the
bottom of the container. Again, you will want the sheet resting
slightly above the solution.
7. Pour ammonia slightly below the top of
the object.
8. Place the copper sheet on the washers (or
other object) and loosely cover. Leave
overnight or for at least eight hours.
Test 3
9. In a small bowl, combine one-quarter cup
lemon juice, one-quarter cup table salt,
one-quarter cup household ammonia,
and one-half cup vinegar.
174
Chemical Properties
10. Set the third copper sheet on a piece of

aluminum foil. Use the cloth to wipe the
solution onto the sheet.
11. Wait approximately two hours or until
the copper is dry. Apply another coat
and allow to dry. You will need to apply
the solution at least six times.
Summary of Results Record how each of the
copper sheets appear. Describe the colors and deepness of each chemical patination. Where did the
patination occur on the metal? Try scraping the
color off with your fingernail. If you want to try
and reproduce or produce more of one color, make
sure you check with an adult if you are when
making up your solutions.

Here is a common problem that you may
experience during this project and tips to
remedy the problems.
Problem: The copper does not change color in
the first two trials.
Possible causes:
1. The copper may not be getting enough
oxygen. Make sure the copper solution is
not sealed completely, and the metal is
not immersed in the solution. Try the
trial again.
2. There may not be enough vapor for the
chemical patination to occur. The lid
might be too loose. Place the lid so it fits
neatly over the container, but do not
seal, and try the test again.
The worldand your own lifedepend on chemical properties and the chemical reactions that
result from them. Consider what you would like
to know about these properties and reactions. For
example, what chemical reactions occur inside your body? Which ones are
essential in manufacturing? What chemical reactions help shape the
landscape?
questions that interest you. As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your
science teacher or another knowledgeable adult
before trying them. Combining certain materials
can be dangerous.
Ammonia
Record how each of the copper

sheets appear. IL LUS TR ATI ON
Lemon juice
Vinegar, etc
Vinegar
experiment, you need to plan carefully and

think things through. Otherwise, you might
not be sure which question you are answering,
175
Chemical Properties
what you are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or

disprove.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In your slime and iodine
experiments, your raw data might include tables, drawings, and photographs
of the changes you observed. If you display your experiment, make clear the
question you are trying to answer, the variable you changed, the variable you
measured, the results, and your conclusions. Explain what materials you
used, how long each step took, and other basic information.
Related Projects You can undertake a variety of projects related to chemical
reactions. For example, a number of chemical reactions occur in the kitchen

as food cooks on the stove or bakes in the oven. Breads and cakes rise because
of a chemical reaction. Some medicines for an upset stomach depend on
chemical reactions to cause fizz in a glass of water. You can even make pennies
turn green because of a chemical reaction!

Gardner, Robert. Science Projects about Chemistry. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers,
1994. Focuses on experiments in causing and analyzing chemical reactions.
Mebane, Robert, and Thomas Rybolt. Adventures with Atoms and Molecules.
Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1991. Clearly describes 30 doable
experiments in chemistry and chemical reactions.
VanCleave, Janice. A+ Projects in Chemistry. New York: Wiley and Sons, 1993.
Outlines experiments that show chemical reactions relating to the weather,
biochemistry, electricity, and other topics.
176
14
Chemosenses
eople depend on taste and smell to recognize a delicious meal, but these
senses also play a key part in helping keep us alive. Both senses can warn
us of trouble and both are linked to what we eat. Pleasant tastes and smells
ensure that a person or animal continues to eat and acquire energy from
foods. Unpleasant tastes and smells are one way to ensure a person does not
eat poisons or other materials that can cause harm.
People get information about the world around them through their
senses of hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell. Each of these five senses is
tuned to a specific sensation. You are always using at least one of your senses.
The senses send messages to the brain, which processes the information.
Taste and smell belong to the chemical-sensing system group, known as
chemosenses, which means that the sense is stimulated by specific chemicals.
These chemicals trigger a nerve signal to the brain that then reads the
signal.
How taste works When people say something tastes good, they are
usually referring to the flavor of the food or drink. Flavor is a combination
of taste, smell, texture, and other characteristics of the food itself, such as
temperature. The sense of taste is complex because it is so intricately linked
with flavor and weaves in many of the other senses, especially the sense of
smell. There are five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
(pronounced oo-MAM-ee). Umami was described in the early 1900s, but
only in the late 1990s did food researchers officially recognize it as a distinct
taste. Umami is the taste that occurs when foods with the protein glutamate
are eaten. Glutamate is found in meat, fish, and the flavor-enhancing
chemical monosodium glutamate, or MSG.
Humans get the sensation of taste through their taste cells, which lie
within the taste bud. The average person has about 10,000 taste buds.
People regenerate new taste buds every three to ten days. As people grow
177
Chemosenses
Tongue
Pore
Microvilli
Taste buds are onion-shaped

structures located primarily on
a persons tongue. G AL E
GRO UP.
older their taste buds regenerate at a slower rate,

causing their sense of taste to lessen. An elderly
person may have only 5,000 taste buds.
Taste buds are onion-shaped structures located

primarily on a persons tongue. The majority of
buds on the tongue are scattered on the papillae
Taste
cell
(pronounced pah-PILL-ee), the small projections
that give your tongue its rough appearance. Taste
signal travels
to brain
buds are also located on the throat, roof of the
mouth, and pharynx, but the buds on your tongue
provide most of your taste experience. Each taste
bud is made up of about 50 to 150 taste cells. Every cell has a fingerlike
extension called a microvilli that connects with an opening at the top of the
taste bud, called the taste pore.
For food to have taste, its chemicals need to reach your taste cells. The
instant you take a bite of food, saliva or spit in the mouth starts breaking
down the foods chemical components. These components, or molecules,
travel through the pores in the papillae to bind to specific taste cells. The
chemicals cause a change in the taste cell, sending a signal via nerves to the
brain, which processes the signals.
In order for food to have taste,

its chemical components need to
reach the taste cells in your
mouth. COP YR IG HT # K EL LY
A. Q UI N.
178
Chemosenses
The chemical reaction in the taste cells varies

depending on the taste group involved. For example, salty foods trigger a change in taste cells when
enough sodium (the main component of salt)
molecules enter the cells through the microvilli.
Odor
Molecules
Each taste cell has the ability to recognize different
taste groups, yet taste cells specialize in processing
one particular group. Researchers have found that
taste buds with common taste perceptions may be
Tongue
bunched together on the papillae. Many of the
taste buds more sensitive to bitterness, for example, are located on the back of the tongue. This can cause an automatic gagreflex to help prevent poisoning if something too bitter is ingested.
Olfactory
Bulb
Olfactory
Epithelium
Food
How tastes and smells are

recognized. Food and odor
molecules attach to olfactory
cells that send signals to the
brain. GAL E GR OUP .
Smells at work: Lime or lemon? It is the olfactory sense, or sense of

smell, that plays a key role in determining your perception of how tasty
something is, or its flavor. Flavor is so strongly linked to the olfactory
sense that researchers estimate 7075% of what humans perceive as taste
actually comes from the sense of smell.
Special olfactory cells, located inside the uppermost part of the nose,
recognize specific odors. These odors, or chemical molecules, enter the nose
and rise upward until they reach the olfactory epithelium, a postage-stampThe olfactory epithelium. Odor
molecules bind to specific
size area that contains olfactory receptor cells. Olfactory receptor cells are
receptors on the cilia, which
nerve cells, and each cell lasts about four to five weeks before it is replaced
triggers a chemical signal in the
with a new one. These cells have hairlike projections called cilia that are
receptor cell. The cell then sends
sensitive to odor molecules. A specific odor molecule dissolves in the mucus
its signal to the olfactory bulb of
of the nose. Mucus is a slippery substance that protects and moistens. The
the brain, and then on to other
odor molecule binds to specific receptors on the cilia, which trigger a
areas of the brain that
chemical signal in the receptor cell. The cell then sends its signal to the
recognize it as a specific odor.
olfactory bulb of the brain, and then on to other areas of the brain that
GAL E GR OU P.
recognize it as a specific odor. There can be hunReceptor
Cell
dreds of receptors that take part in recognizing
one smell.
Olfactory cells can recognize thousands of different odors. The chemical molecules reach the
cells through the air you breathe and the food
you eat. When you put food in your mouth,
Mucus
chemicals are released while you are chewing.
Molecules from the food travel through the passage
between your nose and mouth to the olfactory
Odor Molecules
Cilia
epithelium.
179
Chemosenses
If a persons nose is congested,

mucus in the nasal passages can
block the odor molecules from
reaching the olfactory cells;
thus, the brain receives no
signal telling it what the object
smells like. CO PY RI GHT #
K ELL Y A . QU IN.
If a persons nose is congested, mucus in the

nasal passages can block the odor molecules from
reaching the olfactory cells. This will block surrounding smells, and food will lose much of its
flavor.
All senses are not created equal Because the
chemosenses are complex mechanisms, there are
several reasons why people have varying preferences
for smells and tastes. A persons genetics (physiological makeup), upbringing, and familiarity with
specific smells and foods can influence his or her
likes and dislikes. Odor molecules transmit their
signals to areas of the brain that are involved with emotional behavior and
memory. When a person smells something, it often brings back memories
associated with the object, and those memories can help shape a persons
perception of that smell.
Genetics is also a factor in tasting ability. In the early 1930s researchers
discovered an inherited trait that determined peoples sensitivity to a bitter
taste. They classified people as tasters or nontasters based on whether they
were able to detect a specific chemical, which tastes bitter to some people and
tasteless to others. Later research found that some people are especially
sensitive to this bitter taste. These people are born with more than the average
number of taste buds and, as a result, perceive tastes more intensely than the
average person. For these supertasters bitter tastes more bitter, sweet tastes
sweeter, and salt tastes saltier. Researchers theorize that about 25% of the
people in the United States are supertasters, 25% are nontasters, and the
remaining 50% are regular tasters.
In the two experiments that follow, you will use the scientific method to
examine if genetics affects the sense of taste and how closely linked these two
senses are.
EXPERIMENT 1
Supertasters: Is there a correlation between
the number of taste buds and taste
perception?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will test varying concentra-
tions of three tastes on people to predict whether they fall into the category
of nontaster, taster, or supertaster. Then you will test your hypothesis by
180
Chemosenses
WORDS TO KNOW
Chemosense: A sense stimulated by specific
chemicals that cause the sensory cell to transmit
a signal to the brain.
Olfactory epithelium: The patch of mucous

membrane at the top of the nasal cavity that
contains the olfactory (smell) nerve cells.
Cilia: Hairlike structures on olfactory receptor cells

that sense odor molecules.
Olfactory receptor cells: Nerve cells in the olfactory

epithelium that detect odors and transmit the
information to the brain.

experiment.
Microvilli: The extension of each taste cell that
pokes through the taste pore and first senses
the chemicals.
Mucus: A thick, slippery substance that serves as a
protective lubricant coating in passages of the
body that communicate with the air.
Papillae: The raised bumps on the tongue that

contain the taste buds.
Saliva: Watery mixture with chemicals that
lubricates chewed food.
Supertaster: A person who is extremely sensitive to
specific tastes due to a greater number of taste
buds.
Taste buds: Groups of taste cells located on the
papillae that recognize the different tastes.
Olfactory: Relating to the sense of smell.
Taste pore: The opening at the top of the taste bud

from which chemicals reach the taste cells.
Olfactory bulb: The part of the brain that processes olfactory (smell) information.

experiment.
counting the number of papillae of each person to estimate the number of

taste buds each person has. If a person has more than twenty-five in a
punch-hole-size area, then he/she is classified as a supertaster, five or less is
considered a nontaster, and anywhere in between is an average taster.
experiment based on your knowledge of the sense of taste. This educated guess,
or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
181
Chemosenses

will prove or disprove your hypothesis. Here is one
possible hypothesis for this experiment: People
who are more sensitive to tastes will have a greater
number of taste buds.
The participants in the experiment
Variables are anything you can change in an
The cleanliness of the persons palette
experiment. In this case, the variable you will change
before the experiment
will be the concentration of the solutions. The
The size of the paper hole
variable you will measure will be the number of
The concentration of the taste
taste buds.
The substance people are tasting
Setting up a control experiment will help you
isolate each variable and measure the changes in
are everything that might affect the relationship
the dependent variable. Only one variable will
between a persons sensitivity to taste and the
number of his or her taste buds. If you change
setup, and that is the concentration of the solution.
For the control in this experiment you will use a
most effect on taste.
cup of plain water (tasteless). For your experiment,
you will determine sensitivity to three tastes: bitter,
salty, and sweet.
You will first make a 10% solution for each substance, then dilute the
solutions. Sugar and salt are solids and you will make a 10% weight/weight
(gram/gram) solution. For liquids you will make a 10% volume/volume
(milliliter/milliliter) solution. One gram of water equals 1 ml of water.
You will rate peoples sensitivity to varying concentrations of grapefruit
juice (bitter), sugary water, and salty water. Then you will use blue dye to
color each persons tongues papillae. Because you are relying on human
subjectivity, the more people you test, the more accurate your results.
Materials Needed
182
grapefruit juice
sugar
salt
water
measuring spoons
gram scale
Chemosenses
3 to 4 helpers
16 small disposable paper cups
light-colored pen
blue food coloring
cotton swabs
piece of paper
hole punch (standard 1/4-inch size)
mirror
magnifying glass

Check with an adult before you or your helpers
taste any of the foods to make sure none of you
has any allergies to the foods, or other dietary
restrictions.
Use each cotton swab only once, one per
person. Tasters should also use a fresh cup for
their water. You might want to wear an old shirt
in case any dye should spill.
Timetable 1 hour.
1. Measure out 10 tablespoons (150 milliliters of water) and pour into a

cup. Add 4 teaspoons (15 grams) of sugar for a total volume of 150
ml and stir until all the sugar is dissolved. Write on the cup: 10%
sugar. Repeat this process for the salt, labeling the cup: 10% salt.
2. Measure out 9 tablespoons (135 ml) water and pour into a cup. Add
1 tablespoon (15 ml) grapefruit juice for a total volume of 150 ml
and stir thoroughly. Label the cup: 10% grapefruit.
3. Dilute each solution by 10%. From the sugar solution measure out
1 tablespoon (15 ml) and pour into a clean cup. Add 9 tablespoons
(135 ml) of water and stir until all sugar is dissolved. Label the cup:
1% sugar.
4. To make a 0.1% solution: From the 1% sugar solution measure out
1 tablespoon (15 ml) and pour into a clean cup. Add 9 tablespoons
(135 ml) of water and stir until all sugar is dissolved. Label the cup:
0.1% sugar.
5. To make a 0.01% solution: From the 0.1% sugar solution measure
out 1 tablespoon (15 ml) and pour into a clean cup. Add 9
tablespoons (135 ml) of water and stir until all sugar is dissolved.
Label the cup: 0.01% sugar.
6. To make a 0.001% solution: From the 0.01% sugar solution measure out 1 tablespoon (15 ml) and pour into a clean cup. Add 9
tablespoons (135 ml) of water and stir until all sugar is dissolved.
Label the cup: 0.001% sugar.
7. Repeat this process for the salt solution and the grapefruit juice.
183
Chemosenses
# of
Papillae
SweetBitter Salty
10%
1%
.1%
.01%
.001%
Step 9: Data chart for
Experiment 1. GAL E GR OU P.
water
8. Place plain water in a cup for the control solution.

9. Create a chart that lists the concentrations and the control on the
left, and the three tastes across the top.
10. Have the taster rinse out his or her mouth with water and make
sure the mouth is relatively dry before beginning.
11. Start with one taste. Switch the five cups around, including the
cup of water, not allowing the taster to see the labels. Have the
taster dip a clean cotton swab into the solution, smear it over his/
her tongue, and wait a few moments. Ask the taster if he/she can
identify a taste. If the taster can identify a taste, make a checkmark
sign in the box; if not, make a x in the box.
Step 17: Look at each tongue

and count the round structures,
the papillae, that are visible in
the paper hole. GAL E GR OU P.
184
Supertaster
Nontaster
Chemosenses
12. Have the taster rinse out his/her mouth

with water and repeat the process for all
the dilutions, including the control. Once
the taster has completed one taste, repeat
the process with another taste.
13. When one taster has finished sampling
the three sets of tastes, repeat the process
with another helper. Have a helper mix
the samples so that you can also sample
the dilutions yourself.
14. Punch a hole in a piece of paper for each
taster.
15. Dip a cotton swab in the blue food coloring and have the tasters wipe the blue
swab on the tip of their tongues.
16. Place the paper hole on the blue area of
each tongue.
17. Using a magnifying glass, look at each
tongue and count the round structures, the
papillae, that are visible in the paper hole.
Look in the mirror to count your own papillae. Write down the results for each taster.
Summary of Results Compare the results of each
Below are some problems that may occur
during this experiment, some possible causes,
and some ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: A persons responses were inconsistent, sometimes saying he or she could taste
the higher concentration and lower concentrated solution, but not the in-between
solutions.
Possible causes: The person may have been
mixing up tastes. Try repeating the test with
that person, making sure the taster cleans
his/her mouth with water carefully every
time.
Problem: There was no correlation between
number of taste buds and perceived taste.
Possible causes: Human error. Examine the
tasters reaction to the control solution to
ensure that he/she is not mistakenly identifying tastes where there is none. If the taste
of water has a checkmark then try repeating
the experiment with that person, or with
someone else. The more people you test, the
less chance human error will have a statistical
impact on your results.
persons data chart with the number of his or her

taste buds. Did your results support your hypothesis? Did the people who were more sensitive to
tastes have a greater number of taste buds? Could
the people in the nontaster category only taste the higher concentrations, and
the supertasters taste the lower concentrations? Share your results and discuss
if the tasters with the greater number of taste buds have a higher sensitivity to
tastes in general. If there are any supertasters, do they have a strong dislike for
broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower (bitter tastes) and for strong sweet tastes
such as frosting?
Change the Variables Try repeating the experiment (with new helpers)
using different concentrations of the solutions, both higher and lower, to get
an increased number of data points. You can also change the type of bitter
solution you use (for example, a beverage with caffeine in it or tonic water).
185
Chemosenses

The participants in the experiment
The cleanliness of the persons palate
before the experiment
The substance people are tasting
are everything that might affect the relationship
between a persons ability to recognize foods by
their smell and taste. If you change more than
one variable at the same time, you will not be
able to tell which variable had the most effect
on identifying the foods.
Another variable you can change is to replace one

of the tastes with the sour taste (lemon juice).
Always check with an adult before you or anyone
else tastes any of the solutions to make sure there
are no dietary restrictions.
EXPERIMENT 2
Smell and Taste: How
does smell affect
the sense of taste?
Purpose/Hypothesis Humans can perceive only
five tastes, but can recognize thousands of smells.

In this experiment you will test how closely the
two chemosenses, the sense of smell and taste, are
related. Blocking each sense independently, you
will test and identify foods to determine which of
the two senses sends the clearer message to the
brain on what you are eating. You will use foods
that have similar textures so that the feel of the food in your mouth is not
a factor.
experiment based on your knowledge of the sense of taste. This educated
guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these
things:


prove or disprove your hypothesis. Here is one possible hypothesis for this
experiment: Humans need both the sense of smell and taste working
together to identify foods.
Variables are anything you can change in an experiment. In this case, the
variable you will change will be which sense or senses you use. The variable
you will measure will be the identification of the food. You will test each sense
separately, then together.
186
Chemosenses

Materials Needed
onion
raw potato
roll of flavored candy
chocolate ice cream
strawberry ice cream
knife
four spoons
helper

Check with an adult before you or your helpers
taste any of the foods to make sure none of you
has any allergies to the foods, or other dietary
restrictions. Use fresh utensils if more than one
person conducts this experiment. Always use
caution when working with any sharp objects,
such as the knife.

1. Carefully cut off a small piece of the onion and potato and then cut
each into even smaller pieces. Place each on a separate spoon.
2. Ready spoonfuls of the chocolate ice cream and strawberry ice
cream.
3. Set out two different-flavored hard candies; (e.g., one green and
one red).
4. Make a chart listing the foods across the top and writing Smell,
Taste, and Both down the page on the left.
5. Close your eyes and hold your nose tightly. Have your helper hand
you the spoons one by one, in groups of two: onion and potato,
chocolate and strawberry ice creams, and
red and green hard candies. Taste each one
and say what you think it isdont peek.
6. Have your helper write down what you
guessed.
7. Keeping your eyes closed, have your partner refill the spoons and again hand you
the spoons in the same groups of two as
before. This time, only smell what is on
the spoon and say what it is.
8. Have your helper write down what you
guessed.
Step 5: Block your sense of smell

while tasting the food. G AL E
GRO UP .
187
Chemosenses
Below is a problem that may occur during this
Problem: Results were not as hypothesized.
Possible causes: Make sure you do not have a
cold or are congested during this experiment.
Always make sure the utensils are clean.
Make sure you dice the potato and onion into
small enough pieces so that they have the
same feel on the tongue.
9. Repeat the procedure, keeping your eyes

closed, this time using both your sense of
taste and smell. Have your helper write
down what you guessed.
determine whether your original hypothesis was

correct. Which sense identified the correct flavor
more often? Did one sense tell your brain the
specific food you were eating? Did you need both
senses working together to identify the flavors?
Summarize the results of your experiment.
ment several ways. For example, why is it that you

are keeping your eyes covered during this experiment? The sense of vision
plays a significant role in identifying foods. People have expectations that
certain colors will relate to specific flavors, such as a green jellybean tasting
like lime, even when the flavor is different than expected. Try putting
different-flavored fruit juices in dark cups and testing how much of an
impact your sense of vision has on your taste perception.
You can also try holding only half your nose, to see how much of an
impact half of your olfactory receptors have on your taste perception.
Modify the Experiment This experiment uses single food tastings to
examine how the sense of smell and taste are used to recognize food.
You can modify this experiment by conducting multiple food tastings to
examine sensory adaptation. Sensory adaptation is when the sensitivity of
the receptors decreases after repeated exposure to the same taste, smell, or
other experience.
For you to explore how sensory adaptation affects your senses, you
will need a glass of strong salt water and sugar water, along with plain
water. You will also need a helper. Ask your helper to take a small sip of
the sugar water and write down the taste. It should taste extremely
sweet. Now ask your helper to gargle with the sugar water for at least
30 seconds. After spitting out the water, have your helper take another
small sip of the sugar water and ask how it tastes? Repeat the gargling
and sip. Again, ask the helper to identify the taste. Is there a difference
in how strong it tastes?
188
Chemosenses
Repeat the steps, except have your helper drink several large sips of
plain water after gargling. Rinsing the mouth with water should refresh
the receptors. When your helper now takes a sip of the sugar water, can he
or she better recognize the taste? Does is have the strength as the first sip?
Repeat this entire process with the salt water. Compare the taste experiences with and without drinking pure water. Try the experiment on
yourself. You can explore whether you need more or less time to sensitize
your receptors to the taste.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept If you are interested in the
senses of taste and smell, there are many other possible experiments and
projects. Because taste has a genetic component, you can try repeating
Experiment 1 for groups of families. Compare family members reactions
to different tastes and their number of taste buds to each other. Then
compare that data to a different family. Are members of one family more
likely to all be either tasters, nontasters, or supertasters?
If you are interested in the sense of smell, you can examine the
sensitivity of the olfactory sense by collecting and testing different concentrations of scents. Is there a genetic component to the sense of smell? How
is the sense of smell different in other species from that of humans? What
are some possible explanations for this?
teacher or librarian to start gathering information on any questions that
interest you.
question.
189
Chemosenses
charts, such as the ones you did for these experiments. They should be
clearly labeled and easy to read. You may also want to include photos,
graphs, or drawings of your experimental setup and results. If you have done
a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research question was
Related Projects Besides completing your experiments, you could pre-
pare a model that demonstrates a point that you are interested in with
regard to the chemosenses. For example, you could construct a model of
the brain and illustrate the pathway of the taste and olfactory cells sending
signals as they travel to certain parts of the brain. You could also try a
similar dilution experiment with smell, observing the effect of varying
dilutions of an odor, such as a perfume or a beverage. The effect of
temperature also has an effect on smell, and you could chart peoples
perception of an odor that is cold, room temperature, and warm.

Neuroscience for Kids. http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chsense.html
(accessed March 5, 2008). Clear explanations and activities of the
chemosenses.
Rouhi, Maureen I. Unlocking the Secrets of Taste. Chemical and Engineering
News. September 10, 2001. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/7937/7937
taste.html (accessed March 5, 2008). Article on recently identified taste
receptors and the molecules that stimulate them.
The Vivid World of Odors. Howard Hughes Medical Institute. http://hhmi.
org/senses/d110.html (accessed March 5, 2008). Report from the Howard
Hughes Medical Institute on odor and taste receptors.
Your Sense of Smell. Your Gross and Cool Body. http://yucky.discovery.com/
flash/body/pg000150.html (accessed March 5, 2008). Introductory
information on smells and how the sense works.
190
15
Chlorophyll
hlorophyll is the green pigment that gives leaves their color. Acting as
a solar collector, chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and
traps it. This trapped energy is stored, then used to form sugar and oxygen
out of carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil. This extraordinary process is called photosynthesis. It is the way a plant makes its
own food. But the key to this process is chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll clusters in
the leaves of this healthy
rhododendron plant trap
solar energy. PH OTO
Whats this green thing? Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Biernaime Caventou were French chemists who worked together in the early
nineteenth century in a new field called pharmacology, the science of
preparing medical drugs. These chemists would later discover quinine,
caffeine, and other specialized plant products. In 1817, however, they
isolated an important plant substance they called chlorophyll, from the
Greek words meaning green leaf. Scientists first thought that chlorophyll was distributed throughout plant cells. But
in 1865 the German botanist Julius von Sachs
discovered that this pigment is found within sacs
called chloroplasts. Chlorophyll molecules are
arranged in clusters within these chloroplasts.
One-celled plants, such as algae, contain
chlorophyll. They live in water, growing near the
surface and the light, or on moist surfaces. Multicelled plantsusually land plants such as mosses,
ferns, and seed plantshave chlorophyll-loaded
chloroplasts in their stems and leaves. These plants
all need light to activate the chlorophyll. Plants
such as algae require low light, and certain land
plants, such as philodendron, survive well in low
levels of sunlight also. Some houseplants thrive in
191
Chlorophyll
artificial light, while other plants require high

levels of sunlight.
An unhealthy rhododendron
plant. If plants do not get
enough light to activate their
chlorophyll clusters, they
cannot make enough food to
survive. PH OT O
Why leaves change color Pigments are substances that appear colored to the human eye
because of the wavelengths of light they reflect. A
pigment absorbs all other wavelengths of light and
only reflects the wavelength that we see as a color.
For example, a green pigment, like chlorophyll,
absorbs all wavelengths except green. Many different pigments are present in sacs within the plant
cell. There are two related chlorophyll pigments,
chlorophyll A and chlorophyll B. Both appear
green, with just a slight color variation from each
other. Carotene, a yellowish-orange pigment, and
xanthophyll, a yellow pigment, are also present in
most leaves. Some plants have a red color in their
petals, stems, and leaves called anthocyanin. The
different pigments in a plant allow the plant to
absorb different light wavelengths. Overall, the
greenish chlorophyll pigment is the one that is
most plentiful. It is considered a primary pigment,
and the secondary pigments act as a support team to help the plant absorb
more light energy.
Deciduous trees shed their leaves in the autumn. The joining place
where the leaf meets the twig is called an abscission. The first step in the
process that causes leaves to fall occurs when cork cells develop under the
abscission. This cork layer blocks nutrients that travel to and from the leaf.
Then the leaf begins to die.
Because chlorophyll breaks down faster than the other pigments, the
green leaves begin their gradual color change. As the chlorophyll decomposes, the yellow and orange colors from the carotene and xanthophyll
stand out. Trees with anthocyanin pigments show bright red leaves in the
fall. Anthocyanin pigments need high light intensity and sugar content
for their formation, so fiery red leaves usually emerge after bright autumn
days. Cool nights act as a refrigerator, preserving the sugar in the leaves.
Chlorophyll and other pigments are unique in their function as food
makers. Uncovering their presence in plants through experiments will
help you see them.
192
Chlorophyll
WORDS TO KNOW
Abscission: Barrier of special cells created at the
base of leaves in autumn.
Germination: First stage in development of a plant

seed.
Anthocyanin: Red pigment found in leaves,

petals, stems, and other parts of a plant.

Carbohydrate: Any of several compounds

composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
which are used as food for plants and animals.
Pharmacology: The science dealing with the

properties, reactions, and therapeutic values
of drugs.
Carotene: Yellowish-orange pigment present in

most leaves.
Photosynthesis: Chemical process by which plants

containing chlorophyll use sunlight to manufacture their own food by converting carbon dioxide
and water to carbohydrates, releasing oxygen as
a by-product.

photosynthesis.
Chromatography: A method for identifying the
components of a substance based on their
characteristic colors.
variable that affects the experimental group.
Pigment: A substance that displays a color because

of the wavelengths of light that it reflects.
Variable: Something that can change the results of
an experiment.
Wavelength: The peak-to-peak distance between
successive waves. Red has the longest
wavelength of all visible light, and violet has
the shortest wavelength.
Xanthophyll: Yellow pigment found in leaves.
EXPERIMENT 1
Plant Pigments: Can pigments be separated?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment you will discover what pigments
are present in various plants using chromatography, an identification
technique based on color. You will cut up various plants and boil them
in water, then add a small amount of alcohol to help release the pigments
from the plants.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about chlorophyll and
other pigments found in plants to make an educated guess about what colors
you will find. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
193
Chlorophyll

the type and part of the plant being used
(Example: carrot roots contain mainly
carotene; carrot leaves contain mainly
chlorophyll.)
the season in which the plant was harvested (Example: if the plant was harvested in the spring, the leaves contain
abundant chlorophyll; in the fall, the
leaves have more carotene, xanthophyll,
and anthocyanin.)
the maturity of the specimen (Example:
leaves from the heart of a celery plant are
yellow from xanthophyll; as leaves
mature, chlorophyll builds up.)
are everything that might affect the colors you
find. If you change more than one variable, you
most effect on the color.
Note: Do not use flowers, fruit, or roots for this
experiment. They do not contain the pigments
being studied.

This experiment requires the use of a stove or
bunsen burner to boil the solutions. Use caution
when cooking the solution and ask an adult for
assistance. When handling alcohol, wear
goggles and be careful not to spill it on your skin
or in your eyes. Keep alcohol away from the
stove or open flame.
194


Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Primary pigments, such as blue-green
chlorophyll, and secondary pigments, such as yellow-orange carotene, yellow xanthophyll, and red
anthocyanin, are all present in leaves.
type and part of the plant being tested, and the
variable you will measure is the resulting mix of
colors. A bowl filled with various food colorings
will serve as a control experiment to allow you
measure the effectiveness of the color separation
method. If you find many different colors present
in your experimental solutions, you will know
your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed
1 cup (236 milliliters) of spinach leaves,

cut up
1 cup (236 milliliters) of parsley leaves,
cut up
1 cup (236 milliliters) of coleus leaves
(houseplant with variegated leaves), cut
up
food coloring (red, blue, and yellow)
filter paper (strong paper towels also will
work)
rubbing alcohol 70%
4 bowls
4 glass cups or beakers
Chlorophyll
Step 6: Four cups with pigment

solutions (control, spinach,
parsley, and coleus). G AL E
GR OU P.
cooking pot
labels
4 paper clips
measuring spoons and cups
water
goggles
Approximate Budget $10 for the fresh parsley, spinach, and a coleus
plant.
Timetable Approximately 2 hours.
Step 7: Filter paper strip in cup,

held in place with a paper clip.
GAL E GR OU P.
1. Place one cup of water in a pot and bring

it to a boil. Add 20 drops of each color of
food coloring and boil for 10 minutes
more. Remove the pot from stove and
allow to cool. Pour the solution into a
bowl and add 4 tablespoons of alcohol.
Label the bowl #1. This will be your
control solution.
2. Wash the pot and add one cup of water
and bring it to a boil. Add the cut-up
195
Chlorophyll
Here are some problems that may occur in this
experiment, some possible causes, and ways to
Problem: The pigment does not go up the paper.
Possible cause: The paper is wet. Make sure the
paper is thoroughly dry before inserting it in the
solution. Also make sure the paper is touching
the solution.
Problem: The control experiment worked well,
but the spinach, parsley, and coleus solutions are
very light.
Possible cause: The solutions are too weak.
Place more leaves into the pot and boil the solution longer. Use a low flame, and be cautious
when reheating as the mixture contains alcohol.
spinach leaves. Boil for 10 minutes more.

Remove the pot from stove and allow to
cool. Pour the solution into another bowl
and add 4 tablespoons of alcohol. Label
the bowl #2.
3. Repeat Step 2, substituting parsley for
spinach. Label bowl #3.
4. Repeat Step 2 again, substituting coleus
leaves. Label bowl #4.
5. Cut the filter paper into 1-inch-wide
(2.5-centimeter) strips. These will be
your chromatography papers.
6. Label the cups #1, #2, #3, and #4. Now
pour 0.25 inch (0.6 centimeter) of the
liquid solution from each bowl into the
appropriate numbered cup.
7. Place a filter paper strip into each cup
as illustrated. Use a paper clip to hold
the paper to the cup. Make sure only the
bottom of the filter paper touches the
solution.
8. Leave the experiment undisturbed for 30 to 60 minutes. Notice

how the solution creeps up the filter paper.
9. Stop the experiment when a pigment reaches the top of the filter
paper. Place the pieces of paper on a clean, flat surface to dry.
Sample diagram of
chromatography paper from
one of the solutions. GA LE
GR OU P.
196
Chlorophyll
Summary of Results Make a diagram recording
what colors appeared on your chromatography

papers (see sample diagram). The pigments may
fade over time, so record the results the same
day.
Reflect on your original hypothesis.
Were you able to detect the primary and
secondary pigments present in all the leaves?
Were pigments present in your control
experiment? Which plant(s) contained the
most secondary pigments? Which contained
the most primary pigments?
EXPERIMENT 2
Response to Light: Do
plants grow differently in
different colors of light?

the type of seedlings being used
the strength of light (wattage)
the wavelengths (colors) of light being
tested
the amount of water given to the
seedlings
the seedlings. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable most affected the seedlings growth.
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment you will
test the growth of plant seedlings under different colors of light. Within
the cells of a plants leaves and stems, there are various pigments that react
to light to perform photosynthesis. The pigments vary in color and
Step 1: Set-up of boxes with

aluminum foil and black
plastic. GAL E GR OU P.
197
Chlorophyll
concentration. Each pigment absorbs all colors

of light except the color of the pigment itself,
which is reflected. For example, if a plant contains mostly green pigments such as chlorophyll,
Incandescent light fixtures and bulbs can get
the plant should grow well under all colors of
hot. Do not handle or leave the lights on for
more than 10 hours at a time. Never leave them
light except green because it reflects most of the
on overnight. Keep them a safe distance from
green light without absorbing it. As a result, the
the cellophane filters at all times.
plant is starved for light and cannot perform
the photosynthesis process needed to produce
food and grow.
To begin this experiment, use what you know about chlorophyll and
the pigment colors found in plants to make an educated guess about how
plants will grow under various colors of light. This educated guess, or


for this experiment: Seedlings will grow best under white light, because
they can absorb more energy from the wide range of wavelengths present.
They will grow worst under green light, because that is the color of the
dominant pigment contained in their leaves and stems, and most of that
light will be reflected instead of absorbed.
In this case, the variable you will change is the color of the light, and
the variable you will measure is the amount of growth of the seedlings
over a period of several weeks. If the seedlings grow best under white light
and worst under green light, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (However, great care of the seedlings must
be taken to ensure their growth.)

Materials Needed
4 boxes, 24 inches (60 centimeters) square in size, open on one

side
aluminum foil
198
Chlorophyll
4 light fixtures with 40-watt white incandescent bulbs, such as

small desk lamps
4 plastic filters about 12 inches (30 centimeters) square, such as
cellophane in clear, green, blue, and red
black plastic cut from a garbage bag
4 shallow trays filled with potting soil
40 bean seeds, such as lima, kidney, or others (Use all of one type.)
water
Note: If you are unable to get light fixtures to use, use natural sunlight
and modify the setup described in the following procedure.
Approximate Budget $30$35 for light fixtures, if necessary, and $5 for
seeds and cellophane.

Timetable Approximately two monthsabout 20 days for the seeds to
germinate, and two to three weeks before the first true leaves appear.
1. Set up four identical boxes. Line the inside of each box with
aluminum foil. Cover the front opening with black plastic. Cut
a hole in the top, about 10 x 10 inches, (25 x 25 centimeters), to
allow light to enter.
2. Tape a different color plastic filter over
the hole on each box.
3. Position a light fixture approximately 12
inches (30 centimeters) above the opening on each box and aim the light inside
the box.
4. Place a tray of soil into each box and plant
10 seeds slightly below the surface of the
soil. Water gently.
5. Turn the lights on for eight to 10 hours a
day. Monitor the soil moisture and water
gently when needed.
6. Record the seed growth in each box.
Record which seedling is the tallest daily
for one month after the seeds sprout or
until the seedlings reaches the filter.
Step 3: Light fixture over

opening of box. GA LE G RO UP.
199
Chlorophyll
Summary of Results Make a chart to track the
Here is a problem that may arise in this experiment, a possible cause, and a way to remedy it.
Problem: The seeds did not grow.
Possible Cause: The seeds might be too old. You
can try again with new seeds or accept the results
if you think it was the lighting. If they died from
not getting enough water, then try again.
growth of the seedlings. Reflect on your hypothesis.

Were the seedlings more responsive to one color of
light? What color stimulated growth the least? Is
that color the seedlings most dominant pigment?
Summarize your results in writing.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept All the colors in plants and animals
are due to pigments, which have many functions.

Chlorophylls function is producing energy for photosynthesis. Melanin
is a skin pigment that protects people and animals from harmful solar
radiation.
information on questions that interest you about chlorophyll and other
pigments. As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them
with your science teacher or another knowledgeable adult before trying
them. Some pigments might be dangerous.
Step 6: Sample seed growth

200
Chlorophyll
what questions youre answering, what you are or

should be measuring, or what your findings prove
or disprove.
experiment:
propose to do.
question at hand.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Think of how you can
share your results with others. Charts, graphs, and diagrams of the progress
and results of the experiments are very helpful in informing others about
an experiment.
When cool weather comes in

autumn, chlorophyll breaks
down more rapidly than
carotene and xanthophyll,
making leaves such as these look
yellow and orange before they
fall from the tree. P HOT O
Related Projects You can create an experiment on pigments by discover-
ing how to extract pigments from their source in nature. Or you could
take an extracted pigment and find a use for it. For example, purple grape
juice can be used as an acid/base indicator.

Andrew Rader Studios. Photosynthesis. Raders Biology4kids.com. http://www.
biology4kids.com/files/plants photosynthesis.html (accessed on January 19,
2008). Provides information on plants and photosynthesis.
Halpern, Robert. Green Planet Rescue. New York: Franklin Watts, 1993.
Discusses the importance of plants and what can be done to protect plants
that face extinction.
Kalman, Bobbie. How A Plant Grows. New York: Crabtree Publishing, 1997.
Examines the stages of a seed plants development and includes activities on
how to grow plants.
Missouri Botanical Garden. Biology of Plants. www.mbgnet.net/bioplants
(accessed January 19, 2008). Providing information on the growth and life of
plants
201
16
Color
hen we look at white light, we are seeing all the colors of the rainbow
combined. Our world is filled with color. For humans, colors can
add beauty, convey information, and prompt emotions. For many animals
and plants, color is an essential part of their survival. What color is and how
we perceive it is behind the science of color.
Newton conducted many other

experiments with light and
color. C OR BI S-B ETT MA NN.
RE PR ODU CE D BY
PE RM IS SIO N.
What is color? Color is light energy, which is a series of electromagnetic waves. The waves in visible light are a sliver of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Microwaves, radio waves, and X rays are other types of waves in
the electromagnetic spectrum, but the human eye cannot detect them.
White light is a combination of the colors on the electromagnetic
spectrum. Each color has its own frequency and
wavelength. Frequency is the number of waves
that pass a point every second. The wavelength is
the distance between similar points on the
wave. Red light has the longest wavelength
and violet light the shortest. All the other colors
fall in between.
Experiments with bending light It was the
English scientist Isaac Newton (16421727), who
first proved in 1666 that white light could be
separated into colors. In one now-famous experiment, Newton darkened his room and made a
small slit in the shutters. He placed a glass prism
in front of the thin beam of light and saw a rainbow of colors. This band of colors is called a
spectrum.
Newton conducted many other experiments
with light and color. He demonstrated how the
colors in sunlight could be separated, then
203
Color
A rainbow appears because the

moisture in the air or raindrops
are acting as prisms. AP
P HOT O/ WAL LA W AL LA
U NIO N-B UL LET IN , JE FF
HOR NE R.
joined again to form white light. He found that when light hits a prism, it
is bent, or refracted. The wavelength of red light bends the least and the
wavelength of violet light bends the most. The wavelengths cause the
colors to bend and separate from one another in a certain order: red,
Visible Light
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infared
Ultra Violet
X-rays
wavelength
length of
wavelength
Each color has its own
frequency and wavelength.
I LLU ST RAT IO N BY TEM AH
NEL SO N.
204
Color
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

Light Refraction
The separation of visible light into its different
colors is called dispersion. The order of light
dispersion is commonly referred to by the more
easily remembered name: ROY G. BIV.
When we see a rainbow it is because the
moisture in the air or raindrops is acting as a
prism
prism. The white light from the sun hits the drop
and bends, dispersing into distinct colors.
In the 1800s, scientists learned that white
light is actually made up of three colors: red,
Isaac Newton first proved in
green and blue. These colors are referred to as primary colors. Primary
1666 that white light could be
colors cannot be separated into other colors. When red, green, and blue
separated into colors.
lightwaves are combined evenly they take the appearance of white light.
All the other colors we perceive are mixtures of the three primary colors.
NEL SO N.
What color we see is the color that is least absorbed. An object appears
blue when it absorbs all wavelengths of visible light except blue. When an
object absorbs all the light wavelengths, there is no color for us to see and
the object appears black. Technically, the black of night is not a color, it is
the absence of us seeing any color light at all. (Pigment colors, such as
paints, work by different rules than light. Mixing red, green, and blue light
will produce white; blending red, green and blue paints will form a muddy
black-brown.)
Rods and Cones There are two types of cells in the eye that allow us
to see light: rods and cones. The rods and cones lie in the retina, a layer in
the back of the eye. The cells send nerve impulses to the brain, which the
brain interprets as color and images.
Rods can detect gradations of light, movements, and shapes. In a room that is dimly lit,
rods are what help us see what is in the room.
People have about 120 million rods. Overall, its
the cones that allow us to see color. The eye has
only about six million cones. The cones can perRod
Cone
ceive green, red, or blue but cones do not detect
light that well. Thats why when the room is dark
we cannot see colors as well as a well-lit room.
Iris
Retina
When a persons cones do not work properly the person may be color-blind. There are
Rods and cones allow us to see

light. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
205
Color
WORDS TO KNOW
Cones: Cells in the retina that can perceive color.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The complete array of
electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves
(at the longest-wavelength end), microwaves,
infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma rays (at the shortestwavelength end).
Electromagnetic waves: Waves of energy that are
part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Hue: The color or shade.
Lens: A piece of transparent material with two
curved surfaces that bend rays of light passing
through it.
Nanometer: A unit of length; this measurement is
equal to one-billionth of a meter.
Optics: The study of the nature of light and its
properties.
Primary colors: The three colors red, green, and

blue; when combined evenly they produce
white light and by combining varying amounts
can produce the range of colors.
Prism: A piece of transparent material with a
triangular cross-section. When light passes
through it, it causes different colors to bend
different amounts, thus separating them into
a rainbow of colors.
Refraction: The bending of light rays as they
pass at an angle from one transparent or clear
medium into a second one of different
density.
Retina: The light-sensitive part of the eyeball
that receives images and transmits visual
impulses through the optic nerve to
the brain.
Rods: Cells in the retina that are sensitive to
degrees of light and movement.
Saturation: The intensity of a color.
different degrees and types of color-blindness, but in general, people who

are color-blind can still see some color.
The most common type of color-blindness is in problems with the
red/green cones. When one or more of the cones is not functioning, the
brain cannot distinguish certain colors from one another. Color-blindness
is an inherited trait, which means it is in the genes. It is far more common
in males, affecting an estimated one out of 12 men.
How deep and how bright A red rose, apple, and sunset all may
appear red, but the color of each is slightly different. A colors hue,
saturation, and brightness are all aspects of color that distinguish them
from one another. The hue is the color. Saturation is the intensity of the
color. If grey or black is added to a red than it is less saturated and appears
206
Color
more mauve. A pure red is fully saturated.

Brightness is the amount of light in the color.
In the following two experiment you will
explore two aspects of color: how color affects
perception and how heat energy relates to
color.
As you conduct the following two experiments on color, consider what aspects of color
you are curious about and would like to investigate further.
EXPERIMENT 1
Color and Flavor: How much
does color affect flavor
perception?
Purpose/Hypothesis People are used to specific

results of the experiment. Here are the main
the flavor of the juice
the ingredients in the recipe
the temperature of the food
the way the food is served
information the test subjects are told
about the experiment
are anything that might affect the flavor perception. If you change more than one variable, you
will not be able to tell which variable had the most
effect on how people perceived the flavor.
colors relating to certain foods or flavors. A

lemon is expected to be yellow, a lime green,
and a strawberry red. Seeing a certain color
sends signals to the brain about what the food will taste like.
In this experiment, you will investigate how color relates to the
perception of flavor. If the color is different than expected, will test
subjects identify the actual flavor? You can manipulate the flavor of a
gelatin by using uncolored fruit juice. By adding food coloring, you
can turn each gelatin a color that is different than its recognizable
color.
The next step is to ask at least three people to taste the gelatin.
In order to keep the experiment unbiased, do not tell the test subjects
what you are testing. You will make up a series of questions, with the
taste or flavor being among them. After hearing the results from
the test subjects, you can observe how color affects the perception
of taste.
To begin your experiment, make an educated guess about color and
flavor perception. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
207
Color


Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Test subjects will not identify the actual
flavor of the colored gelatin.
In this case, the variable you will change is the flavor and the variable
you will measure is peoples perception of the flavor.
Use caution when handling the hot juice. You

may want to ask an adult to help you heating
the juice on the stove.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, due to the time involved in making the
recipe and testing the subjects.

Materials Needed
Step 1: Measure out 1 cup of the

juice, then pour into the
saucepan and bring to a boil.
NEL SO N.
6 envelopes of unflavored gelatin

3 different flavors of clear juice, all the same brand (2 cups
of each juice). Apple, grape, pear, lemon, orange, and berry are
some options. Clear juice is sold in some supermarkets
and health food stores. It is also available from companies
online.
food coloring, colors to match the flavors
3 small rectangle or square pans (bread pans or 8-inch square pans
work well)
small saucepan
glass bowl
measuring cup
spoons
knife
stove or microwave
Approximate Budget $10 to $20, depending
upon the available juice.

Timetable Approximately four to five hours total
time making and chilling the gelatin; 30 minutes

testing subjects.
208
Color
Step-By-Step Instructions
1. For juice 1: Pour 1 cup of the juice in the

saucepan and bring to a boil.
When conducting experiments with food and
2. While the juice heats, pour 1 cup of cold
people, several problems can occur. Here are
juice in a bowl and add the gelatin. As
two problems you may encounter, possible
soon as the cup of juice has boiled pour it
cause, and ways to fix the problem.
into the bowl and stir until all the gelatin
Problem: The gelatin did not taste good.
is dissolved.
Possible cause: Depending upon the juice you
3. Decide what color you want the gelatin.
purchased, you may need to add sugar or
Remember to make it a completely differadd more water. Adapt the recipe until you
ent color than the traditional juice. For
like the way it tastes, and make a new batch.
example, if the juice is strawberry (red)
Problem: Everyone knew immediately the
you could make the color yellow to repgelatins were not natural.
resent lemon. Add the selected food color
Possible cause: You may have added too much
food coloring to make the gelatin look
one drop at a time into the bowl. Stir after
unnatural. You might want to purchase and
each drop until you have a color that
make flavored gelatins and try to match the
appears natural. Write down the color
color.
you selected for the juice.
4. Pour the colored gelatin into the bread
pan.
5. Repeat the process for juice 2 and juice 3, making sure to rinse the
bowl and saucepan before beginning each recipe. Remember to
write down what color you have selected for each flavor juice.
Only you will know!
Step 7: Cut each of the gelatins
6. Place all three pans in the refrigerator and allow to set for two to
into squares and place on a
four hours. It should be firm when you jiggle the pan.
plate. ILL US TRA TI ON B Y
TEM
AH N EL SON .
7. Cut each of the gelatins into squares and
place on a plate.
8. Write down a series of questions: Is the
gelatin too sweet? Is it firm enough? Does
the gelatin have enough flavor? What
flavor does it taste like?
9. Test each subject one at a time, apart
from one another so one does not influence someone else. Tell each test subject
you are testing a recipe and want his or
her opinion. After the subjects taste each
flavor, ask your questions.
209
Color

the colors along the visible light spectrum
the intensity of the white light being used
the temperature of the room or outside
environment
the surface material the color light
appears
are everything that might affect the temperature of the visible colors visible through the
prism. If you change more than one variable,
you will not be able to tell which variable had the
most effect on the temperature of the colors.
10. Test at least three subjects, or until you

run out of gelatin.
Summary of Results Was there one flavor more
than the others that the test subjects identified

correctly? How sure were the test subjects when
they identified the flavor? Was there one color
more than the others that the subjects could not
identify? Write up a summary of your findings.
Change the Variables You can change other
variables to investigate color and flavor perception. Try the experiment using different foods,
such as colored candies that all actually have the
same flavor. You could also change the color of
the plate and place setting to measure how that
affects food enjoyment or perception.
EXPERIMENT 2
Temperature and Color:
What color has the highest temperature?
Purpose/Hypothesis Light energy also carries heat energy. The different
colors of light energy all have unique wavelengths, and the energy of light
relates to its wavelength. Along the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths visible to the human eye) the color red has the longest wavelength
and violet has the shortest.
In this experiment you will determine the temperatures of different
colors of light along the visible light spectrum. Using a prism and a white
light, you will separate the white light into the colors of the spectrum,
much like a rainbow. You then will take temperature readings on both
ends of the spectrum: the red and violet ends. The differences in the
temperature readings will allow you to determine how a colors wavelength relates to heat energy. Do you think the color with the longer
wavelength will have lower or higher energy than the color with the
shorter wavelength?
Before you begin the experiment, make an educated guess about the
outcome based on your knowledge of the visible light spectrum and the
210
Color
wavelengths of the different colors. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A



or disprove your hypothesis. Here is one possible hypothesis for this
experiment: The color violet will have the highest temperature reading
because it has the shortest wavelength. Wavelength size decreases as the
energy of the light increases.
In this case, the variable you will change is the color along the
spectrum whose temperature you are measuring. The variable you will
measure is the temperature of the different colors along the spectrum.
Materials Needed
large prism or 2 small prisms (approximately 1 inch [2.5 centimeters] thick, available from science stores)
flashlight
digital thermometer
Styrofoam, piece about 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) long, wide
enough to cover the glasses (the Styrofoam holding fruit and vegetables in grocery stores or Styrofoam egg cartons work well)
watch or timer
2 drinking glasses
Steps 1 and 2: Place the

flashlight on the table sideways
and turn on the flashlight.
Position the prism in front of
the flashlight so that it catches
light. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
TEM AH N EL SON .

Timetable 1 hour.
1. Find a table to work on that is steady and

place it against a wall. Place the flashlight
on the table sideways and turn on the
flashlight.
211
Color
2. Position the prism in front of the flashlight so that it catches light and produces
a rainbow on the wall behind the table.
(If using two prisms, place one in front of
another at a slight angle.) This can take
some time. Keep moving the prisms until
you get a strong, clear spectrum of color
on the wall.
Step 5: The probe senses the
temperature. I LLU STR AT IO N
3. Set one drinking glass on either side of the

rainbow on the table. One glass should be
in the middle of the red and the other glass should be in the middle
of the violet.
4. Place the Styrofoam on top of the glasses.
5. Note the temperature of the thermometer, which should be at
room temperature. Carefully insert the thermometer through the
Styrofoam so that it is hanging through the Styrofoam. Place its
probe in line with the red color on the spectrum on the wall
behind it. (The probe senses the temperature.)
6. Wait 10 minutes and note the temperature. Remove the Styrofoam with the thermometer still in it and wait for it to return to
room temperature. This may take about 10 minutes.
7. Move the Styrofoam set up so that thermometers probe is in line
with the violet color on the spectrum.
8. After 10 minutes check the temperature and record.
Summary of Results Study the observations of your temperatures and
decide whether your hypothesis was correct. Did you see a slight difference between the temperature of the red and violet colors? Which one had
the higher temperature? What relationship does the temperature have
with the wavelength of the colors? Write up a paragraph of your results.
You may want to include pictures or drawings of your set-up.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment by measuring the
temperatures of other colors. You can also measure the temperatures of

the non-visible spectrum, just to the left and right of the red and violet
colors. What are these temperatures and how do they relate to what you
know about wavelengths.
212
Color

There are many aspects of the properties of color

you can study. Look at the variety of colors in
your home, foods, artwork, and in nature to
encourage ideas. Consider if you are interested
in exploring color from a physics perspective
and/or from a psychological perspective.
Check the Further Readings section for this
topic, and talk with a science teacher or a knowledgeable adult before finalizing your choice.

things through. Otherwise, you might not be sure
what question you are answering, what you are or
or disprove. Here are the steps in designing an
experiment:
Below are some problems that may occur during
this project, possible causes, and ways to
Problem: You could not get the prism to separate the light into a visible spectrum (rainbow).
Possible cause: The light may not be focused
enough. Try to focus the light from the flashlight
by magnifying it with a magnifying lens or shine
the light through a small hole cut out of the
bottom of a soda can. This will help to concentrate the light for the prism. You can also try
using a larger prism.
Problem: There is no temperature difference
between the red and violet colors.
Possible cause: The probe of the thermometer
may not be directly over the light. Make sure
that probe of thermometer is directly in the path
of the red and violet lights as they are shining
against the wall.

propose to do.
question at hand.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Your experiment can be
useful to others studying the same topic. When designing your experiment, develop a simple method to record your data. This method should
be simple and clear enough so that others who want to do the experiment
can follow it.
Your final results should be summarized and put into simple graphs,
tables, and charts to display the outcome of your experiment. You might
also want to have color visual displays.
213
Color
Related Projects Experiment 1 focused on humans and color perception.

You may want to explore how animals perceive and react to color. An
experiment could focus on what colors different animals can perceive and
how color can affect their lives. Plants also may respond to colors in
different ways. You may want to focus on saturation or hue. How can you
change or measure a colors saturation, for example.
Another aspect you may want to study might be color perception or
color blindness. If you choose either of these topics, experiments might be
how different colors relate to certain emotions or how color-blindness is
inherited. Your project does not have to be an experiment that investigates or
answers a question. It can also be a model, such as Newtons original
experiment with window shutters and a prism.

Color and Light. Patterns in Nature. http://acept.asu.edu/PiN/rdg/color/
color.shtml (accessed on April 26, 2008). Detailed information on color and
how we see.
Color Vision and Art. WebExhibits. http://webexhibits.org/colorart (accessed
on April 26, 2008). Information and interactives on color.
Cobb, Vicki and Josh Cobb. Light Action! Amazing Experiments with Optics.
New York: HarperCollins, 1993. Experiments with light and color.
Davidson, Michael W. et al. Light and Color. Molecular Expressions. http://
micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/lightandcolor/index.html (accessed on April
18, 2008).
Farndon, John. Color. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2001. Experiments
in color.
Hamilton, Gina L. Light: Prisms, Rainbows, and Colors. Chicago: Raintree, 2004.
Seckel, Al. Optical Illusions: The Science of Visual Perception. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 2006. Collection of optical illusions, with information on the science
of visual perception.
214
17
Comets and Meteors
arth is part of a solar system that is filled with celestial objects moving
about. Scientists theorize that many of these objects are materials left over
from when the solar system formedabout 4.6 billion years ago. Comets
and meteors are two such chunks of materials in the solar system. Every so
often these objects are visible to the naked eye as brilliant streaks of light
across the sky. Meteors appear regularly and are sometimes called shooting
stars; comets show themselves with far less frequency. Astronomers look to
these objects to learn more about the universe around Earth and the early
history of the solar system.
Hot snowballs Comets are often referred to as dirty snowballs because
of their makeup: a mixture of ice and dust. They typically move through the
solar system in orbits or revolutions around the Sun ranging from a few years
to several hundred thousand years.
Astronomers theorize there may be more than one trillion comets
zipping about the solar system, yet spotting a comet is rare. Most comets
are located on the outskirts of the solar system in a giant sphere called the
Oort cloud, which surrounds the solar system. The comets in the Oort
cloud can take over a million years to make a single revolution around the
Sun. Occasionally one of these comets is pulled by a nearby star and gets
pushed closer to the Sun. When it approaches the Sun it becomes visible to
astronomers. About a dozen of these new comets are discovered every year.
A few comets have a relatively short orbit. For example Halleys Comet
orbits the Sun about every 76 years. This comet is named after English
astronomer Edmond Halley (16561742), who was the first person to work
out the elliptical orbits of comets. After Halley spotted a comet in 1682, he
started reading through historical records. He found that two previous
comets, in 1531 and 1607, had orbital paths similar to the one he had
witnessed. These three comet sightings, he concluded, were actually the
same object making three appearances. Halley predicted this comet would
215
Comets and Meteors
pass through again in 1758 and, although he did

not live to see it, the comet appeared as predicted.
A tails story For a short time during each
coma
orbit around the Sun, comets can become visible
from Earth. When a comet approaches the Sun,
it develops three basic parts: a nucleus, a coma,
and a tail.
nucleus
The nucleus is the dirty snowball part of the
comet, made of ice and a small amount of
dust and other solids. It ranges from about 1 to
10 miles (1.616 kilometers) across and is at the
Components of a comet. G AL E
center of the comet. The nucleus and the coma make up the comet head of
GRO UP.
the comet. The coma is the blob of gas that roughly encircles the nucleus. It
is the brightest part of the comet. This region is formed as the comet
approaches the Sun and becomes warmer. The coma is made up of water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases that have sublimed from the solid
nucleus. Subliming is when a material goes directly from being a solid to
being a gas without becoming a liquid.
One of the most impressive sights of a comet is its tail, a long extension
from the head that always points away from the Sun. Even though it does not
have much mass, a comets tail can stretch into space several million miles.
Comets often have two tails. One type of tail is a dust tail. This is made
of dust leaving the nucleus. Gas and heat from the Sun push the tail
backward into its long streak. The dust tail is often curved or spread out,
and yellowish in appearance. Another type of tail is an ion tail. An ion tail
forms when the gas particles become ionized or charged by the Sun. The
molecules are pushed away from the nucleus by charged particles streaming
Halleys Comet orbits the Sun
out of the Sun. An ion tail is usually very straight and bluish.
about every 76 years. AP /W ID E
WO RLD PHO TO S
A meteors story As a comet hurls close to the
Sun and its ice melts, pieces of rock sometimes
loosen. These tiny solid remnants traveling through
space are called meteoroids. While the majority of
meteoroids come from comets, some are fragments
of planets or other celestial bodies. They are chunks
of stone, metal, or a combination of the two.
Wherever they originate, all meteoroids are small.
Most range in size from a grain of sand to a pebble.
They are the smallest known particle to orbit the
Sun. They are also fast. Meteoroids are usually
dust tail
216
Comets and Meteors
traveling at speeds ranging from 25,000 miles per

hour (40,000 kilometers per hour) to 160,000
miles per hour (256,000 kilometers per hour).
meteor
When a speedy meteoroid tears into Earths

atmosphere, the layer of air encircling our
planet, it produces a streak of light known as a
shooting star, or meteor. The blaze occurs as the
meteors intense speed heats up the air around it
to more than 3,000F (1,650C). This in turn
heats up the meteor and creates a flash of light
visible from the ground below. Some large
meteors can produce a brilliant flash. These
meteors are called fireballs and they can create
an explosion that can be heard up to 30 miles
(48 kilometers) away.
While the intense heat burns up the vast
majority of meteors, a small percentage make it through Earths atmosphere. These are called meteorites. Because of their high speeds, meteorites
can sometimes make huge craters when they hit the ground. A crater is a
circular pit created when a celestial object crashes into a planet or other
orbiting mass.
These craters are found almost everywhere in the solar system and they
pocket the surface of the Moon. Scientists have found about 150 craters on
Earth. One of the largest and best preserved craters on Earth is the
Barringer Meteor Crater in Arizona. The Barringer formed about
50,000 years ago. It stretches nearly 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and is
570 feet (174 meters) deep.
The size, speed, and angle of impact of the
meteor all determine whether the crater will be
simple or complex. Simple craters have a
smooth, bowl shape and a raised outer rim.
Complex craters have a central peak, or peaks,
and a relatively shallower depth. These large
craters form this shape when their initial steep
wall collapses downward and inward. The
explosion of the impact causes the fallen crater
floor to rebound. Rock fragments blast outward, creating the central peak or peaks.
meteoroid
crater
caused by
meteorite
Earth's
atmosphere
The progression of particles that

break away from a comet: They
first become meteoroids, then
meteors, and, finally,
meteorites. G AL E GR OUP .
A fragment of a meteorite
found in 1891 in Arizona, on
display at the Monnig Meteor
Gallery in Fort Worth, Texas.
AP/ WI DE W OR LD
217
Comets and Meteors
Showering shooting stars On any clear

night, a person can probably spot some meteors.
Several times every year, though, storms of meteors
will fill the night sky in what is called a meteor
shower.
simple crater
Because of their high rates of

speed, meteorites can sometimes
make huge craters when they
hit the ground. GA LE GRO UP.
complex crater
Meteor showers occur when Earth moves

through a stream of particles produced by comet
leftovers. Since the orbits of comets are known, it
is possible to predict many meteor showers. These
showers can create a brilliant light show as they
enter the atmosphere.
PROJECT 1
Comet Nucleus: Linking a Comets
Composition to its Properties.
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will construct a comet* using
either the same or similar ingredients that make up a real comet. Comets
are composed of bits of dirt or dust, held in place by ice. The ice is a
combination of water and carbon dioxide ice. Comets contain carbonbased or organic molecules and ammonia. Sodium or salt was found to be
A meteor streaks through the sky

over Joshua Tree National Park
in California. Stars moving
through the sky are seen as a
series of short lines across this
30-minute time exposure
frame. AP /WI DE W OR LD
218
Comets and Meteors
WORDS TO KNOW
Coma: Glowing cloud of gas surrounding the
nucleus of a comet.

Comet: An icy body orbiting in the solar system,

which partially vaporizes when it nears the Sun
and develops a diffuse envelope of dust and gas
as well as one or more tails.
Ion tail: One of two types of tails a comet may have,

it is composed mainly of charged particles and it
points away from the Sun.
Comet head: The nucleus and the coma of a

comet.
Comet nucleus: The core or center of a comet.
(Plural: Comet nuclei.)
Comet tail: The most distinctive feature of
comets; comets can display two basic types of
tails: one gaseous and the other largely composed of dust.
Meteor: An object from space that becomes

glowing hot when it passes into Earths
atmosphere; also called shooting star.
Meteor shower: A group of meteors that occurs
when Earths orbit intersects the orbit of a meteor
stream.
Meteorites: A meteor that is large enough to
survive its passage through the atmosphere and
hit the ground.

Meteoroid: A piece of debris that is traveling in

space.
Crater: An indentation caused by an object hitting

the surface of a planet or moon.
Oort cloud: Region of space beyond our solar

system that theoretically contains about
one trillion inactive comets.
Dust tail: One of two types of tails a comet may

have, it is composed mainly of dust and it points
away from the Sun.
Sublime: The process of changing a solid into a

vapor without passing through the liquid phase.
Fireball: Meteors that create an intense, bright

light and, sometimes, an explosion.

experiment.
in the comet Hale-Bopp. Trapped gas and an uneven surface are other
features of a comet.
It is these materials in the nucleus that form the brilliant head and tail
when they come close to the Sun. Once you have constructed the comet,
you can then observe its behavior.
*Adapted from Making A Comet in the Classroom by Dennis
Schatz, Pacific Science Center, 1985.
219
Comets and Meteors
Level of Difficulty Moderate (because of the
number of trials and careful measurements

needed).
How to Work Safely

Dry ice is carbon dioxide frozen at110F
(79C). If you touch a piece of dry ice too long,
it will freeze your skin and feel like a burn. Wear
gloves when working with dry ice and do not
place dry ice in your mouth. Also be careful
when you pour the ammonia into the spoon to
prevent it from splashing into your eyes.
Step 7: Wearing gloves, pat the

meteor into a snowball shape.
Keep the comet in the plastic
bag when shaping. GA LE
GR OU P.

Timetable 45 minutes for initial setup; several
hours observation time.

Materials Needed
2 cups (500 milliliters) of water

2 cups (500 milliliters) of dry ice, broken
into pieces if possible (dry ice is available at ice companies and
some butcher shops)
2 to 3 spoonfuls of dirt (a small dinner spoon is fine; the exact size is not
important)
1 spoonful of ammonia
1 spoonful of organic material (dark or light corn syrup works, or
Worcester sauce works well)
thick gloves
large plastic bowl
2 heavy-duty garbage bags
self-sealing plastic bag
hammer or mallet
mixing spoon
salt
paper towels
1. Cut open one garbage bag and use it to

line your mixing bowl.
2. Add the water and dirt in the mixing
bowl. Stir well.
3. Add a dash of ammonia
4. Add a sprinkle of salt and a spoonful of
the organic material. Stir well.
5. Put on gloves and place the dry ice in the
self-sealing plastic bag. Zip the bag closed
and place the bag inside the second
220
Comets and Meteors
6.
7.
8.
9.
garbage bag. Pound the dry ice with a

hammer until it is crushed.
Add the dry ice to the ingredients in the
mixing bowl and stir rapidly. Continue
stirring until the mixture is slushy and
almost totally frozen.
Lift the garbage bag with the comet out of
the bowl and shape it like a snowball.
Shape the plastic bag and not the snowball. Wear gloves.
Unwrap the comet and place it on the
bag.
After you have observed the comet for
several hours, break it apart and look at
the inside.
project, a possible cause, and a way to remedy
the problem.
Problem: The comet fell apart during the snowball formation.
Possible cause: You may not have broken up
the dry ice into small enough bits. Try the
experiment again, pounding the dry ice
thoroughly.
Summary of Results Draw a picture of the comet and note how it appears.
Gently blow on the comet and note your observation. After two hours have
passed, note your observations of the comet and compare it to your first
description. What has happened to the carbon molecules in the organic
substance? Write a brief explanation of how this miniature comet relates to
what occurs during a comets orbit.
EXPERIMENT 2
Meteor Impact: How do the characteristics
of a meteorite and its impact affect the shape
of the crater?
Purpose/Hypothesis It was in the early 1900s that scientists first concluded
a meteorite caused the formation of a crater. (Most astronomers before
that time had assumed that craters were formed by volcanoes.) The first
crater that scientists proved had come from a meteorite was the Barringer
Meteor Crater in the Arizona desert. This gigantic depression is nearly
1 mile (1.6 kilometers) wide and 570 feet (174 meters) deep. Since that
time, scientists have studied both the many craters on the Moon and the
ones on Earth to study meteorite impact.
In this experiment you will investigate the factors that affect the
formation of simple meteor craters. You will examine how a meteors size,
angle of impact, and speed of impact affect the crater shape. Speed in this
221
Comets and Meteors

the shape of the object
the weight of the object
the angle of impact
the speed of the object
the substance the object impacts
are everything that might affect the shape of
the crater. If you change more than one variable
at a time, you will not be able to tell which
variable changed the crater formation.
experiment is determined by the drop height. The

higher the drop height, the faster the simulated
meteor hits the surface.
your knowledge of meteors and craters. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A


experiment: The faster and heavier the simulated meteor, the deeper and
wider the crater; a meteor coming in at an angle will form an elongated crater.
In this case, the variables you will change, one at a time, are the weight of
the meteor, the speed of the meteor, and the angle of impact. The variable you
will measure is the depth and diameter of the crater.
Conducting a standard experiment will help you isolate each variable
change between the standard experiment and each of your trials. To change
only one variable at a time, it is important to always use a simulated meteor
of standard weight and use a standard drop height. Then you will change
one variable at a time. Your control will be a medium-weight meteor, at a
vertical, 180-degree drop, and a drop height of 39 inches (1 meter).
You will complete three tests in this experiment. You will measure how
the weight of a simulated meteor, the speed of the simulated meteor, and the
angle of impact of the simulated meteor affect the craters physical characteristics. For each variable you will measure the craters depth and diameter.
The diameter is the measurement across a circle. In this case, it is a point on
the peak of the rim to a point on the rim on the opposite side. In actuality
there are many factors affecting a meteors crater.
For increased accuracy, you will conduct three trials of each test, then
average the measurements.
222
Comets and Meteors
Level of Difficulty Moderate (because of the

number of trials and careful measurements
needed).
Materials Needed

shallow rectangle pan or plastic container,

about 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters)
long and 2 inches (5 centimeters) deep
fine, dry sand (available at hardware stores or greenhouses)
powder of contrasting color to sand, such as cinnamon, cocoa, or
paprika
empty shaker, such as a saltshaker
nine small round objects of similar shape to simulate meteors: three
of the same light weight, three of the same medium weight, and three
of the same heavy weight (marbles, candies, or pebbles work well)
ruler
protractor
string, about 4 feet (30 centimeters)
tape
newspapers (optional)
cardstock, cut into thin strips about 0.125 (1=8) inches
(3 millimeters) wide
Timetable 1 hour.
1. Weigh each of the simulated meteors and note on a chart. Create a

separate chart for mass, speed, and angle of impact. Each chart
should have separate rows for the diameter and depth measurements. Make a note of the standard meteor on the chart.
2. Place newspapers under the pan or conduct the experiment outside to avoid a sandy cleanup.
3. Fill the pan about three-quarters full with sand. Shake until the
sand is level.
4. With the shaker, sprinkle a light layer of the contrasting colored
powder over the sand. This will help you measure the craters
shape.
223
Comets and Meteors
Mass
Light
Step 1: Example of the Mass

data chart; one of the three
charts to be created for
Step 6: One at a time, drop the

three lightest-weight simulated
meteors vertically from a height
of 39 inches (1 meter) onto the
surface. GA LE GRO UP.
224
average
(weight)
Medium
Heavy
(weight)
(weight)
diameter
Standard
depth
Standard
5. Make sure the sand is level and the outer layer is even before you
continue.
6. To test for the effect of size: One at a time, drop the three lightestweight simulated meteors vertically from a height of 39 inches (1
meter) onto the surface (you may have to stand on a chair). Do not
throw the object. Drop the objects so that the craters are several inches
apart.
7. Measure the diameter of the resulting craters. Average the three
measurements and record on a chart.
8. Measure the depth of the craters by carefully placing one of the
narrow strips of paper at the bottom of the crater and marking on
the paper where the paper meets the rim of the crater. Average the
three measurements and record on chart.
9. Level out the sand and the contrasting-color layer.
10. To test for speed: Increase the drop heights
to 79 inches (2 meters) and drop the three
medium-weight simulated meteors. Again,
drop them so the craters are several inches
apart. Record the results. Level the sand
and contrasting-color layer.
11. Using the same three medium-weight
simulated meteors, decrease the drop
height to 20 inches (0.5 meters). Average
the measurement results and note in a
chart. Level the sand and contrastingcolor layer as before.
Comets and Meteors
12. To test for angle impact: Tie the piece of

string to the midpoint of the protractor
and tape the protractor to the bottom of
the container. Use the string as a guide for
the angle of impact.
13. Hold the string at a 75-degree angle and
drop the three medium-weight meteors
into the box at that angle, at the height
of 39 inches (1 meter). Measure the diameter and depth of the resulting craters and
record the averages on a chart. Level
again.
14. Drop the three medium-weight meteors
into the box at a 45-degree angle. Record
the results.
remedy the problem.
Problem: The crater depth was too shallow to
measure in some craters.
Possible cause: You may have chosen projectiles that were too light. Set aside the small
and medium projectiles, and select two new
sets that are heavier than whatever was the
heaviest object used before. Repeat the
experiment.
Summary of Results Create a graph illustrating

the data in each chart. Make sure you use different colors or symbols for each of the variables in the chart and label each
chart carefully.
Compare each of the variables to the standard projectile. How did the
weight of the projectile affect the size of the crater? How did the angle of
impact affect crater formation? For years astronomers hypothesized that
objects that landed at an angle would produce an elongated-shape crater.
Through experimentation scientists discovered that projectiles create round
craters, independent of the angle of impact. Do your results match these
findings?
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment several ways:
Try different angles of impact

Alter the shape of the projectiles
Change the surface the projectile impacts
Change the consistency of the surface

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Meteors and comets are
amazing sights that can provide useful information about the universe. As
both celestial bodies are visible to the naked eye, although comet sightings
are quite rare, it may be possible to gather data on these objects through
225
Comets and Meteors
observation. Find an amateur astronomer who has observation equipment, and discuss a possible project with him or her. You may also want
to investigate whether any science centers in your area have meteorite
fragments that you can study.
Check the Further Readings section for predicted comet and meteor
sightings, along with information gathered from previous sightings. Talk
with your science teacher, along with any professional or amateur astronomers, to learn more about comets and meteors. If you do choose to
observe meteors or comets during the daylight, remember to never look
directly at the Sun, as it can damage your eyes.
need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise, you might not
question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In any experiment you
conduct, you should look for ways to clearly convey your data. You can
do this by including charts and graphs for the experiments. They should
be clearly labeled and easy to read. You may also want to include photographs and drawings of your experimental setup and results, which will
226
Comets and Meteors
Related Projects There are many related projects you can undertake to
learn more about comets and meteors. Meteor showers occur throughout
the year. Gathering data from observing meteors is one possible project.
Because comet sightings are far more rare, you can create a model of an
active comet orbiting the Sun, using household items to represent the
objects in the solar system. Research the spatial relationships of celestial
bodies in the solar system as you work on your project to ensure you have
the model to scale.
You could also investigate if any craters are located in your surrounding
area and, if so, set out on a field trip to examine the formation. If there are no
craters in your area or you cannot visit one, you can use reference materials.
You can compare how the sizes and shapes of craters relate to the meteors
composition. Why would one meteorite form a crater and another simply
land on Earth? You can also conduct a research project to examine the data
and theoretical information that astronomers have learned about the universe from their studies of comets and meteors.

The Barringer Meteorite Crater. http://www.barringercrater.com (accessed on
January 17, 2008). Story of the famous crater and the persistent scientist who
proved a crater was caused by a meteorite, not a volcano.
Bonar, Samantha. Comets. New York: Franklin Watts, 1998. The makeup,
orbits, and other information on comets, with illustrations.
Britt, Robert Roy. Meteors and Meteor Showers: The Science. Space.com.
http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/meteors ez.html
(accessed on January 18, 2008). Information on meteors and meteor showers,
includes animation and meteor composition.
Freudenrich, Craig C. How Comets Work. How Stuff Works. http://science.
howstuffworks.com/comet3.htm (accessed on January 17, 2008). Clear
explanation of how comets work.
Kronk, Gary W. Comets & Meteor Showers. http://meteorshowersonline.com
(accessed on January 18, 2008). Site on comets and meteors includes clear
explanations and a calendar of times for future sightings.
Orbits. Near Earth Object Program. http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/orbits (accessed on
January 18, 2008). Enter any asteroid or comet and see its orbit.
World Books Young Scientist: Volume 1. Chicago: World Book, Inc., 1995. Well
illustrated reference with basics of space and space study.
227
18
Composting/Landfills
omposting is the process in which organic wastes are broken down

biologically and become dark, fertile soil called humus. An ancient
practice, composting probably began when the original hunter-gatherers
began cultivating food and saw that crops grew better in areas where the soil
contained manure, the waste matter of animals.
Agricultural composting with manure was being used in the Mesopotamia Valley in Asia as early as 13 B . C . E . Not surprisingly, Native American
tribes practiced composting long ago, as did the first colonists who arrived
in North America.
A smelly solution French chemist Jean Baptiste Boussingault
(18021887) made significant contributions to agricultural chemistry by
suggesting that good soil was made by the action of microorganisms,
bacteria, and fungi that break down waste. Working on his farm, he applied
and studied the results of organic methods of farming from 1834 to 1876.
At that time, composting used mostly animal manure or dead fish, as
well as nutrient-rich muck from swampy areas. By the twentieth century,
large animals such as the buffalo, whose droppings fertilized the prairie soil,
were disappearing as were many of the farming communities that contributed barnyard manure to compost piles.
In 1934, Sir Albert Howard, an Englishman, developed the modern
organic concept of farming. Through several years of research in Indore,
India, he formulated the Indore method, a process that used three times
more plant waste than manure in sandwich-like layers of green or wet
material. Howard also pointed out the importance of microorganisms in
the process. In 1942, J.I. Rodale began publishing Organic Farming and
Gardening. Rodale used Howards techniques and experimented with his
own. He is considered the pioneer of organic methods of farming in the
United States.
229
Chomping microbes How does composting

work? Let us begin with the basics, the organic
waste. That would be vegetable scraps such as carrot
tops and peelings, plus leaves, paper bags, grass
clippings, tea bags, and coffee grounds. Carbon in
these organic waste materials provides food for the
microorganisms, starting the composting process.
When these microbes chomp away and begin
digesting, the carbon is burned off or oxidized,
causing the composting pile to heat up. The heat
kills any harmful organisms. Macroorganisms
such as earthworms, insects, mites, and grubs
continue the composting process by chewing the
organic matter into smaller pieces. Through digestion and excretion, both types of organisms release
important chemicals into the compost mass, which
then becomes humus, a nutrient-rich soil.
Backyard compost bins are

simple to use. PET ER ARN OL D
I NC.
The transformation is speeded up by a balanced supply of carbon and nitrogen, the oxygen
required by the microorganisms, enough moisture
to allow biological activity, and suitable temperatures. But it is really the diverse microorganisms
that chomp away and activate the process. Without
them, we would be buried in wastes.
In the United States, more garbage is generated than in any other
country in the world. Materials that could be used in composting make
up 2030% of the waste streamthe waste output of any area or facility.
This figure doubles in the autumn when leaves and garden clippings are
added. All this waste winds up in landfills.
Landfills that raised the roof Landfills are huge depressions in the
ground or equally huge mounds above ground where garbage is dumped.
Like compost piles, landfills also have centuries-old beginnings. The
ancient cities of the Middle East were built up over time on mounds
that contained the remains of everyday life. In excavations of the ancient
city of Troy, in what is now Greece, building floors were found to have
layers of animal bones and artifacts that had been alternated with layers of
clay. These layers piled up until it was necessary to raise roofs and rebuild
doorways.
230
During the Bronze Age (30001000 B . C . E .),

the city of Troy rose about 4.7 feet (1.4 meters)
each century (100 years) because of these accumulations. Landfilling has also been used to extend
shorelines. In New York City during the eighteenth
century, shorefront roads were extended into the
water by landfill that included broken dishes, old
shoes, and even the rotted hulls of boats.
Sanitary landfills In the 1930s, solid waste
materials covered with soil became known as sanitary landfill. As with composting, a decomposition process takes place in landfills. The process has an aerobic and an
anaerobic phase. Aerobic means requiring oxygen. Anaerobic means functioning without oxygen. In the aerobic phase, biodegradable solid wastes
react with the landfills oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. The
landfill temperature rises and a weak acid forms within the water, dissolving
some of the minerals. Microorganisms that do not need oxygen break down
wastes into hydrogen, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and inorganic acids during
the anaerobic stage. Gas in the form of carbon monoxide and methane is
produced in the third stage of decomposition.
Macroorganisms, such as
earthworms, chew organic
matter into smaller pieces.
PHO TO R ES EAR CH ER S IN C.
In a landfill, many of the materials, such as plastic, glass, and aluminum cans, containers, and bottles, can take up to forty years or more to
decompose. As a result, these materials are quickly filling the space available
in landfills. That is why recycling is encouraged in most communities. In
recycling, waste materials are used to produce new materials.
Americans dump slightly over half of our
garbage into landfills, according to the U.S.
Energy Information Administration. The remaining garbage is either recycled or burned. Landfills
are not bottomless pits. Thousands of landfills
have become full and closed. For example, one
of the largest landfills in the world was the Fresh
Kills landfill in New York State. Covering 2,200
acres, the Fresh Kills landfill officially closed in
2001. Understanding how composting and landfills work helps everyone become more aware of
what happens to the garbage that is thrown away.
Dumping garbage in a landfill.

COR BI S.
231
WORDS TO KNOW
Aerobic: A process that requires oxygen.
Anaerobic: A process that does not require oxygen.
Biodegradable: Materials that can undergo
decomposition by biological variables.
Biological variables: Living factors such as bacteria,
fungi, and animals that can affect the processes
that occur in nature and in an experiment.
Landfill: A method of disposing of waste materials

by placing them in a depression in the ground or
piling them in a mound. In a sanitary landfill, the
daily deposits of waste materials are covered
with a layer of soil.
Macroorganisms: Visible organisms that aid in
breaking down organic matter.
Manure: The waste matter of animals.
Composting: The process in which organic compounds break down and become dark, fertile soil
called humus.
Microorganisms: Living organisms so small that

they can be seen only with the aid of a
microscope.

that will be changed during the experiment.
Organic: Any material containing carbon atoms.
Decomposition: The breakdown of complex molecules of dead organisms into simple nutrients that
can be reutilized by living organisms.
Environmental variables: Nonliving factors such as
air temperature, water, pollution, and pH that can
affect processes that occur in nature and in an
experiment.
Humus: Fragrant, spongy, nutrient-rich decayed
plant or animal matter.
pH scale: Abbreviation for potential hydrogen. The

scale ranges from 0 to 14. Neutral pH is 7, such
as distilled water. Acids have pH values lower
than 7, such as vinegar, which has a pH of 3.3.
Alkalines or bases have pH values higher than 7,
such as baking soda, which has a pH of 8.2.
Recycling: The use of waste materials, also known
as secondary materials or recyclables, to
produce new products.
an experiment.
Waste stream: The waste materials generated
by the population of an area, or by a specific
industrial process, and removed for disposal.
EXPERIMENT 1
Living Landfill: What effect do the microorganisms
in soil have on the decomposition process?
Purpose/Hypothesis The purpose of this experiment is to determine what
happens to common household items that are discarded and placed in a

landfill. In nature, physical, chemical, and biological factors act upon our
232
waste and work together in the process of decomposition. This experiment will determine what
action organisms in the soil have on garbage.
Before you begin, make an educated guess about
the outcome of this experiment based on your
knowledge of composting and decomposition.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Household garbage covered with soil will
decay faster than garbage not covered with soil.
presence or absence of soil, and the variable you
will measure is the differences in condition between
the garbage in the two bags after two to three
months. If the garbage in the bag with soil has
decayed more than the garbage in the bag without
soil, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Easy/Moderate, because of
the time involved.

Materials Needed

Variables are anything that might affect the results
of an experiment. This experiment involves both
environmental variables and biological variables.
Here are the main variables in this experiment:
the presence of airneeded for living
things, bacteria, fungi, etc.
the presence and amount of wateralso
needed for living things, bacteria, fungi, etc.
the temperaturewarm temperatures
promote biological decomposition; cold
temperatures (especially freezing
temperatures) can cause physical breakdown when water freezes and expands.
the pHextreme pH levels can stop
biological activity and cause chemical
breakdown. For example, strong acids
and bases are corrosive and can chemically break down debris.
the amount and types of bacteria
presentthese microscopic organisms in
the soil consume organic matter
the amount and types of fungithese
microscopic and macroscopic organisms
also consume organic matter
are everything that might affect the amount of
decomposition of the garbage. If you change
decomposition.
two 1-gallon plastic bags with holes.

Each bag should have approximately 20 randomly placed holes.
The holes should be about 0.5 inch (1.25 centimeters) in diameter. A hole puncher or pencil can accomplish this task.
2 twist ties to seal bags
5 pairs of household garbage items (for example, 2 food containers,
2 glass bottles, 2 pieces of leftover food or bones, 2 small sticks or
leaves, and 2 metal cans)
233

Always wear gloves when handling garbage.
Use caution when handling sharp objects, glass,
or metal.
permanent marker
3 to 5 cups of soil
plastic gloves
Approximate Budget $5 for the materials that
cannot be found in your household or at school.

Timetable Three to four months for decomposi-
tion to take place.

Step 4: Completed control and

test bags. GA LE GRO UP.
1. Prepare a sketch and written description of the materials being placed into
each bag.
2. Prepare the control experiment. The
control for this experiment will remove
as many variables as possible from the
test in order to see the results from a
single variable. In one bag place one of
each item and sprinkle a little water
over them. Do not add soil to the control bag. Seal the bag with a twist tie.
3. Prepare the test bag. In the other bag,
place one of each item. Add to the bag 3 to 5 cups of soil to cover
the garbage. Sprinkle the mixture with water and seal the bag with
a twist tie.
Materials needed for

234
4. Label each bag (control or test) and

place both of them outside in a shady spot.
5. Open the bags every two to three weeks,
sprinkle more water over the contents,
and reseal the bags.
6. After three months, open the bags and
pour out the contents of each onto separate pieces of newspaper. Remember to
wear gloves. Record what changes have
occurred to each item. Compare the differences in breakdown between the control
and test bags.
Summary of Results When analyzing the contents
Because this experiment requires living organisms to act upon waste, it is essential that the
conditions in the landfill be correct. Factors such
as extreme weather conditions or excessive
temperatures could cause undesirable results in
your experiment. If you should have problems,
try the following tips: Always keep soil moist,
not wet. Make sure the soil does not get too hot
or cold. Temperatures between 40F and 100F
(4C and 38C) are ideal. If you use black
garbage bags, keep them out of the sun,
because the dark color absorbs light and can
overheat the soil easily.
of each bag, sketch the objects and write a brief

description of their conditions. Look for any activity of organisms like worms or insects. If anything
is smelly, slimy, or has a black stain due to bacterial action, record it in the
result chart (see sample chart). Note the difference in decay between the
organic waste (food) and the inorganic waste (containers).
Sample landfills results chart

for Experiment 1. G ALE
GR OU P.
ment by changing the variables. For example, you

can place one bag in a chilly basement or the
freezer and the other bag in a warm spot outside
to determine the effect of temperature. You could
also add water to one bag, but not to the other, to
determine the effect of water. To determine the
effect of pH on decomposition, you could add an
acidic material like vinegar to one bag, and add
water to the other bag.
EXPERIMENT 2
Composting: Using organic
material to grow plants
Purpose/Hypothesis This experiment will exam-
ine the principle of composting, the process of

converting complex organic matter into the
basic nutrients needed by living organisms. This
235
experiment will utilize organic waste (household and yard waste) as

nutrients for plants. It will allow you to investigate which waste products
can be composted and best utilized by plants. Before you begin, make an
educated guess about the outcome of the experiment based on your
knowledge of composting and decomposition. This educated guess, or
Step 2: How to fill pot #1.

GA LE G RO UP.

hypothesis for this experiment: Yard waste will break down faster than
household waste and will provide more nutrients for plants.
In this case, the variable you will change is the type of waste used to
make compost, either yard waste or household waste, and the variable you
will measure is the amount of decomposition of the waste and the growth
of the plants. You expect the yard waste to break down faster and produce
taller plants. As a control experiment, you will grow one plant without
any waste to judge the growth without compost. If the plant with yard
waste compost grows taller than either of the
other two plants, and the yard waste has decomposed more than the household waste, your
involved.
Materials Needed
three 2-gallon (7.5-liter) potting containers (terra cotta, ceramic, or plastic) with
one or more holes in the bottom for
drainage
3 pounds (1.3 kilograms) topsoil
3 to 5 pounds (1.3 to 2.3 kilograms) sand
3 to 5 pounds. (1.3 to 2.3 kilograms) organic
waste (use two types: householdtable
scraps, rotten vegetables, coffee grounds,
236
etc.and yard wasteleaves, twigs, grass

clippings, weeds, etc.)
3 small identical living plants (annual
flowers or vegetable plants), such as
sunflowers, beans, or tomatoes
3 stakes for markers (Popsicle sticks will
work)
plastic or rubber gloves
Approximate Budget $5 (use topsoil from your
yard if available).
Timetable Two to four months.
1. Mix the topsoil and sand together to

create the soil base.
2. Prepare the control experiment. Fill pot
#1 with the soil base, leaving 2 inches
(5 centimeters) at the top of the pot.
Place one plant into the soil, covering all
the roots. Water generously.
3. Prepare pot #2. Add to the soil base the
household waste you collected (scraps, rotten
vegetables, etc.). Mix the soil thoroughly.
Place a plant into the soil, covering all the
roots. Water generously.
4. Prepare pot #3. Follow the directions for
pot #2 but substitute the yard waste (grass
clippings, leaves, etc.) instead of household waste.
5. Put markers in the pots identifying them as
control, household, or yard. Place the
pots in a sunny location and monitor the
growth of the plants. If possible, take photographs of them at the beginning of the
experiment. Water the plants when the soil
feels dry. Do not allow them to dry out
completely.

the presence of airneeded for living
things, bacteria, fungi, etc.
the presence and amount of wateralso
needed for living things, bacteria, fungi,
etc.
the temperaturewarm temperatures
promote biological decomposition; cold
temperatures (especially freezing temperatures) can cause physical breakdown
when water freezes and expands.
the pHextreme pH levels can stop
biological activity and cause chemical
breakdown. For example, strong acids
and bases are corrosive and can chemically break down debris.
the amount and types of bacteria
presentthese microscopic organisms in
the soil consume organic matter
the amount and types of fungithese
microscopic and macroscopic organisms
also consume organic matter
the type of plantroots of plants aid in
the physical breakdown of material by
helping to separate materials as the roots
grow through the waste
are everything that might affect the degree of
decomposition and the growth rate of the
plants. If you change more than one variable,
you will not be able to tell which variable had
the most effect on the decomposition and plant
growth.
237
6. Graph the weekly growth of the plants,

recording the plant height, number of
leaves, and root development, if visible.
Wear gloves when handling waste and mixing

soil.
7. After two to four months record the final

heights and differences in the plant growth
between each pot. Empty the pots and
evaluate the amount of composting that
occurred in the soil. Look for recognizable waste materials, record
results.
Summary of Results During the experiment you will be recording the plant
growth in the three pots. Ideally, the pot that is composting fastest will
provide the most nutrients for its plant. It is essential to measure the height
of each plant. You may also want to record which plant flowered first, how
often it bloomed, and whether it produced fruit.
Change the Variables Try varying the experiment by changing the
Step 3: How to fill pot #2. G AL E
variables. You can make two identical pots with the same soil, garbage,
and plants. Give one pot half as much water as the other and compare
the differences in growth. You can also experiment with the pH of
the waste materials. Most leaves are acidic when composted and have a
low pH. Try adding 1 cup (about 0.25 liter) of garden lime (calcium
carbonate) to the soil to neutralize the acidic leaves.
GRO UP.
Modify the Experiment You can simplify this
experiment by focusing only on the soil

composting and controlling which living
organisms are in the soil. Worms break
down organic matter. Before you add the
topsoil into the pots, make sure it contains
worms. If needed, add the worms carefully
and divide them evenly among the three pots.
Worms need moisture, air, food (organic
matter), and warmth (room temperature).
First, note the condition of the waste
matter before you place it in each pot. Add
the topsoil (with worms). After three weeks,
pour out the contents of each pot and measure the decomposition of the waste.
238
You can also use worms to make this experiment more challenging. Add two more pots to
the experiment, so that you have five pots in
total. In pots #4 and #5, duplicate the waste
and process as in pots #2 and #3, except with
the addition of worms. Add the same number of
worms to pot #4 and pot #4. Make sure to keep
all the plants moist. After several months, note
the results. After the experiment is complete,
carefully release the worms into a yard or other
safe environment.
Because of infinite variables, such as the different kinds of organic waste that you can use in
this experiment, the result can vary greatly. For
instance, if you use oak leaves, which are
resistant to decay and highly acidic, your
experiments results may be different than
expected. If one plant dies, the experiment
should be restarted from the beginning. If you
notice the leaves are being eaten, try to remove
the pests, but first ask for help from an adult.
Design Your Own

Experiment
How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept To create your own
experiment, consider your available resources. Decide what interests you.

You may want to create a compost pile of household waste and create soil
for a herb garden, or find ways to reduce your consumption of nonbiodegradable waste such as plastics. Although the choice is yours, you
need a clear goal that will keep you motivated and interested.
Step 7: Sample plant height

data sheet. GA LE GRO UP.
239
composting questions that interest you.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results It is important that your
experiments results are saved for other scientists to examine and compare.
You should keep a journal and record notes and measurements in it. Your
experiment can then be utilized by others to answer their questions about
your topic.
Related Projects When thinking about doing a project related to waste
management, you need to limit your focus to one aspect of the field. For
example, if you decide that recycling is your interest, choose what type of
material you wish to work with. Since organic waste is smelly and metal and
glass are dangerous, a good choice may be plastics. You can now begin to
research ideas on how to recycle plastics. Recycling, composting, waste
reduction, incineration, and conservation are all topics that can be explored
and narrowed down to a concept that can lead to an interesting project.

Appelhof, Mary. Worms Eat My Garbage: How to Set Up & Maintain a Worm
Composting System. Kalamazoo, MI: Flower Press, 1997.
Franke, Irene, and David Brownstone.The Green Encyclopedia. New York:
Prentice Hall, 1992. Good general reference book on environmental
practices, including composting.
240
Leuzzi, Linda. To the Young Environmentalist. Stamford, CT: Franklin Watts,

1997. Interviews with respected environmentalists, including a biologist of a
waste management facility.
Saunders, Tedd. The Bottom Line of Green is Black: Strategies for Creating
Profitable and Environmentally Sound Businesses. New York: Harper and Row,
1992. Profiles of companies, such as Readers Digest, that address landfill
waste in their business practices.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Composting. http://www.epa.gov/
compost/ (accessed on January 17, 2008). Explains basic composting
information, regional programs, and the environmental benefits.
241
19
Crystals
rystals affect your life in countless ways, from what you eat to how
your computer works. Any solid matter whose particles are arranged
in a regular and repeated pattern is called a crystal. The type of particle and
its geometric pattern determine the properties of the crystal. Salt, sugar,
and rubies are all crystals, along with many metallic elements, such as iron.
Both natural rock and artificial materials are often crystalline. Our bones
even contain tiny crystals of a mineral called apatite.
All crystals have flat, smooth surfaces, called faces. Some crystals, such
as diamonds, are formed over millions of years, while others, such as
snowflakes, are formed in a matter of hours. Crystals of the same substance
have the same geometric pattern between its particles. This pattern is called
a crystal lattice. In crystals the smallest possible repeating structural unit is
called a unit cell. The unit cell is repeated in exactly the same neat arrangement over and over throughout the entire material.
Symbols and surgery Crystals have been a part of cultures throughout history, from ancient Egyptians to modern days. Topaz, emeralds,
rubies, sapphires, and diamonds are examples of crystals long prized as
gems. Their brilliance, durability, and rarity have caused people to attach
superstitions and symbolism to them. Emeralds were once thought to
blind snakes; amethysts to cure drunkenness; diamonds to make a soldier
undefeatable; and rubies were a symbol of power.
In the 1900s, researchers began to use crystals to improve many areas
of peoples lives, from technology to medicine. The properties of crystals,
such as hardness, conductivity, insulation, and durability, make them
valuable. In modern day crystals are used in electric fuses, control circuits,
industrial tools, and communication equipment. Diamonds are used in
drill bits, surgery scalpels, and saw blades. The television, radio, and camera
all work because of crystals. Some laser beams used in surgery and welding
243
Crystals
are made using crystals. Crystals are also found in

watches, flat panels for computer displays, and
solar-powered calculators.
Molecule
Atoms
Unit Cell
Shapes and structures Crystals are made of

either atoms or molecules. An atom is the smallest
piece of an element that keeps the elements chemical properties. A molecule is composed of two or
more atoms. It is the smallest particle of a substance that still has the properties of that substance.
Inside the core of an atom are positive and negative
charges.
The majority of crystals are made of ions, a

charged atom or molecule. Inside the core of an
atom are both positive and negative electrical
charges. Atoms can either lose or gain negative
charges. The charge of an atom is neutral when it has equal positive and
negative charges. When an atom loses an electron it is called a positive ion
and when it gains a negative charge it is called a negative ion. Most
minerals and rocks are formed from ions.
Group of Unit Cells
Crystal
From an atom to a crystal: The

smallest repeating unit in a
crystal is the unit cell. G AL E
GRO UP.
From televisions to
wristwatches, crystals are a part
of everyday life. C OPY RI GH T
# K ELL Y A . QU IN.
The inner arrangement of the atoms or molecules, the unit cell,

determines the outward shape of the crystal. Because of a crystals geometric nature, many have strange and interesting shapes. There are seven
basic crystal systems, categorized by their geometric shapes.
It is the internal structure of the crystal that determines its properties.
Each atom has specific properties, yet crystals made of the same atoms can
have unique properties. In graphite, the material
in a pencil, carbon atoms are spaced far apart in
layers. The layers are held together by weak bonds
and can shift over one another. This makes graphite one of the softest minerals. On the other hand,
the carbon atoms in diamond are bonded tightly
to one another in closer layers. This makes a
diamond a rigid and hard substance.
How a crystal reacts to electrical forces and
light, its shape, hardness, color, and the rate at
which it conducts heat all depend on a crystals
internal structure. Some crystals will split light,
244
Crystals
for example, causing a double image. Other

crystals will bend a beam of light.
Crystal formation The size and shape of a
crystal depends on how it is formed. Impurities,
temperature, pressure, and the amount of space
will affect what a crystal looks like. In snowflakes,
for example, colder temperatures produce crystal
snowflakes with sharper tips on the sides. Snowflakes that grow under warmer conditions grow
more slowly, resulting in smoother shapes.
Atom
Crystals only grow large and perfect under

specific conditions. Most crystals grow irregularly
and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish their faces. It is rare to find a
flawless crystal, which is why such perfect crystals are worth great amounts of
money. While one crystal is growing it may enclose crystals of other minerals.
These enclosures will appear as a visible mark in the crystal. A crystal pushed
upon by some outside force can develop a twisted or bent shape.
Positive Ion
The majority of crystals are

made of ions, a charged atom or
molecule. GA LE G RO UP.
While natural crystals can often contain flaws, artificial or synthetic

crystals can be made flawless. One reason why crystals are widely used in
industry and technology is that scientists learned how to synthesize artificial
crystals in the laboratory, making them flawless and relatively inexpensive.
cubic
tetragonal
hexagonal
triclinic
monoclinic
orthombic
trigonal
There are seven basic crystal

systems, categorized by their
geometric shapes. G ALE
GR OU P.
245
Crystals
Crystals start growing by a process called

nucleation. Nucleation can start through the molecules themselves or through the help of solid
matter already present. The nucleation process
begins when the molecules in a solution, the solute
molecules, have an attractive force to one another
that pulls the molecules together. The more solute
molecules in a solution, the greater the chance the
molecules will come into contact with each other
and form bonds.
Though diamonds and graphite

are comprised of carbon atoms,
diamonds are rigid and hard,
while the graphite used in lead
pencils is soft. C OPY RI GH T
When a solution contains as much dissolved

solute molecules as it can hold at that temperature,
it is saturated. The temperature of a solution will affect its saturation. A
solution at higher temperatures will be able to dissolve more molecules than
a solution at lower temperatures. If a solution is saturated at a high temperature and then cooled, it has a concentration above the saturation point.
This solution is called a supersaturated solution. The molecules in a supersaturated solution are so crammed together they readily move together and
can form a crystal.
The more molecules that are joined together, the stronger their
attractive force. They continue to pull other molecules towards them. A
small crystal that provides the attractive force to begin forming larger
crystals is called a seed crystal.
A solution at higher
temperatures can dissolve more
molecules than a solution at
lower temperatures. G AL E
GRO UP.
EXPERIMENT 1
Crystal Structure: Will varying shape crystals form
from varying substances?
room temperature
heated
room temperature
Saturated
Saturated
Supersaturated
solute molecules
246
Purpose/Hypothesis Crystals come in many

shapes and sizes. The substance used to make a
crystal and how this substance bonds together
dictates the crystals unit cell and, thus, its shape.
In this experiment you will compare the

unique crystal formations that grow from four
different substances. The four crystal substances
you will use are alum, Epsom salt, sugar, and salt.
You will create supersaturated solutions out of the
four substances and examine the crystals that form.
Crystals
WORDS TO KNOW
Atom: A unit of matter, the smallest unit of an
element, having all the characteristics of that
element.

Control experiment: A setup that is identical to

the experiment, but is not affected by the
variable that acts on the experimental
group.
Nucleation: The process by which crystals start

growing.
Crystal: Naturally occurring solid composed of

atoms or molecules arranged in an orderly
pattern that repeats at regular intervals.
Crystal faces: The flat, smooth surfaces of a
crystal.
Crystal lattice: The regular and repeating pattern
of the atoms in a crystal.
experiment.
electrical chargeeither positive or negative
as a result of losing or gaining one or more
electrons.
Saturated: In referring to solutions, a solution that

contains the maximum amount of solute for a
given amount of solvent at a given temperature.
Seed crystal: Small form of a crystalline structure
that has all the facets of a complete new crystal
contained in it.
Solute molecules: The substance that is dissolved to
make a solution and exists in the least amount in a
solution; for example, sugar in sugar water.
Supersaturated: Solution that is more highly concentrated than is normally possible under given
conditions of temperature and pressure.
Synthetic crystals: Artificial or manmade crystals.
Unit cell: The basic unit of the crystalline structure.
experiment.
To begin this experiment, make an educated guess about the outcome of the experiment based on your knowledge of crystals. This
something you can test through further investigation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here
247
Crystals

the substances that make up the
crystal
the temperature of the beginning
solution
is one possible hypothesis for this experiment:

Crystals formed from different substances will
develop unique shapes.
In this experiment the variable you will
change will be the substance that will make up
the crystal, and the variable you will measure
will be the appearance of the crystal.
Materials Needed
the environment the crystal is grown in

In other words, the variables in this experiment are everything that might affect the
growth of the crystals. If you change more
than one variable at the same time, you will
effect on the crystals structure.
alum (small jar, found in the spice section

of the grocery store)
Epsom salt
sugar
salt
water
black saucers (or any color saucers, black
construction paper, and scissors)
hot plate or stove
saucepan
4 stirring spoons
measuring cup
measuring spoons
glass cup or jars
masking tape
marking pen
Approximate Budget $5 (most materials are common household items).

Timetable 45 minutes initial time; 30 minutes over the next week.
1. If you do not have black saucers, cut the black construction paper
to fit tightly in the bottom of each saucer and place inside.
2. Make a supersaturated solution with the Epsom salt by bringing half a
cup of water to the almost-boiling point, then transferring the hot
water to a glass. Add 5 tablespoons Epsom salt and stir. Keep adding
248
Crystals
3.
4.
5.
6.
Epsom salt until no more salt can be absorbed

by the water. You will know this when the salt
begins to fall to the bottom no matter how
hard you stir.
This experiment requires using very hot water
to make a supersaturated solution. Ask an
Pour the solution into a saucer and label the
adult to help you when using the stove or hot
saucer accordingly on masking tape.
plate. Do not put anything in your mouth,
Repeat this process with each of the other
such as a sugar crystal, before checking with
substances. Make sure to rinse the pot and
an adult.
use a clean spoon. For the alum, begin with
3 tablespoons; for the salt begin with 1
tablespoon, and for the sugar begin with 4
tablespoons. The sugar solution should be thick.
Set the saucers in a quiet place and observe them over the next week
until all the liquid evaporates. When all the liquid is gone you
should see crystals coating the sides and bottoms of the saucers.
Examine the crystals with the magnifying glass.
Summary of Results Draw the results of each of the crystals and write a
written description. Was your hypothesis correct? How does the Epsom
salt differ from the salt? How does the salt differ from the sugar? Compare
the crystal formations with the physical shape of the substance they were
made from. Can you identify to which of the seven basic crystal structures
the four crystals belong?
Change the Variables You can produce a variety of crystal colors and
shapes by altering the substance used to form the crystal. Some substances
you may have to order from a lab supply house or ask your science teacher
where to get them: Potassium ferricyanide (red crystals); borax; copper
acetate monohydrate (blue-green crystals); and calcium copper acetate
hexahydrate (blue crystals). You can also vary
the temperature of the water when making the
saturated solutions and compare crystal growth.
Modify the Experiment You can modify this
experiment to see a crystal form under a

microscope. You will first need to prepare a
supersaturated solution from a crystal, such as
salt. Stir several teaspoons of salt into about a
half a cup of warm water until the crystals no
Step 5: Set the four bowls aside

in a quiet place until the liquid
evaporates. GA LE G RO UP.
Sa t
Su g a r
A lu m
Ep s o m
249
Crystals
Problem: No crystals grew in one or more of the
solutions.
Possible cause: The solution may not have been
saturated when the water was hot. You may
not have stirred enough to dissolve the solids.
Pour the solution back in the saucepan. Reheat
the solution, adding more of the substance and
stirring well after each addition until you see
bits of the substance fall to the bottom.
hot enough. It should not be at the boiling
point but it does need to be very hot. Pour the
solution back in the saucepan. Reheat the solution, adding more of the substance and stirring well after each addition until it is saturated.
longer dissolve. Allow the mixture to sit for

several hours.
Place a drop of the solution onto a microscope
slide. Set the slide under a heat lamp or in the hot
sun for a few minutes so that much of the water
quickly evaporates. Now place the slide under the
microscope and focus. Keep observing the crystal
shapes under the microscope. Can you see crystals
growing? Try to observe different types of crystals
and compare the shapes.
EXPERIMENT 2
Cool Crystals: How does the effect
of cooling impact crystal growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis Temperature is one of the
key environmental factors that affect crystal

growth. This experiment examines the outcome
of the same crystal-growing solution cooling at
three different temperatures. You will place one
jar in a cold environment while the crystals grow,
the other jar will cool under room temperature
conditions, and you will enclose the third jar and store it in a warm area so
that it cools the slowest of the three. If the cooling is faster, the particles do
not have time to form a large-scale orderly arrangement and a mass of little
crystals will form instead. The size of each crystal will demonstrate how
temperature impacts the growth of a crystal.
To begin this experiment, make an educated guess about the outcome
of the experiment based on your knowledge of crystals, temperature, and
solutions. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis


250
Crystals
hypothesis for this experiment: The slower a

supersaturated solution cools, the larger the size
of the crystal.
change will be the cooling rate of the solution,
and the variable you will measure will be the size
of the crystal. If the solution that cools the quickest forms the largest crystal, you will know the
above hypothesis is incorrect and you will have to
reevaluate your hypothesis.
Having a control or standard crystal will help
you measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable will change between the
control and the experimental crystals, and that is
the size of the crystal. For the standard crystal, you
will soak a seed crystal in plain water, which will
not react with the seed crystal. At the end of the
experiment you will compare the size and shape of
the seed crystal with each of the other crystals.

the solutions rate of cooling
the crystal-growing substance
the surrounding air temperature
the container the crystals are grown in
the string the crystals are grown on
the crystals. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
impacted crystal growth.

Materials Needed
Epsom salt
dental floss
glass saucepan
hot plate or stove
saucer
measuring cup
measuring spoons
4 small glass jars
small piece of cloth to cover glass container
warm towel
cold-water bath (pan with ice in cold water)
stirring spoon
4 pencils (long enough to lay across the tops of the four small glass
containers)
marking pen
251
Crystals
Approximate Budget $2 (most materials are

common household items).

You are using very hot water in this experiment.
Ask an adult to help you when using the stove
or hot plate.
Timetable 20 minutes initial time; 30 minutes
after several days; 20 minutes over the next two

weeks.
1. To grow a seed crystal, heat a half a cup of water until it is almost at

the boiling point and carefully pour it into a glass. Add 5 tablespoons
of Epsom salt and stir mixture until all the salt dissolves. Continue
adding Epsom salt, stirring after each addition, until the solution is
completely saturated. You will know you are at the saturation point
when a small amount of Epsom salt sinks to the bottom no matter
how hard you stir.
2. Pour the solution into a saucer and wait at least 24 hours until small
crystals have grown in the saucer. This could take two or three days.
Pour out any remaining liquid and choose the four largest crystals
that are roughly the same size. These are your seed crystals.
3. Cut four pieces of dental floss about 6 inches (10 centimeters) long.
Take each piece and tie one end around a pencil. Cut the piece of
dental floss so the other end hangs slightly above the bottom of each jar.
4. Carefully tie a seed crystal to the loose end of each piece of dental
floss.
5. Heat 2 cups of water in the saucepan until it is almost boiling.
Remove from heat and add 3/4 cup of Epsom salt and stir. Continue
Step 6: Hang a seed crystal in

each solution by laying the
pencil across the jars. GA LE
1
4
2
3
GR OU P.
252
Crystals
to stir while you add as much Epsom salt as

you canuntil no more will dissolve.
When the solution is saturated, set the
saucepan aside to cool for two minutes.
Pour equal amounts of the solution into
three glass jars.
6. In the fourth glass jar pour a roughly equal
amount of plain warm water. Hang a seed
crystal in each solution by laying the pencil
across the jars.
7. Let Jar 1 completely cool and then place it
in a cold-water bath. Leave Jar 2 at room
temperature. Warm a towel in a clothes
dryer, wrap it around Jar 3, and drape the
piece of cloth over the top of the jar before
placing the jar in a warm area, like a
cupboard near the stove. Leave Jar 4 at
room temperature.
8. Every day place fresh ice in the cold-water
bath for Jar 1, and reheat the towel for Jar
3. After about a week, compare the
crystals.
Below are some problems that may arise, some
possible causes, and some ways to remedy the
problems.
Problem: No crystals grew in one or more of the
solutions.
Possible cause: The solution may not have been
saturated when the water was hot. You may
not have stirred enough to dissolve the
Epsom salt. Take out the seed crystal and
pour the solution back into the saucepan.
Epsom salt and stirring well after each addition until you see bits of the Epsom salt fall to
the bottom.
hot enough to become completely saturated.
It should not be at the boiling point, but it
does need to be hot. Take out the seed crystal
and pour the solution back into the saucepan.
Epsom salt and stirring well after each addition until it is saturated.
Problem: The crystals are cloudy.
Summary of Results Compare the rate of crystal
growth, using the control crystal in Jar 4 as your

standard. Examine if there are small crystals on
the side or the bottom of the jars. Estimate the
size of each crystal on the string compared to the
standard, or control crystal, that was sitting in
the water. Graph your results, using the percentage of growth on the y-axis and the rate of
cooling on the x-axis.
Possible cause: There may be impurities in the

water or the jar. Examine the jar and, if it is
dirty, try the experiment again with a clean jar.
If the glass is clean, try repeating the
experiment using distilled or purified water.
Change the Variables You can change the variables in the experiment
several ways. You can alter the crystal-growing substance and repeat the
experiment. You can also change the temperature of the water to make the
saturated solutions. Does anything happen if the crystals are grown on a
piece of yarn as opposed to dental floss?
253
Crystals
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept Crystals have a range of diverse physical
Sugar and salt are examples of

crystals that vary in size and
shape. COP YR IG HT # K ELL Y A.
QU IN.
and mechanical properties that you can explore in

experiments. Explore your surroundings and
make a list of all the materials made of crystals.
An experiment with crystals could include exploring some of the traits crystallographers use to
identify them, such as how a crystal reacts to
light or its hardness.
with your science teacher or librarian to learn more about crystals. As you
consider possible experiments, make sure to discuss them with your science
teacher or other adult before conducting them.
question.
254
Crystals
Related Projects Some experiments with crystals will depend on having

crystals with different properties. You can examine the crystalline structures
of everyday substances around you. Many rocks are crystals. You could
identify the unique properties of crystalline rocks and group them according to their common properties. You could also take on a research project.
You could examine what crystals are used in appliances, electronic devices,
and tools, as well as what properties these crystals supply. Through interviews with professionals or library research, you could examine the work of
cystallographers and determine the instruments and properties they use to
identify crystals.

Libbrecht, Kenneth G. SnowCrystals.com. http://www.its.caltech.edu/atomic/
snowcrystals/class/class.htm (accessed February 20, 2008). A guide to the
many different crystal shapes of snowflakes.
Math Forum. http://mathforum.org/alejandre/workshops/chart.html (accessed
February 20, 2008). Descriptions and links to pictures of the basic crystal
systems.
Shedenhelm, W. R., and Joel E. Arem. Discover Rocks & Minerals. Lincolnwood,
IL: Publications International, 1991. Basic facts on rocks and minerals with
plenty of photographs.
Stangl, Jean. Crystal and Crystal Gardens You Can Grow. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1990. Simple explanation of crystals with directions for growing
different crystals.
Symes, R. F., and R. R. Harding. Crystal & Gem. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1991. Clear book with loads of illustrations on identifying and using various
types of crystals.
255
20
Density and Buoyancy
A ship floats in water because of

the effects of density and
buoyancy. P HOT O
hat does it mean when it is said that one type of matter is more dense
than another? What does density tell us about the nature and
behavior of a substance? How does density affect the tendency of an object
to float or sink in a liquid?
The density of matter is determined by the mass of a given volume of
that matter. Any object at a given temperature and pressure will have a
fixed volume, determined by the quantity of space it occupies and
measured in cubic inches (cubic centimeters or milliliters). It also will
have a fixed mass, determined by the quantity of matter contained in the
substance. Mass is measured in pounds (kilograms). Density equals mass
divided by volume.
The mass of different substances can vary greatly. The atoms that
make up lead are tightly packed (at room temperature and pressure) and
possess a large number of subatomic particlesprotons, neutrons, and
electrons. In contrast, the atoms that make up hydrogen gas are very
loosely packed at the same temperature and pressure and possess a very
small number of subatomic particles. More atoms with more subatomic
particles in a given volume means higher density. Fewer atoms with fewer
subatomic particles in a given volume means
lower density.
Imagine a lifesize sculpture of a goldfish
molded in solid clay. Now imagine an identical
statue cast in solid lead. Both sculptures occupy the
same volume, but the lead has a greater mass and is
therefore denser. A third identical sculpture, this
time carved from balsa wood, also occupies the
same volume but contains less mass than either
the clay or the lead. Balsa wood is less dense than
both clay and lead.
257
Density is measured on a relative

scale Notice that in comparing the densities of
lead, clay, and balsa wood, we have not used any
units of measurement. We simply stated that balsa
wood is less dense and lead is more dense compared to clay. This is called relative density.
To measure density, scientists often use a
relative scale. Water is assigned a value of 1.0,
and other materials are assigned numerical values
greater or less than 1.0 based on their density
relative to water. For example, lead has a relative
density of 11.3 and balsa wood has a relative
density of 0.2. Relative density compared to
water is also called specific gravity.
Materials placed together in a
container will float or sink
according to their relative
density. PH OT O
Relative density can be observed The relative density of certain materials is easy to determine by observing the
behavior of the materials when gravity acts upon them in a liquid.
Substances of greater density will sink in liquids of lesser density due to
the greater gravitational pull on the mass they contain. Conversely,
substances of lesser density will rise. Thus, the lead goldfish will sink
through water, while the balsawood goldfish will float. What about the
Three statues of identical

shape and size have different
densities depending on their
mass. GAL E GR OU P.
258
clay goldfish? To predict its behavior, we would

need to know its relative density.
When two immiscible liquids, such as oil
and vinegar, are poured into a container, the
less-dense liquid will float on top of the moredense liquid. If a third liquid whose density falls
between the first and second is poured into the
container, it will form a layer between the other
two liquids. A solid dropped into the container
will sink through the liquids of lesser density
than itself, but it will float on the layer of the
liquid whose density is greater than the solids
density.
Look! It floats The relationship between
density and buoyancy was studied in the third
century B . C . E . by Archimedes, a Greek philosopher and inventor. The Archimedes Principle
states that the lifting effect of a liquid on an
object is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object. Thus, if the object contains
less mass than the mass of the displaced liquid,
the object will float.
The Archimedes Principle is what makes steel ships float. If the mass of
the displaced waterthat is, the mass of the volume of water pushed aside
by the hollow hull of the ship below the waterlineis greater than the mass
of the entire ship, then the ship will float, even though steel has a relative
density greater than 1.
Archimedes studied the

relationship between density
and buoyancy. P HOT O
RES EA RC HER S, INC .
The behavior of various materials under the effect of gravity can be

observed and used to estimate their relative densities. In the first experiment, you will use such observations to create a relative density scale of
your own. The experiment should ultimately help you predict the behavior of various materials, like the clay goldfish, according to their assigned
density values.
The second experiment will examine the effect of increased pressure
on a buoyant object containing a gas to see how changing the volume can
change the buoyancy.
259
WORDS TO KNOW
Buoyancy: The tendency of a fluid to exert a lifting
force on a body immersed in it.
Relative density: The density of one material

compared to another.
Density: The mass of a substance divided by its

volume.
Specific gravity: The density of a material compared to water.

statement that can be tested by observation and/
or experiment.
Subatomic: Smaller than an atom. It usually refers

to particles that make up an atom, such as
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Immiscible: Incapable of being mixed.

an experiment.
Mass: Measure of the total amount of matter in an

object. Also, an objects quantity of matter as
shown by its gravitational pull on another object.
Volume: The amount of space occupied by a

three-dimensional object.
Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up

space.
Waterline: The highest point to which water rises

on the hull of a ship. The portion of the hull
below the waterline is under water.
EXPERIMENT 1
Density: Can a scale of relative density predict
whether one material floats on another?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will first create a relative
density scale for eight materials. Then you will use that information to
predict whether one material will float on the other when any two of the
materials are placed together in a container.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about relative density to
make an educated guess about whether one material will float on the other.


260

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: A relative density scale based on the
behavior of eight materials in one container will
accurately predict that a material with a lower
relative density will float on one with a higher
relative density when the two are placed in
another container.
the two materials, and the variable you will
measure is which material floats on the other. If
the material with the lower relative density floats
on the one with a higher relative density, you will
know your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed

Variables are anything that could affect the
the type and purity of the materials
the method by which the materials are
added to the container
the order in which materials are added to
the container
the temperature at which the materials
are kept
the pressure at which the materials are
kept
are everything that might affect the ability of
one material to float on another. If you change
tell which variable had the most effect.
3 clear, narrow, glass jars with wide

mouths (such as beakers or pickle jars)
1 probe (a knitting needle or drink stirrer
will do)
9 disposable plastic knives
corn oil
motor oil (10W-30)
maple syrup
water, colored blue with food coloring
lemon juice
one 0.5-inch-diameter (1.2 centimeters) ball of clay
one 0.5-inch-diameter (1.2 centimeters) ball of candle wax
1 small cork
Approximate Budget Less than $10. (Most, if not all, materials may be
found in the average household.)
Timetable To be performed properly, allowing time for materials to settle
and for careful observing and note taking, this experiment should take 45
to 60 minutes.
261
1. Divide your materials into liquids and solids.

Examine the liquids first and try to predict
Before substituting other substances for those
which are the most dense. Pour the five
on the materials list, check with your science
liquids into one container, beginning with
teacher to make sure you are not combining
the one you predict to be the most dense.
chemicals that will create a hazard, such as toxic
Pour each liquid slowly, using a plastic knife
fumes. Some combinations of household substances mix together easily or are the same color
as a guide, as illustrated. Liquids that norand therefore are not useful for this experiment.
mally do not mix may accidentally mix if
Throw away the knives and glass jars after finthey are shaken or stirred. Use a new knife
ishing the experiment because they may be
for each liquid.
contaminated with motor oil.
2. After all the liquids have been added to the
container, wait for one minute to allow them
to settle. Make a note of the order in which
the liquids have settled, but do not assign relative density values yet.
You have not yet added the solid materials, and the behavior of the
solids may surprise you!
3. One by one, gently add the three solids to the container. Allow
more time for them to settle. If a solid becomes coated with a
liquid, its behavior may change temporarily. For example, a solid
Step 1: Pouring liquid using a
may float higher than normal if it is coated with vegetable oil. If
knife as a guide. GA LE G RO UP.
you suspect that a solid is not behaving
normally, gently poke it with the probe.
4. After you are confident that all the materials
have settled to their natural levels, begin
assigning relative density values. Start by
identifying the layer of blue water and label
that 1.0 on your relative density scale (see
illustration). Then identify each material
above and below the water, record it on
your scale, and assign a relative density value
for each. Your numerical values do not need
to be exact as long as their relative values show
which material is denser. For example, you
could assign 0.9 to the material just above the
water and 0.8 to the material just above that.
Likewise you could assign 1.1 to the material
just below the water, and so on.
262
5. Select two different materials and carefully

pour or place them in the second glass jar,
using a new plastic knife for each liquid.
(Do not pair a solid with another solid.)
Record the order in which you add each
material. Observe the behavior of the materials in the jar. Did your relative density
scale accurately predict what would happen? If so, your hypothesis has proven correct so far.
6. Determine whether the behavior of the
materials used in the previous step changes
when the order of putting the materials
into the jar is changed. For example, if
you previously added motor oil to a jar
already holding water, now reverse the
order, pouring the oil in first. Use the
third jar and clean knives for this test.
determine whether your hypothesis is correct. Did

the observed behavior of the eight materials
combined make it possible to create a useful
relative scale? If any of the behaviors disagree
with the scales prediction, try to find a possible
the experiment, some possible causes, and
Problem: Two liquids appear to mix.
Possible causes:
1. Agitation when pouring the liquid into
the container may cause temporary mixing. Wait for the mixture to settle out.
2. Two of your substances are too similar in
appearance, such as vegetable oil and
motor oil. Replace one substance with
something that is similar but provides
more contrast. For example, you could
use canola oil in place of vegetable oil.
Problem: The behavior of a solid in liquids is
erratic: sometimes it floats, sometimes it sinks.
Possible cause: Surface tension can sometimes
cause an object of greater density to float on
top of a liquid of lesser density. To counteract
this tension, poke the solid with the probe.
Step 4: Sample relative density

scale. G AL E GR OUP .
263

the rigidity or flexibility of the walls of the
object
the gas present inside the objects
the liquid in which the objects are placed
the pressure applied to the objects
are everything that might affect the buoyancy
of the objects. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the buoyancy.
explanation for this difference. Did you misread

the layers in the first step of your experiment? Go
back and double check. Write a summary of your
findings.
ment in several ways. Try different liquids and

solids. Compare the densities of two solids, such
as clay and a piece of pencil eraser. Then create and
test a combination of solids by wrapping the eraser
inside a layer of clay. Be sure to check with your
teacher before trying new materials to make sure
they are safe when mixed!
You can also see if you get the same results
when the liquids in your experiment are chilled.
(Do not heat your materials.) Freeze a liquid
material and see if its relative density is the same
whether in liquid or solid form.
EXPERIMENT 2
Buoyancy: Does water pressure affect buoyancy?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will observe the effect of
increased water pressure on two buoyant objects floating in a closed bottle

of water. The first is a flexible drinking straw filled with air and open at one
end. The second is a flexible drinking straw filled with air and sealed at both
ends. Because the first straw is open at one end, an increase in pressure allows
water to easily force its way into the straw. This decreases the volume of water
the straw displaces and it will eventually sink. Because the second straw is
sealed at both ends, the water cannot force its way inside and must actually
collapse the straw to decrease the displaced volume.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about buoyancy to make
an educated guess about how the straws will behave when the pressure is
increased. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
264


Make sure the bottles cap is secured tightly
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experibefore applying pressure.
ment: A flexible drinking straw, filled with air
and sealed at one end, will lose its buoyancy and
sink at a lower pressure than one sealed at both ends.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of pressure
applied, and the variable you will measure is whether the straws sink. If the
straw sealed at one end sinks at a lower pressure than the one sealed at both
ends, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed
one 1-liter transparent plastic bottle filled with water (the bottle
must have flexible sides and a cap that seals)
2 transparent drinking straws
modeling clay
1 tall drinking glass
water
Approximate Budget Less than $5. (Most, if not all, materials may be found in
the average household.)

Timetable Approximately 10 to 20 minutes.
1. Cut a 4-inch (10-centimeter) length of

straw and seal one end with a lump of
clay. This will be the top end of the
straw. Attach a ring of clay to the straw
near the open bottom end to serve as
ballast to keep it upright in the water as
illustrated. Fill the drinking glass with
water and test the buoyancy of the first
straw. Add or remove clay from the ballast until the straw floats upright in a
stable manner.
Steps 1 and 2: Set-up of straw 1

and straw 2. GAL E GR OU P.
265
2. Repeat this process with the second straw, but seal this one with clay
at both ends. Check the seals by submerging the top of the straw in
the drinking cup. Look for bubbles coming from the top seal. Then
invert the straw and check the bottom seal.
3. Fill the bottle with water to within 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5.0
centimeters) of the neck. Carefully lower the two straws into the
bottle with the bottom end of the straws down. Close the bottle
and make sure it is sealed tightly.
4. Position the bottle on a table or counter so that one person can
squeeze the bottle while another takes measurements with the ruler
of the change in the bottles width where it is squeezed. This
measurement will serve as a rough gauge of the pressure applied to
the water and objects inside the bottle.
5. Measure and record the approximate diameter of the bottle. Gently
squeeze the bottle until its width has decreased by 0.5 inch (1.25
centimeters). Record any change that occurs in the straws (sinking,
taking on water, deforming) in the appropriate column on your data
chart. Repeat this process for each 0.5-inch (1.25-centimeter) change
in the bottles width. As increasing pressure is applied, the straw with
the open end should sink.
Step 5: Sample recording chart.

GAL E GR OU P.
266
6. Continue squeezing until the second

straw sinks or until no more pressure
can safely be applied to the bottle.
7. When pressure is released, the straw or
straws should regain their buoyancy and
return to the surface. Repeat the experiment, this time noting any changes you
observe in the two straws as pressure is
applied to the bottle. Watch for water rising
in the unsealed straw. This is similar to a
submarine flooding its ballast tanks to
decrease its buoyancy and dive under
water. Watch for deformation of the second straw, which should flatten as the pressure is increased.
8. Examine your results and determine
whether your hypothesis is true. Repeat
the experiment to double check your
results. Write a summary of your findings.
Summary of Results Record your data on a chart.
This chart should be as clear as possible. It will

contain the information that will show whether
ment. Here are some possibilities. Try different

numbers and lengths of straw. Compare the
behavior of short straws and long straws. See if
you get the same results with different liquids. Try
salt water and carbonated water.

Concept Demonstrations of the properties of
density and buoyancy exist in our environment

in numerous forms. Everyday sights such as
helium balloons floating away or a thin slick of
oil on a roadside puddle show the principles we
ways to solve the problem.
Problem: Neither straw sinks, even when
maximum pressure is applied.
Possible causes:
1. The bottle may not be properly sealed.
Check the seal. If necessary, place a small
amount of clay on the threads of the
bottle top to help keep a seal.
2. There is too much air in the bottle. Add
water.
Problem: The first straw sinks, but the second
does not.
Possible causes:
1. You are not applying enough pressure.
Try having two people press on the bottle
(carefully!) from either side.
2. The straws are too rigid. Use straws of
less rigid plastic.
3. Your hypothesis is incorrect.
Problem: Once the straw or straws have sunk,
they do not return to the surface when pressure
is released.
Possible cause: The straw or straws are leaking.
Check the clay seals.
Problem: The straw or straws are unstable and
tend to flip over.
Possible cause: The ballast weight is not heavy
enough or is not placed properly. Increase the
weight or move the ballast weight farther down
the straw.
267
have investigated in our experiments. Think of ways to vary the conditions you observe that will answer questions you have about buoyancy.
information on density and buoyancy questions that may interest
you. As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them
them. Some materials or procedures might be dangerous.
which question you are answering, what you are or should be measuring, or
your question.
included here and in any experiments you develop, you can look for better
ways to display your data in more accurate and interesting ways. For
example, in the buoyancy experiment, try to find a better way to measure
the pressure inside the bottle. Could a pressure gauge be built into the
bottles cap without altering the results?
Remember that those who view your results may not have seen the
experiment performed, so you must present the information you have
gathered in as clear a way as possible. Including photographs or illustrations
of the steps in the experiment is a good way to show a viewer how you got
from your hypothesis to your conclusion.
Related Projects Although experiments in density and buoyancy can be
challenging and fun, simple demonstrations of the principles involved can

also be highly informative and often can reveal surprising facts. Many aspects
268
of density and buoyancy, such as the effect of salinity, could yield interesting
experimental results.

Ray, C. Claibourne. The New York Times Book of Science Questions and Answers.
New York: Doubleday, 1997. Addresses both everyday observations and
advanced scientific concepts on a wide variety of subjects.
Wolke, Robert L. What Einstein Didnt Know: Scientific Answers to Everyday
Questions. Secaucus, NJ: Birch Lane Press, 1997. Contains a number of
interesting entries on the nature of water.
269
Dissolved Oxygen
hat turns a body of water into a dead zone where nothing can live?
One condition that can wipe out most living things in a stream, river,
or lake is a low level of dissolved oxygen. The term dissolved oxygen refers to
molecules of oxygen that have been dissolved in water. Some of these
molecules enter the water from the surrounding air, especially if the water
tumbles over falls and rapids. Other dissolved oxygen in the water is a byproduct of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, green plants, including
those that live in the water, use the energy in sunlight to combine carbon
dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The oxygen is
expelled by the plant and enters the water.
The level of dissolved oxygen in water can reach as high as 8 or 9 parts
per million. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
considers water to be healthy if it contains at least 5 parts per million of
dissolved oxygen. When the level falls below 4 parts per million, the water
quality is considered to be poor. At 2 parts per million, fish become stressed
and grow more slowly, and some die.
What affects the level of dissolved oxygen in water? The level of

dissolved oxygen in a body of water can vary from hour to hour. The level
falls as fish remove oxygen molecules from the water with their gills. The
more fish in the water, the more dissolved oxygen they remove. Fish are
cold-blooded, so their body systems work more slowly in cold water and
speed up in warm water. The warmer the water, the more oxygen their body
systems require. Plants in the water, including the tiny floating phytoplankton, also use small amounts of the dissolved oxygen for respiration
(breathing).
Photosynthesis requires sunlight, so plants do not produce oxygen at
night. During these dark hours, plants actually use more oxygen for
respiration than they produce. Thats why the level of dissolved oxygen
in a body of water is lowest just before dawn, just before the Sun rises and
271
Dissolved Oxygen
photosynthesis begins again. If you visit a pond

or river at dawn, you might see birds picking fish
out of the water. The fish are easy to catch then
because they are at the surface, gulping for oxygen because the water does not provide enough
for them.
Other factors also influence the level of dissolved oxygen, including the waters temperature,
its salinity (salt level), and its elevation above sea
level. As the water temperature decreases, the
amount of dissolved oxygen increases, because
gases, including oxygen, dissolve more easily in
cooler water. As the level of salinity increases, the
amount of dissolved oxygen decreases. Finally,
bodies of water at higher elevations, such as
mountain lakes, contain less dissolved oxygen
than bodies of water at lower elevations. This
makes sense when you remember that much of
the dissolved oxygen comes from the air. The
amount of oxygen in the air decreases the higher
you climb on a mountain. If the air has less
dissolved oxygen, the water will, too.
As more water surface is
exposed to the air, more oxygen
molecules enter the water.
FI EL DM ARK PUB LI CAT IO NS.
During hot, dry summer months, the water level in streams tends to
be low, and the water often becomes stagnant. The heat and the lack of
movement combine to lower dissolved oxygen levels. On the other hand,
during the early spring, melting snow and cool rain keep the water
temperatures low, increasing the dissolved oxygen levels. The rains lead
to rushing, tumbling streams that gain more oxygen from the atmosphere. The rains also contribute the oxygen they absorbed from the
atmosphere.
Another major effect on the level of dissolved oxygen in a body of water
is the amount of pollutants in the water. Many pollutants, including the
fertilizers that run off farm fields and home lawns, contain nutrients that
help plants grow, including plants in the water. This may seem like a
benefit of pollution. However, after the plants use up the nutrients in the
water, they die and start to decay. The bacteria involved in the decay
process use the dissolved oxygen in the water, reducing the amount of
272
Dissolved Oxygen
oxygen available to the fish. This process is called

eutrophication. As eutrophication continues to
use up the dissolved oxygen, the water can turn
into a dead zone.
Scientists have measured the biochemical oxygen demand, the amount of oxygen required by
bacteria to decay waste material. BOD5 means the
amount of oxygen that microorganisms use to
decay organic matter over a five-day period in
68F (20C) water. The more waste in the
water, the more decay that occurs, and the higher
the BOD5the need for dissolved oxygen. For
example, wastewater that has been treated has a
BOD5 of less than 30 parts per million. However,
waste from a meat packing plant has a BOD5 of
5,000 parts per million. If this meat packing waste
were released into a body of water, the dissolved
oxygen level in that water would drop dramatically
within a few days.
How does a low level of dissolved oxygen
affect the ecosystem in the water? If the level of
dissolved oxygen drops for any length of time,
fish that need large amounts of oxygen, such as
trout and bass, go elsewhere if they can. Carp, catfish, worms, and fly
larvae (the immature, wormlike stage in a flys life cycle) can handle low
oxygen levels, so they thrive. The ecosystem begins to include more
organisms that can live with little or no oxygen. If the level of dissolved
oxygen continues to drop, even the carp and catfish end up gasping for
oxygen. The water is on its way to becoming a dead zone.
At high altitudes, cold

temperatures raise the level of
dissolved oxygen, but the higher
elevation lowers it. The level of
dissolved oxygen in any body of
water is a complex, changing
condition. PHO TO
In the following two experiments, you will use a kit to measure the
level of dissolved oxygen in water under several conditions. In one experiment, you will determine how the level changes as the amount of decaying matter in the water changes. In the second experiment, you will
measure how the breathing rate of goldfish changes as the amount of
dissolved oxygen in the water changes. Both experiments will help you
better understand the concept ofand the importance ofdissolved
oxygen.
273
Dissolved Oxygen
A pond overrun with algae is

usually not a healthy place.
EXPERIMENT 1
Decay and Dissolved Oxygen: How does the amount
of decaying matter affect the level of dissolved oxygen
in water?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will allow different amounts
of food to decay in water and measure any changes that occur in the level
of dissolved oxygen.
To begin the experiment, use what you have learned about dissolved
oxygen to make a guess about what will happen when the food starts to
decay in the water. Will the level of dissolved oxygen in the water decrease
or increase? Will the amount of change depend on the amount of decaying food? This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
hypothesis for this experiment: The more decaying matter in the
water, the lower the level of dissolved oxygen.
274
Dissolved Oxygen
WORDS TO KNOW
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5): The
amount of oxygen microorganisms use over a
five-day period in 68F (20C) water to decay
organic matter.
By-product: A secondary substance produced as
the result of a physical or chemical process, in
addition to the main product.
experiment.
Dissolved oxygen: Oxygen molecules that have
dissolved in water.

experiment.
and water into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen
as a by-product.
Phytoplankton: Microscopic aquatic plants that live
suspended in the water.
Respiration: The physical process that supplies
oxygen to living cells and the chemical reactions
that take place inside the cells.
Elevation: Height above sea level.

Eutrophication: Natural process by which a lake or
other body of water becomes enriched in dissolved nutrients, spurring aquatic plant growth.

an experiment.
In this case, the variable you will change is the presence and amount
of decaying food, and the variable you will measure is the level of
dissolved oxygen. As a control experiment, you will set up one container
of water with no decaying food in it. That way, you can determine
whether the level of dissolved oxygen changes even with no decaying
food in the water. If the level of dissolved oxygen decreases with an
increase in decaying food and does not change in the control container,
Materials Needed
3 clear 0.5-gallon (1.9-liter) containers

about 3 ounces (85 grams) of rotting fruit, such as brown apple
slices or an overripe banana
scale capable of weighing 2 ounces (57 grams)
275
Dissolved Oxygen

the beginning levels of dissolved oxygen
in each container
the amount of decaying food in each
container of water
how much the food is decayed
the temperature of the water in all
containers
dissolved oxygen test kit (kits are available

from biological supply houses; one popular brand is LaMotte; see the Further
Readings section for sources)
5 gallons (5.6 liters) water (try to obtain
water that has not been treated, such as
well, stream, or pond water; many water
treatment plants try to reduce the level of
dissolved oxygen in their water because high
levels speed up corrosion in water pipes)
wax paper
goggles
rubber gloves
the amount of any mixing, pouring, or

splashing of the water in the containers
(which would raise the dissolved oxygen
level)
and $5 for a small food scale; other materials

should be available in the average household.
the length of time the containers are

allowed to sit
Timetable 15 minutes to set up; one week to

are everything that might affect the level of
dissolved oxygen. If you change more than one
variable at a time, you will not be able to
determine which variable affected the results.
Approximate Budget $15$20 for the test kit
observe.
1. Label the containers 1 oz., 2 oz., and

Control.
2. Mix your water supply thoroughly; stir
the water vigorously for 5 minutes or
Step 4: Dissolved Oxygen Levels

276
Dissolved Oxygen
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
more if you used tap water, which tends

to have a low dissolved oxygen level.
Nearly fill the three containers with the
water.
Wear goggles and gloves to protect your eyes
and skin while you test the water because you
Follow the directions on the water testing
will be using chemicals that can be dangerous.
kit to measure the beginning level of disYou are strongly urged to have an adult help
solved oxygen in each container. Record
you complete the tests.
the levels in a chart similar to the one
illustrated. (The water in all three containers should have the same dissolved oxygen
level at this point.)
Put wax paper on the scale and measure 1 ounce (28 grams) of
rotting fruit; dump the fruit into the container marked 1 oz.
Measure 2 ounces (57 grams) of the same rotting fruit and dump it
into the container marked 2 oz. Put no fruit in the control
container.
Place all three containers in an area where the air temperature will
remain at 70 to 72F (21 to 22C).
Every day at the same time for the next four days, use the kit to test
the dissolved oxygen level in each container. Record your findings on
your chart. Also note the condition of the water. Are any of the
containers becoming cloudy?
Summary of Results Study the data from your observations and decide
whether your hypothesis was correct. How did the dissolved oxygen levels
Steps 5 and 6: Set-up of control,

1 oz., and 2 oz. containers.
GA LE G RO UP.
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Dissolved Oxygen
Problem: The level of dissolved oxygen was
really low in all three containers in the
beginning.
Possible cause: Your water came from a
source with little dissolved oxygen. Try the
experiment again, but increase the beginning
level of dissolved oxygen by running a tube
from an aquarium pump into the water.
Send bubbles of air through the water for at
least 8 to 12 hours. Treat all the water so the
beginning levels will be identical in all
containers.
Problem: The level of dissolved oxygen
dropped in all containers, including the control.
Possible cause: The water already had some
decaying matter in it, especially if it was pond
water. Focus on the differences in the levels of
dissolved oxygen for all three containers.
Problem: The level of dissolved oxygen rose in
the control container.
Possible cause: The room temperature cooled
enough so that oxygen from the air entered
the water. Make sure the temperature
around all three containers stays at 70 to
72F (21 to 22C).
change in the three containers? Which container

had the highest level at the end of the experiment? The lowest level? Did the level change in
the control container? If so, why do you think
this happened? Write a paragraph summarizing
ment in several ways. For example, you might try a

different kind of decaying matter, such as another
kind of fruit, raw meat, moldy bread, or rotting
leaves. You could also increase or decrease the air
temperature around all three containers to see how
that affects the rate of decay and the levels of
dissolved oxygen. At the end of the experiment,
use aquarium pumps and tubing to bubble the
same amount of air into all three containers to
try to raise the level of dissolved oxygen. To change
the salinity of the water, you could add different
amounts of salt to two containers instead of decaying food and measure any changes in the levels of
dissolved oxygen.
Modify the Experiment For a moderate to
advanced version of this experiment you could

measure the effect of eutrophication on both
dissolved oxygen level and water life. To avoid
possible harm to fish, you can use aquatic plants,
which you can purchase at an aquarium or grow
from seed. (Elodea and Cabomba are two popular types of aquatic plants because they are easy to
grow and hearty.)
In each of the containers, you will need to first set up the proper
environment for the water plants. Add the same number of plants to each
container and give them several days to adjust to the new environment.
Follow the experiment, adding the decaying foods to the two containers
and stirring the water gently after each addition. Every day at the same
278
Dissolved Oxygen
time for the next several weeks note the level of

dissolved oxygen and the condition of the plants.
Instead of rotting fruit, you could also add a
small amount of fertilizer to each container. In
this case, you can collect or purchase live plankton. Place the same amount of plankton and the
same number of plants. in each of the three
containers. Add different amounts of the fertilizer to container 2 and container 3. Again, measure the level of dissolved oxygen over the next
several weeks and note the condition of the
plants.
EXPERIMENT 2
Goldfish Breath: How does a
decrease in the dissolved oxygen
level affect the breathing rate of
goldfish?

the health and size of all the goldfish
the temperature and cleanliness of all the
water
the level of dissolved oxygen in the different containers of water
are everything that might affect the breathing
rate of the fish. If you change more than one
determine which change had more effect on
your results.
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will observe the breath-
ing rate of goldfish as they swim in water with different levels of

dissolved oxygen. [Note: It is recommended that you perform this
experiment only if you already have access to an aquarium with four
to six goldfish and only with the permission of a responsible adult.
This experiment will not harm the fish as long as you limit the
duration of the experiment and return the fish to the main aquarium
afterwards.]
To begin the experiment, use what you know about dissolved oxygen
and its effect on fish to make an educated guess about how the fishes
breathing rate will change as the level of dissolved oxygen drops. This
279
Dissolved Oxygen
disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here

is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: As
the dissolved oxygen level drops, the breathing
rate of the goldfish will increase.
Treat the goldfish gently; avoid putting them
into water that is warmer or cooler than they
are used to. Limit the duration of the test to no
change is the level of dissolved oxygen, and the
more than 8 to 10 hours. Wear goggles and
variable you will measure is the breathing rate of
gloves to protect your eyes and skin while you
the goldfish. As a control experiment, you will
test the water because you will be using
observe the breathing rate of goldfish in an aquarchemicals that can be dangerous. You are
ium that has been set up for some time and in
strongly urged to have an adult help you
which the dissolved oxygen remains relatively
complete the tests.
constant. If the breathing rate of the control goldfish does not change, but the breathing rate of the
other goldfish increases as the dissolved oxygen level drops, your hypothesis
is correct.
Materials Needed
one 10-gallon (38-liter) or larger aquarium that has been set up

for a month or longer and uses an air pump to constantly bubble
air through the water (the aquarium may also include live
plants, which add more dissolved oxygen to the water; other
fish living in the aquarium will not affect the experiment, as
long as they have been there for several weeks)
one half-gallon (1.9-liter) container
4 to 6 small goldfish
dissolved oxygen test kit (see the Further Readings section for
sources)
stopwatch
fish net
red and blue colored pencils
goggles
rubber gloves
Approximate Budget $15 to $20 for the test kit. (Ideally, you will be able
to use an aquarium that is already set up at school or at home.)
280
Dissolved Oxygen
Timetable 15 minutes to set up the small con-
tainer; 20 minutes to check the dissolved oxygen levels and breathing rates every two hours
for six hours.
1. If you have to purchase additional goldfish to conduct the experiment, place

them in the aquarium and allow 24
hours for them to get used to the
water. During this period, if the aquarium has a heater, turn it off and allow
the water to reach air temperature.
Make sure the air pump continues to
work.
2. Using water from the aquarium, fill the
half-gallon container.
3. Use the kit to test the dissolved oxygen level in the aquarium and in
the half-gallon container. They should be the same at this point. On a
graph similar to that illustrated, record the level from the aquarium in
red and the level from the small container in blue.
4. Use the net to catch half of the goldfish (two or three); put them in
the smaller container.
5. Use the stopwatch to measure how many times each goldfish breathes
in 30 seconds. Each outward push of the gills is one breath. Average
the breathing rates for the goldfish in the aquarium. Use the red
Step 3: Sample graph of

dissolved oxygen levels. GA LE
GRO UP.
Step 4: Put 2 to 3 goldfish into

smaller container. GAL E
GR OU P.
281
Dissolved Oxygen
pencil to record the average on a graph

similar to that illustrated. Then average
the breathing rates for the goldfish in the
small container, and use the blue pencil to
record that average on the graph.
6. Wait two hours and retest the dissolved
oxygen levels in both containers. Then
average the breathing rates of the fish in
each container. Record your findings.
7. Repeat Step 6 after four hours and after 6
hours.
8. At the end of the experiment, gently
put the goldfish from the small container back into the aquarium. If you
disconnected the aquarium heater, plug
it back in.
Step 5: Sample graph of
goldfish breathing rates. G AL E
GRO UP.
Summary of Results Study the dissolved oxygen levels on the first graph.
What do you notice? Did the levels change in the aquarium? Did they
change in the small container? If so, why?
Now compare the breathing rates of the two groups of fish, shown on
the second graph. Notice whether the breathing rates changed as the levels
of dissolved oxygen changed. How did the goldfish respond to any changes
in the levels of dissolved oxygen? Was your hypothesis correct? Write a
paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining whether they support
your hypothesis.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways.
Measure and compare any change in the breathing rates of goldfish swimming in water with and without live plants. (Disconnect any air pump so
the plants are the only source of added dissolved oxygen.) Or you can
bubble air through the water in the small container and measure the
breathing rate of the goldfish as the level of dissolved oxygen rises.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Measuring the amount of
dissolved oxygen in a body of water is one of the best ways to determine

the health of that water system and the environment around it. Consider
the water sources near your home or school. Which ones might have high
282
Dissolved Oxygen
or low levels of dissolved oxygen? What might

cause the high or low levels? What approaches
might raise a low level? What other factors affect
the health of a water system? (Examples include
the pH level and the levels of ammonia, nitrates,
and nitrites.)
media specialist to gather information on dissolved
oxygen questions that interest you. As you consider
possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with
a knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some of
the materials or procedures may be harmful to
yourself or to the environment.

sure which question you are answering, what
Problem: The dissolved oxygen level in the
small container remained the same.
Possible cause: The fish were too small to affect
the level during this time period. Try the
experiment again, using bigger or more fish,
putting them in a smaller container of water, or
extending the time period for the testing to
eight or 10 hours.
Problem: The breathing rate of the fish in the
aquarium and the container dropped.
Possible cause: The water temperature might
have fallen enough to slow the body processes
of the goldfish. If possible, move the aquarium
and small container to a warmer spot. Or leave
the aquarium heater plugged in and put a
heater in the small container to keep the water
at the same temperature as the aquariuma
difficult feat to accomplish.

propose to do.
Recognize the variables involved, and select
one that will help you answer the question at hand.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In your decaying food and
goldfish experiments, your raw data might include charts, graphs, drawings,
and photographs of the changes you observed. If you display your experiment, make clear the question you are trying to answer, the variable you
changed, the variable you measured, the results, and your conclusions.
Explain what materials you used, how long each step took, and other
basic information.
283
Dissolved Oxygen
Related Projects You can undertake a variety of projects related to dissolved

oxygen and water quality in general. For example, if you have access to salt
water from the ocean, you might compare its level of dissolved oxygen with
that of fresh water. Or compare the level at the surface of a pond with the
level at the bottom. Or compare the level of dissolved oxygen in a body of
water during cool weather with the level during a heat wave. Try to
determine the factors that influence these levels and whether the levels
indicate pollution that is potentially harmful to the health of the organisms
living in the water and the people using and drinking it.

Carolina Biological Supply Company, 2700 York Road, Burlington, NC
27215, 1 800 334 5551. http://www.carolina.com/.
Fitzgerald, Karen. The Story of Oxygen. Danbury, CT: Franklin Watts, 1996.
Covers the history of oxygen, its chemistry, how it works in our bodies, and
its importance in our lives.
Frey Scientific, 100 Paragon Parkway, Mansfield, OH 44903, 1 800 225 FREY.
http://www.freyscientific.com.
LaMotte water test kits. http://www.lamotte.com/.
Wards Natural Science Establishment, Inc., 5100 West Henrietta Road, PO Box
92912, Rochester, NY 14692, 1 800 962 2660. http://www.wardsci.com/.
284
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
our hair color, a leafs shape, a birds wing: These diverse features all
share one key inherited trait known as deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA. DNA is commonly called the building block of life, for it is the
inherited substance that all characteristics build from. Passed down from
generation to generation, DNA directs how an organism functions,
develops, and appears. Every life form on Earth carries DNA. And unless
you are an identical twin, your DNA is completely unique to you.
The findings of DNA have led to awesome advances in a wide range
of fields, from medicine to crime solving. Researchers have used their
knowledge of DNA to examine inherited diseases, produce medicines,
study the relationships between species, and develop foods with desired
characteristics. As the work to understand DNA continues, researchers
hope that gaining knowledge about the molecule will help improve
peoples lives all over the world.
The transforming factor DNA is a large molecule inside almost

every cell in the body. In humans, DNA is found in the nucleus, the
brain-center of the cell. Much like a cell, a nucleus is held together by a
membrane or nuclear envelope. The DNA molecule coils in the nucleus
so tightly that if all of the DNA in your body were unraveled and laid end
to end, it would stretch from Earth to the Moon about 6,000 times!
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, scientists were working to discover
what substance played a role in heredity. From early experiments and
observations researchers knew parents passed their characteristics onto
their offspring. Then a 1928 experiment showed that there was some
substance that transmitted infectiousness to noninfectious bacteria. This
was called the transforming factor, because it transformed the bacteria.
Scientists narrowed the possibilities of the transforming factor down
to two substances: proteins or DNA. At this time, researchers knew that
an organisms cells contained DNA. DNA is a simple molecule with
285
relatively few chemical parts to it. They also

knew each cell contained proteins, large molecules made of chemicals called amino acids.
There are twenty amino acids that make up the
hundreds of thousands of proteins in the human
body. Lots of researchers argued that DNA was
too simple a molecule to account for the vast
diversity of lifefrom a weed to a human.
American scientist Oswald

Avery. L IBR AR Y O F
C ONG RE SS.
In 1943, American scientist Oswald Avery

(18771955) and his colleagues conducted a
groundbreaking experiment. First they took
DNA from a disease-causing strain of a bacterium.
Then they placed this DNA into a strain of the
bacterium that did not cause disease, an inactive
bacterium. They found the inactive bacterium
turned into a disease-causing bacterium. Avery
concluded that it was the DNA from the diseasecausing strain that transformed the inactive
form of the bacterium. Many in the scientific
community were skeptical of this conclusion
because they still believed DNA was too simple a
substance. Then in 1952 biologists Alfred Hershey
and Martha Chase conducted an experiment that
conclusively proved DNA was the transforming factor, the molecule responsible for heredity.
Solving the structure The 1950s were a big decade for DNA. While
many researchers were working to prove exactly what DNA did, other
scientists were racing to figure out how DNA was structured. In 1953
molecular biologists James D. Watson (1928) and Francis Crick
(19162004) solved the puzzle of DNAs double-helix molecular structure. Their discovery is recognized as one of the most important scientific
findings of the twentieth century.
Prior to Watson and Cricks discovery, researchers knew that DNA
was made up of units called nucleotides. There are four types of nucleotides found in DNA, differing only in their nitrogen-containing bases:
adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). Each nucleotide consists of three components: a sugar deoxyribose, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogen-containing base.
286
Watson and Crick used a type of X-ray

image produced by British scientist Rosalind
Franklin (192058) to develop their model of
DNAs structure. They determined that DNA
consists of long chains of repeating nucleotides,
joined together and twisted around each other
into a spiral shape known as a double helix. It has
the appearance of a twisted ladder. The backbone of the ladder is made up of the nucleotides
sugar and phosphate molecules. The rungs of the
two strands are formed by attached bases that are
always complementary, A pairs with T (A-T)
and G pairs C (G-C). These base pairs are held
together with hydrogen bonds.
G
A
Thymine
C
A
T
A
Sugar
Phosphate
Backbone
Adenine
Cytosine
G
A
Base
Pair
Since each nucleotide always pairs with the

A
same complementary nucleotide, this explains
G
how DNA replicates itself. During DNA replication, the DNA helix unzips. The exposed bases match up with complementary bases of nucleotides. The nucleotides bind together to form two
new strands that are identical to the strand that separated.
Sequencing the alphabet Everyone has the same four nucleotides,
but it is the order of the nucleotides, the sequence, that determines
DNAs instructions. Reading the sequence of
the four bases, A, G, C, and T, is similar to
reading the order of letters in words. Different
combinations create different meanings. In some
cases, just one letter out of place in a sequence can
cause a person to have a completely distinct characteristic. In the disease sickle cell anemia, for
example, a single base change from an A to a T
changes the shape and function of red blood cells,
causing blood to clog and anemia (a condition in
which the blood cannot carry enough oxygen to
body tissues).
A
C
Guanine
T
C
Components of a DNA strand.

GA LE G RO UP.
Molecular biologists Francis

Crick and James D. Watson
were the first to map the
structure of DNA.
GAL E GR OU P.
Different species have varying amounts and

sequences of DNA. Humans have about three
billion base pairs in our DNA. Researchers have
287
WORDS TO KNOW
Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins.
Base: Substance that when dissolved in water is
release hydrogen ions; has a pH of more than 7.
Base pairs: In DNA, the pairing of two nucleotides
with each other: adenine (A) with thymine (T),
and guanine (G) with cytosine (C).
genetic information for an organisms development; double helix. (Pronounced DEE-ox-seerye-bo-noo-klay-ick acid)
DNA replication: The process by which one DNA
strand unwinds and duplicates all its information,
creating two new DNA strands that are identical
to each other and to the original strand.
Double helix: The shape taken by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules in a nucleus.
Enzyme: Any of numerous complex proteins produced by living cells that act as catalysts,
speeding up the rate of chemical reactions in
living organisms.
experiment.
Nucleotide: The basic unit of a nucleic acid. It
consists of a simple sugar, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogen-containing base. (Pronounced
noo-KLEE-uh-tide.)
Protein: A complex chemical compound consisting of many amino acids attached to each other
that are essential to the structure and functioning of all living cells.
an experiment.
found no correlation between DNA length and the complexity of an

organism. A species of wheat, for example, has roughly 16 billion base
pairs, the fruit fly has an estimated 180 million,
and a species of corn checks in at only slightly
less than that of humans, at 2.5 billion.
A
G
T
A
A
T
288
Original Strand
C
T
C
G
DNA replication: The DNA

strand unwinds and
complementary nucleotides
bind together. GAL E GR OU P.
As a general rule, the greater the similarity

between DNA sequences, the more similar the
organisms. In the human species, your DNA
sequence is about 99.9% identical to every
other persons. Your DNA sequence is even
more similar to your family members. In 2003,
researchers completed sequencing the entire
human DNA.
PROJECT 1
DNA
The Stuff of Life: Isolating

DNA
Purpose/Hypothesis DNA is present in all life.
In this project, you will extract DNA to see what

this molecule looks like.
DNA is twisted inside the cell nucleus. A
cells nucleus also contains proteins and other
substances. To see the DNA, you will have to
separate out the DNA from all the cells other
molecules. (Refer to illustration.) You will first
liquefy the substance and separate the cells by blending it. Detergent or
soap will break apart the cells outer and inner membrane, in much the
same way that soap loosens dirt and grease. The cells membranes are
made of a fatty substance that contain proteins. Detergent contains a
substance that pulls apart the fats and proteins, freeing the DNA.
The DNA in the nucleus is wound up with proteins. To isolate
the DNA from these proteins, you will use an enzyme, a protein that
quickens a chemical reaction. Meat tenderizer contains enzymes that
cut away the proteins. Adding alcohol will then allow you to see the
DNA. DNA is not soluble in alcohol. DNA precipitates, or separates
out of the solution, in alcohol, moving away
from the watery part of the solution and rising
towards the alcohol. Proteins and other parts
DNA
1
of the cell will remain in the bottom watery
layer.
All living organisms carry DNA;

its unique sequence determines
individual characteristics. G ALE
GRO UP .
Figure A. Process of DNA

isolation: (1) Detergent breaks
up the cells membranes; (2)
enzymes cut away the protein to
(3) isolate the DNA. GA LE
GR OU P.

Materials Needed
spinach
knife
salt
coldwater
blender
refrigerator
liquid soap with no conditioner
chopstick or toothpick
membranes
Proteins
2
DNA
289
How to Work Safely

Be sure to handle the knife carefully when
cutting. If you get any alcohol on your hands,
wash your hands immediately and make sure to
keep them away from your eyes. Keep the
container of alcohol away from open flames.
Thoroughly wash the cup, jar, strainer, and
chopstick after the experiment. Discard the
mixture after you have studied and documented the results.
strainer or cheesecloth
cup
small glass jar
meat tenderizer
91% isopropyl alcohol (available in drug
stores) or 95% ethyl alcohol (slightly
preferred; available from science supply
companies)

Timetable 1 hour.
Step 6: Slowly pour the alcohol

down the side of the glass jar
(jar should be at a slight tilt)
until the jar is almost full.
Alcoh
ol
GA LE GRO UP.
1. Take cup of the spinach and place it in the blender. Add a large
pinch of table salt and about 1=3 cup of cold water. Blend together
for 10 seconds and pour the mixture into the cup.
2. Slowly pour the liquid out of the cup and into the glass jar through
the cheesecloth or strainer. Fill the jar about one-quarter to onehalf full.
3. Add about 2 teaspoons (10 milliliters) of
liquid soap to the jar and stir slowly for
five seconds.
4. Let the mixture sit for 10 minutes.
5. Add a pinch of the meat tenderizer and
stir the mixture gently. Do not stir too
hard.
6. Slowly pour the alcohol down the side of
the glass jar (jar should be at a slight tilt)
until the jar is almost full.
7. Place the jar in the refrigerator for five
minutes, then remove and wait another
five minutes. The DNA should have risen
to the top of the glass. Use a chopstick or
toothpick to extract the spinach DNA.
Summary of Results Write down what the DNA
looks like. Your toothpickfull of DNA contains

millions of DNA strands clumped together.
290
Since you were not using chemicals to extract a

highly purified DNA, it also contains some proteins and other nucleic acids (ribonucleic acid or
RNA) that were not separated. With the right
equipment and materials in a laboratory, it is
possible to extract pure DNA.
EXPERIMENT 2
Comparing DNA: Does the
DNA from different species
have the same appearance?
Purpose/Hypothesis The DNA molecule produ-
Problem: The DNA is broken into small bits.
(DNA should be a long, white strand.)
Possible cause: You could have stirred too
harshly when you added the enzymes or at
different points throughout the experiment
and broken the DNA strands. Try repeating
the experiment, stirring gently every time.
Problem: You do not see any DNA. (DNA looks
ces the unique characteristics for all life forms.

white and stringy.)
DNA is composed of the same biochemical molPossible cause: The cells may not have broken
ecules in all species: four nucleotides and a sugaropen when they were blended. Try repeating
phosphate backbone. Nucleotide sequences,
the experiment, blending the DNA until is
liquidy.
which account for the distinctive characteristics,
Possible
cause: If the soap had conditioner in it,
cannot be seen by the naked eye.
it
would
not have broken open the fatty DNA
In this experiment you will compare if DNA
cell membranes, and the DNA would not
appears the same in four different species. You
have gotten free. Make sure the soap does
will conduct the same DNA extraction process
not have any conditioner.
on each of the species and then examine its
Possible cause: You may not have allowed
physical characteristics.
enough time for each step. Wait another 45
To extract DNA, you will have to separate
minutes for the DNA to rise into the alcohol
out the DNA from all the cells other molecules.
layer. If you still do not see any DNA, try the
experiment again, increasing the time slightly
You will first liquefy the substance and separate
for each step.
the cells by blending it. Detergent or soap will
Possible cause: You may not have had enough
break apart the cells outer and inner membrane,
DNA from the source. Repeat the experiin much the same way that soap loosens dirt and
ment, cutting the amount of water added to
grease. The cells membranes are made of a fatty
the DNA source in half before placing it in the
substance that contain proteins. Detergent conblender.
tains a substance that pulls apart the fats and
proteins, freeing the DNA.
The DNA in the nucleus is wound up with proteins. To isolate the
DNA from these proteins, you will use an enzyme, a protein that quickens
a chemical reaction. Meat tenderizer contains enzymes that cut away the
proteins. Adding alcohol will then allow you to see the DNA. DNA is not
soluble in alcohol. DNA precipitates or separates out of the solution in
291
alcohol, moving away from the watery part of the

solution and rising towards the alcohol. Proteins
and other parts of the cell will remain in the
bottom watery layer.
To begin this experiment, make an educated
guess about the outcome of the experiment based
on your knowledge of DNA. This educated guess,
the DNA source
the type of alcohol
the type of detergent
are everything that might affect the appearance
of the DNA. If you change more than one varA hypothesis should be brief, specific, and
iable at the same time, you will not be able to tell
which variable had the most effect on the DNA.
correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: DNA will
have the same physical characteristics in all the species, with each species
having a unique quantity of DNA.
Variables are anything you can change in an experiment. In this case,
the variable you will change will be the DNA source. The variable you
will measure will be the DNA itself and the quantity of the DNA.
Level of Difficulty Difficult (this experiment is not technically difficult,
but it requires careful attention to timing and each step).

Materials Needed
four DNA sources: possible sources include banana, wheat germ,

onion, kiwi, grapes, peas
salt
cold water
knife
blender
refrigerator
liquid soap or detergent with no conditioner
4 wooden sticks such as chopsticks or toothpicks
strainer
4 small glass jars
292
4 cups
marking pen
masking tape
meat tenderizer
91% isopropyl alcohol (available in drug
stores) or 95% ethyl alcohol (slightly
preferred; available from science supply
companies)
filter paper
gram scale (optional)

Be sure to handle the knife carefully when
cutting. If you get any alcohol on your hands,
wash your hands immediately and make sure to
keep them away from your eyes. Keep the
container of alcohol away from open flames.
Thoroughly wash the cup, jar, strainer, and
chopstick after the experiment. Discard the
mixtures after you have studied and documented the results.

Timetable One-and-a-half hours to start; 15
minutes after a three-day waiting period.
1. Cut about a cup of one DNA source, such as a banana, and

place it in the blender. Add a large pinch of table salt and about
twice as much cold water as the source. Blend together for about
10 seconds and pour into a cup.
2. Repeat the procedure with the other
DNA sources.
3. Label each glass jar. Pour each mixture
from the cup into its marked glass
through the cheesecloth or strainer.
Make sure to wash the strainer and cup
between pours. Fill the jars about onequarter to one-half full.
4. Add 2 teaspoons (10 milliliters) of liquid
soap to each jar and stir slowly for five
seconds.
5. Let the mixtures sit for 10 minutes.
6. Add a pinch of the meat tenderizer to
each glass and stir the mixtures gently.
Do not stir too hard.
7. Pour the alcohol down the sides of the
glass jars until they are almost full.
Step 9: Gently extract the DNA

from each substance using a
toothpick or chopstick.
GA LE G RO UP.
kiwi
293
Problem: The DNA is broken.
Possible cause: You could have stirred too
harshly when you added the enzymes or at
different points throughout the protocol and
broken the DNA strands. Try repeating the
experiment, stirring gently every time.
Problem: There was no DNA.
Possible cause: The cells may not have broken
open when they were blended. Try repeating
the experiment, blending the DNA until is
liquidy.
Possible cause: If the soap had conditioner in it,
it would not have broken open the fatty DNA
cell membranes and the DNA would not have
gotten free. Make sure the soap did not have
any conditioner.
enough time for each step. Wait another 45
minutes for the DNA to precipitate into the
alcohol layer. If you still do not see any DNA,
try the experiment again, increasing the time
slightly for each step.
Possible cause: You may not have had enough
DNA from the source; some DNA sources
contain more water than others. Repeat the
experiment, cutting the amount of water
added to the DNA source in half before
placing it in the blender.
8. Place the jars in the refrigerator for about

five minutes and then remove them and
wait another five minutes.
9. Use a chopstick or toothpick to gently
extract the DNA from each substance
and observe its characteristics.
10. Gently place the DNA on filter paper. (If
you have a sensitive scale, weigh the filter
paper.)
11. Place the filter paper aside and leave for
three days or until it is completely dry.
Note how much DNA each substance
contained by comparing them to one
another. On the scale, you can weigh the
filter paper with the DNA. Subtract the
weight of the filter paper from the total.
Note how much the DNA from each
source weighs.
determine whether your original hypothesis was

correct. Did the DNA react the same way in all
the sources? Did the DNA appear the same from
all the species? Draw, describe, or take pictures of
the DNA, both when it is freshly extracted and
when it is dried. (It may be helpful to view the
extracted DNA under a microscope.) Write a
description of each of the species DNA and
your conclusions.
ment several ways:
You can alter the DNA sources and observe

the DNA from other plant and fruit sources. Whatever you choose, make sure the source is not too watery.
Yeast, strawberries, and peas are three other good sources for this
experiment.
Using one DNA source, such as wheat germ, you can alter the type
of soap or detergent.
294
You can also change the amount of the

soap used.
You can change the alcohol. What happens to the DNA if you use a lesser concentration of alcohol, such as 70%
rubbing alcohol?
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept The study of DNA is a relatively new
topic of study for researchers. There are many intriguing questions and
unknowns related to the topic that researchers are beginning to understand. How is the DNA of different species related? What are some ways
that DNA sequences are manipulated, and how can this help treat or cure
human disease?
teacher or librarian to start gathering information on any questions that
interest you. You could also consider visiting companies in your local area
that conduct DNA research.
Rice, yeast, the pufferfish

(pictured), and the rat are
among the organisms whose
DNA sequences are known.
# S TE PHE N F RI NK O F C OR BI S.
question.
should be clearly labeled and easy to read. As DNA is difficult to visualize,
you may also want to include photographs and drawings of your
295
experimental setup and results. This will help others visualize the steps in
the experiment.
Related Projects Because the nucleotides or sequences of DNA are
invisible to the naked eye, the majority of experiments with DNA will
need special laboratory equipment. With the right equipment, you can
compare the bands or fingerprints of DNA from different organisms.
Called DNA fingerprinting, this is one technique that forensic scientists
use to compare a suspects DNA with the DNA found at a crime scene.
Check the Resources section for companies that sell kits on DNA
fingerprinting.
Using a DNA technique that combines bits of DNA from two
different organisms is another possible project. Called DNA Transformation, the technique can transfer a desired trait to another organism. To
perform transformation, you will need a kit, along with special equipment and adult supervision. Transformation kits are sold at many biological supply companies.
The topic of DNA also brings with it many ethical dilemmas. Transformation techniques have allowed researchers to cut-and-paste the DNA
of two different species together. Should a person be forced to store his or
her DNA in a computer databank if it will help solve crimes? If a DNA
sequence predicts that a person may get a certain disease, does that
persons insurance company have the right to know this information?
You might focus on one ethical issue from differing viewpoints.

DNA From the Beginning. http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/ (accessed on March 1,
2008). An animated introduction on the basics of DNA, heredity, and
genetics.
Genetics Home Reference. What is DNA? http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/
basics/dna (accessed on March 1, 2008). Illustrated handbook on DNA.
Groleau, Rick. Journey into DNA. Nova Online. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/
nova/genome/dna.html (accessed on March 1, 2008). Interactive site on the
basics of DNA and related issues.
296
Howard Hughes Medical Institute. The Genes We Share with Yeast, Flies, Worms,
and Mice. http://www.hhmi.org/genesweshare (accessed on March 1, 2008).
Clear report from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
Human Genome Project Information. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/
Human Genome/education/students.shtml (accessed on March 1, 2008).
Information on the background and implications of sequencing human
DNA.
Ridley, Matt. Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters. New York:
HarperColllins, 2000. Each chapter looks at one gene on a humans
chromosome.
The Tech Museum of Innovation. Understanding Genetics. http://www.thetech.
org/genetics (accessed on March 1, 2008). Online DNA exhibit includes
images of cells and DNA.
297
Dyes
f you ever stained your clothing from a spilled drink, you have seen a dye at
work. A dye is any substance that colors another material. Dyes are in inks,
clothing, and furniture. People use them to produce a wide variety of colors
in a range of materials.
The British chemist William

Henry Perkin is credited with
developing the first dye in the
1850s. GE TTY IM AGE S.
A colorful world of nature In the modern day, most dyes are manufactured (synthesized) by a chemical process. But people have been using
natural dyes for thousands of years. Records show that dyes were used in
ancient China about 2600 B . C . E . There is evidence that ancient Egyptians
used dyes for burial cloth. Dyes were used to add color to fibers, skin
decorations, and writings.
Cultures made dyes from the colors in animals, plants, and minerals. Ancient Romans and
Egyptians made a purple dye from a snail. The
dye was so rare and expensive to make that purple
became a symbol of wealth and royalty.
People made a variety of color dyes from
leaves, berries, stems, and roots. Indigo plants produced a blue, tree bark a brown, and the turmeric
plant a yellow dye. The kermes insect could produce a red dye. Minerals were ground to produce
reds and yellows.
Lucky dye accident The first synthetic dyes
were developed in the 1800s. The person credited with developing the first dye was a British
chemist named William Henry Perkin in the
1850s.
Perkin was just 18 years old when he was
conducting an experiment trying to produce a
drug for malaria, a deadly infectious disease. He
299
Dyes
In some remote countries, cloth

is occasionally still dyed by
hand. A P PHO TO /R EBE CC A
BL ACK WE LL.
was using a chemical called aniline. The experiment failed but he had produced a deep color,
which he pulled out the color purple. He found
that it was a deep color that did not fade. Perkins
set up a factory in London and began manufacturing the color, which he named mauve. A few years
later he synthesized a deep red dye.
Holding the dyes How a material dyes
depends upon the composition of both the dye
and the material. There are dyes for food, fabric,
wood, and hair. Leather will accept a dye in a
different way than a swatch (piece) of cotton.
All dyes attach to the material being dyed. Dyes for fiber, for example,
form a strong bond with the fiber. Hair dyes attach to the hair strand.
Synthetic dyes have compounds in them that fix the dye to the fabric.
Natural dyes often need a fixative agent, called a mordant. A mordant reacts
with the dye and fiber to bind the dye to the material. Mordants generally
contain metal, such as iron and aluminum.
There are thousands of unique dye colors manufactured today. Dyes
have become a part of everyday life, from the clothes we wear to the paints
dye
mordant
material
A mordant reacts with the dye
and fiber to bind the dye to the
material. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TE MA H NEL SO N.
300
Dyes
WORDS TO KNOW
Colorfast: The ability of a material to keep its dye
and not fade or change color.

Mordant: A substance that fixes the dye to the
material.
Dye: A colored substance that is used to give color

to a material.

laboratory or chemical plant, but is generally not
found in nature.
Fixative: A substance that mixes with the dye to

hold it to the material.

experiment.
on the walls. They have also become a part of research and technological
developments. In the medical and biological fields, dyes are used to color
pills and identify tissues or other biological structures.
There are many applications for dyes. In the following two experiment, you will investigate how dyes affect different materials and how a
dye stays in the material.
EXPERIMENT 1
Applying Dyes: How does
the fiber affect the dye
color?
observe the role of the material in dyeing. How a
dye colors depends upon the fiber it is coloring.
Using a natural dye, you will experiment with
both natural and synthetic (man-made) fibers.
Natural fibers include cotton, wool, and silk.
Natural fibers include fibers from animals, such
as wool, and fibers from plants, such as cotton.
Synthetic fibers include polyester, nylon and
rayon. By making your own natural dye and
applying it to different fabrics, you will be able
to determine how dyes affect each type of fiber.

the cleanliness of the fabric
the type of fabric
the color of the fabric
the type of dye
the time dyed
are anything that might affect how the fabric
dyes. If you change more than one variable, you
most effect on the fabric color.
301
Dyes

Be careful and ask an adult for help when
working with boiling water. This can be a messy
experiment. Make sure an adult knows that the
wooden utensil and other materials you work
could be dyed slightly, and wear appropriate
clothing. Carefully dispose of the dye bath
when you are finished.
To begin the experiment, use what you know

about fibers and dyes to make an educated guess
about how the dyes will affect the different fabrics. This educated guess, or prediction, is your
things:

or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, will accept
natural dyes the best.
In this case, the variable you will change is the fabric, and the variable
you will measure is the color.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate (due to the time involved).
Materials Needed
Step 1: Use the scissors to cut
each piece in a way that will
help you distinguish it from
other pieces. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
2 to 3 fresh beets for the dye (other dye sources that work well
include purple cabbage, coffee grounds, and onion skins)
metal pot
colander
scissors
wooden stirring stick that can pick up dye
plastic plate, which will pick up dye
knife
paper towels
container or pot that can get slightly
dyed
4 to 5 different types of white fabric pieces,
about 5 x 5 inches, including cotton, wool,
polyester, linen, and silk
302
Dyes
Approximate Budget Less than $5. (The fabric
can be taken from old clothes or fabric stores

may give samples away.)
Timetable Approximately one hour and 30
minutes to prepare dye, eight hours to three
days total time.
1. Wash all the fabric pieces by machine or by

hand to make sure they are clean. Use the
scissors to cut each piece in a way that will
help you distinguish it from other pieces. You may want to cut the
corner from the polyester, for example, and make the cotton piece a
triangle. One can have nothing cut. Write down the identification
for each type of fabric.
2. Cut up the beets and place them in the pot. Pour enough water in
the pot to cover all the beets and bring to a simmer. Allow the beets
to simmer for about an hour. Use the wooden spoon to stir
occasionally.
3. Set the container under the colander in a sink or outside, and
carefully empty the hot beet-water into the colander. The container holds your dye.
4. Place the fabric swatches into the container. Use the wooden
stirrer to move the pieces around. Set aside overnight.
5. Use the wooden utensil to look at the
fabric. You may want to leave the fabric
in for several more hours or days to absorb
more of the dye. When you are ready to
take the fabric out of the dye, take the
pieces out in a sink or outside. Hold each
piece out under clear water and roll it in
paper towels. Set the material pieces on
the plate and allow to dry.
Step 3: Empty the hot beetwater into the colander.

NEL SO N.
Step 5: Use the wooden utensil

to look at the fabric.
NEL SO N.
Summary of Results Match the identification

with the type of fabric. How did each fabric dye
compared to one another? Was there one type of
material that dyed the brightest? Write up a
303
Dyes
paragraph of your results; you may want to take

pictures.
There should not be any significant problems
with this experiment. If one of the types of
material is clean and does not accept the dye,
that may be the material. You could leave all the
fabrics in the dye for a longer amount of time to
make sure.
ment. Here are some possibilities. Try different

dye sources, such as flowers, onion skins, or bark.
You could use a synthetic, store-bought dye and
compare the color to the natural dye. Try blends
of two types of fiber while also dyeing 100% pieces
of each blend, to determine which of the types of
fibers accepts dye more than the other.
EXPERIMENT 2
Holding the Dye: How do dye fixatives affect
the colorfastness of the dye?
Purpose/Hypothesis Adding a fixative to the dyeing process helps ensure
that the dye color will stay attached to the material. Dyes can fade over time
from washing. Exposure to sunlight and air can also cause a color to fade.
Mordants are used to help fix natural dyes. The mordant, a metal-based
substance, attaches to the fiber and the dye binds to the mordant. Synthetic
dyes can bond directly to the fiber.
In this experiment, you can test the colorfastness of a synthetic dye, a
natural dye without a mordant, and a natural dye with a mordant. The
mordant you will use is alum (aluminum sulfate). After dying the same type
of material in each of the three dye baths, you can test for colorfastness by
repeatedly washing the materials with soap. By comparing each of the
materials against an unwashed piece you can judge how the material held
onto the dye relative to the other washed materials.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about dyes and colorfastness to make an educated guess about how each material will fix the
dye. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis


304
Dyes

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The natural dye with the mordant will
retain the dye color more than the synthetic or
natural dye alone.
In this case, the variable you will change will
be the dye fixative. The variable you will measure
will be how much each material retains its color
relative to one another. If the material with the
natural dye and mordant retains its color the
best, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Setting up a control will help you isolate one
variable. For the control, you will only dye the
material. For the experiment, you will compare
the experimental material against the control to
judge the colorfastness.

the type of material
the color of the material
the amount of soap
the type of pan used
the amount of times the material is
washed
dye color the material retains. If you change
colorfastness.
and care involved.

Materials Needed
purple cabbage or 3 to 4 fresh red beets

synthetic fabric dye, red dye if you are using beets and purple if
you are using cabbage (available at drug or fabric stores)
stainless steel pot
3 plastic container (which may get dyed)
scissors
6 squares of white wool, about 5 to 6 inches (1315 cm) square
stove
alum (available in grocery stores)
measuring spoons and cup
liquid soap
strainer
plastic plates
2 to 3 wooden sticks or spoons
paper towels
glass jar with cover (a mayonnaise jar works well)
305
Dyes

Be careful and ask an adult for help when
working with boiling water. This can be a messy
experiment. You may want to work outside
whenever possible. Make sure an adult knows
that the wooden utensil and other materials you
work may get dyed, and wear appropriate
clothing. Carefully dispose of the dye bath
when you are finished.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Step 2: Use scissors to cut the pieces
in three ways to help you identify
each pair. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
306
Timetable Approximately two hours to prepare

dye and carry out experiment, three to four days
total time, depending upon how long the material takes to dry.
1. Wash the pieces of wool by machine or by

hand to make sure they are clean.
2. Use the scissors to cut the pieces in three
ways to help you identify which pair will
be in each dye bath. You can cut a diagonal off the corner off two pieces; cut a
square in the corner of two more pieces, and cut a small triangle in
the middle of one side of two more pieces. It does not matter what
you cut, as long as there are three sets of two pieces that are
identifiable. Assign each identification marking to one of the dye
baths and write it down.
Bring three cups of water to a boil and reduce to a simmer. Add
about a quarter teaspoon alum and stir. Wet the two pieces assigned
to the mordant/natural dye bath and place in the hot water.
Simmer for about an hour and turn off the stove. Allow the material
to sit overnight in the alum water.
Before you are about to die, remove the two pieces from the alum
water and place on a plate. Wet the remaining four pieces of wool.
For the natural dye: Cut up the beets or cabbage and place them in
the pot. Pour enough water in the pot to cover the food and simmer
for about 30 minutes or until the water is a color you like. Use the
wooden spoon to stir occasionally.
7. While the natural dye is simmering, follow the directions on the package. Make
sure you use a container that does not
matter if it gets dyed.
8. When the cabbage or beets has finished
simmering, place a plastic container
under the strainer in a sink or outside,
and carefully empty the hot beet-water
into the colander. The container holds
your dye.
Dyes
9. Place the four wet fabric swatches

assigned to the natural dye bath into the
container. Use the wooden stirrer to
move the pieces around. Set aside
overnight.
10. Place the two wet fabric swatches
assigned to the synthetic dye into the
synthetic dye bath. Use a wooden stirrer
to move the pieces around. Set aside as
directed or until you like the color.
11. When all the squares are dyed, set them on
a paper towel and roll the paper towel until the material is damp.
Hang them over a plate in the sink or outside and allow to dry. Set
one of each pair aside.
12. Fill the glass jar with warm water and add a few drops of soap.
Place one of each pair of the dyed wool pieces into the jar. Cover
and shake for at least ten seconds.
13. Rinse the wool squares under running water and allow to dry.
14. Repeat the washing and drying process
two more times.
Step 3: Wet the two pieces

assigned to the mordant/
natural dye bath and place in
the hot water. I LLU ST RAT IO N
Step 12: Cover and shake with

the dyed wool for at least ten
seconds. I LL US TRA TI ON BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Summary of Results Compare the control wool
pieces to the washed wool. How does each compare

to its non-washed partner? Is there one dye that
washed out completely? Did the mordant help fix
the dye? Match the identification with the assigned
dye bath. Was your hypothesis correct? Write up a
paragraph of your results; you may want to take
pictures or attach swatches.
Change the Variables One variable you can
change to further explore colorfastness is pH.

The pH is a measure of how acidic a solution
is. Depending upon the material, a low or high
pH can affect how the dye bonds and fixes to the
material. You can also change the material or
type of dye. You can compare different brands of
purchased dyes or different types of natural dyes.
307
Dyes

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Are you interested in
experimenting with how to make dye, change dye colors, or remove dyes?
Perhaps you would like to learn more about the chemistry behind how a
dye attaches to a fabric. Have you ever wondered why some dyes dissolve
in water and others only dissolve in oil?
gather information about dye questions that interest you. You may also want
to explore the museums in your area for special exhibits on color or dyes.
need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise you may not
your question.
charts, graphs or some type of visual representation. They should be clearly
labeled and easy to read. You may also want to include samples, photos, or
colored drawings of your experimental set-up and results.
If you are preparing an exhibit, display the materials you dyed or dyes
themselves to help explain what you did and what you discovered. Observers could even test them out the dyes for themselves. If you have completed
a nonexperimental project, you will want to explain clearly what your
research question was and illustrate your findings.
Related Projects There are many possible experiments relating to dyes.
You could investigate how dyes are removed or the chemistry behind dye
removal. You could further investigate why some clothes retain their
dye and others lose their color in the wash. There are many different
types of dyes developed for different materials. You could explore how a
308
Dyes
wood dye is different from a fabric dye or hair dye. Why does bleach
remove some dyes? Look around you for objects or materials that are dyed
and consider what questions you can investigate.

Dyeing to Find Out: Extracting Natures Colors. Kids Gardening. http://www.
kidsgardening.com/growingideas/projects/may03/pg1.html (accessed on
April 24, 2008). Information and how techniques how to use plant materials
to dye.
Gardner, Robert. Science Projects about Chemistry. Hillside, NJ: Enslow
Publishers, 1994. Focuses on experiments in causing and analyzing chemical
reactions.
Van Cleave, Janice. A+ Projects in Chemistry. New York: Wiley, 1993. Outlines
many experiments and includes information about the scientific method.
309
Earthquakes
ccording to the ancient Greeks, earthquakes occurred when the god

Atlas shifted the weight of the world from one shoulder to the other.
Other cultures believed that earthquakes were a sign of punishment. We
now know that earthquakes are the shaking or trembling of the earth
caused by underground shock waves or vibrations. Believe it or not, over a
million earthquakes take place each year. Sometimes the trembling and
shaking is gentle and hardly noticeable. Other times the motion is much
more violent, causing cracks in the surface of the earth.
Theres a whole lot of shaking going on Huge blocks of rocks called

plates make up Earths outer shell, or crust. These plates fit together like a
cracked egg shell. The plates push and pull on each other constantly.
Sometimes this pressure causes a fault, or a break in the rocks. Large
pieces of these rocks, called fault blocks, can overlap. Pressure pushes on
the rocks for centuries, finally causing them to rupture and snap in one
big surge, resulting in a major earthquake.
Like a chain reaction, force from the movement of the rocks results in
vibrations of the surrounding ground. These vibrations, or seismic waves,
(pronounced SIZE-mic; relating to earthquakes) travel away from the
break. Strong shaking from these waves lasts from 30 to 60 seconds and
can cause buildings and highways to collapse.
Earthquakes can actually be beneficial. The constant shifting and
upheaval of Earths crust builds mountains and highlands. The planet
would be flat without them.
Developing a theory On November 1, 1755, the port of Lisbon,
Portugal, was hit by a terrible earthquake. More than 60,000 people died.
The day of the earthquake was a religious holiday, and many of those
killed were crushed in churches. Because earthquakes were thought to be a
punishment from God, it did not make sense that one would take place
on a holy day. People also asked why innocent children would be
311
Earthquakes
punished? Soon after the earthquake, some people started to look for scientific reasons. The
Marquez de Pombal, a Portugese nobleman,
asked Lisbons surviving priests to fill out questionnaires documenting information about the
earthquake. The questionnaires included questions about the time and the direction of the
earthquake shock.
In 1760, John Michell, an English physicist,
came up with an interesting theory. He reasoned
that if you could record the underground shock
waves and the points at which the waves stopped,
you could determine the point of origin, or epicenter, of an earthquake. Epicenters existed deep
in the rocks beneath the sea, he said. His theories, which were fairly accurate, were the start of
seismology, the science of earthquakes and their
origins.
Dr. Charles F. Richter

developed the Richter Scale,
which measures earthquake
magnitude. A P/W ID E WO RL D
Measuring an earthquake In the first

century, Chang Henga Chinese astronomer,
mathematician, and writerinvented the earliest earthquake recorder. This device measured
the occurrence and direction of an earthquakes
P HOT OS.
In the famous Lisbon, Portugal,

earthquake of 1755, residents
were killed by toppling
buildings, fires, and high waves.
CO RB IS /BE TTM AN N.
312
Earthquakes
WORDS TO KNOW
Earthquake: An unpredictable event in which
masses of rock suddenly shift or rupture below
Earths surface, releasing enormous amounts of
energy and sending out shockwaves that
sometimes cause the ground to shake
dramatically.
Epicenter: The location where the seismic waves
of an earthquake first appear on the surface,
usually almost directly above the focus.
Fault: A crack running through rock as the result
of tectonic forces.
Plates: Huge blocks of rocks that make up

Earths outer shell and fit together like a
cracked egg.
Seismic waves: Vibrations in rock and soil that
transfer the force of an earthquake from the
focus into the surrounding area.
Seismograph: A device that detects and records
vibrations of the ground.
Seismology: The study and measurement of
earthquakes.
Fault blocks: Pieces of rock from Earths crust that press

against each other and cause earthquakes when
they suddenly shift or rupture from the pressure.
Tectonic: Relating to the forces and structures of

the outer shell of Earth.
Focus: The point within Earth where a sudden shift

or rupture occurs.
Tsunami: A large wave of water caused by an

underwater earthquake.

can be tested by observation and experiment.

experiment.
motion. Italian physicist Luigi Palmieri has been credited with inventing
the first seismograph in 1855. Seismographs detect and record earthquake waves. To pinpoint how dangerous an earthquake was, American
seismologist Charles F. Richter (19001985) began measuring the peaks
and valleys of these waves in the 1930s. He came up with a mathematical
formula, known as the Richter (pronounced RIK-ter) Scale, which measures earthquake magnitude on a scale from 1 to 10. The Richter Scale also
measures how much energy is released in an earthquake. Increasing one
whole number on the Richter Scale, from 5.0 to 6.0 for example,
represents an increase of 10 times the magnitude and about 60 times
the energy.
Earth is a dynamic and changing planet. Conducting experiments
will help you understand how earthquakes are part of the changes that are
taking place.
313
Earthquakes
EXPERIMENT 1
the amount of simulated earthquake
disturbance
Detecting an Earthquake:
How can movement of
Earths crust be
measured?
construct a simple seismograph and simulate the

forces that cause an earthquake. Your seismograph
the distance of the disturbance from the
is a simple model, but you will see if it can detect
seismograph
vibrational activity in your house or building.
the surface on which you place your
You probably have an educated guess about
seismograph
the outcome of this experiment based on what
you already know about earthquakes. This eduare everything that might affect the amount of
cated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
disturbance recorded on your seismograph. If
you change more than one variable, you will not
effect on the seismograph recordings.
hypothesis for this experiment: By simulating an earthquake with various types of disturbances, you will detect and record various types of
vibrational activity on your seismograph.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of simulated
earthquake disturbance, and the variable you will measure is the amount
of displacement recorded on your seismograph. If a greater simulated
disturbance results in a greater displacement on your seismograph, you
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (The design of your seismograph is easy,
but you may need someone to hold some pieces while you attach them.
Also, you will need help from friends in creating vibrations.)
Materials Needed
1 or 2 helpers
cardboard box about 12 inches 12 inches (30 centimeters
30 centimeters) with an opening on top
314
Earthquakes
scissors
ruler
adding machine tape
string
pencil (or dowel)
5-ounce (about 148-milliliter) paper cup
masking tape
black marking pen
small rocks or marbles
modeling clay

Use caution when handling scissors and cutting
cardboard. Be careful when simulating an
earthquake so you do not damage items in the
room or hurt yourself or others.

Timetable One hour.
1. Turn the box on its side so the opening is facing outward.

2. Cut a 2-inch (5-centimeter) circle in the center of the top side of
the box.
3. Cut two -inch 4-inch (1.25-centimeter 10-centimeter)
slots in the box. The first slot should be in the center of
the bottom, near the front opening. The second slot should
be in the back center near the bottom. See
the illustration.
4. Thread the adding machine tape through the
slots, so the leading edge comes out the front
slot.
5. Cut two 24-inch (61-centimeter) lengths of
string.
6. Use the point of a pencil to poke two holes
below the rim of the cup opposite each other.
7. Tie one string onto each hole in the cup.
8. Bring the free ends of the string through the
2-inch (5-centimeter) circle in the top side of
the box.
9. Tape or tie the ends of the string to the pencil
and lay the pencil across the hole.
10. Push the marking pen through the bottom of
the cup, tip down.
Steps 2 to 4: Initial set-up

of seismograph box. G ALE
GRO UP.
315
Earthquakes
11. Fill the cup with the rocks or marbles.

12. Adjust the height of the cup/pen/rock
device so the marker tip just touches the
adding machine tape. (You can adjust the
string on the pencil, then fix the pencil in
place using the modeling clay and masking
tape.)
13. Test the device by pulling the adding
machine tape forward with one hand and
shaking the box gently with the other and
observe the markings left on the paper.
Steps 7 to 12: Completion of

seismograph box. G ALE
G RO UP.
Steps 14 and 15: Sample

recording sheets of seismic
results from walking, skipping,
jogging, running. GA LE
GR OU P.
14. Perform a seismic test indoors. Place your

seismograph on the floor in the middle of
the room. Have several of your friends
walk, skip, jog, and run around in the
room in a circle, always keeping the same distance away from
the seismograph. While they are moving about, record the seismic
waves, or seismic activity, by slowly pulling the adding machine
tape through the instrument (see illustration).
15. Label the tape with the location and activities.
Summary of Results Compare your tapes. Do they show greater move-
ment when the activity was more vigorous? In other words, does your
seismograph accurately detect and record seismic
activity?
Change the Variables You can change one of
the variables and repeat this experiment. For
example, you can have your friends move closer
or farther away from the seismograph to determine how the recordings vary. You can also
place the seismograph on a shaky table, like
an old card table, to see if this amplifies the
disturbances.
Be sure to change only one variable at a time.

Otherwise, you will not be able to determine
which variable affected the results.
316
Earthquakes
EXPERIMENT 2
Earthquake Simulation:
Is the destruction greater
at the epicenter?
create a simulated city and suburbs with buildings

and houses. By locating different types of structures
at various distances from the epicenter, you will
determine the destructive power of an earthquake.
You probably have an educated guess about
the outcome of this experiment based on what
you already know about earthquakes. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
Experiments do not always work out as
planned. Below are some problems that may
arise during this experiment, some possible
causes, and ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: Nothing is being recorded on the
adding machine tape.
Possible cause: The pen is not touching the
tape. Adjust the height of the marker pen.
Gently shake the box and pull the tape until a
mark appears.
Problem: The adding machine tape does not
move easily through the slots.
Possible cause: The slots are too small. Enlarge
the slots to allow the tape to move freely.
Problem: The model works during the test, but
when your friends run or jump, nothing
happens.

Possible cause: The friends are not making
strong enough vibrations. Have them jump up
and down. If that doesnt work, have them
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experimove closer to the siesmograph.
ment: Greater destruction occurs at the epicenter than at the outer limits of an earthquake.
the distance from the simulated earthquake disturbance, and the variable
you will measure is the amount of visible destruction of the structures in
your simulated city and suburbs. If there is more destruction near the
epicenter, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed
cardboard sheet, 24 inches 24 inches (60 centimeters 60

centimeters)
8 sheets of 8--inch 11-inch (22 centimeter 28 centimeter)
paper
317
Earthquakes

the size of the balloon, hence the
amount of the simulated earthquake
disturbance
the positions of the buildings in the
simulated city and suburb areas
marking pen
30 sugar cubes
810 spherical balloons
adhesive tape
4 coffee cans
ruler
drawing compass
safety pin
Approximate Budget $3 for balloons and sugar
cubes.
the height of the buildings

the type of building construction
the surface on which the buildings are
constructed
Timetable 1 hour or less.

1. Using tape, connect the edges of four sheets

of paper to form a large rectangletwo
sheets wide by two sheets long.
2. In the center of the rectangle, where the four
corners join together, draw a small bullseye
with the compass. Adjust the compass so the
first circle has a 1-inch (2.5-centimeter)
radius around the center of the bullseye.
Continue to draw circles so that each is 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)
bigger in radius than the circle inside it. Mark the center of the
bullseye X; this will be the epicenter. Label the paper City.
Using the above illustration as a guide, randomly place ten sugar
cubes on your City bullseye pattern. These represent city dwellings
of three stories. Outline these cubes on the paper with your marking
pen, and write 3, for three stories, in the center of the outlines.
Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the remaining pieces of paper, only this
time label the paper Suburb.
Randomly place ten sugar cubes on your Suburb bullseye pattern.
Outline these cubes with your marking pen and mark 1 in the
center of the outlines. These represent a rural or suburban area that
has one-story homes.
Place the four coffee cans in a square pattern about 24 inches
(61 centimeters) from each other.
Place the cardboard sheet on top of the coffee cans.
amount of destruction. If you change more
which variable had the most effect on the
seismograph recordings.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
318
Earthquakes
8. Blow up two balloons. Make them full, but

small enough to fit under the cardboard
sheet. Tape one to the center of the underside of the cardboard.
Use caution when blowing up and handling
9. Place the City bullseye pattern on the cardballoons. Ask an adult to help. Place the safety
pin in fabric or cardboard when it is not being
board. Try to position the epicenter mark
used. Discard the sugar cubes after you have
directly over the spot where the balloon is
used them.
taped.
10. Stack three sugar cubes on top of each
other over each outline.
11. Using your safety pin, carefully pop the balloon.
12. Using a marking pen and ruler, mark and measure the new positions
of the cubes with dotted lines.
13. Remove the broken balloon. Tape the second balloon under the
center of the cardboard sheet and repeat steps 9 through 12 for the
Step 3: City bullseye with ten

outlines marked 3 and an X at
the epicenter. G ALE GR OUP .
319
Earthquakes
Your experiment may not have worked out as
planned. Below is a problem that may arise
during this experiment, a possible cause, and a
way to solve the problem.
Problem: My balloon is not creating much
damage.
Possible cause: The cardboard may be too thick
and is absorbing the jolt. Try a thinner piece of
cardboard. Also make sure the balloon is firmly
attached to the cardboard.
Suburb bullseye pattern. This time, place

only one sugar cube over each outline.
Summary of Results Compare the destruction
on your two bullseye patterns. How did the

simulated city compare to the suburb? Write up
your results and describe the differences. Did
your hypothesis hold true? Was the destruction
near the epicenter greater in both cases?
Change the Variables You can change the vari-
ables and repeat the experiment. For example,

you can change the thickness of the cardboard
to determine if the destruction increases or
decreases. You can also change the height of the
buildings. One interesting experiment might be to pick one of the threestory building outlines near the epicenter and place four stacks of three
sugar cubes centered on the outline and arranged in a tight square so the
stacks are touching. You can then compare the amount of damage of this
type of building construction with a single three-story stack. Does a wider
and broader base increase or decrease the amount of destruction?
Remember to change only one variable at a time or you will not be
able to determine which variable affected the results.
Steps 6 to 9: Set-up of simulated

earthquake using City bullseye
pattern. GAL E GR OU P.
320
Earthquakes
Step 12: Record seismic

movement from simulated
earthquake. G ALE GRO UP .
Modify the Experiment For a more advanced version of this experiment,

you can examine earthquake-resistant structures. As you conduct the
experiment, make a note of what structures (sugar cubes) were affected
by the earthquake and the properties of each structure. For example,
how many stories were the structures that fell as opposed to those
that did not move. What shape were the affected and non-affected
structures?
In Experiment 2, all the structures were made of the same material

(sugar cubes). Some materials are relatively brittle (easily broken). Examples of brittle materials include brick and stone. Building materials that
have some elasticity are more likely to move with the quake rather than
break. Wood is an example of a relatively elastic material. The foundation
of a structure also plays an important role in its stability during an
earthquake.
In order to determine the properties of an earthquake-resistant
structure, experiment with altering the buildings foundation and material. For example, how would the quake affect a building made of rubber
or clay compared to stone? Make sure to change only one variable at a
time and keep track of your data.
321
Earthquakes
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept Earth is dynamic and changing. Earth-
quakes, volcanoes, and tidal waves called tsunamis (pronounced SUE-nahm-ease; large waves
of water caused by underwater earthquakes) are
disastrous forces of nature that demonstrate
Earths motion. If you are fascinated with the
power of these natural disasters, you can explore
topics relating to earth science.
Major earthquakes are always reported in
newspapers. You can look up major earthquakes
in your local library. Newspaper accounts cover
details such as seismic activity and the severity of
the earthquake. One of the more recent ones in
the United States took place in 1989 in San
Francisco. Another took place in Turkey in
1999.
View of the San Andreas Fault in
California. U .S . GE OLO GI CA L
SU RV EY.

you are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
your question.
322
Earthquakes
can follow it.
tables, and charts to display the outcome of your experiment.
Related Projects Building an actual model of a city, town, or region that
can be affected by a simulated earthquake is another way to understand

the dynamics of a real earthquake.

Bolt, Bruce A. Earthquakes and Geological Discovery. New York: Scientific
American Library, 1997. Offers geological facts and photos about
earthquakes.
Rubin, Ken. Volcano & Earthquakes. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for
Young Readers, 2007.
Smith, Bruce, and David McKay. Geology Projects For Young Scientists. New
York: Franklin Watts, 1992. Describes earthquake experiments and the
geological background of why earthquakes occur.
U.S. Geological Survey. Earthquakes. http://www.usgs.gov/science/
science.php?term=304 (accessed on January 8, 2008).
323
Eclipses
magine living in ancient times. You stroll down a dirt road leading to a
favorite temple. It is a nice day, but without warning, the sky starts to
get dark. The Sun looks strange and, gradually, something huge blocks it
out, although a bright ring can be seen around its edge.
We now know that this phenomenon is a solar eclipse. An eclipse
occurs when one celestial body passes in front of another, partly or
completely cutting off our view of it. Today, we would get advance
information through newspapers and magazines or by news reports on
television or radio if a major eclipse was expected. To most ancient people,
who had no explanations for the darkness, an eclipse was terrifying.
The Moon completely blocks

out our view of the Sun during
a solar eclipse. P HOT O
Close encounters in the sky In the eighth century B . C . E ., Babylonian

scholars began systematically observing and writing down celestial phenonema, as they studied astronomy. These scholars watched the motion
of the planets and noticed that sometimes two planets came close
together. Sometimes the Moon passed in front of the Sun. Sometimes
Earths shadow fell on the Moon. After studying these phenomena for
many years, they identified certain experiences as occurring in cycles.
They also developed mathematical formulas involving time and distances
that helped them to predict eclipses.
Thales of Miletus (624546 B . C . E .) was a
Greek philosopher who may have learned astronomical methods from the Babylonian scholars.
Thales accurately predicted a solar eclipse on
May 28, 585 B . C . E .probably the earliest,
most public eclipse prediction. The term eclipse
comes from the Greek words meaning to leave
out, because when one occurred, either the Sun
or the Moon was left out. In fact, the theory
that Earth was a sphere began getting attention
325
Eclipses
Red light waves from the Sun cause

the Moon to turn a reddish color
during a lunar eclipse. PH OT O
In 1869, British astronomer

Joseph Norman Lockyer became
the first person to observe solar
prominences in the daytime.
326
around this time because observers noticed that

Earths shadow on the Moon during eclipses was
always circular.
The first eclipse to interest a significant number of astronomers took place on April 22, 1715.
The shadow of the eclipse fell across Great Britain
and parts of Europe. English astronomer Edmond
Halley (16561742) plotted its path and prepared
maps enabling many to watch its course.
Celestial line-up The two most commonly
known eclipses are solar and lunar. Earth
revolves around the Sun. The Moon revolves around Earth. The Moon
takes a month to complete a revolution; Earth takes a year. Sometimes
these three bodies end up in a straight line and cause an eclipse.
Two conditions have to be met for a total solar eclipseone in
which our view of the Sun is completely blocked. The Sun, Moon, and
Earth must lie in a perfectly straight line, and the Moon must be a
certain distance from Earth to cover the Sun. When these conditions are
met, the Moon totally blocks our view of the
Sun for a period of about seven minutes. If the
Moon is too far away from Earth, or if it is not
exactly aligned between Earth and the Sun, it
will only partially block the Sun, causing a
partial solar eclipse.
For a total lunar eclipse, the Sun, Earth, and
Moon must lie in a perfectly straight line. Did
you catch the difference? In this case, Earth is in
the middle, not the Moon. Earths shadow across
the Moon is what causes the darkness. Lunar
eclipses can happen only during a full Moon,
when Earths dark side faces the Moons bright
side. In this position, Earth casts a shadow,
causing the Moon to darken.
Celestial fireworks The bright ring
you might see around the Sun during a solar
eclipse is the corona, the Suns outermost layer,
which appears to be a pearly color. The red
plumes that shoot out around this ring are called
prominences.
Eclipses
WORDS TO KNOW
Astronomy: The study of the physical properties
of objects and matter outside Earths
atmosphere.
Lunar eclipse: An eclipse that occurs when Earth

passes between the Sun and the Moon, casting a
shadow on the Moon.
Celestial bodies: Describing planets or other

objects in space.
Partial solar/lunar eclipse: An eclipse in which our

view of the Sun/Moon is only partially blocked.
Corona: The outermost atmospheric layer of the

Sun.
Phases: Changes in the portion of the

Moons surface that is illuminated by light from
the Sun as the Moon revolves around Earth.
Cycles: Occurrence of events that take place on a

regular, repeating basis.
Eclipse: A phenomenon in which the light from a
celestial body is temporarily cut off by the
presence of another.
Gibbous moon: A phase of the Moon when more
than half of its surface is lighted.
experiment.
Prominences: Masses of glowing gas, mainly

hydrogen, that rise from the Suns surface like
flames.
Solar eclipse: An eclipse that occurs when the
Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, casting
a shadow on Earth.
Total solar/lunar eclipse: An eclipse in which our
view of the Sun/Moon is totally blocked.
experiment.
Like fireworks, these streams of glowing gas shoot out from the Sun
and extend many miles into space. No wonder ancient people were
terrified. Lunar eclipses have a colorful side also. They can make the
Moon turn red. This reddish color is actually an accumulation of light
waves from the Sun.
By constructing models that simulate eclipses, we can better understand the extraordinary processes that cause
them.
PROJECT 1
Simulating Solar
and Lunar Eclipses
Purpose/Hypothesis This project will create a

Use caution when handling the lamp. Do not
touch or move it until it has cooled for at least
five minutes.
model that demonstrates a solar and lunar

327
Eclipses
eclipse. By adjusting the alignment and distances

of the model Sun, Moon, and Earth, you should
be able to demonstrate both partial and total
eclipses.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate. (The assem-
bly and principles are not difficult, but it takes

patience to adjust the objects to get the desired
effect.)
Materials Needed
Lamp without shade and

measured distance of 12 inches.
GAL E GR OU P.
Step 5: Solar eclipse set-up.
2 Styrofoam balls, one ball 2 inches

(5 centimeters) and one 0.5 inch (1.25
centimeters) in diameter
two 4-inch (10-centimeter) Styrofoam
squares
small table lamp (measuring 12 inches in height) with no lamp
shade and a 40-watt bulb
2 wooden dowels (as long as the height of the lamp from its base to
the middle of the bulb)
ruler
Approximate Budget $3 for the Styrofoam pieces and the dowels.
GA LE G RO UP.
Timetable Less than one hour.

1. Poke each dowel into the center of a

Styrofoam square.
2. Place the small Styrofoam ball, representing the Moon, onto one dowel.
3. Place the large Styrofoam ball, representing Earth, onto the other dowel.
4. Place the lamp on a sturdy table and plug
it in. Turn it on.
5. Here is the challenge! Place the Sun (lamp),
Earth (large ball), and Moon (small ball)
on a flat surface in perfect alignment to
328
Eclipses
create a solar and lunar eclipse. Follow the

diagrams illustrated.
Summary of Results Make a diagram of your
experiment, measuring and marking the distances and height of the experiment parts for
others to see and try. Through the shadows
you created with the lamp, were you able to
create full eclipses or only partial eclipses?
PROJECT 2
Phases of the Moon: What
does each phase look like?
Here is a problem that may arise during this
the problem.
Problem: You cannot get the shadow to cover
the entire object to create the eclipse.
Possible cause: Your alignment may be off.
Make sure you line up the objects on the same
level.
create models of the changes in the illuminated

Moon surface as the Moon revolves around
Earth. These changes are called phases. You
will create diagrams called sun prints representing these Moon phases.
Step 5: Lunar eclipse set-up.
GA LE G RO UP.
Materials Needed
8 sheets of dark blue construction paper,

8 x 11 inches (21.5 x 28 centimeters)
8 sheets of black construction paper,
8 x 11 inches (21.5 x 28 centimeters)
adhesive tape
marker
30 x 30-inch (75 x 75-centimeter) board
sunny day
scissors
drawing compass
Approximate Budget $5 for paper supplies.
Timetable Approximately 1 hour to set up the
model and a whole day for the sun prints to

mature.
329
Eclipses
1. Use the compass to draw a 7-inch (18centimeter) diameter circle on eight sheets
of blue construction paper.
Use caution with the compass and scissors.
2. Draw an 8-inch (20-centimeter) diameter

circle on eight sheets of black construction
paper.
3. Cut out the circles.
4. Tape eight blue circles onto the board in a circle.
5. Mark the board as shown in the diagram illustrated above.
6. Place the black circles over the blue circles to show: new Moon;
crescent Moon; first-quarter Moon; gibbous Moon; full Moon;
gibbous Moon; third-quarter Moon; crescent Moon.
7. Leave the board in a sunny location for at least 8 hours.
8. Take the black paper off after 8 hours and examine the results.
9. Highlight the lightened areas or boundaries with the marker.
Illustration of the Moons
revolution around Earth. G AL E
GRO UP.
Note: the darker blue areas that were covered are the shaded part of the
Moon we cannot see.
Summary of Results Label the board and write a
brief description for each Moon phase, that is,

how it was caused and what it looks like.

Astronomy is a fascinating field of study, with

topics such as meteor/meteorites, telescopes,
space travel, and stars. Read your local paper to
find out about upcoming events in the sky. Then
research who saw the phenomena first and when
and how theories developed.
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on eclipse questions that interest you.
330
Eclipses
Step 5: Set-up for recording

phases of the moon. GA LE
GR OU P.
Steps 6 to 8: Completed sun

prints. GAL E GR OU P.

propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
When performing an experiment, it is important

to keep your data organized in tables. Your
information needs to be analyzed and presented
331
Eclipses
the problem.
Problem: The sun prints are not forming.
Possible cause: They have not had enough
time. Give the sun prints two days, for eight
hours each day, in full sunlight.
in a visual manner. Graphs, drawings, or pictures

of events are great tools for displaying your data.
Related Projects Creating models like these are
always fun and interesting. However, creating a

mini-instrument, such as a telescope with lenses
and cardboard, might be useful. Ask a teacher or
your parents for help.
Aronson, Billy. Eclipses: Natures Blackouts.

New York: Franklin Watts, 1996. Explains
what causes eclipses of the Sun and Moon and
describes how they have been viewed and studied at different times in
history.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA Eclipse Home Page.
http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/transit/transit.html (accessed on
January 11, 2008).
332
Electricity
e know that electricity will flow through certain objects and not
others. We are told that it is dangerous to plug in an ungrounded
electrical device while standing in water because the electricity may flow
through our bodies and the water to the ground, giving us a shock. But how,
exactly, does water conduct electricity? Do all liquids conduct electricity
equally well? And how have we made this property useful in our everyday
lives?
How electricity flows through metals Most of the electricity we use
every day is conducted from its source through metal wires to the appliances we use. Most metals, such as copper, conduct electricity well because
they possess a great number of free electrons. An electron is an extremely
small particle with a single electrical charge that orbits the nucleus of an
atom. Materials with few or no free electrons do not conduct electricity and
are called insulators. They are commonly used to coat the wiring we use,
allowing the electric current to flow safely and efficiently through the wire.
The flow of electrons in an electric current was the focus of many experiments done by the French scientist Andre-Marie Ampere (17751836).
Ampere developed the system we now use for measuring this electron flow.
The common electrical unit of measurement of current, the ampere or amp, is
named for him.
How electricity flows through liquids Electricity can flow through
liquids by the process of ionic conduction, the movement of ions
(charged particles) within the liquid.
Substances that conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water are
called electrolytes. When a positive electrode and a negative electrode (such
as wires attached to the terminals of a battery) are placed in an electrolytic
solution, ions transport free electrons between the two electrodes, bridging
the gap and allowing the flow of electricity.
333
Electricity
In the first experiment, you will determine

whether certain substances are electrolytes. Using
a voltmeter, you will test various solutions and
liquids and compare them to find which conducts
electricity the best. When the two probes (positive
and negative) of the voltmeter are placed in a
liquid, the meter will indicate how much current
(from the battery inside the meter) is passing
between the probes. A strong electrolyte will conduct more current, and a weak electrolyte will
conduct less. Acids in water, such as lemon juice,
make good electrolytes because they contribute
many hydrogen ions. Other solutions, such as
organic compounds that contain sugar and starch,
contribute few or no hydrogen ions and do not
conduct electricity well.
Andre-Marie Ampere studied

electrical current. PH OT O
Electrolytes and ionic conduction make

batteries work The batteries used to power
watches, flashlights, and cars all rely on electrolytes
to function. The first battery was developed by the
Italian scientist Alessandro Volta (17451827), who also invented and gave
his name to the measurement of the force of a current, called voltage. Volta
discovered that a weak electric current is created when two different metals
(he used copper and zinc) are pressed together, separated only by a thin layer
of electrolyte-soaked fabric. The electrolyte between the metals carries free
electrons from one to the other, creating an electric current. Combining a
number of these cells in a series increases the force of the current, forming
a useful battery.
Todays common household batteries, called dry cell batteries, use
the same principle. One metal serves as a positive electrode, another metal
serves as a negative electrode, and a dry electrolyte paste allows ionic
conduction between the two. The batteries found in most cars are wet cell
batteries, which use a liquid electrolyte to allow conduction.
In the second experiment, you will construct a single battery cell
using two different metals and a lemon as an electrolyte. (Lemons contain
citric acid.) After finding the voltage of that single cell, you will estimate
how many lemons would be necessary in series to equal the voltage of a
single D-cell battery. Finally, you will test your estimate and your
334
Electricity
hypothesis by constructing a multi-cell battery

or pile and comparing its voltage to that of a
D-cell battery.
The third project explores one of electricitys
applications: electroplating. Electroplating is a
commonly used process of coating (plating)
one metal onto another metal. Jewelry and silverware are electroplated to make them look more
appealing, car parts are electroplated to protect
them from rusting and keep them shiny.
EXPERIMENT 1
Electrolytes: Do some
solutions conduct
electricity better than
others?
Purpose/Hypothesis Using a voltmeter, we can
determine how well different substances act as
electrolytes by measuring their resistance when
they are dissolved in water. The lower the resistance, the more conductive the electrolyte. In this experiment, you will
predict whether certain substances are electrolytes. Before you begin,
Alessandro Volta studied

electrolytes and electrical
current. P HOT O
By combining different metals

and a strong electrolyte,
Alessandro Volta was able to
create an electric current in a
Volta Pile, illustrated. G ALE
GR OU P.
335
Electricity
WORDS TO KNOW
Amperage: A measurement of current. The
common unit of measure is the ampere or amp.
the result of losing or gaining one or more

electrons.
Circuit: The complete path of an electric current

including the source of electric energy.
Ionic conduction: The flow of an electrical current

by the movement of charged particles, or ions.
Current: The flow of electrical charge from one

point to another.
Insulator: A material through which little or no

electrical current will flow.
Dry cell: A source of electricity that uses a nonliquid electrolyte.
Probe: The terminal of a voltmeter, used to

connect the voltmeter to a circuit.
Electrode: A material that will conduct an electrical

current, usually a metal; used to carry electrons
into or out of a battery.
Resistance: A partial or complete limiting of the

flow of electrical current through a material.
The common unit of measure is the ohm.
Electrolyte: Any substance that, when dissolved in

water, conducts an electric current.

an experiment.
Electron: A subatomic particle that orbits the

nucleus of an atom. It has a single electrical
charge.
Voltage: Also called potential difference; a

measurement of the amount of electric energy
stored in a mass of electric charges compared to
the energy stored in some other mass of
charges. The common unit of measure is
the volt.
Electroplating: The process of coating one metal

with another metal by means of an electrical
current.
Voltmeter: An instrument for measuring the

amperage, voltage, or resistance in an electrical
circuit.

electrical chargeeither positive or negativeas
Wet cell: A source of electricity that uses a liquid

electrolyte.
make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on

your knowledge of electricity and conductivity. This educated guess, or
336
Electricity

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Acids and other substances that contribute hydrogen ions make better electrolytes than
organic compounds such as sugars and starches.
the material you use as an electrolyte, and the
variable you will measure is the resistance of the
solution. You expect acids, such as vinegar and
lemon juice, will have lower resistance than sugars and starches and are therefore better
electrolytes.
Materials Needed
6 wide-mouth glass jars

distilled water
salt
sugar
cornstarch
vinegar
lemon juice
adhesive labels or strips of masking tape
voltmeter (most electronics supply stores
carry these)
measuring spoons
stirrer

the substances being tested for
conductivity
the concentration of the solutions
the distance between the probes placed
in the solutions
are everything that might affect conductivity. If
effect on conductivity.
A voltmeter is used to measure

the flow of current in a circuit.
Approximate Budget $30. (An inexpensive, ana-
log voltmeter will suffice. Try to borrow one

from school to reduce costs.)
Timetable Less than 1 hour.
1. Pour 0.5 cup (0.125 liter) of distilled water

in a jar. Add 1 tablespoon of salt and stir.
337
Electricity
2. Label the jar with the name of the substance

on an adhesive label or strip of masking
tape.
3. Rinse your measuring spoon and stirrer thoroughly in distilled water and
repeat steps 1 and 2, using the sugar
in a second jar, and the cornstarch in a
third jar.
4. Pour 0.5 cup (0.125 liter) of lemon juice
into the fourth jar and 0.5 cup of vinegar
into the fifth jar. The sixth jar will contain
only 0.5 cup (0.125 liter) of distilled
water. Remember to label each jar, and
rinse your measuring spoons and stirrers in distilled water after
each mixture is prepared.
The battery in the voltmeter (usually one AA-cell)

will provide all the voltage you will need for this
experiment. Do not try to add batteries to the
experiment, and NEVER experiment with household current or car batteries. Both are dangerous
and potentially life-threatening. If you choose to
test other substances for conductivity, check with
your science teacher to make sure you are not
testing materials that will create a hazard (such as
flammable liquids).
5. Place the glass jars so that the labels are visible. (Your set-up should
look like the illustration.)
6. Set your voltmeter to measure resistance. Resistance is the measure
of how much a circuit reduces the flow of electricity. With the
probes touching, the voltmeter should read zero because there is no
resistance, and all of the current is getting through. When you
Steps 1 to 5: Electrolyte set-up.

GAL E GR OU P.
338
Electricity
separate the probes, the meter goes to the

other end of the scale and reads infinity
because none of the current is getting
through. To test something for measurable
This experiment requires careful attention when
setting up your solutions and preparing the
resistance, wet your fingertip and place the
probes. Failing to wash a measuring spoon or
probes on it, just barely separated. The
allowing the probes to touch will alter your
meter reading should shift slightly away
results. Here is a problem that may arise during
from infinite resistance because a small
current is flowing across your fingertip. If
some ways to remedy the problem.
you are unsure how to set your voltmeter
Problem: The voltmeter is giving inconsistent
for resistance or which scale indicates
readings or no readings.
resistance, check the meters instruction
Possible causes:
manual.
1. The voltmeter is not set properly to
7. When testing the various substances, you
measure resistance. Check the instrucmust be sure that the voltmeter probes
tion manual.
do not touch and that they remain at the
2. Your probe tips are too close to each
same distance from each other for each
other. Separate them and try again.
test. (Otherwise you are adding another
3. You have tape connecting the metal
variable to your experiment.) Tape the
sections of the meters probes.
probes together as illustrated. If neces4.
The probe connections to the voltmeter
sary, place a ball of tape between the
are loose. Press the connections firmly
probe grips. Do not tape the metal part
into the voltmeter.
of the probes! The distance between the
probe tips should be about 0.5 inch
(1.25 centimeter).
8. Dip the electrodes into the first solution and observe the resistance
reading on the voltmeter. Record your data, rinse the probes with
Step 7: Probe tip set-up. G ALE
distilled water, and repeat this step with
GRO UP .
each jar.
Summary of Results Compare your data from
the six different tests. Determine which of the

substances are electrolytes and which are not.
Rank them from strongest to weakest.
Check your findings against the predictions
you made in your hypothesis. Which substances
did you accurately predict would be electrolytes?
Which substances did not behave as you
expected?
339
Electricity

the type of electrolyte used
the metals used as electrodes
the type and gauge (diameter) of wire
used
the number of cells placed in series
are everything that might affect the output
voltage of your multiple-cell battery. If you
change more than one variable, you will not be
on the voltage.
Change the Variables Think about the other

variables you might change to investigate electrolytes. How would combining two electrolytes
affect the results? Would lowering or raising the
temperature of a solution affect conductivity?
Remember to check with your science teacher
before heating or mixing substances. Does adding
more of an electrolyte to a solution increase the
conductivity? A number of interesting follow-up
experiments can be performed using the same
materials and methods.
EXPERIMENT 2
Batteries: Can a series of
homemade electric cells
form a pile strong
enough to match the
voltage of a D-cell
battery?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will construct a cell from
copper and zinc electrodes and a lemon. The lemon contains citric acid,
which is a weak electrolyte. After measuring the voltage of that one cell,
you will add more cells to the pile to attempt to match the voltage of a
D-cell battery. Before you begin, make an educated guess about the
outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of batteries. This
for this experiment: A multicell battery constructed of zinc, copper, and
lemons can equal the voltage output of a D-cell battery.
340
Electricity

number of cells you place in series, and the variable
you will measure is the output voltage. You expect
that it is possible to equal the output voltage of a
D-cell battery.

Do not change the number or type of battery
used in this experiment without first consulting
your science teacher. NEVER experiment with
household current or car batteries! Both are
dangerous and potentially life-threatening.
Materials Needed
10 lemons
10 copper nails (available at most hardware stores)
10 small zinc or zinc-plated nails or screws (available at most
hardware stores)
10 feet (3 meters) of small diameter insulated copper wire
fresh D-cell battery
small flashlight bulb
voltmeter with alligator-clip probes
Approximate Budget $30. (An inexpensive analog voltmeter will suffice.
Try to borrow one from school to reduce costs.)
Step 4: A lemon cell. GAL E

GR OU P.

1. Cut one 6-inch (15-centimeter) length of

wire and strip the insulation off both
ends.
2. Wind one end of the wire securely
around a copper nail and push the copper
nail into a lemon.
3. Cut a second 6-inch (15-centimeter)
length of wire, strip the insulation of both
ends, and wind one end around a zinc nail.
4. Roll and squeeze the lemons to loosen the
juices. Push the zinc nail into the lemon
about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) from the
copper nail. Be sure the two nails are not
touching, either outside or inside the
341
Electricity
Step 8: Lemon multicell

battery. GAL E GR OU P.
Steps 8 and 9: Sample voltage

chart. GAL E GR OU P.
342
lemon, and avoid wetting the wire with lemon juice. Your cell should
look like the illustration.
5. Set the voltmeter to measure direct current (DC) voltage. Connect
the voltmeter to your cell by attaching one of the meters alligator
clips to each of the two loose wire ends.
Observe and make note of the voltage of
your cell.
6. Disconnect the voltmeter and use it to test
the voltage of your D-cell battery by
touching the probes to the positive and
negative terminals of the cell. Make note
of the voltage.
7. Calculate the minimum number of homemade lemon cells that would be needed to
match the voltage of the D-cell battery. Do
not be surprised if it is more lemons than
you expected. That is one reason we do not
power our flashlights with lemons!
8. Build as many lemon cells as needed and
connect them in a series, as illustrated.
Electricity
Check the total voltage output of the pile

after each lemon is added and make a note
of the measurement on your data chart (see
illustration). Remember the lemons must
be connected properly, positive terminal
(copper) to negative terminal (zinc). Your
multicell battery should look something
like the illustration.
9. After your battery is complete, test its
voltage by touching the meters probes
to the loose wire ends. Because some current can be lost due to resistance in the
wires and connections, you may need to
add another lemon or two to match the
D-cells voltage. After your battery is
powerful enough, connect the loose wire
ends to the flashlight bulbone wire to
the bottom of the metal base and one to
the side of the base. If your voltage reading
is correct, it should light with the same
intensity as when connected to the D-cell.
10. Examine your results and determine
whether your hypothesis is true. If it is,
you might connect both the lemon battery
and the D-cell to flashlight bulbs to demonstrate the proof of your findings.
Summary of Results Write a summary of your
findings. Your data from Steps 8 and 9 should be

recorded on a chart. This chart should contain
the information that will show whether your
hypothesis is correct. You can increase the clarity
of your results by converting the data into graph
form.
Change the Variables Think about the other
variables you might change to investigate other

questions about electrolytes and batteries. Can
you increase the output of a lemon cell by using
This experiment involves a number of electrical
connections that may need to be checked and
rechecked to ensure that they are not loose.
When you are doing experiments in electricity,
the results can easily be affected by inexact
assembly of your circuit. Many hobby stores
carry some simple tools, such as battery holders,
that will make experiments easier and more visually impressive. Here are some problems that
may arise during your experiment, some possible
causes, and some ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: The first lemon cell shows no voltage
on the voltmeter.
Possible causes:
1. The voltmeter may be calibrated incorrectly. Check it by testing the D-cell. (Its
voltage is printed on the battery case.)
2. The electrodes are placed too far apart or
are touching. Remove and check the
electrodes.
3. A connection is loose. Check all your
connections and secure them with electrical tape if necessary.
Problem: The lemon cells connected together
do not increase the total voltage as expected.
Possible causes:
1. Resistance in the wires is reducing voltage output. Shorten the length of the
wires. Check that the bare wire ends are
tightly wrapped around the nails.
2. The electrodes are placed too far apart or are
inserted incorrectly. Check your electrodes.
3. Your hypothesis is incorrect. Your materials may not be sufficient to generate the
voltage required. Consider what changes
you could make to the electrodes and the
electrolyte.
343
Electricity

Have an adult helper assist you with connecting
the alligator clips to the 6-volt battery. Make
sure the negative and positive wires do not
touch one another.
different metals? Would lemon juice in a glass jar

work more efficiently than an actual lemon?
How much current could you produce with a
Volta pile instead of a lemon cell? (A simple
Volta pile can be constructed using nickels, pennies, and an electrolyte-soaked paper towel.)
After you know how to make a cell and measure
its output, you can construct a number of interesting experiments comparing their output.
PROJECT 3
Electroplating: Using electricity to move one
metal onto another metal
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will use electroplating to coat a
Step 3: Attach the strip of

copper to the alligator clip that
is attached to the positive
terminal. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
layer of copper onto a quarter. (A quarter is a mixture of copper and

nickel.) Electroplating needs an electric current. You can generate an
electric current using a battery, wires, and an electrolyte solution.
The metal that will be coated, the quarter, is attached to the negative
terminal of the battery. The copper is attached to the positive battery
terminal. Both metals are placed in the solution. The electrolyte solution
contains vinegar, which helps dissolve the copper. It also contains salt, which
contains a positive charge and is attracted to the negatively-charged quarter.
The electrical current will move the particles of the copper through the
solution and plate them onto the quarter.
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Materials Needed
1 6-volt battery (available from hardware

stores)
2 alligator clips
thin strip of copper, about 1 by 3 inches,
such as copper flashing or sheets (available from hardware or craft stores)
tin snips or scissors to cut copper if
needed
1quarter
small plastic container
344
Electricity
dishwashing soap
1 cup of white vinegar
a pinch of Epsom salt
Timetable 1 hour and 15 minutes.
1. In a small plastic container stir together 1

cup of vinegar and a pinch of salt until the
salt is dissolved.
2. Attach one alligator clip to the positive battery terminal and one
alligator clip to the negative side. Keep the clips separated from
one another.
3. Attach the strip of copper to the alligator clip that is attached to
the positive terminal. (You may need to use snips to cut the piece
of copper into a strip that will fit in the cup.) Only some of the
copper needs to be immersed in the solution.
4. Wash the quarter with dishwashing soap, rinse, and dry. Attach
the quarter to the alligator clip attached to the negative terminal.
5. Continuing to keep both clips separate, place the copper strip and
the quarter into the cup with vinegar solution, making sure that
they do not touch one another. The solution does not need to cover
all the copper.
6. Observe and record the changes to the
quarter, the copper and the vinegar solution over the course of an hour. Disconnect the clips from the battery and remove
the metals from the solution.
Step 5: Place the copper strip

and the quarter into the
cup with vinegar solution.
NEL SO N.
Step 6: Disconnect the clips

from the battery and remove
the metals from the solution.
NEL SO N.
Summary of Results Take another clean quarter

and compare it to the electroplated quarter. How
did the quarter and copper change over the course
of an hour? Try to scrape the copper plating off of
the quarter. Does the copper come off? What
color is the electrolyte solution? Write a summary
of your findings. You may want to include drawings of the metals.
345
Electricity
This experiment involves several electrical connections that may need to be checked and
rechecked to ensure that they are not loose.
When you are doing experiments in electricity,
the results can easily be affected by loose connections in a circuit. Here are some problems
that may arise during your experiment, some
possible causes, and some ways to remedy the
problems.
Problem: The quarter does not change color
Possible causes:
1. The alligator clips may not be properly
attached to the battery, check to make
sure they are secure and repeat the
experiment.
2. The quarter may be attached to the positive terminal on the battery, make sure
that it is attached to the negative
terminal.
Problem: The quarter has a black residue on it.
Possible cause: The black residue could be an
indicator of too much salt in the solution.
Make sure there is just a pinch of salt in the
vinegar solution, and try the experiment
again.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Our everyday lives rely heavily upon batteries

and electricity. Other aspects of this topic
you might find valuable for exploration are
rechargeable cells, photovoltaic cells, and the
relationship between electrolytes and our bodies
functions.
Check the Further Readings section and
talk with your science teacher or school or
community media specialist to start gathering
information on electricity questions that interest you. Electricity and electric currents can be
dangerous. Before you conduct an electricity
experiment or project, always check with an
adult.

experiment:

propose to do.
select one that will help you answer the question at hand.
your question.
included here and in any experiments you develop, you can look for
346
Electricity
ways to make your data displays more accurate and interesting. For
example, in the lemon experiment, try displaying the data from your
chart in graph form.
gathered in as clear a way as possible. Including photographs or illustrations of the steps in the experiment is a good way to show a viewer how
you got from your hypothesis to your conclusion.
Related Projects Simple variations on the experiments and project in this
section can prove valuable and informative. Some solids, for example, will
act as electrolytes when melted. Find out which. Will an electrolytic
solution work as efficiently when it is chilled in an ice bath? Figure out
why or why not.

Andrew Rader Studios. Electricity and Magnetism. Raders Physics4kids.com.
http://www.physics4kids.com/files/elec intro.html (accessed on February 9,
2008). Basic information on electricity and magnetism.
Energy Information Administration. Electricity: A Secondary Energy Source.
Energy Kids Page. http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/
electricity.html (accessed on February 12, 2008). Explanation of electricity
includes information on static electricity.
Macaulay, David, and Neil Ardley. The New Way Things Work. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Detailed description of how machines work,
including those that use electricity and magnetism.
McKeever, Susan, ed. The DK Science Encyclopedia. New York: DK Publishing,
Inc., 1993. Contains informative entries on current, batteries, and circuits, as
well as a number of good ideas for projects and demonstrations.
347
Electromagnetism
lectromagnetism is the energy produced by an electric current moving

through a metal core. To understand electromagnetism, you need to
understand the basics of electricity.
What is electricity? Electricity is produced by the movement of

electrons. Atoms usually have a balanced or neutral electrical charge,
with an equal number of electrons (with a negative charge) and protons
(with a positive charge). However, some electrons can be removed from
atoms, creating an imbalance. The atoms that lost electrons become
positively charged, while the atoms that received electrons become negatively charged.
When the charge between two objects is unbalanced, the extra
electrons on the negatively charged object are drawn toward the positively
charged object in order to balance the charges again. This movement of
electrons is electricity.
How can electricity create a magnet? Objects with like charges
(positive-positive or negative-negative) repel or push each other away,
The electromagnetic wavelength

is the distance between the
waves highest points, or peaks.
GA LE G RO UP.
349
Electromagnetism
The electromagnetic spectrum.

GAL E GR OU P.
A magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI) machine uses electricity
and magnetism to create clear
pictures of internal organs.
350
while objects with opposite charges (positive-negative) attract each other.

A magnetic field can be produced by using electric charges to create
attracting or repelling forces. For example, scientists discovered that
when a wire is coiled around a piece of iron, and electric current flows
through the wire, the iron becomes magnetizedan electromagnet.
Electromagnetic waves are everywhere When the force of a magnetic
field alternates direction, first attracting and then repelling, it produces an
electromagnetic wave that radiates away from the
source. A wave of any kind can be described by
two numbers: its wavelength and its frequency.
The wavelength is the distance between the waves
highest points, or peaks. The frequency is the
number of those peaks that pass any point every
second. Like other kinds of waves, electromagnetic waves carry energy at different frequencies,
from very low (such as radio waves) to very high
(such as gamma rays). X-rays, microwaves, and
visible light are all kinds of electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic spectrum contains all
these frequencies.
The study of electromagnetism is the study
of the relationship between electricity and magnetism. The principles behind electromagnetism
are used in electric motors and generators, televisions, diagnosis of illnesses, and in many other
parts of our lives.
Electromagnetism
WORDS TO KNOW
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, made up of
protons and neutrons in a central nucleus surrounded by moving electrons.
the experiment but is not affected by the variable
Electricity: A form of energy caused by the presence of electrical charges in matter.
electromagnetic radiation, including radio
waves (at the longest-wavelength end), microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma rays (at the
shortest-wavelength end).

Magnet: A material that attracts other like materials, especially metals.
Magnetic field: An area around a magnet where
magnetic forces act.
Peaks: The points at which the energy in a wave is
maximum.
Proton: A subatomic particle with a single negative
electrical change that is found in the nucleus of an
atom.
Radiation: Energy transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles.
Electron: A subatomic particle with a single negative electrical change that orbits the nucleus of
an atom.
Wave: A means of transmitting energy in which the

peak energy occurs at a regular interval.
Electromagnetism: A form of magnetic energy

produced by the flow of an electric current
through a metal core.
Wavelength: The distance between the peak of a

wave of light, heat, or other form of energy and
the next corresponding peak.
Frequency: The number of times a wave peak

passes a given point every second.

experiment.
Exploring with magnets and electricity can be fascinating. Do you

have questions about electromagnetism? You might be able to answer
them by performing the following experiments.
EXPERIMENT 1
Magnetism: How can a magnetic field be created
and detected?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will demonstrate the relation-
ship between electricity and magnetism and create and detect magnetic
fields. Magnetic fields are all around us and are easy to create. Before you
begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based
351
Electromagnetism

the direction of the wire
on your knowledge of electricity and magnetism.

the magnetization of the needle

are everything that might affect the movement of
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experithe needle. If you change more than one variable,
ment: A magnetized needle will point perpenmost effect on the movement of the needle.
dicularly through a charged wire, showing where
the magnetic field produced by the wire lies.
be the magnetism of the needle, and the variable you will measure will be
the movement of the needle. You expect the needle to be perpendicular to
the wire.
Setting up a control experiment will help you isolate one variable.
Only one variable will change between the control and the experimental
condition, and that will be the magnetization of the needle. For the
control, you will not magnetize the needle. Then you will be able to
compare the movement of a magnetized and unmagnetized needle. If
only the magnetized needle points perpendicular to the wire, your
the direction of the current

Materials Needed
Any time you are experimenting with electricity,

follow the directions exactly. The levels of
electricity here are very low and cannot really
hurt you, but electricity can always give you a
shock if you are not extremely careful. Handle
only wires covered with insulation, keep water
away from the experiment, and keep your
hands dry as you work. Do not use a vehicle
battery. It is much too powerful and can cause a
serious shock, or may even explode.
352
approximately 8 feet (2.4 meters) of 18-to

24-gauge insulated wire
2 metal sewing needles
thread
permanent magnet
6-volt lantern battery
tape
paper
scissors
Electromagnetism

Timetable 2 hours.
1. Magnetize the needle: Rub one side of

the permanent magnet against the needle
at least 30 times, always in the same
direction.
2. Cut the paper into the shape of an arrow
and stick the magnetized needle into the
arrow lengthwise as illustrated.
3. Tape the thread to the top edge of the
arrow.
4. Make a loop of wire about 3 inches (7.5
centimeters) in diameter. Continue to
wrap the wire around this original loop, making a coil of five
loops. Leave a length of wire free at either end.
5. Use the thread to tie the wire loops together tightly.
6. Then tie your paper arrow to the top of the loop. It should hang
freely in the center of the loop.
7. Attach one end of the wire to each terminal of your batteryone to
the positive terminal and one to the negative terminal.
8. Carefully observe the paper arrow.
9. Move the wire loop in different directions
and watch what happens to the arrow.
10. Repeat the procedure with the other needle, but without magnetizing it. What do
you observe?
Step 2: Cut paper into the shape

of an arrow and stick the
magnetized needle into the arrow
lengthwise. GA LE G RO UP.
Steps 4 to 7: Wire loop set-up.

GAL E GR OU P.
Summary of Results Record your observations.
Where did the arrow point? What does that tell

you about the location of the magnetic field
produced by the electric current flowing
through your wire loops? Was your hypothesis
correct?
ment in several ways. Try reversing the direction

353
Electromagnetism
remedy the problem.
Problem: The arrow is not affected when the
wire loop is attached to the battery.
Possible causes:
1. The wires are not tightly connected to
the battery. Check your connections and
try again.
2. Your needle is not magnetized well
enough. Pull it out of the arrow and rub
your magnet across it a number of times.
Be sure to rub it in only one direction with
only one pole of the magnet.
of the electric current by attaching the wires to

the opposite terminals. Where does the arrow
point now? You should find that the direction
of the magnetic field depends on the direction of
the electric current. You can also use different
kinds of batteries with different voltages. See
what effects they have on your magnetized needle, if any. Warning! Do not use a vehicle
battery.
EXPERIMENT 2
Electromagnetism: How can an
electromagnet be created?
Purpose/Hypothesis Electric currents create
magnetic fields. When you increase the strength

of the current, you increase the strength of the
3. You do not have enough loops of wire.
magnetic field. In this experiment, you will demTry looping some more wire around your
onstrate this by building an electromagnet and
original loop.
observing the movement of electric charges.
4. Your battery is dead. Replace it and try
again.
knowledge of electricity and magnetism. This
Step 1: Loop wire loosely once
around the nail. G ALE G RO UP.

through observation. Your experiment will
prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is
experiment: The more wire you wrap around
a nail attached to a battery, the stronger the
nails magnetism and the more objects it can
pick up.
354
Electromagnetism

the amount of wire wrapped around the nail, and
the variable you will measure will be the number
of objects it will pick up. You expect that by
adding turns of wire you will be able to pick up
more objects.
Materials Needed
several feet (about 1 meter) of insulated

wire
6-volt lantern battery
large nail or bolt
permanent magnet
supply of metal paper clips
Timetable Two hours to build and test.
1. As your control experiment, loop the wire

loosely once around the nail.
2. Attach either end of the large wire loop to
the batterys terminals.
3. Place a pile of paper clips on the table.
4. Touch the nail to the paper clips. Record
how many it picks up on a data sheet
similar to the one illustrated.
5. Remove the nail and wire from the battery. Beginning at one end of the nail,
wrap several tight loops around it, all in
the same direction. Record the number of
loops you wrap.
6. Again attach the end of the wire to the
battery terminal. Touch the nail to the
paper clips, and record how many stick
to it.

the strength of the magnet
the number of wire coils around nail
the size of the nail
the weight of the objects
are everything that might affect the number of
objects that the electromagnet can pick up. If
effect on the strength of the magnet.
Only one variable will change between the
control experiment and the experimental condition, and that is the number of wire coils
around the nail. The control will have only one
wire coil.
You will count how many paper clips your
magnet is able to pick up as you add coils. If
increasing the number of coils increases the
number of objects it can pick up, your hypothesis was supported.

As with any project dealing with electricity, be
extremely careful with wires and batteries. Keep
everything away from water and keep your
hands clean and dry. Do not use a vehicle
battery. It is much too powerful and can cause a
serious shock or may even explode.
355
Electromagnetism
remedy the problem.
Problem: The electromagnet will not pick up
any paper clips.
Possible causes:
1. The wire connections are not tight
enough on the battery terminals. Check
them and tighten.
2. You do not have enough loops around
your nail. Try adding more in the same
direction.
3. Your paper clips are too big for the
strength of the magnet. Try using smaller
paper clips or thumbtacks.
4. Your nail or bolt is dirty or not made of
iron or steel. Try a different nail or bolt.
7. Wrap more wire loops in the same direction. Attach the wire to the battery again
and try picking up clips.
8. Repeat several times with more loops
every time. Keep recording how many
loops you wrap around the nail and how
many clips it picks up.
Summary of Results Study the results on your
data sheet. Did more loops create a stronger

magnetic field? How could you tell? Was your
hypothesis correct? Summarize what you have
discovered.
ment. For example, try using a different kind of

material for your magnet, such as wood or
plastic. What happens? What can you conclude? Or try a much larger or smaller metal
object as a magnet. What is the effect on the
number of objects that the magnet can pick up?
Step 4: Data sheet for

356
Electromagnetism
You can also change the wire. Try thinner or thicker wire. What
effect does that have on your magnetic field?
Try using different kinds of batteries, with smaller and larger voltages. What is your hypothesis about what will happen to the magnetic
field? Warning! Do not use a vehicle battery.
Finally, you can experiment with different objects to pick up,
smaller, larger, or made of different materials. What do you predict
will happen?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Are you interested in
further exploring kinds of magnets, magnetic fields, and their relation to

electric currents? Perhaps you would like to build your own electric
motor, investigate static electricity, or explore how electromagnetism is
used in generating electricity, computer memory, television images, and
many other facets of electrical engineering.
information on electromagnetism questions that interest you.
plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise you may not be sure
question at hand.
selected.
The electromagnet in this

electric bell generates a current
that activates the bell. PE TER
ARN OL D IN C.
Your data should include charts, such as the one

you did for these experiments. They should be
357
Electromagnetism
clearly labeled and easy to read. You may also

want to include photos, graphs, or drawings of
your experimental set-up and results.
If you are preparing an exhibit, display the
devices you create to help explain what you did
and what you discovered. Observers could even
test your magnets. If you have done a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research
question was and illustrate your findings.
We depend on electric motors,
which depend on
electromagnetism. PE TER
AR NO LD I NC.
Related Projects In addition to experimental

projects, you could build motors and large magnets that produce currents
to light up a lamp or run an appliance. Or you could investigate the many
uses of electromagnetism, especially the field of medicine. There are
many possibilities!

Andrew Rader Studios. Moving Electrons. Raders Physics4kids.com. http://
www.physics4kids.com/files/elec intro.html (accessed on January 13, 2008).
Steve, Parker. Electricity and Magnetism. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens
Publishing, 2007.
Tomecek, Stephen M. Electromagnetism, and How It Works.New York: Chelsea
House, 2007.
Whalley, Margaret. Electricity and Magnetism. Chicago: World Book, 1997.
Introduces basic principles of electricity and magnetism through experiments
and activities.
Wood, Robert, and Bill Wright. Electricity and Magnetism Fundamentals:
Funtastic Science Activities for Kids. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishing,
1998. Through several different activities the relationship between electricity
and magnetism is demonstrated.
358
Enzymes
ou could not run a race or digest food without enzymes. Actually,

you could not grow up without enzymes working in your body.
Present in all living things, enzymes are catalysts, that is, little chemical
spark plugs that activate some 1,000 to 2,000 reactions in each cell.
Enzymes control the way our bodies work. They help other life forms
function as well. For example, the silkworm cannot break out of its
cocoon without enzymes.
A hunk of meat, a hawk, and a discovery Rene Antoine de Reaumur
was a French scientist who wanted to know how food was digested. In
1750, he tried a unique experiment. Tying a very tiny metal cage containing a small piece of meat on a long string, he taught his pet hawk to
swallow the cage. The string hung out of the birds mouth, and de
Reaumur very carefully pulled out the cage after 15 minutes without
injuring the animal. The meat did not look the same. Its color was gone
and it looked puffy and soft. He tried the experiment two more times,
leaving the cage inside longer. The meat was totally soft after one hour,
and after three it looked like lumpy soup. De Reaumur did not know he
had witnessed the work of enzymes, but his experiments gave other
scientists the first clue about their existence and function.
Whats in a name? The word enzyme comes from two Greek words
meaning in yeast. German scientist Willy Kuhne came up with the
term in 1876. Kuhne noticed that the yeast used to make bread acted as a
catalyst, producing a chemical reaction. Once added to the dough in the
bread-making process, yeast splits into sugar molecules. They, in turn,
produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide gas bubbles trapped
in the dough cause it to rise. Kuhne reasoned that yeast was a catalyst for
this new chemical compound, so he used the word enzyme to describe
other catalysts.
359
Enzymes
Enzymes in yeast help make

beer. CO RB IS.
Yeast is the catalyst that caused
this bread to rise. C OR BI S
CO RP ORA TI ON.
360
Based on the work of de Reaumur and

others, Kuhne understood that digestive juices
were also catalysts, because they caused a reaction that broke food down into a simpler form.
Catalyst is actually a Swedish word that means
to break down.
Pepsin was the first enzyme prepared from
animal tissue. Extracted from the lining of the
stomach, it aids digestion. Pepsin is actually a
Greek word meaning to digest. Later it was discovered that enzymes could work outside the living
cell, which made them more useful to scientists.
As simple as a lock and key There are
thousands of different enzymes in each cell.
Each enzyme is responsible for a single reaction
within the cell, and the process works like a lock
and key. As the key, each enzyme has a specific
shape. It targets a specific substrate, the substance on which the enzyme does its work. This
substrate, which matches the shape and size of
the enzyme, is the lock. Each enzyme can only
work with one substrate or, at most, a small
number of chemically related substrates. After
the substrate and enzyme come together, a new
compound is activated and formed. The study of how an enzyme behaves
is called enzymology.
Enzyme industry By-products of animals slaughtered for meat provide animal enzymes, but no animal is raised just for enzymes. Rennin, an
enzyme in the stomach lining of slaughtered
calves, is used to make cheese. Plants provide
other enzymes. Papain, an enzyme from the
fruit of the papaya tree, helps digestion. It also
tenderizes meat and is used as an antibacterial
cleaner for bad wounds. Enzymes are also chemically produced in factories.
Remember the yeast Kuhne observed? Yeast
has an enzyme that not only helps to make bread
but also activates the process of making beer and
wine. The yeast is grown in large tanks. When it
Enzymes
WORDS TO KNOW
Catalase: An enzyme found in animal liver tissue
that breaks down hydrogen peroxide into
oxygen and water.
Catalyst: A compound that starts or speeds up the
rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing
any change in its own composition.

Papain: An enzyme obtained from the fruit of the
papaya used as a meat tenderizer, as a drug to
clean cuts and wounds, and as a digestive aid for
stomach disorders.
Control experiment: A set-up that is identical

to the experiment but is not affected by
the variable that affects the experimental
group.
Pepsin: Digestive enzyme that breaks down protein.
Decomposition: The breakdown of complex

molecules into simple molecules.
Reaction: Response to an action prompted by

stimulus.
Denaturization: Altering an enzyme so it no

longer works.
Rennin: Enzyme used in making cheese.
Enzymes: Any of numerous complex proteins

produced by living cells that act as catalysts.
Enzymology: The science of studying enzymes.
Protein: A complex substance consisting of a long

chain of molecules linked together. It is produced
and used by living cells to perform various functions.
Substrate: The substance on which an enzyme

operates in a chemical reaction.
Variable: Anything that might affect the results of
an experiment.
Chemical formula showing

hydrogen peroxide broken down
by enzymes into water and
oxygen. GAL E GR OU P.
361
Enzymes

Tissue freshnessuse only fresh, raw
materials, nothing cooked or frozen.
Tissue temperatureall materials should
be at room temperature.
Tissue quantitythis experiment will tell
you how much plant and animal tissue is
to be used and how to process it.
are everything that might affect the chemical
reaction of the materials with the hydrogen
peroxide. If you change more than one variable,
the most effect on the chemical reaction.
Alterations may change the rate of the reaction
or result in the denaturization of the enzymes.
starts producing enzymes, they are removed.

Other enzymes produced by bacteria are used
in some laundry products to help break down
stains.
Life processes cannot function without
enzymes. Conducting experiments will help
you become familiar with these important
molecules.
EXPERIMENT 1
Finding the Enzyme:
Which enzyme breaks
down hydrogen peroxide?
Purpose/Hypothesis Without enzymes, many
chemical reactions do not take place. In this

experiment you will identify the presence of
an enzyme in liver tissue, known as catalase,
that breaks down highly reactive hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen. This is
an important chemical reaction that takes place
inside the body. Catalase prevents the potentially destructive oxidation effects of any hydrogen peroxide that may be generated in the body as the result of various
other chemical reactions.
To begin this experiment, use what you know about enzymes to
make an educated guess about how the enzymes in liver tissue will affect
hydrogen peroxide. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:


hypothesis for this experiment: Animal liver tissue contains the enzyme
that breaks down hydrogen peroxide.
362
Enzymes

the material being tested, liver in one cup and
potato in another cup, and the variable you will
measure is the presence of oxygen bubbles. Your
cup filled with water will serve as a control
experiment to allow you to observe any oxygen
bubbles that might be produced without the
presence of hydrogen peroxide. If the liver sample reacts with hydrogen peroxide and produces
oxygen bubbles and the water sample does not,
you will know your hypothesis is correct.

Wear goggles when handling hydrogen peroxide. If you accidentally get some on your skin,
wash it off quickly. Also be careful not to get it
near your eyes, ears, nose, or mouth. You will
be handling raw meat, so you must carefully
wash all surfaces before and after the experiment. Do not eat the meat after the
experiment.

Materials Needed
1 small piece of liverfresh, never frozen or cooked

1 potatofresh, never frozen or cooked
hydrogen peroxide
4 clear cupsplastic or glass
knife
spoon or lab spatula
water
goggles
labels
Sample recording chart for

363
Enzymes
remedy the problem.
Approximate Budget Less than $10 for hydrogen peroxide, potato, and liver.
Timetable Approximately 20 minutes.
1. Cut a 0.5-inch (1.25-centimeter) cube of

liver and smash it into a paste using a
Possible cause: The materials may be too old.
spoon. Place it in a cup.
Check the freshness of the tissue samples as
2. Smash another 0.5-inch (1.25-centiwell as of the hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen
peroxide needs to be stored in a dark bottle and
meter) cube of liver into a paste. Place it
capped at all times.
into a separate cup. (Dont forget to clean
the spoon.)
3. Cut a 0.5-inch (1.25-centimeter) cube of
potato and smash it. Place it in a separate cup.
4. Smash another 0.5-inch (1.25-centimeter) cube of potato and
place it in the last cup.
5. Label the cups:
a. Cup 1: Liver and water
b. Cup 2: Liver and hydrogen peroxide
c. Cup 3: Potato and water
d. Cup 4: Potato and hydrogen peroxide
Problem: Nothing happened in any of the cups.
Steps 5 to 7: Set-up of control

and test cups. GAL E GR OU P.
364
Enzymes
6. Fill cups 1 and 3 halfway with water. These

will serve as your control experiment.
7. Fill cups 2 and 4 halfway with hydrogen
peroxide. These will test which material
has the enzyme.
8. Observe what takes place. If the enzyme
for the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
is present, oxygen will form bubbles.
When hydrogen peroxide breaks down,
it separates into water and oxygen.
9. Record your results.

the kind of meatonly beef from a steak
or filet should be used.
the type of tenderizer or enzymeuse
the natural tenderizer extracted from the
papaya fruit.
the amount of tenderizer used.
Summary of Results Make a chart like the one
illustrated to show what you observed. Determine which tissue has the enzymes that cause
the breakdown of the hydrogen peroxide into
water and oxygen. Was it the tissue you predicted
in your hypothesis?
Change the Variables You can change the variables and conduct a similar experiment. For
example, place the pieces of liver and potato in
the refrigerator to see if temperature affects the
action of the enzyme.
the temperaturethe control and

experimental meat must both be aged in
the refrigerator.
the amount of time the tenderizer is in
place on the beef.
are everything that might affect the degree of
decomposition of the beef. If you change more
decomposition process.
EXPERIMENT 2
Tough and Tender: Does papain speed up the
aging process?
Purpose/Hypothesis This experiment deals with the aging process of beef.
The older or more aged meat is, the softer the meat tends to be. This is a
natural process of decomposition, the breakdown of organic matter. Beef
can take weeks to become tender, but a natural tenderizer called papain can
speed up the process. Papain is an enzyme extracted from the papaya fruit.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about enzymes to make
an educated guess about how papain will affect the aging process of beef.
This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis
365
Enzymes


or disprove whether you hypothesis is correct. Here
is one possible hypothesis for this experiment:
Beef will age faster if it is sprinkled with papain.
whether papain tenderizer is used on the beef,
and the variable you will measure is the appearance of the meat after 24
hours. If the meat with the tenderizer is more decomposed, you will know
In this experiment you will handle raw meat, so

you must carefully wash all surfaces before and
after the experiment. Do not eat the meat after
the experiment. Be careful not to get meat
tenderizer in your eyes.

Materials Needed
beef from a steak or filet8 to 10 ounces (230 to 250 grams) is

sufficient
Adolphs All Natural Tenderizer, a natural tenderizer made from
papaya
2 plastic storage containers with lids
Step 2: Sprinkle about

teaspoon of meat tenderizer on
one steak, leaving the other to
age naturally. GAL E GR OU P.
366
Enzymes
measuring spoons
toothpicks
slides
microscope
stain (optionalcongo red or methalene
blue)
Note: Do not add any additional solutions to the

meat. For example, vinegar may stop the enzyme
process.
Approximate Budget About $15. (Price of beef
will vary. You can borrow a microscope from a friend or use one in
school.)
Step 5: After the storage period,

use a clean toothpick to scratch
the surface of the meat without
the tenderizer. G AL E GR OUP .
Timetable About 24 hours10 minutes to set up the experiment and
30 minutes to view the results; the rest is storage time in the refrigerator.
1. In two plastic containers, place equal amounts of beef steak.

2. Sprinkle about teaspoon of meat tenderizer on one steak.
3. Seal both containers and mark the lid of the container with the
tenderized steak Tenderizer.
4. Place both containers in the refrigerator and leave for 24 hours.
5. After the storage period, use a clean toothpick to scratch the
surface of the meat without the tenderizer.
Step 7: Slide views of naturally

aged and tenderized meat cells.
GA LE G RO UP.
367
Enzymes
remedy the problem.
Problem: You cannot see a difference in
decomposition.
Possible cause: Decomposition is not obvious at
this point. Stain the cells. Cells that have not
experienced decomposition have a nuclei inside.
When decomposition takes place, the cell
membrane is broken and the nucleus is released.
6. Wipe the toothpick onto a clean slide.

(Add one drop of stain if you wish.)
7. View the slide under the microscope at 40
to 70 medium power. Record your results.
8. Repeat Steps 5 to 7 for the piece of meat
with the tenderizer.
Summary of Results Reflect on your hypothesis.
The goal was to cause an increase in decomposition

of meat (speed up the aging process to make the
meat tender). Was your hypothesis correct? This
should be evident in large amounts of decayed
cells. Is it true? Did more cells decay with tenderized meat? Write a summary of your findings.
Change the Variables You can change the variables and conduct similar experiments. For example, you can vary the
amount of tenderizer used to see if that changes the degree of decomposition. You can also change the amount of time for the experiment to
36 or 48 hours.
EXPERIMENT 3
Stopping Enzymes: Does temperature affect enzyme action?
Purpose/Hypothesis Enzymes are a type of protein. And, like all pro-
teins, enzymes function best at certain temperatures. If the temperature is

too low or too high, the enzymes structure can change and it will not be able
to activate a reaction.
In this experiment, you will explore how temperature affects the
activity of one particular enzyme. The enzyme you will use is bromelain,
which is found in pineapple. Bromelain breaks
down proteins. The protein you will use is gelatin. Gelatin is a form of protein called collagen
that is found in our bones.
As you prepare the gelatin, you will add broThis experiment involves heating pineapple
melain-rich pineapple juice, prepared at different
juice over a stove or hot plate. Have an adult
temperatures. You will heat the bromelain and
present when heating the juice. Also, if the
freeze the bromelain. Adding small items to the
pineapple is purchased whole, have an adult cut
gelatin, such as peas, will help you measure the
the pineapple into chunks.
activity of the enzyme. You can determine if the
368
Enzymes
bromelain is active by measuring if the gelatin

sets. If the gelatin remains in a liquid or partial
liquid form, the proteins were broken apart and
the food items will not sit firmly in the gelatin.
To begin the experiment, use what you know
about enzymes to make an educated guess about
how temperature will affect the activity of bromelain. This educated guess, or prediction, is
your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain
these things:
or disprove whether you hypothesis is correct.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Heating bromelain will cause it be inactive and allow the gelatin to set.
the temperature the bromelain is prepared, and
the variable you will measure is the appearance of
the gelatin and placement of the added items. If
the gelatin mixed with the heated bromelain
becomes firm, then you will know your hypothesis is correct.

the kind of gelatin
the amount of gelatin used
the bromelainuse the bromelain from
the same pineapple
the amount of pineapple juice used
the amount of time the gelatin is allowed
to set
are everything that might affect the degree to
which the gelatin sets. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on the gelling.
You will need two controls in this experiment.
The first control is the gelatin by itself so that you
can observe that it sets firmly. The second control
is the gelatin mixed with pineapple juice that is
prepared at room temperature. The pineapple
juice gelatin will allow you to observe how temperature affects the bromelain in the experimental trials. If the heated pineapple juice sets similar
to the gelatin without pineapple juice, than you

Materials Needed
pineapple with skin removed and sealed in its juice; or 1 fresh

pineapple (do not use canned or frozen pineapple)
4 glasses (they can be plastic)
3 small containers for the pineapple juice
gelatin; enough to make 2 cups
measuring cups and spoons
marking tape and pen
369
Enzymes
hot plate or stove

small pan
5 tablespoons of small, light food items,
such as peas, corn, rice, blueberries or
dried cranberries
mixing spoon
tablespoon
freezer or cold water bath (ice cubs and a
bowl)
Approximate Budget About $8, assuming all
household items are available.

Step 2: squeeze 4 tablespoons of
pineapple juice into a small
container. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Timetable About two hourssix hours (including waiting time) to prepare and analyze the experiment; the rest is
waiting time while the gelatin sets.
1. Label the four glasses: Gelatin Control, Gelatin Bromelain

Control, Hot Bromelain, Cold Bromelain,
2. Pour or squeeze 4 tablespoons of pineapple juice into a small
container, label the container Cold Bromelain.and place in the
T EM AH NE LS ON.
freezer. You could also place the container
in a cold water bath (a container filled
with ice cubes and cold water). Allow the
juice to freeze for an hour.
3. While the bromelain is freezing, squeeze
or pour 5 tablespoons of pineapple juice
in a small pan and simmer for at least
three minutes. You will need 4 tablespoons of pineapple juice after it has simmered. After three minutes, set the pan
aside.
hot bromelain
4. After one hour, take the juice out of the
freezer and allow to come to room
temperature.
5. While you are waiting, prepare 2 cups of
the gelatin.
Step 9: In the glass labeled Hot

Bromelain, add 4 tablespoons
of the pineapple juice that was
heated. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
370
Enzymes
hot bromelain
gelatin control
gelatin bromelain
control
cold b
romelain
Step 14: When the control

gelatin is firm, remove all the
glasses from the refrigerator.
Gently shake each of the
glasses and note the results.
IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TE MA H NE LSO N.
6. Pour a half cup of gelatin into each of the four glasses. Remove
2 tablespoons of the gelatin from each of the glasses.
7. In the glass labeled Gelatin Bromelain Control, mix in 4 tablespoons of room temperature pineapple juice. This is one of your
controls.
8. In the glass labeled Gelatin Control, mix in 4 tablespoons of
water. This is your second control.
9. In the glass labeled Hot Bromelain, add 4 tablespoons of the
pineapple juice that was heated. Make sure to use a clean spoon.
10. In the glass labeled Cold Bromelain, stir in the pineapple juice
that was cooled.
11. Set all the containers in the refrigerator and check on them in
about 30 minutes.
12. While the gelatin is in the refrigerator, prepare the food item you
want to add. Make sure it is clean and dry. If you are adding
blueberries, for example, they should be thawed and patted dry
with a paper towel.
13. When the control gelatin, labeled Gelatin, is thickened, add
1 tablespoon of the blueberries or whatever item you choose to all
four of the gelatin glasses. Return them to the refrigerator and wait
about another two hours.
14. When the control gelatin is firm, remove all the glasses from the
refrigerator. Gently shake each of the glasses and note the results.
Summary of Results Shake each of the gelatin glasses gently. Is the gelatin
that contained the heated bromelain less firm than the control gelatin
371
Enzymes
remedy the problem.
Problem: All of the gelatins became firm.
Possible cause: The pineapple you used may
have been treated at some point, which may have
deactivated the bromelain. Try the experiment
again, and make sure to use fresh pineapple.
Problem: None of the gelatins became firm.
Possible cause: The time the gelatin takes to set
depends on the temperature in the refrigerator.
You may not have allowed enough time for the
gelatins to set. Repeat the experiment, doubling
the time in the refrigerator.
Possible cause: The gelatin you purchased may
not be good. Buy another package of gelatin
and repeat the experiment.
without bromelain? Was your hypothesis correct?

Did freezing the bromelain make any difference?
Look at where the blueberries (or whatever item
you used) is sitting in the gelatin, compared to the
control gelatins. Are they set in the gelatin or did
more of them sink towards the bottom of the
glass? In the gelatin made without bromelain,
the blueberries should be firmly set in the gelatin.
Which control do each of the two trials resemble
more closely? You can draw your results and write
a summary of your findings.
Change the Variables There are several ways that
you can change the variables in this experiment.

You can try to stop the enzyme activity by altering the acidity (the pH) of the enzyme. You can
also change the amount of time the pineapple
juice is heated or cooled. What happens if you
heat and cool the juice multiple times? You can
also try altering the enzyme or source of the
enzyme. Bromelain is the main ingredient in
many meat tenderizers. Laundry detergents contain different enzymes.

How to Select A Topic Relating to this Concept Enzymes and the
chemical reactions they produce are all around you. If you can identify
one reaction, you have a start. Once you discover a chemical reaction, find
out what is taking place. For example, the solid food you eat is turned into
other substances by enzymes. What exactly are those enzymes? What do
they do?
information on enzyme questions that interest you. As you consider
possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher
or another knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some of the materials
or processes might be dangerous.
372
Enzymes

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Photos, illustrations, and
graphs are great visuals. Make clear the beginning question, the variable
you changed, the variable you measured, the results, and your conclusion.
Label everything clearly and show how it fits together.
Related Projects Try changing the conditions of the enzyme reactions.
For example, add vinegar to the hydrogen peroxide. Or cook the liver and
potato before testing.

Brain, Marshall. How Cells Work. HowStuffWorks. http://
science.howstuffworks.com/cell2.htm (accessed on February 16, 2008).
Explanation of how enzymes work in cells.
The Dorling Kindersley Science Encyclopedia. New York: Dorling Kindersley, Inc.,
1993. Contains several well illustrated chapters such as Catalysts,
Digestion, and Chemistry of the Body that discuss enzymes.
Dr. Sauls Biology in Motion. Enzyme Characteristics. http://
biologyinmotion.com/minilec/wrench. html (accessed on February 16,
2008). Brief explanation with interactive graphic of enzymes.
Lopez, D. A. Enzymes: The Fountain of Life. Neville Press, 1994. Provides
examples of how enzymes make our bodies work.
373
Erosion
oil erosion is the process by which topsoil is carried away by water,

wind, or ice. Different types of soil have different abilities to absorb
water, and so, are affected by erosion in varying degrees. Bare soil and soil
on steep slopes are especially vulnerable to erosion.
During the Dust Bowl, winds

blew away as much as 3 to 4
inches (8 to 10 centimeters) of
topsoil, ruining farmland.
Is erosion a new problem? Throughout history, people have been

affected by soil erosion due to natural conditions, as well as erosion caused
by their own actions. As long ago as 4500 B . C . E ,, the Sumerians cleared
land to grow food. They irrigated the land by building canals in the fertile
valley where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers meet (in present-day Iraq).
During the time of the Babylonian culture, which followed the Sumerians
in about 1800 B . C . E ., the people continued to dig canals. The rivers
became muddy, and deposits of silt, medium-sized soil particles, settled
in the irrigation canals and clogged them. The people had to carry silt out
of the canals in baskets to keep the water flowing.
Over time, the people began to neglect the canals. As silt filled the
valley, the land could support fewer and fewer people. About 700 years
ago, the Babylonian canals were finally destroyed by the invasion of the
Mongols, and the land returned to desert.
Is erosion a problem in the United
States? Not long ago, in the 1930s, North
American prairies suffered from extreme wind
erosion. During a period of high rainfall, large
expanses of land were plowed to grow wheat.
This period was followed by years of drought.
The exposed soil of the fields was blown away in
hot, dry wind storms. The blowing soil of the
Dust Bowl, as it was called, blackened the skies,
ruined crops, and left farm fields bare and
unproductive.
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Erosion
WORDS TO KNOW
that affects the experimental group. Results from
the control experiment are compared to results
from the actual experiment.
Drought: A prolonged period of dry weather that
damages crops or prevents their growth.
plants, animals, and microorganisms, considered
Inorganic: Not made of or coming from living

things.
Organic: Made of or coming from living things.
Runoff: Water in excess of what can be absorbed
by the ground.
Terracing: A series of horizontal ridges made in a
hillside to reduce erosion.
Erosion: The process by which topsoil is carried

away by water, wind, or ice action.
Topsoil: The uppermost layers of soil containing

an abundant supply of decomposed organic
material to supply plants with nutrients.


an experiment.
On hillsides that no longer have

tree roots to hold topsoil in
place, rain easily carries the soil
into the ocean. LI AI SO N
AG EN CY.
Today we often hear about erosion. Satellite images show red earth
spilling into the ocean off the coast of the island of Madagascar. Here, and
in many other places where people clear tropical forests and grow crops
on hillsides, extremely high rates of erosion carry away massive quantities
of topsoil.
It is important to understand why erosion occurs and how humans
both cause it and are affected by it. Erosion is something that concerns
everyone. Erosion affects the places where we live
and our sources of food and water. It also affects
our recreation areastrails, beaches, lakes, and
rivers.
What kind of questions do you have about
erosion? Youll have an opportunity to explore
the erosion process in the following experiments.
You will also think about designing your own
experiments to learn more about this natural
phenomenon and how it can have a huge impact
on our lives.
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Erosion
EXPERIMENT 1
Erosion: Does soil type
affect the amount of water
that runs off a hillside?
will find out how the type of soil affects how

much erosion can occur. Soil is a mixture of
inorganic materials (rocks, sand, silt, or clay)
and organic materials (decomposing leaves and
organisms). The ratio of these components to
each other determines the kind of soil and its
texture. In turn, the texture of soil determines
how well the soil can support plants and withstand erosion. Before you begin, make an
educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of soils and
erosion. This educated guess, or prediction, is
these things:

the kind of soil used
the slope of the soil
the rate at which you pour water on the
slope
In other words, the variables in this experiment are
everything that might affect the amount of water
and soil that run off. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on the runoff and erosion.

experiment: The looser and coarser the texture of the soil, the less runoff
and erosion will occur.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the texture of the soil,
and the variables you will measure are the amount of water that runs off
and the amount of soil it carries with it, judged by the color of the runoff
water. You expect the looser and coarser soils to have less water runoff and
less soil erosion.
soil pans, and that variable is the kind of soil used. For the control, you will
377
Erosion

Wash your hands carefully after you handle soil,
especially if you are using soil from outdoors. Be
careful when digging to avoid broken glass or
other trash in the soil.
use potting soil. For your experimental soil pans,

you will use sand, clay, and neighborhood soil.
You will measure the amount of water that
runs off your soil pans and how much erosion
occurs. If the looser- and coarser-textured soils
have less runoff, your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because of materi-
als needed.
Materials Needed
Steps 3 to 6: Set-up of soil

hillside. GA LE GRO UP.
2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.5 kilograms) of purchased potting soil

2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.5 kilograms) sand
2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.5 kilograms) clay
2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.5 kilograms) neighborhood soil
4 shallow pans. Cookie sheets with 0.5 to 1.0 inch (1.25 to 2.5
centimeters) high edges work well.
4 glass jars, approximately 24 fluid ounces (680 milliliters)
scrap lumber
a sprinkler can or hose nozzle with mist setting
water
measuring cup
labels
outdoor area to conduct experiment, since it may be messy
a baking dish, approximately 9 13 2 inches (23 33
5 centimeters)
Approximate Budget $10 if soils must be
purchased.
Timetable 2 to 3 hours.
1. First, examine your soils. You may want to

look at their particles with a magnifying
glass. On your chart (see illustration) record
your soils in the order of their textures,
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Erosion
Steps 8 to 10: Labeled jars

containing different types of soil
run-off. GAL E GR OU P.
from coarse to fine. If you cannot see separate particles, then the
texture is very fine.
2. Place your shallow pans in a row and place a different kind of soil in
each one. Fill each pan evenly up to its edges all around.
Recording chart for Experiment 1.

GA LE G RO UP.
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Erosion
planned. Even so, figuring out what went
wrong can definitely be a learning experience.
Problem: Soil is sliding down the pans.
Possible cause: The incline of your pans is too
steep. Try lowering the support on which you
are resting your pans.
Problem: No water is running off.
Possible cause: You are not using enough
water for the amounts and kinds of soil you are
using. Use more water, but be sure you use the
same amount for all of your trials.
Problem: All the runoff water is clear.
Possible cause: Your soils are packed very
tightly so no soil comes off with the water. Try
stirring your soils a bit in their pans. But
remember, even if the water is clear, it could still
be carrying away nutrients instead of bringing
those nutrients to plants that need them.
3. Prop one end of your potting soil pan on

a board to simulate a hill. The exact
slope is not important, but you must use
the same slope for each pan.
4. Place the bottom end of the pan so it is
resting in the baking dish.
5. Measure 3 cups of water into your sprinkler can.
6. Sprinkle the water over your hillside,
mostly from the top edge, and watch
what happens.
7. After the can is empty, wait 5 minutes.
8. Pour the water from the baking dish pan
into a glass jar. Look at its color and
measure how much you have collected.
The darker the water, the more soil has
run off.
9. Label the jar with the type of soil.
10. Repeat the procedure for sand, clay, and
neighborhood soil.
Summary of Results Record your results on a
chart like the one illustrated.

Compare the amounts and colors of water in
each jar. The darker the water, the more soil has
run off in it. What have you discovered? Did
coarser soils have less runoff? Was your hypothesis correct? Fill in your chart carefully and summarize what you found.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment by changing the
variables. For example, use soils from different areas of your neighborhood (near a stream, a park, a baseball diamond) or buy different kinds of
potting soils from a plant-supply store. Or try mixing your soils. Just
record how much of each kind you use in each mixture. You can also try
propping up your plants at different slopes, such as 30 degrees, 45
degrees, 60 degrees, and so on. Using the same kind of soil and different
slopes, run several more trials. What happens? How does slope affect
erosion?
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Erosion
EXPERIMENT 2
Plants and Erosion: How
do plants affect the rate of
soil erosion?
Purpose/Hypothesis Soil is an important part of

an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of

the kind of soil used
plants, animals, and microorganisms considered
the slope of the soil
together with their environment. Because soil is
the rate at which you pour water on the
the foundation for life on Earth, erosion can be a
slope
serious problem for the living beings that depend
upon itincluding humans.
In this experiment, you will explore how the
water and soil that run off. If you change more
rate of soil erosion is affected by plants growing
on the soil. Plant covereither growing plants or
which variable had the most effect on the runoff
fallen leaves and branchesprotects soil from
and erosion.
erosion by slowing down flowing water or
absorbing the impact of rain drops. Roots of
trees and other plants help to prevent erosion by holding the soil in
place. Roots absorb water and provide stability to the soil. Before you
begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based
on your knowledge of soils, plants, and erosion. This educated guess, or
hypothesis for this experiment: Less soil will erode from a hillside with
plant cover (a layer of leaves or growing grass) than from a hillside with no
plant cover.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of plant cover,
and the variables you will measure are the amount of water that runs off
and the color of the soil that runs off. You expect the looser and coarser
soils to have less water runoff and soil erosion.
381
Erosion

Be careful when collecting fallen leaves or grass
clippings, as broken glass or other trash might
be in the leaves or grass. Wash your hands
thoroughly afterward. If you collect soil from
your neighborhood rather than using potting
soil, use caution when collecting and handling
the soil. Do not dig soil where you do not have
permission to do so.
trays, and that variable is the presence or absence

of growing plants or plant cover. For the control,
you will use potting soil without any vegetation.
For your experimental trays, you will use grass
and leaf litter (leaves and/or grass clippings).
You will measure how much erosion occurs
in each of the trays by measuring water that runs
off and comparing the color of the water. If the
experimental trays show less erosion than the
control tray, then your hypothesis was correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because of materi-
als and time required.

Materials Needed
2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.5 kilograms) purchased potting soil

1 to 2 pounds (0.5 to 1.0 kilograms) small gravel
leaf litter (fallen leaves, twigs, and grass clippings)
grass seed
3 shallow pans or trays (plant trays from a garden shop are
designed to allow drainage; you may wish to use glass casserole
dishes that allow you to observe the roots; otherwise, cookie sheets
with edges will work.)
4 glass jars, approximately 24 fluid ounces (680 milliliters)
a sprinkler can or hose nozzle with mist setting
water
Step 2: Set-up of Tray 1, Tray

2, and Tray 3 and their
contents. GAL E GR OU P.
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Erosion
Steps 5 to 8: Set-up of erosion

hillside. G AL E GR OUP .
labels
measuring cup
board or scrap lumber
an area with adequate light for growing grass
an outside area or other place for conducting the experiment,
which may be messy
a baking dish, approximately 9 13 2 inches (23 33 5
centimeters) or a dish pan to collect water that runs off
Approximate Budget $10 if soil and plant trays are purchased.
Timetable Approximately two weeks.
1. Prepare three trays by putting an equal amount of potting soil in

each tray. If you are using pans or cookie sheets, spread a layer of
gravel on the bottom of the pan before adding the soil. This will
allow for drainage since you will be watering all three pans while
the grass is growing.
2. Set Tray 1 aside. In Tray 2, cover the soil with a layer of leaves and
grass clippings. In Tray 3, sprinkle grass seed on the top of the soil.
383
Erosion
3. Place the three trays in a place where they are level and have similar
light and temperature conditions. (The temperature must be
above 50F (10C) for the grass to grow.)
4. Use the sprinkling can to give each tray the same amount of water.
Continue watering all three trays approximately every 3 days until
the grass in Tray 3 is about 0.5 inches (1.25 centimeters) tall. This
may take one week or longer. You may have to adjust your
watering schedule depending on how fast the soil dries. Check
the soil daily to see if it looks and feels moist.
5. When the grass has grown, you are ready to do the erosion test.
Prop the end of Tray 1 (soil only) on a board to simulate a hill.
The exact slope is not important, but you must use the same slope
for each tray.
6. Place the bottom end of the tray so it is resting in the baking dish
or dish pan.
7. Measure 3 cups of water into the sprinkler can.
8. Sprinkle the water over your hillside, mostly from the top edge, and
watch what happens.
9. When the can is empty, wait five minutes.
10. Pour the water from the baking pan into a glass jar. Look at its
color and measure how much you have collected.
11. Label your jar (Tray 1: soil only).
Recording chart for

384
Erosion
12. Repeat procedure for Tray 2 (soil with leaf

litter) and Tray 3 (soil with grass). Be sure
to label each jar so you can compare the
quantity and color of the water.
Summary of Results Record your results on a
chart like the one illustrated.

When you have finished, compare the
amounts and colors of water in each jar. The
darker the water, the more soil has run off.
What have you discovered? Did the trays with
leaf litter and grass have less runoff than the
control tray? Did the tray with grass have less
runoff than the tray with leaf litter? Was your
hypothesis correct? Fill in your chart carefully
and summarize what you found.
Problem: The grass did not grow.
Possible cause: Perhaps there was too much or
too little light or water, or the temperature was
too cold or too hot. Adjust these conditions and
plant some more grass seed. If this fails, try
another kind of seed.
Problem: Soil is sliding down the trays when
they are inclined.
Possible cause: The incline of your trays is too
steep. Try lowering the support on which you
are resting your trays.
ment by changing the variables. There are several

Problem: No water is running off.
possibilities. For example, you could cover the
Possible cause: You are not using enough
trays of soil with different amounts of leaf litter
water for the amounts and kind of soil you are
and compare the effect on erosion. When there is
using. Use more water, but be sure you use the
more leaf litter, is there less erosion?
same amount for all of your trials.
You could also try growing other types
Problem: All the water is the same color.
of plants. For instance, what is the difference
Possible cause: The grass and leaf cover are not
in the amount of runoff from a tray with
thick enough to show a difference from the
bean plants versus a tray with grass? You might
control tray. Add more leaf litter to Tray 2 and try
want to combine several types of plants. Some
again. Add more grass seed to Tray 3 and conplants have extensive root systems, while other
tinue watering all three trays until the grass grows
plants have broad leaves. Which characteristic
more thickly. Then try the erosion test again.
seems to make a greater difference in preventing
erosion?
Another way to change the variables is to prop a tray at an angle and
try terracing the soil (forming steps with the soil). If you plant grass on
terraced soil, how does the amount of runoff compare with the amount
from a tray of grass that was grown on one level?
Modify the Experiment The effects of erosion can cause harm both to the
soil itself and surrounding areas. Erosion can lead to nutrient loss in the
385
Erosion
Many organisms live in the soil

and are threatened by erosion.
soil. It can also lead to the spread of potential

pollutants, such as fertilizers in runoff entering
lakes. For a more advanced experiment, you can
test how erosion may affect substances in the soil
and waters.
Purchase a soil test kit and fertilizer at a
home gardening store. Some of the soil quality
measures will most likely be nitrogen, phosphorus, and pH. Make sure the fertilizer you purchase contains phosphates and other substances
that the soil test measures. Following the directions, add fertilizer to all the trays. Test each
trays soil for each measure, including the pH.
Follow the steps in the experiment.
When you have completed the experiment,
check both the runoff and each of the soils again.
Note the results. Were there some substances
that leached (were removed) more than others?
If you want to continue to grow the grass after
repeated runoffs, do you think that would alter
the growth? Conduct some research and determine what the affect would be if the runoff was
to enter lakes, streams, and oceans.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept If you are interested in
erosion or its effects, you can create many fascinating experiments. For
example, you could study the effects on erosion of different kinds of
plants growing in the soil. How about the difference between the size or
age of plants? Or the number of plants growing in one place?
Or perhaps you are interested in the effects of human development
(building) on erosion. What are the effects of concrete or pavement?
What are the effects of deforestation or drainage of wetlands?
Erosion can also be caused by wind or ice. What would happen if you
blew a fan over different kinds of soils?
386
Erosion
information on erosion questions that interest you. You may also want to
find out if there is an Agricultural Research Station or Cooperative
Extension Office near you. If so, they can tell you about local erosion
problems and projects.
plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise you might not be sure
your question.
charts, such as the one you did for these experiments. They should be
graphs, or drawings of your experimental setup and results.
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may want to bring in some of
your actual results, such as jars of water or soil clearly labeled with their
origins. If you have done a nonexperimental project, you will want to
explain clearly what your research question was and provide illustrations
of your findings.
Related Projects You can design projects that are similar to these experi-
ments, involving trials and charts of data to summarize your results. You
could also prepare a model that demonstrates a point you are interested in
with regard to erosion or its effects. Or you could do an investigation into
agricultural or building considerations that include erosion. You could do
a research project on the environmental and ecological effects of erosion
and present your findings in a poster or booklet. The possibilities are
numerous.
387
Erosion

Environmental Defense Fund Worldwide. http://www.environmentaldefense.
org/home.cfm Current news relating to many environmental issues,
including erosion.
Giono, Jean. The Man Who Planted Trees. White River Junction, VT.: Chelsea
Green Publishing Company, 1985. Story about a man who single handedly
transformed his environment by planting trees over time.
Temperate Forests. New York: Habitat Ecology Learning Program, Wildlife
Conservation Society, 1995. Provides activities for learning more about trees
and forests and humans impact on them.
388
Ethnobotany
thnobotany is the study of how cultures use plants in their everyday

lives. Ethno refers to cultures and botany refers to plants. Since
the beginning of civilization, cultures have used plants in numerous ways,
including for food, medicine, clothing, dyes, decoration, religious
ceremonies, tools, and shelter.
An ethnobotanist studies and often lives with cultures to fully understand how and why people incorporate native plants in their lives. An
ethnobotanist is usually a botanist or biologist who has had additional
training. Ethnobotanists can focus on one or more of the following
specialties: archaeology, chemistry, linguistics (study of language), anthropology, ecology (study of how living things interact with one another), or
pharmacology (study of medicines).
Plants as medicine Throughout history, cultures have used plants as a
source of medicine. Dating back over 5,000 years, the Sumerians describe
using the plants laurel, caraway, and thyme for medicinal uses. The Chinese
have long used herbs in healing practices. The first known Chinese herb
book dates back from 2700 B . C . E . This book lists 365 plants and their uses.
The Egyptians were known to bury their pharaohs with medicinal
plants believing the plants would be useful to the deceased in the afterlife.
The Egyptians used garlic, mint, coriander, and other herbs for medicinal
purposes. Ancient Greeks and Romans also used plants for healing. In the
first century, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published a catalog of 600
plants in the Mediterranean. This illustrated book provided information on
the medicinal use of the plant, how and when it was gathered, and whether it
was poisonous or edible. This was one of the first books of its kind.
During the Middle Ages and into the seventeenth century, plants
continued to be widely used as a form of medicine. Herbal medicine
books were published and translated into different languages. However, in
the nineteenth century, with the rapid advances related to chemistry and
389
Ethnobotany
other sciences, plants began to lose their importance in the world of medicine. Chemically synthesized (manufactured) drugs began to replace
plants as a source of medicine in industrialized
countries.
In the late twentieth century there was a shift
back to the appreciation of plants and their contributions to medicine. One way that people select
plants that may fight human disease is to look at
how plants protect themselves against disease and
pests. Researchers look at those plants and then
isolate and study the disease-fighting compounds
plants produce.
Many commonly used drugs are derived from
plants, such as heart medications and aspirin.
Pharmaceutical companies are increasingly interested in the development of new drugs whose
origins are from plants. The rainforests and jungles
of South America are an area of special interest due
to their diverse and abundant plant life.
The foxglove plant (Digitalis
purpurea) is the source of the
cardiac medicine Digoxin. A P
PHO TO /DR . S COT T M.
LI EBE RM AN.
The World Health Organization (WHO)

estimates that 80% of the worlds population
uses plant-based medicine for part of their healthcare. In non-industrialized
societies the use of plant-based medicines in treating illnesses is universal.
It is estimated that 25% of new drugs that are developed in the United
States have their origins in plants. Given these statistics, the destruction of
the rainforests and the loss of potential medicinal plants is of increasing
concern.
Plants as a part of life All cultures use plants for tools. A basket is a kind of
tool. Think about baskets that you have in your home and consider what
they are made of. Ancient cultures, Native American cultures, and people
today all used or use baskets to hold items in their home. Native Americans
used baskets to hold grain, water, plant materials and even their babies. They
also used baskets in ceremonial rituals.
Reeds and grasses are common plant materials used in basket making. The Pomo used shells and bird feathers to decorate their baskets for
use during ceremonies. Today, we use baskets to hold foods, magazines,
390
Ethnobotany
WORDS TO KNOW
Agar: A nutrient rich, gelatinous substance that is
used to grow bacteria.
Bacteria: Microscopic single celled organisms that
reproduce quickly.
Botany: The study of plants.
group.
Ethnobotany: The study of how cultures use
plants in everyday life.

experiment.
Plant extract: The juice or liquid essence obtained
from a plant by squeezing or mashing it.
Reed: A tall woody perennial grass that has a hollow
stem.
laboratory or chemical plant, but is generally not
found in nature.
an experiment.
and laundry. We also use baskets for decorations in our homes and on our
doors.
People have used all parts of plants to make weapons for hunting.
Spears, blow darts and fishing lines were made from reeds and grasses.
Shelters were made from plants: straw, grasses, and large palm leaves are
just a few of the materials that were used. Plants were used in religious
ceremonies. Dyes derived from plants were used to adorn the bodies of
native people during special ceremonies. Often the wrappings used in
the basket were dyed in various colors to form unique patterns. The
containers used in such ceremonies were often made from plants and
leaves.
The importance of ethnobotany The relationship between cultures and
plants is complex and diverse. Throughout time people have used plants
for food, shelter, clothing, medicine, tools, and religious ceremonies.
Ethnobotany helps us understand the nature and importance of our
relationship to the plant world. If we want to preserve our natural
world from deforestation and development this understanding is vital.
In the experiments that follow you will use plants in two different
ways. In Experiment 1, you will test the antibacterial properties of three
common plants. In Experiment 2, you will make discs out of reeds in the
391
Ethnobotany

the concentration of plant extract
the temperature from the heat lamp
time the bacteria is allowed to grow
same way that Native Americans made baskets

and test their ability to hold water.
EXPERIMENT 1
Plants and Health: Which
plants have anti-bacterial
properties?
Purpose/Hypothesis Historically and in the
modern day, people use plants to prevent and

fight diseases, such as harmful bacteria. In this
experiment you will measure the antibacterial
properties of different plants. You will use a
everything that might affect the growth of bacnon-harmful type of bacteria, taken from your
teria on the agar plates. If you change more than
mouth, and place it on agar. Agar is a gel that
supplies bacteria with food and a growth
variable had the most affect on bacterial growth.
environment.
You will then place paper discs saturated with
Peoplehaveusedallpartsofplants
three different plant extracts: garlic, onion, and thyme. Garlic, onion, and
to make weapons for hunting,
thyme are all well known for their use in cooking but they have also been used
and shelters were also made from
for their medicinal properties. People have used garlic to fight off bacterial
plants. IL LU STR AT ION BY
infections. Onion and thyme have a history of being used to heal skin
TE MAH NEL SO N.
infections and wounds. By measuring which plant
extract has the least amount of bacteria growth
around it, you can determine the antibacterial
properties of each plant.
your knowledge of plants and ethnobotany. This
the amount of bacteria


or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here
392
Ethnobotany
is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Garlic is known to have antibacterial properties and
therefore will inhibit the growth of bacteria on the
agar plates.
When growing any kind of bacteria, make sure
to keep all surfaces and materials that come in
the type of plant extract placed onto the agar
contact with the bacteria clean. When bacteria
are disposed of after the experiment, use bleach
plate, and the variable you will measure is the
to disinfect the Petri dish and place the dish in
amount of bacteria growth around the paper disc
the trash. Be careful when cutting with the knife
soaked in plant extracts. If the garlic has the least
and handling the hot water.
amount of bacteria growth around the paper
disc, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Setting up a control experiment will help
you isolate one variable. Only one variable will change between the
control and the experimental discs, and that variable is the solution you
use to immerse the disc. For the control, you will use sugar water. For
your experimental discs, you are using sugar-water plus a plant extract.
Level of Difficulty Moderate (this experiment requires careful attention
to cleanliness).
Materials Needed
agar (obtained at health food store or online science store)

2 sterilized Petri dishes (available online at science stores)
cotton swabs
1 teaspoon powdered sugar
1 teaspoon water
coffee filter
hole punch
1 small yellow onion
1 clove of garlic
several leaves of thyme
marker
spoons (optional)
garlic press (optional)
mortar and pestle (optional)
knife
small cup
tweezers
heat lamp with 125 watt bulb
393
Ethnobotany
Approximate Budget $15 to $20 (try to obtain

the Petri dishes from your school).
Timetable Approximately one hour working
time; three days total time.

Step 1: Use the marker on the

outside bottom to divide the
Petri dish in quarters.
IL LUS TR ATI ON B Y TE MA H
3.
NE LS ON.
4.
Step 9: Use the tweezers to place

the control disc in the middle of
the Control quarter of the agar
plate. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
394
5.
6.
7.
1. If needed, prepare agar according to

directions on the agar bottle or packet.
2. Flip the Petri dish so the bottom is facing
up. Use the marker on the outside bottom to divide the Petri dish in quarters.
At the edge of the Petri dish, mark each quarter: O; (for onion)
G; (for garlic) T; (for thyme) and C (for control).
Pour the agar into the plate and cover. Let the agar sit until it is
hardened (approximately four to five hours). Once hardened, turn
the dish upside down to prevent condensation on the agar. Place
the dish in the refrigerator until you are ready to use it. You may
consider preparing two or more agar dishes at a time in case you
want to repeat this experiment.
Use the hole punch to punch four circles out of the coffee filter.
Do not touch the paper discs with your hands.
In a cup, mix 1 teaspoon of powdered sugar into 1 teaspoon of water.
Drop the solution onto one of the discs until the disc is completely
covered in the sugar-water solution. This is your control. Set aside.
Swipe the inside of your cheek with the cotton swab to gather
bacteria. Swirl the swab into the sugar solution, stirring it around.
8. Pour the sugar solution with the bacteria
onto the agar plate, making sure the solution covers the entire plate.
9. Use the tweezers to place the control disc
in the middle of the Control quarter of
the agar plate. Clean off the tweezers by
placing them in a cup of hot water and
shaking them off until dry.
10. To prepare the onion disc: Hold the disc
with the tweezers. Slice the onion in half
and squeeze a drop of onion juice onto
one disc. Make sure the disc is completely
Ethnobotany
covered in juice. Using the tweezers,

place this disc onto the onion quarter of
the agar plate. Again, clean off the tweezers in hot water.
11. To prepare the garlic disc: Cut the garlic
clove. If you have a garlic press, squeeze a
clove until there is enough juice to cover a
fresh paper disc. You can also press the
garlic with a spoon. Use tweezers to hold
and place the disc on the garlic quarter of
the agar plate. Clean the tweezers.
12. To prepare the thyme disc: Hold the disc with the tweezers. The
thyme leaves can be crushed with a spoon on a cutting board or
with a mortar and pestle. You need just enough extract of the plant
to wet the paper disc. With the tweezers, place the disc on the
thyme quadrant.
Step 13: Cover the agar plate

and place it under the heat
lamp. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
13. Cover the agar plate and place it under the heat lamp. Make
observations on bacterial growth every eight hours for two to
three days. If possible, count the colonies (groups) of bacteria in
each quadrant.
Summary of Results Draw or sketch the bacterial growth around each
disc. After observing the bacterial growth over two to three days, what did
you observe? Is there less bacteria growth around all the plant extract discs
when compared to the control disc? Was your hypothesis correct? Write
up a paragraph summarizing your results.
Change the Variables You can change the variables and repeat this
experiment. For example, you can use different plant extracts. Research
different plants and try ones that have antibacterial properties. You can
also grow different bacteria. Our homes are filled with bacteria on doorknobs, toilet seats, and countertops. Take swabs from these places or
others and see if they will grow on the agar plates. Temperature is another
variable you can change. Will certain extracts prevent bacterial growth
only in certain temperatures?
When you conduct further experiments, remember to change only
one variable at a time or you will not be able to tell which variable affected
the results.
395
Ethnobotany
EXPERIMENT 2
this experiment, possible causes, and ways to
Problem: There was no bacteria growth on the
agar plate.
Coiling Reeds: How does

the tightness of the coil
affect the ability to hold
materials?
Purpose/Hypothesis Baskets are made out of
plant materials such as reeds, grasses, pine needles, and willow branches. Native Americans
Possible cause: Bacteria grows well under warm
became quite skilled at making baskets from
conditions; check the temperature of your heat
plant materials that were available to them. The
lamp. A 125 watt heat lamp is approximately, 82
Pomo (a Native American tribe from California)
degrees Fahrenheit (28 degrees Celsius). If the
were known as one of the best basket makers.
wattage was not high enough, replace and
They used local grasses and wrapped and coiled
repeat the experiment. You can also allow the
bacteria to grow for several more days.
them into baskets. Many reeds and grasses first
need to be soaked in water to make them pliable.
Possible cause: There may not have been
Through a weaving or coiling process, the reeds
enough bacteria collected on your cotton swab
are then made into baskets to hold a variety of
taken from your mouth. Try experiment again
objects, such as grains, vegetables, and water.
on a new agar plate and make sure you get a
generous swab of bacteria from inside your
In this experiment you will make two discs out
cheek. Repeat the experiment.
of reeds using a coiling process. One of the discs
will be a looser weave than the second disc. You
Problem: The bacteria grew the same around the
can then measure how the tightness of the coiling
discs with plant extracts as the control.
process affects the ability of the reeds to contain
Possible cause:The concentration of plant
different materials. You will see if the coils will
extracts was too weak. Your plants may have
hold small objects, such as rice, and water.
been too old. Try the experiment again using a
fresh garlic, onion, or thyme.
your knowledge of baskets and plants. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain
these things:


396
Ethnobotany
for this experiment: The disc that is more tightly

coiled will hold small objects such as rice but not
water.
the tightness of the coil, and the variable you will
measure is what substances the disc holds.
Materials Needed
reeds or cane (available at basket making

stores or online)
embroidery needle
raffia 12 ounces (2857 grams) (available from craft stores)
dried beans or other similar size item,
such as dried fruits
rice
small bowl
teaspoons
damp towel
Timetable 2 hours

the type of reed
the diameter of the coil
the amount of substance placed on the
disc
where the substance is poured on the
disc
are everything that might affect how the coil
holds the materials. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on the ability of the
coil to hold materials.

Embroidery needles are sharp. Be careful when
sewing through the reeds.
1. Separate the raffia into individual

strands. Briefly dip the strands in warm
water and keep them in a damp towel. You will use the raffia to
wrap around the reeds, and it is easier to work with when it is
slightly damp.
2. Gather a bunch of reeds together that are approximately as big as
your little finger (1 centimeter). The reeds should be pliable and
easily bent without breaking. If this is not the case you may try
soaking the reeds in warm water for about two hours or longer
until the reed is pliable.
3. Thread a strand of raffia through the embroidery needle. Make
sure you use only a single strand of raffia.
397
Ethnobotany
Step 4: Starting at one end,

begin to wrap the raffia around
the bundle of reeds until you
have covered approximately
two inches of the reeds.
6.
7.
NE LS ON.
8.
Step 5: Bend the 2 inches
(5 centimeters) of raffia covered
reeds in half so the two lengths
meet each other.
NE LS ON.
9.
4. Starting at one end, begin to wrap the

raffia around the bundle of reeds until
you have covered approximately 2 inches
(5 centimeters) of the reeds.
5. Bend the 2 inches (5 centimeters) of
raffia-covered reeds in half so the two
lengths meet each other. With the raffiathreaded needle, thread the raffia through
both sides of the raffia-covered reeds to
connect the two sides. You have just
started your coiling process.
Continue wrapping the reeds with raffia while coiling the reeds
around themselves. Every inch you will need to sew the reeds
together with the raffia. Continue this process until you have a disc
approximately 34 inches (7.510 centimeters) wide.
Continue this same process in making a second disc, except this
time sew the reeds together every half an inch. Try to coil, wrap
and sew this disc as tightly as possible. Stop when the second disc
is the same size as the first disc, approximately 3 to 4 inches
(7.510 centimeters) wide. If possible, bend them both into a
bowl shape.
Hold the first coiled disc above the bowl and place two tablespoon
of rice in the center of the disc. Shake the disc back and forth
gently, trying not to have any rice spill off the sides.
Measure how much rice fell into the bowl and note the results.
10. Empty the bowl and repeat this same process with the second, tightly-coiled disc. Note
how much rice dropped into the bowl.
11. Repeat Steps 810 for dried beans
(or other small object) and water, making
sure to empty the bowl both times.
Summary of Results Look at the data for each of
the discs. Is the second disc tight enough to
hold water or other small objects? For what
purposes could you use both discs? If the second
disc does not hold water, think about ways you
could change the coil to make it hold water.
398
Ethnobotany
Consider other plant parts that may help make

the coil contain small objects or a liquid.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept Many cultures use a wide variety of
plant materials to make containers, baskets,

and tools. Research the indigenous plants
where you live and make baskets from the materials in your own backyard. Coiling is just one
technique used in basket making, weaving is another. Pine needles and
willow branches are just some materials that are commonly found in
basket making.
information on ethnobotany questions that interest you. As you consider possible experiments and projects, be sure to discuss them with
your science teacher or another knowledgeable adult before trying them.
Some of them might be dangerous.
Step 6: Continue wrapping the

reeds with raffia while coiling
the reeds around themselves.
NEL SO N.
propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Step 8: Hold the first coiled disc

above the bowl and place two
tablespoon of rice in the center
of the disc. IL LU STR AT ION BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
399
Ethnobotany
project, a possible cause, and a way to remedy it.
Problem: The reeds did not bend easily, perhaps
even broke in half.
Possible cause: The reeds should be pliable and
easily bent without breaking. If this is not the
case you may try soaking the reeds in warm
water for a couple of hours or longer until you
achieve a pliable reed.
Problem: The coils both have large holes and
dont hold anything.
Possible cause: Making baskets and coiling
reeds takes practice. Initially, your first few
discs may be loose and have holes between
the stitching. Keep trying. As you gain more
skill and are able to tightly coil and sew the
reeds together you will begin to form a
tighter disc.
Record your data on the bacteria experiment

and the disc coiling experiment. You could
draw or photograph your results. After the data
is collected and analyzed, your final responsibility is to make a conclusion based on your experiment and decide whether your hypothesis
was true.
Related Projects These
experiments have
focused on two ways that people use plants:
plants as medicine and plants as containers.
Plants are used in many other ways. You
could research how cultures use plants in religious ceremonies or as decorations on their
clothes or in their homes. When you discover
what plants are used for, you can experiment
using different types of plants. For example,
you could examine which plants make the
strongest or deepest dyes. Plants are also used
to create musical instruments. You could examine how reeds or other plant materials can make
different sounds.

ACT for Kids! Amazon Conservation Team. http://www.ethnobotany.org/
kids/index.html (accessed April 17, 2008). Information and activities related
to Amazon rainforest.
Bernstein, Bonnie. Native American Crafts Workshop. California: Pittman
Learning, 1982. Craft projects for children based on Native American
traditions.
Buhner, Stephen. Herbal Antibiotics. Vermont: Storey Books, 1999. Examines
the natural alternatives for trating drug resistant bacteria.
400
Fish
ish are animals that live in water and have gills. There are more than
25,000 types of fish identified, and new species are discovered every
year. There are fish that span 45 feet (13.7 meters) long to species that are
the size of your nail. They come in a wide variety of colors and shapes.
Fish are an important food source and livelihood to many cultures
throughout the world. People also enjoy them for their beauty and
recreation. These animals play a vital role in the ecosystem, both in the
waters and on land.
What makes a fish a fish Fish are a diverse group, but they have
certain characteristics that set them apart from land dwellers. Fish have
backbones made out of bone or cartilage (a strong and flexible tissue).
Most fish have scales on their bodies that cover and protect the skin.
Scales come in all sizes and shapes. Fish are also cold blooded, meaning
the internal temperature matches the temperature of its environment.
There are three main groups of fish:
The jawless fish: The smallest group, jawless fish have a round
mouth with small sharp teeth in place of a jaw. The fish use their
mouth to suck in food. Lampreys and hagfish are examples of
jawless fish.
Cartilaginous fish: This group has skeletons made of cartilage.
A skeleton that is light and flexible allows this group of fish to
move easily and quickly through the water. Sharks, rays and skates
belong to this group.
Bony fish: The bony fish, the largest group of fish, are fish whose
skeleton is made of bone. The goldfish and guppy are common
bony fish.
Where a fish lives shapes its characteristics. There are fish that live the
majority of their life in freshwater. Freshwater fish need special gills that
help them regulate the salt in their bodies. Most ocean fish live in the top
401
Fish
The lamprey is a type of jawless

fish. Fossil records trace the
lamprey as far back as any fish,
including the prehistoric
sturgeon. AP P HO TO/ TH E
C OLU MB IAN , DA VE O LS ON.
The goldfish is a type of bony

fish. A P PHO TO /TH E AL BU QUE RQ UE J OU RNA L, J AE LY N
D EM AR IA.
402
layers of the sea where sunlight reaches and

plants thrive. The relatively few species of fish
that live in the deep sea have adapted to the dark,
cold environment. Some deep sea fish produce
their own light by a chemical process similar to
fireflies. Others have huge mouths to gather food
and dagger-like teeth.
Breathing underwater Like humans, fish
need oxygen to live. Unlike humans, fish do
not have lungs to take oxygen out of the air.
They have gills that take oxygen out of the
water. Gills are specialized organs located behind
the mouth. A fish takes in water through its
mouth and as it passes over the gills the oxygen from the water moves
into the blood in the gills. This process is similar to how your lungs take
oxygen from the air and move it into your bloodstream. Just as humans
release carbon dioxide into the air as a by-product of the air we breathe,
fish also release carbon dioxide through their gills into the water.
Some fish have both gills and lungs to breathe in oxygen from the
water and air. These fish are called lungfish and are found in Africa,
Australia, and South America. This allows the fish to survive in environments when lakes or marshes become dry in the summer or during a
drought (an extended period of dry weather).
Whales and dolphins are mammals and therefore do not have gills
but lungs. They can stay underwater for a long time but eventually they
need to return to the surface of to breathe.
Moving through water Ever wonder why
fish dont sink in the water? Most bony fish have
an organ called a swim bladder that allows them
to control their upward and downward movements. The swim bladder, located above the
stomach, takes in air when the fish wants to
move up and releases air when the fish wants to
move down. Not all fish have swim bladders.
A shark, for example, does not have a swim bladder but has an oily liver that keeps the shark from
sinking because oil is lighter than water.
Fins help fish move, turn, stop and control
speed. Fins vary in shape, size and location,
Fish
depending upon the fish and its way of life. Each

oxygen ltered into
fin has a specific function and name. Fins can be
bloodsteam through gills
located on the fishs back (dorsal fin), sides (pectoral fins), belly (anal fin and pelvic fins), and
tail (caudal fin). Some fins come in pairs, such as
the pectoral and pelvic fins.
water in
The shape of the body helps determine how
speedy a fish moves. A fish with a narrow body is
more aerodynamic and is therefore a faster
carbon dioxide
swimmer compared to a fish that is wider.
released into water
Fish have powerful body muscles along the
sides of their body and in the tail that allow them
A fish takes in water through its
to move quickly and with force. When a fish wants to move it uses the
mouth and as it passes over the
gills, the oxygen from the water
muscles on the side of its body, bending back and forth in an S shape.
moves into the blood in the gills.
The salmon is an example of a fish that uses its powerful muscles on its
sides and in its tail to propel itself out of the water.
NEL SO N.
Sensing the surroundings Fish eyes are similar to human eyes, but
with a few differences. Fish cannot see as clearly as humans because their
lens (the part of the eye that makes an image sharp) is a different shape.
For most fish their eyes are located on the sides of their head enabling
them to see in every direction except directly behind themselves. The
pupil, a part of the eye that expands and contracts in relation to light in
the human eye, does not change size in a fishs eye. Fish need to adjust
Most bony fish have an organ
their depth in the water to make adjustments for more and less light.
called a swim bladder that
Fish have ears hidden on both sides of its head. A fish senses
allows them to control their
sound the same way as humans: through vibrations. Vibrations created
upward and downward
movements. I LL UST RA TI ON
by a sound travel through the water into its ear. In many fish the swim
bladder and the ears are connected by a series of
small bones or tubes. The swim bladder vibrates
swim bladder controls
when a sound is made and this vibration is
up and down movement
carried along the bones or tubes to the ear.
Many fish have a developed sense of smell
and taste. Fish have small holes in their head
called nares that act as nostrils. The nares connect to an area lined with sensory pads. When
water is pumped over the sensory pads, fish are
able to detect chemical signals in the water. The
pectoral n controls
signals are transmitted to the brain where it is
side to side movement
interpreted as food or danger. Taste buds on a
403
Fish
WORDS TO KNOW
Anal fin: Fin on the belly of a fish, used for balance.
Bony fish: The largest group of fish, whose skeleton
is made of bone.
Cartilaginous fish: The second largest group of fish
whose skeleton is made of cartilage
Caudal fin: Tail fin of a fish used for fast swimming.
Cold blooded: When an animals body temperature
rises or falls to match the environment.
Dorsal fin: The fin located on the back of a fish,
used for balance.
Fish: Animals that live in water who have gills, fins,
and are cold blooded.
Jawless fish: The smallest group of fish, who lacks

a jaw.
Labyrinth: A lung-like organ located above the
gills that allows the fish to breathe in oxygen
from the air.
Mammals: Animals that have a backbone, are
warm blooded, have mammary glands to feed
their young and have or are born with hair.
Pectoral fin: Pair of fins located on the side of a
fish, used for steering.
Pelvic fin: Pair of fins located toward the belly of a
fish, used for stability.
Gills: Special organ located behind the head of a

fish that takes in oxygen from the water.
Swim bladder: Located above the stomach, takes

in air when the fish wants to move upwards and
releases air when the fish wants to move
downwards.


an experiment.
fish are found on the lips, head and fins. There are some fish like the cod
and catfish that have long feelers around their mouths with taste buds at
the ends and are used for detecting food in murky and muddy waters.
In the experiments that follow, you will care for your own fish to
observe some of their unique characteristics. In Experiment 1 you will
measure how two different types of fish breathe. In the second experiment
you will observe how body shape and fins affect the way fish move in
the water.
EXPERIMENT 1
Fish Breathing: How do different fish take
in oxygen?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will create an environment
to nurture and maintain two different types of fish to observe the way
404
Fish
they breathe. Most fish use their gills to breathe

in oxygen from the water. There are some fish
who have gills and a lung-like organ called a
labyrinth. This lets fish take in oxygen from the
Ask for assistance when carrying and lifting
air and live in low oxygenated water. The labthe fish tank. Before you begin the experiment, ask an adult if you can care for the
yrinth is located in the head of the fish just
fish when the experiment is finished. If you
above the gills. The fish takes in air through
do not want to or cannot care for the fish,
its mouth and as it passes over the labyrinth the
find a suitable home for the fish before you
oxygen flows into the bloodstream and the
begin.
carbon dioxide is released out of the body
through the gills.
The Betta has both gills and a labyrinth.
The guppy has gills. By creating a comfortable living environment for
each of these fish you can measure the differences in how the two fish
breathe.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (This project requires continuous care and
attention to maintaining a healthy environment for the fish.)
Materials Needed
2, 25 gallon fish tank (plastic tanks work well). Size depends on

space available and number of fish in the tank. If you only have
one fish tank, you could place the fish in the same tank. However,
male Betta fish can be aggressive to other fish, although they
usually are not harmful to guppies. If you use one tank and find
that your Betta becomes aggressive to the guppy, separate them
and make your observations separately.
2 thermometers for aquarium
gravel
male Betta fish (males have more distinct
fins)
guppy (danio or barb fish work well also)
food for both types of fish (usually
different)
several aquatic plants
filter (optional)
Steps 7 and 8: Record the

number of times you see
the Betta rising to the surface of
the tank for air and the number
of times you see the guppy
opening and closing its mouth.
TE MA H NE LSO N.
Approximate Budget $25. (Try to use an old fish
tank or container if possible.)

405
Fish
When you are creating a fish tank, many forces
of nature can affect the project. These include
the health of the fish and water quality. Here
are some common problems and a few tips to
maintain the best environment:
Timetable 1 hour for set up and 1015 minutes

observation time.
1. Place a 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) layer of

gravel on the bottom of the fish tanks.
2. Fill the tanks with tap water and let it
stand overnight. This will allow the
Fish when bought at a pet store are
water to reach room temperature and
usually healthy and will remain healthy if
water additives, such as chlorine, to evapcared for properly. However, a fish could
orate. (Some pet stores have special prodhave an illness that is undetectable when
purchased and cannot be treated, or
ucts that you can add to the water to ready
even with treatment may not live.
it for the fish.)
Clean water without a lot of chemicals is the
3. Place the thermometer in each tank where it
best environment for fish. Adding plants to
is visible. Bettas and guppies do well in water
the tank enhances the water quality.
that is 6875Fahrenheit (2024Celsius)
Monitor the tank temperature. If the tank
(room temperature). Be careful to keep
gets too cold or hot it can affect the fish. If
the tank out of direct sunlight.
you have trouble maintaining an optimal
temperature (6875Fahrenheit) you may
4. Plant one or two aquatic plants in the
consider adding a heater to the tank.
gravel. The plants provide hiding places
If you continue your observations, it is
for the fish, take in the carbon dioxide
important to change the water in the
that the fish release into the water, and
tank every two weeks, perhaps more
can act as a filtration system for the tank.
frequently if you do not have a filter or
5. If you have a filter place it in the tank.
plants.
6. Gently transfer the Betta and guppy into
the fish tank. Feed according to the
instructions on their food containers.
7. Over a period of five minutes, record the number of times you see
the Betta rising to the surface of the tank for air.
8. For five minutes, record the number of times you see the guppy
opening and closing its mouth
9. Wait overnight or 24 hours and repeat Steps 7 and 8.
Summary of Results How long can the betta stay underwater before he
rises to the surface? How often does the guppy breathe? Was there a major
difference between the two different times you observed the breathing?
Consider the benefits and challenges to the two different forms of breathing. Write a paragraph summarizing the results and your conclusions.
406
Fish
EXPERIMENT 2
Fish Movement: How do fins and body shape
affect the movement of fish?
In this experiment, you will create an environment to nurture and
maintain two types of fish to determine how each moves in the water.
Fish use their bodies and fins to move in the water. The tetra and
angel fish are two common types of fish that have different body and
fin shapes. A tetra fish has a sleek body and small fins as compared to an
angel fish, who has a triangular body and large, flowing fins.
experiment based upon your knowledge of fish. This educated guess, or
hat you expect to happen
for this experiment: Due to its shape and fins, the tetra fish will move faster
through the water than the betta.
What are the variables? Variables are anything that might affect the
results of an experiment. Here are the main variables in this experiment:

the type of fish
the water temperature
the water environment
In other words, the variables in this experiment are everything that
might affect the movement of the fish.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (This project requires continuous care and
attention to maintaining a healthy environment for fish.)
Materials Needed
25 gallon fish tank (plastic tanks work well). Size depends on

space available and number of fish in the tank
thermometer for aquarium
gravel
407
Fish

Ask for assistance when carrying and lifting the
fish tank. Before you begin the experiment, ask
an adult if you can care for the fish when the
experiment is finished. If you do not want to or
cannot care for the fish, find a suitable home for
the fish before you begin.
heater
angel fish (male Betta fish also work well)
tetra fish (guppys also work well)
food for both types of fish (usually
different)
1 to 3 aquatic plants, depending upon the
size of the tank
LED light (small LEDs found on keychains
work well)
filter (optional)
Some fish can be aggressive to other fish. Although

these fish are usually compatible with each other, if you find that one of your
fish becomes aggressive to the other you may want to separate them and make
your observations separately.
Approximate Budget $25. (Try to find a used fish tank or other
container.)
Timetable 6075 minutes, several hours apart, depending upon the
observation time.
1. Place a 1-inch (2.5-centimeter) layer of gravel on the bottom of

the fish tank.
2. Fill the tank with tap water and let it stand overnight. This allows
the water to reach room temperature and for additives such as
chlorine, to evaporate. Some pet stores have special liquids that
you can add to the water to ready it for the fish.
3. Place the heater in the tank; this will help regulate the water
temperature.
4. Place the thermometer in the tank where it is visible. Angel and
tetra fish do well in water that is 75 degrees Fahrenheit (24 degrees
Celsius). Be careful to keep the tank out of direct sunlight.
5. Plant one or two aquatic plants into the gravel. The plants provide
hiding places for the fish, take in the carbon dioxide from the
water, and act as a filtration system for the tank.
6. If you have a filter, place it in tank.
7. Gently place the angel and tetra into the tank. Feed according to
the instructions on their food containers.
408
Fish
8. Make a drawing of both fish. Note their

different body shapes and coloring.
9. Observe the behavior of both fish for
several minutes.
10. Using the LED light, shine the light at a
point just ahead and slightly down from
the tetra. Be careful not to shine the light
directly into its eyes. Move the LED back
and forth across the tank two times and
watch how it follows the light. Make a
note of the fins movement they are using
to move forward, stop, and turn.
11. Again, move the LED back and forth across the tank two times,
having the tetra start at one end of the tank. As you move the light
across the tank, have a helper use the stopwatch to time how long it
takes for the fish complete its movements. Make a note of the
time. Repeat for a second trial.
12. Repeat Step 11 with the angel fish.
13. Wait at least two hours and then repeat Step 11 for both fish,
making sure to conduct two trials.
Step 7: Gently place the angel

and tetra into the tank.
NEL SO N.
Summary of Results Average the four trials for each fish. Was one fish
faster that the other? How do the fins and body shape relate to the speed
of the fish. How do the fins and body shape relate to the way each fish
moves in general. Summarize the findings of your results, using drawings
or pictures. You may want to label the parts of the fins on your drawings.
If you keep the fish, it is important to change the water in the tank every
two weeks, or more frequently if you do not have
a filter or plants.
Steps 11 and 13: Move the

LED back and forth across the
tank two times and watch how
the fish follow the light.
NEL SO N.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept In the fish investigations, you observed
two fish that exhibited characteristics common

to fish. Many fish have specific adaptations that
are suited to the environment in which they live.
Consider what types of fish you are curious
409
Fish
planned. When you are conducting an experiment with live animals, many forces of nature
can affect the project. Here are some common
problems and a few tips to maintain the best
environment for the fish.
Problem: The fish was never moving much.
Possible cause: Fish when bought at a pet
store are usually healthy and will remain
healthy if cared for properly. However,
sometimes fish have illnesses that are
undetectable when purchased. Try purchasing another fish and repeating.
Remember to handle the fish gently and
not place stress on it.
Problem: The fish is not following the LED.
Possible cause: There can be many
possible reasons your fish is not following
the LED. Try again the next day. If the
fish still does not follow the LED, simply
observe the fish movements. You can
also try to purchase another fish and
repeat the experiment.
Problem: The fish was not acting well
once it went into the tank.
Possible cause: It may be the water quality. It is important for the tap water, if not
specifically treated for the fish, to rest
overnight so that substances such as
chlorine and ammonia evaporate. Make
sure the water sat for at least 24 hours, and
try adding more water plants to the tank,
then repeat.
Possible cause: The temperature of the
tank may be too warm or cold. Make sure
your thermometer is working and take
the tank temperature. Angel fish and
tetra fish do well at 75 degrees Fahrenheit (24 degrees Celsius). You may
consider adding a heater to the tank.
410
about? You may want to research the types of fish

common to your area.
fish questions that interest you.

experiment:
propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results It
is important to document as much information

as possible about your experiment. Part of your
presentation should be visual, using charts and
graphs. Remember, whether or not your experiment is successful, your conclusions and experiences can benefit others.
Related Projects More specific projects can be
performed to explore detailed information about

fish. For instance, scientists are finding that some
fish are in danger of becoming extinct due to
Fish
pollution and from overfishing. Both pollution and over fishing are
impacting the shark population along the Great Barrier Reef in Australia.
Learn more about pollution and over fishing and what can be done to
prevent this.
You can also look at fish survival. How do fish defend themselves
against predators? What sights and sounds do different types of fish
respond to? You can examine why fish travel in schools and how they
keep from bumping into one another. There are many experiments you
could design to further observe the characteristics of fish.

Animals: Fish. National Geographic. http://animals. nationalgeographic.com/
animals/fish.html (accessed on April 9, 2008). Video and images of fish, along
with fish related news and information.
Fish: Setting Up Your Fish Tank. American Humane Association. http://www.
americanhumane.org/kids/aquarium.htm (accessed on April 10, 2008).
Provides information on how to set up and maintain a fish tank.
Kalman, Bobbie. Animals called Fish. New York: Crabtree publishing, 2005.
Describes fish, their breathing, reproduction, and defenses.
Sneeden, Robert. What is a fish? Great Britain: Belitha Press Limited, 1993.
Describes different types of fish, their breathing, movement senses, food,
defenses and birth.
Stewart, Melissa. How Do Fish Breathe Underwater? New York: Marshall
Cavendish Corporation, 2007. An examination of the phenomena of
scientific principles behind the ability of fish to extract oxygen from water.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Kids Corner. http://www.fws.gov/endangered/
kids (accessed April 9, 2008). Provides information on the fish and wildlife
conservation.
411
Flight
or birds, flight is moving through the air with wings; but for humans,
flight is traveling through the air in an airplane. It is surprising that
applying the dynamics of flight did not get off the ground earlier than the
twentieth century, because the first human attempts to glide through the
sky took place about 3,000 years ago in China using kites. It is recorded
that in 196 B . C . E ., General Han Hsin used kites to measure the distance
to an enemy stronghold. Kites would later provide the key to wing
performance principles used in the twentieth century airplane.
Its a bird, its a man, it crashed . . . In the eleventh century, an
English inventor named Eilmer fastened wing mechanisms to his hands
and feet and launched himself off a tower. Although Eilmer actually
glided for a while before crashing, he broke both his legs and regretted
forgetting to put a tail device on his back end. In the fifteenth century,
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519)an Italian engineer, artist, inventor,
theatrical designer, musician, and sculptordrew one of the first sketches
of a flying machine. His detailed drawing of a helicopter featured a wing
and a horizontal propeller. Because da Vinci felt his painting should
reflect light, space, and other sciences such as anatomy, he drew hundreds
of sketches of nature and of inventions such as his flying machine.
The man who discovered lift In the eighteenth century,

Daniel Bernoulli (17001782)a Swiss mathematician, botanist, and
anatomistdiscovered that force arises from differences in pressure as
objects move through a gas or liquid. Bernoullis discovery later was used
to explain what gives birds their lift, or ability to glide without falling. His
theory would later be used in the design of the airplane.
Making the Wright connection By the end of the nineteenth
century, several people had made significant headway in developing the
airplane. But it was Wilbur and Orville Wright who put all the pieces
together to create an airplane that could fly.
413
Flight
Air flows a greater distance over

the top of a wing, creating low
air pressure there. Higher air
pressure under the wing forces
the wing upward. GA LE
GR OU P.
Three men inspired the Wright brothers, setting the stage for this
important invention. One was Otto Lilienthal, a German who made 2,000
unpowered flights with his glider. Another was Samuel Pierpont Langley, a
prominent scientist and head of the Smithsonian Institution. Langley
launched two model airplanes in 1896 that remained airborne long
enough to impress the United States Army, which gave him $50,000 for
his experiments. The third was Octave Chanute, an American who also
conducted gliding experiments. Both Chanute and Lilienthal felt an aircrafts wings should be curved on top and concave underneath. This shape
reduced air pressure above the wing and increased it below, providing the
aircrafts lift. All three men wrote books about their theories and
experiences.
Otto Lilienthal made over
2,000 gliding experiments.
C OR BI S-B ETT MA NN.
414
The Wright brothers were successful because they were able to control
their aircraft once it flew, an accomplishment that other inventors had
been unable to achieve. The key was twisting the
wing tips to maintain balance, just as birds alter
their wing shape to change flight direction.
Beginning in 1899, these persistent, resourceful
men pored over any aviation information they
could get their hands on and became flying
experts. As businessmen, they ran a small, successful bicycle shop in Dayton, Ohio. During
off-hours, they tested airfoil sections in a homemade wind tunnel, designed a lightweight internal combustion gas engine, and experimented
with kites and gliders. They spent hundreds of
Flight
WORDS TO KNOW
Aerodynamics: The study of the motion of gases
(particularly air) and the motion and control of
objects in the air.
Centripetal force: Rotating force that moves
towards the center or axis.
the main experiment but not affected by
the variable being tested in the main
experiment. Results from the control
experiment are compared to results from the
actual experiment to determine the effect of
the variable.

can be tested by observations and/or experiment.
Lift: Upward force on the wings of an aircraft
created by differences in air pressure on top of
and underneath the wings.
Propeller: Radiating blades mounted on a rapidly
rotating shaft, which moves aircraft forward.
Turbulence: Air disturbance that affects an aircrafts
flight.
an experiment.
hours testing their findings in their shop, on empty fields, and in deserted
windy areas like the sand dunes at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. It was
there, on December 17, 1903, their airplane soared for 12 seconds,
traveling 120 feet (36 meters) before landing. It became the first flying
machine to stay aloft on its own power with a passenger.
Making objects fly was a challenge to the early inventors. Performing basic experiments in aerodynamics will help you understand
some of the basic principles of flight.
EXPERIMENT 1
Lift-Off: How can a glider be made
to fly higher?
The Wright brothers historic

first flight took place in 1903.
PH OTO R ES EA RC HER S IN C.
create an aerodynamic glider capable of moving

through the air and modify it so it can soar
higher, gaining lift by manipulating the wings.
According to Bernoullis principle, force arises
from differences in pressure. Pilots change the
degree of lift by manipulating the flaps on the
wings edges. To understand the effects of air
415
Flight

pressure, examine the diagrams illustrated. Before

you begin, make an educated guess about the
outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of flight. This educated guess, or prediction,
is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain
these things:
the type of balsa wood glider used (both

gliders should be identical, simple, and
lightweight)
the type of modifications made to the

wing shape of the second glider


are everything that might affect the flight time
of the gliders. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the gliders flight.

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Modifying the wing cross-sectional shape
will create more lift under the wing that will
allow the glider to fly higher.
In this case the variable you will change is the wing shape of one
of the gliders, and the variable you will measure is the distance the
gliders fly.
Steps 3 and 4: Closeup of index

card folded over one glider wing
and how the glider looks with
the index cards on both wings.
GAL E GR OU P.
416
Flight

Materials Needed
2 balsa wood gliders (Styrofoam gliders

are acceptable substitutes, but the gliders
must have no propellers or landing gear.)
1 high power fan, 16 to 24 inches (41 to
61 cm) in diameter
2 pieces of string, 18 inches (45 cm) long
2 index cards, 4 6 inches (10 15 cm)
1 roll of adhesive tape

Use caution handling fans. Make sure the fan is
unplugged when assembling the experimental
apparatus and never touch the blades of the fan
when it is operating.
Approximate Budget $5 for planes. (Borrow the fan from a family
member or teacher.)
1. Prepare the control and test gliders. Assemble as shown on the

packing bag.
2. Tie one string to the nose of each glider. If there is a metal or
plastic clip on the nose, use it to attach the string.
3. Modify the wing of the test glider to create lift. Fold the top and
bottom of the index card as shown in the diagram.
4. Tape the cards over the tops of the wings of the test glider.
5. Modify the index card. Push forward
from the back of the wing so that the
bubble shape is toward the front of the
wing. Once you bend the index card, it
molds into the shape as illustrated.
6. Attach the two strings from the planes to
the bottom of the fan or the fan grating.
(Remember, use caution. Make sure fan is
unplugged at this stage.) Aim the fan
slightly down toward the surface the planes
are resting on.
7. Turn the fan on low, then medium.
Record your observations.
Step 5: Index card folded and

modified to give lift. G ALE
GRO UP .
417
Flight
Sometimes problems may arise during an experiment. Here is an example of a problem, a possible
Problem: The gliders will not stay in the air.
Possible cause: Gliders fly only for short periods
because of invisible disturbances in the air,
known as turbulence. For this reason, a glider
cannot be expected to fly long distances.
Summary of Results Record your results by

describing how each glider moves in response
to the air currents. The modified-wing glider,
or test glider, should jump up and glide in the
air. The other, the control glider, should constantly dive into the table and flip over. You can
measure how high the gliders lift off the table
with a ruler.
use gliders made from different materials, such as

Styrofoam or cardboard. Try different fan speeds
and change the angle at which the wind hits the
glider.
EXPERIMENT 2
Helicopters, Propellers, and Centripetal
Force: Will it fly high?
Example of a whirly toy, or
propeller on a stick. G AL E
GRO UP.
Purpose/Hypothesis Centripetal force is force exerted by a spinning
object. When objects such as gyroscopes and tops are set in motion,
their spinning creates centripetal force. This centripetal force is directed toward the center point
of the spinning object. As centripetal force builds
momentum, it creates balance. Helicopters rely
on this balance and are designed to create centripetal force with their propellers. Before you
begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of flight. This educated guess, or
prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis
418
Flight

experiment: Centripetal force can be disturbed
if the balance is disrupted, thus preventing
flight.
In this case the variable you will change is the
number and position of the dimes on the toys
propeller, and the variable you will measure is the
toys flight.
Materials Needed

the number and position of the dimes
(weights) on the propellers
are everything that might affect the flight of the
whirly toy. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on the toys flight.
Whirly toya propeller on a stick

4 dimes
1 roll of adhesive tape
meterstick
Approximate Budget $3 for whirly toy.
Step 3: Toy with dimes

attached to each end of the
propellers. GA LE G RO UP.
1. Spin the whirly toy between the palms of

your hands and carefully release it.
2. Use the meterstick to record about how
high the toy jumps.
3. Tape two dimes onto the propeller of the
toy, repeat step 1, and measure the height
of its flight. Record the height of the
jumps.
4. Remove one of the dimes and test the
toys flight again. Use caution. The flight
will be erratic. Record the change in balance and flight.
5. Repeat this test with the dimes in different positions, such as those illustrated.
419
Flight

Use caution when flying the toys. Avoid contact
with eyes.
Summary of Results Reflect on your hypothesis.

Did you discover centripetal force and the
actions that can disrupt its effect or balance?
Record your results in a chart. Describe the
behavior or draw what happened so others can
learn from your experiment.
Modify the Experiment Helicopters fly by different principles than other
aircraft. In a helicopter, the rotor acts as the wings of an airplane, giving

the helicopter lift. The properties of helicopter rotors allows a helicopter
to do things a plane cannot, such as hover and move sideways.
For a more challenging experiment, you could make your own whirly
toy to discover the shape and size of rotor blades that allow the aircraft to
carry the most weight (dimes). First, look at pictures or photograph of
helicopter rotor. Note how the rotor blades are not flat. You can use
Step 5: Toy with dimes taped in

different positions. Test the
flight patterns of each position.
GAL E GR OU P.
420
Flight
cardboard, aluminum foil, plastic, or other

household materials for your rotors. You can
attach the rotors to a dowel, straw, or pencil.
Start out making two blades several inches
across. When you have completed the design,
rub it in your palms and note how far your
makeshift helicopter travels without any weights.
Add the weights and repeat. Now continue to
improve your helicopter design. You may want
to slightly alter the angle of the rotor blades, or
add two more. You can also change the length or
shape. Remember to change one variable at a
time, noting how high it moves on its own before
you add the dimes.
Here is a problem that may arise, a possible cause,
and a way to remedy the problem.
Problem: The toy will not fly when the dimes
are attached.
Possible cause: The dimes are too heavy. Try
lightweight buttons that match each other in
size and weight.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Investigations and
experiments in flight are exciting to explore. A toy box or toy store is a
great place to discover objects capable of lift. Keep the ideas simple and
work with objects familiar to you. Visit an aerospace museum, or try to
arrange a personal tour at a local airport.
teacher or community media specialist to start gathering information
on flight questions that interest you.
your question.
421
Flight

Results Ask your mom or dad to videotape
the takeoff in the glider or pinwheel experiments. Or diagram the flight using photos.
Keep the results and data charts simple and
easy to use.
Related Projects Air pressure is an invisible force
that controls many objects and affects our lives.

Simple experiments involving balloons or air
bags can demonstrate the principles and power
of air pressure.
Artist and scientist Leonardo

da Vinci sketched a flying
machine as early as the fifteenth
century. PH OT O
422
Leuzzi, Linda. Transportation: Life in America 100

Years Ago. New York: Chelsea House, 1995.
Chronicles aircraft and people who were
instrumental in furthering significant inventions.
Nahum, Andrew. Flying Machine. London: Dorling
Kindersley, 1990. Covers aviation history, its
inventors, and principles of flight.
Ohio State University Extension. Science Fun with Airplanes. http://www.
ag.ohio state.edu/flight/ (accessed on January 17, 2008). Interactive
experiments and information on the science of flight.
Rinard, Judith E. The Story of Flight. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 2002.
Information on the background and different types of flying crafts.
Weiss, Harvey. Strange and Wonderful Aircraft. New York: Houghton Mifflin,
1995. Provides good background on aviation.
Flowers
he word flower often brings up images of familiar blooms that enliven

homes, such as roses and sunflowers. Yet flowers do far more than
beautify the world. A flower is the reproductive structure of flowering
plants, which are called angiosperms. Flowering plants include the familiar blooms as well as grasses, shrubs, and trees. The flowers on plants are
widely diverse in size, shape, color, and scent. Flower sizes range from the
Wolffia, which can fit through the eye of a sewing needle, to the Titan
Arum, a cone-shaped flower that can tower 9 feet (2.7 meters). Some
flowers resemble insects, and others sport brightly colored petals. Yet all
flowers share the same key function: to make seeds to give rise to a new
generation of the plant.
The evolution of flowers supplied many advantages for plant survival
and thus, life on Earth. Flowers provide protection for seeds and a food
source for animals. In return for food, the animals supply genetic variation to the flower. Mixing up the genetic material allowed flowers to
develop new features that led to plants increasing in types and numbers.
First appearing on Earth about 145 million years ago during the era of
dinosaurs, today about 90% of plants are flowering plants.
The inside story Flowers contain the plants male and female parts
for reproduction. The male part produces powdery grains called pollen.
Each pollen grain contains male reproductive cells, called sperm cells.
When pollen joins with the female part of the flower it is called pollination. The result is the development of a seed. There are four basic parts to
most flowers: the stamen, pistil, petal, and sepal.
The male reproductive organ is called the stamen. The stamens are
offshoots that grow in a circle around the blossom. A stamen is made up
of the anther located at the top, which holds the pollen, and a filament,
which is the thin stalk that supports the anther.
The female reproductive organ is called the pistil. The pistil has three
major parts: the stigma, a sticky surface at the top that holds the pollen;
423
Flowers
the style, the stem that holds the stigma upright;

and the ovary, the structure located at the botpetal
tom of the stigma that produces ovules, the
female reproductive cells or eggs.
The most recognizable part of a flower is its
petals. Petals enclose the flowers sex organs.
They can bloom in vibrant colors that attract
stigma
animals to the flower. Sepals are the leaflike
anther
pistil
style
structures at the bottom of the petals that protect
stamen
the flower bud before it opens. When the bud
filament
opens, the sepals fold back.
ovary
For pollination to occur the pollen must
move from the anther of a stamen to the pistils
stigma. The sperm cells in the pollen move down
a tube that forms from the style to the ovary.
There, the sperm cells can fertilize the eggs in the
sepal
ovule.
Not all flowers contain all parts. For examParts of a flower. G AL E
ple, grasses do not contain petals in their flowers. Some flowers produce
GRO UP.
either the male or female part, and others produce both. The flowers with
both pistils and stamens are called perfect flowers. Examples of perfect
flowers includes the rose, sweet pea, and lily. Flowers that have only the
pistil or the stamen are called imperfect flowers. (The same plant, however, can contain both male and female flowers.)
An imperfect flower prevents a plant from self-pollinating, meaning
when the pollen transfers from the male to female parts of a single flower
or plant. This can occur simply by gravity causing the pollen to drop.
Closeup of a Zinnia flower.
Plants that self-pollinate have the exact same genetic material as the
F IEL D M ARK PUB LI CAT IO NS.
parent, causing them to have a decreased chance
of survival if the environment changes. Even if
flowers are capable of self-pollinating it is not the
desired method of pollination. Flowers have
evolved mechanisms to avoid self-pollination
such as developing its stamens and pistils at
different times, and having its pistil reach far
above the stamen.
In cross-pollination pollen is transferred
from one flower to another. Cross-pollination
combines genetic material and generates greater
424
Flowers
diversity in the offspring. Plants are usually

A
pollen
stronger and healthier over the long run than
self-pollinators. While cross-pollination has
genetic advantages, it also means that plants are
more dependent on a way to have their pollen
carried about.
Pollen on the move In order for pollen to
transfer from one flower to another, it must have
a way to move. Some flowering plants depend
upon the wind to blow its pollen onto another
flower. Examples of wind-pollinated plants
include pine trees, corn, and grasses. Plants that pollinate by wind
and sometimes splashes of rainproduce large quantities of light pollen,
as a large percntage of the pollen will be wasted by not landing on its
target spot. These flowers do not need the vibrant features that tempt
pollinators and often have plain, small flowers.
The large majority of flowering plants depend upon animals to ferry
the pollen from one flower to another. These pollen-carriers are called
pollinators. Insects, birds, butterflies, and even bats are pollinators. Bees
are among the most numerous and important pollinators.
Flowers first must attract pollinators by offering food, color, scents,
and other temptations. A pollinator that comes into contact with the
flower rubs against the anther, causing some pollen to stick to its body.
When the pollinator then visits another flower of the same species, its
pollen brushes or falls onto that flowers stigma. Animal-pollinated
flowers produce less pollen than the wind-pollinators, as the animal
carries the pollen directly to a flower.
Allure of the wild In the quest to lure pollinators, flowers have evolved several ingenious
features. Many flowers offer food in the form of
nectar. Nectar is a sweet liquid that provides
nourishment for birds, bees, butterflies, and
other animals. Nectar is located deep within
the flower at the base of their petals. Petals
often sport lines or dots that serve as a guide to
the hidden nectar. In some flowers nectar accumulates in long pouches that is available to animals with long beaks or tongues. Some flowers
time their production of nectar to coincide with
(A) In a self-pollinating flower,

pollen falls from the anther to
the stigma; (B) a flower can
avoid self-pollination if its
pistil reaches above the stamen.
GAL E GR OU P.
In cross-pollination, genetic
material (pollen) is exchanged
from one flower to another.
GAL E GR OU P.
425
Flowers
the schedule of their desired pollinator. For

example, night-blooming flowers increase their
production of nectar at night so the scent attracts
bats, moths, and other nocturnal pollinators.
Bees are among the most

numerous and important
pollinators. # GE OR GE D.
LE PP/ CO RB IS.
Some plants have many different pollinators, while others are particular to just one
type. A plant with many pollinators will have
more organisms carrying its pollen, yet there is a
greater chance the pollen will not make it to the
same type flower. Having a pollinator who only
likes one type of flower cuts down the amount of
traveling pollen but ensures that the pollen will be delivered to a like
flower. For example, the orchid Angraecum sesquipedale ensures that only
a specific type of insect pollinates it by having its nectar tucked about 10
to 14 inches within the flower. The hawkmoth, which is an insect but is
the size of a small bird, with its 12-inch proboscis is the only insect that
can reach the nectar.
Animals can get other meals from flowers as well. Some flowers
produce a second type of pollen that pollinators can eat. Oils on the
flowers are food for some insects.
Flowers have many ways of

attracting pollinators. One way
is nectar, a sweet liquid located
deep within the flower that
provides nourishment for birds,
bees, butterflies, and other
animals. GA LE GRO UP.
Flowers also attract pollinators with their petal colors and shapes.
Animals all have unique color perception and are attracted to colors that
they can spot. Flowers that appeal to birds are often red (some have
evolved a landing area for the bird). Bees are attracted to blues, purples,
and yellow pigments. Butterflies prefer to eat sitting down so they prefer
flat, wide surfaces and bright colors. Bats need large, sturdy and palecolored flowers to support their weight and show up in the darkness.
anther
ovary
ovule
426
bee proboscis
nectar
Scentsboth sweet and foulare another

method of appealing to certain animals. The bee
orchid, for example, resembles and smells like a
bee. When male bees, tempted by its scent,
attempt to mate with the flower they become
covered with pollen and spread it to their next
flower mate. Another orchid species, the Ladys
Slipper, holds a fragrance in its pouch that has a
wild attraction for flies. The flies climb around
and inside the pouch, getting pollen stuck to
them in the process.
Flowers
Foul odors attract pollinators who feed on

decaying matter. The smells are similar to those
of the food that these insects and other animals
eat. Along with laying claim to the worlds largest flower, the Titans flower is also the worlds
smelliest. Giving off an odor similar to rotting
meat, the stench attracts beetles and flies that
feed on or lay eggs in rotting flesh.
Some flowers have mechanisms that force a
pollinator to stay for a long visit. With flowers
up to one foot across, the giant water lily of the
Amazon has to work fast as it only blooms for
two days. The flower attracts beetles during the
day, then traps them inside when it closes for the
night. Covered in pollen, the beetles are released
when the flower opens at dusk of the following
day. The Dutchmans pipe has a tube-shaped
flower with a waxy surface. It emits a putrid
smell that appeals to flies. When insects land
they slip down the flower and are trapped by
its thick hairs. The flies can lap up nectar while
they get covered in pollen.
The appearance and smell of a flower provides clues as to its pollinator. In the following two experiments you will
explore pollination and how a flowers features shape its pollinators.
EXPERIMENT 1
The pouch on a Ladys Slipper

orchid, which contains the
flowers pollen, has a fragrance
that attracts pollinators to it.
FIE LD M AR K PU BL ICA TI ONS .
Self versus Cross: Will there be a difference

in reproduction between self-pollinated
and cross-pollinated plants of the same type?
Purpose/Hypothesis Flowering plants can be cross-pollinators or self-
pollinators. Botanists and flower developers cross-pollinate specific plants

intentionally to produce a desired trait in the offspring, such as a specific
color. The cross between two parent plants produces a hybrid.
In this experiment, you will both cross-pollinate and self-pollinate
the same type of plant. Because of possible variations, you will use two
plants for each trial. You will then wait for the plants to develop and
observe any differences in the flowers and outcome.
427
Flowers
WORDS TO KNOW
Angiosperm: A flowering plant that has its seeds
produced within an ovary.
Anther: The male reproductive organs of the plant,
located on the tip of a flowers stamen.
Petal: Leafy structure of a flower just inside the

sepals; they are often brightly colored and have
many different shapes.
Pistil: Female reproductive organ of flowers that is
composed of the stigma, style, and ovary.
Pollen: Dust-like grains or particles produced by a
plant that contain male sex cells.
Cross-pollination: The process by which pollen

from one plant pollinates another plant of the
same species.
Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the male

reproductive organs to the female reproductive
organs of plants.
Filament: In a flower, stalk of the stamen that bears

the anther.
Pollinator: Any animal, such as an insect or bird,

that transfers the pollen from one flower to
another.
Flower: The reproductive part of a flowering plant.

Imperfect flower: Flowers that have only the male
reproductive organ (stamen) or the female
reproductive organs (pistil).
Nectar: A sweet liquid, found inside a flower, that
attracts pollinators.
Self-pollination: The process in which pollen from

one part of a plant fertilizes ovules on another
part of the same plant.
Sepal: The outermost part of a flower; typically
leaflike and green.
Stamen: Male reproductive organ of flowers that
is composed of the anther and filament.
Ovary: In a plant, the base part of the pistil that

bears ovules and develops into a fruit.
Stigma: Top part of the pistil upon which pollen

lands and receives the male pollen grains during
fertilization.
Ovule: Structure within the ovary that develops into

a seed after fertilization.
Style: Stalk of the pistil that connects the stigma to

the ovary.
Perfect flower: Flowers that have both male and

female reproductive organs.

an experiment.
experiment based on your knowledge of flowers and pollination. This educated
guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
428
Flowers

through further investigation. Your experiment will
prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment:
The flowers that are cross-pollinated will produce
seeds and the self-pollinated plant will not.
source of the pollen. The variable you will measure is the development of the flowers and seeds.
you isolate each variable and measure the changes
in the dependent variable. Only one variable will
setup, and that is the pollen a plant receives. For the
control, you will place a plant in an isolated, indoor
area to ensure it receives no pollen from another
plant. At the end of the experiment you can compare the results of the control to the experimental plants.

the type of plant
the source of pollen
the environment (for example, sunlight,
wind, air temperature)
the amount of water applied to the plant
after pollination
are everything that might affect pollination. If
had the most effect on plant reproduction.

Materials Needed
eight young flowering, cross-pollinating plants of one type, purchased before any flowers have grown (if not available as young
plants, you can grow with seeds, potting soil, and pots. For a faster
option, you can order Wisconsin Fast Plant seeds from Carolina
Biological; see Further Readings). Talk with an expert at a gardening store or conduct research to make sure that you have selected a
plant that cross-pollinates. (In general, geraniums, corn, and
cucumbers work well; avoid tomatoes, beans, and peas.)
several cotton swabs

several toothpicks
tweezers
marking pen
429
Flowers

If you have strong allergies to pollen you may
want to check with an adult before conducting
this experiment.
Step 4: Gently rub the pollen

grains from the stamen against
the tip of the stigma. GA LE
GR OU P.
430
Timetable Varies widely depending on plant;
30 minutes for pollination; about 10 minutes

of regular observations for six to 14 weeks.
1. Conduct the experiment inside and away

from other plants of the same species.
There should be two plants in each trial: Label two plants A, two
plants B, two plants C, and two plants D. The plants labeled
D will be the Control. Set plants in distant locations from one
another, such as in separate parts of a room, or even in separate
rooms. Make sure each plant has equal light.
2. After the plants have formed blossoms and before the petals open,
gently push aside the petals with a toothpick. On Plants A use the
tweezers to remove all the stamens on each flower, leaving the
stigma. Label the pot: Female/Cross.
3. When all the plants have open flowers, (this should occur at
roughly the same time) note whether the stigma stands below,
equal, or higher to the anthers. You will need to pollinate, selfpollinate, and not pollinate the same number of flowers on each
plant. Count the least number of flowers
on one of the plants and use that as the
guide. Gently snip off the remaining
flower shoots that you will not need.
For example, if one of the plants only
has three flowers and the rest have over
six, snip off the extras on the other plants
so all plants have three flowers.
4. Rub a cotton swab against the stamens of
Plants B. You should see pollen grains on
the swab. You may want to use a magnifying glass. Gently rub those pollen grains
against the tip of the stigmas on Plants A.
Make sure you see the pollen grains on
the stigma.
5. Repeat with a fresh swab for each transfer
of pollen flowers.
Flowers
6. Self-pollinate Plants C by taking a fresh

swab and moving the pollen from the
stamen to the stigma in each flower.
Label plants: Self-Pollinated.
7. At regular intervals, (depending on plant,
could be every three days) note any
changes in the pistil in Plants A, C, and
D. Note what day the petals fall off and
any changes in the sepals.
Summary of Results As the flowers continue to
develop, construct a chart with the similarities
and differences among the plants. Note the pistil
development and count the number of seeds in
each pistil. Average the seeds for each of the two
plants in each group. Compare the control to the
self-pollinated plant. How did the groups of
plants differ? How were they the same?
Problem: The plants did not produce seeds.
Possible cause: There can be several possible
causes: The plant may have been exposed to
too much heat, or it may not have had enough
water or nutrients. Make sure you use a rich soil
that contains nutrients, and follow the directions for the seed carefully. You may want to
talk with a professional at a plant store.
Possible cause: You may not be able to see the
seeds. The pistil should be enlarged, change
shape, and become dry. When this happens,
carefully look inside the pistil to see if there
are seeds, then remove each seed carefully.
Change the Variables To change the variable in
this experiment you can change the type of plant.

You can also conduct the same type of pollination on each plant, and alter
the environmental conditions. You can also alter the nutrition of the plants
by changing the soil content. Use a soil with few nutrients, and then add
specific nutrients one by one to determine which nutrients affect seed
production.
EXPERIMENT 2
Sweet Sight: Can changing a flowers nectar and color
affect the pollinators lured to the flower?
Purpose/Hypothesis Among the many characteristics a flower uses to attract
pollinators are its color and nectar. There are some pollinators that respond to
certain colors. For example, in general butterflies are attracted to bright reds
and oranges; bees to blues and yellows; and beetles to many different colors.
Nectar also varies among flowers in the amount of sugar it contains. Some
pollinators are attracted to nectar that has about 20 to 25% sugar; other
pollinators, such as bees, prefer a richer sugar content of about 50%.
In this experiment, you will determine if you can attract a certain type
of pollinator based on the color and sugar-concentration of nectar. You can
431
Flowers

the shape of the bowl/cup
the environment the cup is placed
the weather conditions
the time of observations
the concentration of nectar
the color of the flower
are everything that might affect the pollinators
who approach the cups. If you change more
effect on attracting pollinators.
measure the results by noting the numbers and

types of pollinators. Among the animals to look
out for are ants, butterflies, bees, birds, and spiders. You will first apply a constant nectar content
to three colors: yellow, blue, and white. After
finding one color that attracts the most pollinators, you will then vary the nectar by placing an
artificial nectar on the color.
Nectar is a syrupy-solution made up of several types of sugar, primarily sucrose, which is
common table sugar. You will make varying concentrations of artificial nectar: a 20% sugar syrup
and a 50% sugar syrup.
your knowledge of flowers and pollinators. This

possible hypothesis for this experiment: There will be one combination
of color and nectar that will attract the most of one type of pollinator: The
yellow, high nectar concentration will lure the most bees.
In this case, the variables you will change, one at a time, are the color
and then the concentration of the artificial nectar. The variable you will
measure is the number and type of pollinators.
and measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable
will change between the control and your experiment. After determining
the color that attracts the most of a certain type of pollinator, your control
will change the concentration of nectar. For the control in this part of the
experiment, you will use plain water instead of nectar. At the end of the
experiment you can compare the experimental data to the control data.
432
Flowers
Level of Difficulty Moderate to Difficult,

because of the attention to detail and time
involved.
The artificial nectar should attract bees and other

insects. Make sure to stand at least several feet
away when making your observations. Do not
disturb the insects or other pollinators. Have an
adult present when you handle the boiling water.
Materials Needed
3 cups sugar
outside area with a high ledge area
2 nice days
6 cups water
six clear plastic cups
swatches of blue, yellow, and white felt: enough to fit in the plastic
cups
colored felt
small rocks
stirring spoon
measuring cup
marking pen

Timetable 1 hour for experiment setup; 1 hour each day for 2 days.
control
1:1
1:4
Steps 3 and 4: After selecting

one color, alter the
concentration of the sugar in the
artificial nectar. GA LE GR OU P.
433
Flowers
1. Day 1: Cut a swatch of the colored felts and

scrunch each one into a clear cup. Place a
small stone in the felt to weigh it down.
2. Set each of the cups in the same general
area outside on a high ledge, at roughly
Problem: There were too few pollinators to
2 feet apart from one another. Choose two
draw any conclusions.
times of day to observe the colored cups
Possible cause: Vary the time of day you are
for a 30-minute period each time: one
making your observations. You may also
time in the morning and one in the afterwant to change the location to one with more
noon or early evening. You will need to
plant growth and surrounding flowers.
observe at the same two times the following day. For each color, note the number
and type of pollinators that visit the cup.
3. Day 2: Vary the nectar concentration. Use your data from the
previous day to select one of the colors that attracted the most
pollinators. Place a swatch of the selected color into each of three
clear plastic cups.
4. Label the cups according to the ratio of sugar to water: 1:1,
1:4, and Control. The Control will be plain water.
5. Boil the 6 cups of water. Pour 2 cups of sugar into a glass bowl
labeled 1:1. Add 2 cups of boiled water and stir until all sugar has
dissolved. Allow the artificial nectar to cool.
6. Pour 12 cup sugar into a glass bowl labeled 1:4. Add 2 cups of boiled
water and stir until all sugar has dissolved. Allow to cool.
7. Fill the 1:1 cup and the 1:4 cup with their designated artificial
nectar. Fill the Control cup with 2 cups of cooled boiled water
without any sugar. Place the cups outside on a ledge.
8. At the same two times of day as the previous day, observe the
flowers for 30-minute periods and note the type and number of
visitors to each cup.
Summary of Results Examine your results for both the color and con-
centration. Graph the major pollinators number of visits by the color.

Create another graph of the major pollinators number of visits by the
nectar concentration. Could you attract one specific pollinator by altering
the nectar and color? Conduct some research and determine what types of
flowers this pollinator(s) visits the most frequently. How do the characteristics of these flowers compare to your experimental results?
434
Flowers
Change the Variables As it is the combination of many different factors
that influence a flowers pollinators, you can vary this experiment in many
ways to determine the relative effect of each characteristic.
Change the shape of the setup by creating petals of different
shapes, then using one concentration of nectar.
Change the colors of the setup, using single colors and multiple
colors
Vary the scent of the setup, either by purchasing flower scents or
by extracting scents from real flowers
Change the environment to compare pollinators, such as in a
wooded area, park, and backyard.
Modify the Experiment This experiment involves examining how flower
nectar and color both attract pollinators. You can simplify the setup and focus
of this experiment by working with artificial flowers. By comparing artificial
flowers to real flowers, which contain nectar, you can determine how flower
characteristics affect pollinators.
You will need two types of artificial flowers and their matching
natural flowers. The flowers should be different colors. Try to chose
flowers that have large petals and bright colors, such as roses, sunflowers,
or hydrangeas. You will only need one of each. If possible, try to match
the artificial flowers to a flower naturally growing outside. If you purchase
real flowers, make sure they are freshly cut. To begin the experiment, you
should have four flowers: two of one type, one real and one artificial; two
of another type, one real and one artificial.
On a nice morning, place the artificial flowers several feet away from the
natural flowers. Now stand back several feet and observe the insects or other
pollinators that visit each flower. It helps to have a friend or adult observe
and make notes also. Observe the flowers for at least 15 minutes at least two
different times. Does one color flower attract more pollinators than the
other? Do the natural flowers attract more pollinators? Do the pollinators
stay for a longer period of time at the natural flowers? You can repeat this
experiment with several different color and types of flowers? When you have
finished, look at all your data and see if you notice a pattern with color or
nectar. Chart your results or write a summary of your findings.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept While flowers all have the
same function, they are widely diverse in appearance. Many flowers,

435
Flowers
especially the self-pollinators, are so small and nondescript that you may
not notice them. To gather ideas for a topic you can look at the many
different types of flowers that grow in your area. Visit a greenhouse or a
florist to observe species shapes, colors, and scents. As flowers are unique
to a geographic region, you may want to look up photographs and
descriptions of flowers in different locations around the United States
and the world. Examine how the flowers appearance shapes its role, if
any, with possible pollinators.
teacher to learn more about flowers and pollination. You could also
speak with a professional at a local greenhouse or nursery.
question.
such as any experimental setup you designed. You may also want to
display any flowers that you studied. If you have completed a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research question was and
illustrate your findings.
Related Projects With the wide variety of flowers and their pollinators,
there are numerous flower-related projects. You can use a magnifying

glass to carefully dissect a flower, separating and labeling each of its parts.
436
Flowers
By doing this with several different types of flowers you can compare the
flower parts. Flowers have several main attractants to pollinators: color,
nectar, shape, and scent. You can examine the relationship between one
or all of these with the pollinator. For example, you can examine the effect
of flower scents on pollinators. You can look up techniques to capture the
scent of a flower and then place the scents outside on the same substance.
Different species of flowers release pollen of varying appearance. You
can collect and compare the pollen grains from several types of flowers.
Look at how the grains from self-pollinators compares to cross-pollinators.
You can also examine what types of pollinators are attracted to each of the
pollen types. For a research paper, you can examine what the pollen grains
offer the pollinator, such as protein, sugar, and shelter. Some flower species
have evolved deceptive appearances and smells to entice pollinators that
you could also observe and research. You could also look at the biology of
pollination and map out the genetics of plant reproduction.

Attenborough, David. The Private Life of Plants: A Natural History of Plant
Behaviour. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995. These stories of plant
life and survival feature plants from all over the world with full color photographs.
Bailey, Jill. Plants and Plant Life: Flowers & Fruits. Danbury, CT: Grolier
Educational, 2001. This volume of the series on plants covers reproduction.
Black, David, and Anthony Huxley. Plants: The World of Science. New York: Orbis
Publishing, 1985. Contains comprehensive information on plants, with photographs.
Ganeri, Anita. Plant Science. New York: Dillon Press, 1993. Answers questions
on basic plant characteristics and behavior.
Missouri Botanical Garden. Pollination. Biology of Plants. http://www.
mbgnet.net/bioplants/pollination.html (accessed on February 6, 2008).
Information and video about pollination.
Plants and Animals: Partners in Pollination. Smithsonian Center for Education
and Museum Studies. http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/
lesson plans/partners in pollination/index.html (accessed on February 16,
2008) Covers various aspects of how animals help pollinate plants.
Rice Anatomy. Plant Biology Division of Biological Sciences, University of
California, Davis. http://www plb.ucdavis.edu/labs/rost/Rice/reproduction/
flower/flower.html (accessed on February 18, 2008) Shows the various
reproductive components of rice flowers and how they interact.
Souza, D.M. Freaky Flowers. New York: Franklin Watts, 2002. Filled with
photographs that show intriguing flowers from around the world.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Pollinators. Celebrating
Wildflowers. http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/index.shtml
(accessed on February 16, 2008). A lot of information on pollination, with
pictures and examples.
437
Fluids
hen people talk about fluids, we are often referring to liquids. In

scientific terms, a fluid is both a liquid and a gas. In solids, the
particles are packed tightly together and in a regular pattern. Particles in
fluids move about freely are in constant motionthey are fluid.
What makes a fluid a fluid There are many properties that set fluids
and solids apart. A few key properties include:
For a fluid, the pressure at any

one point is the same in all
directions. ILL US TRA TI ON B Y
TE MA H NE LSO N.
Pressure Direction: Right now, there is pressure all around you

from air, a fluid. You cannot feel this pressure because you are
supported by equal air pressure on all sides and your body is filled
with fluids (gases and liquid) that push back. For solids, the
pressure pushes downward. When you stand up the weight of
your body is pushing down on the floor. For a fluid, the pressure at
any one point is the same in all directions.
Density: One property of all matter is density. Density is a
measure of a solid or fluids mass in a set amount of space
(volume). Any fluid (or solid) at a given temperature and pressure
will have a fixed volume. The fluid will also have a certain mass,
which is usually measured in pounds or kilograms. Density is a
ratio of the mass to its volume. For example, one cup of motor oil weighs far more
than one cup of air, making the density of
oil higher than the density of air.
Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to flow. It is sometimes
referred to as the flowability of the
liquid. This is a common property to
measure in science, as it gives information
as to how the material will behave. In
general, thicker fluids have a greater
439
Fluids
WORDS TO KNOW
volume.
Fluid: A substance that flows; a liquid or gas.
or experiment.
Non-Newtonian fluid: A fluid whose property do

not follow Newtonian properties, such as viscosity can vary based on the stress.
Shear stress: An applied force to a give area.
Surface tension: The attractive force of molecules
to each other on the surface of a liquid.


an experiment.
Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space.
Viscosity: The measure of a fluids resistance to

flow; its flowability.
Newtonian fluid: A fluid that follows certain properties, such as the viscosity remains constant at a
given temperature.
Volume: The amount of space occupied by a

three-dimensional object.
resistance to flow, which means a higher viscosity. Motor oil, for

example, has a high viscosity when compared to water. In some
fluids, viscosity can change. Motor oil thins as it heats and thickens as it cools.
A water strider utilizes surface
tension of water to float. #
VI SU AL S UNL IM IT ED/ CO RB IS.
440
Fluid categories Because fluids is such a large category there are

many ways to identify and categorize them. One category of fluids is
whether it acts as a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. This is named
after the English scientist Isaac Newton
(16421727).
Newtonian fluids in general have a constant
viscosity given the same temperature and pressure. Water is a Newtonian fluid. When you
pour out a large bottle of water the first cup
flows at the same rate as the last. If you shake
the bottle and pour it again, the water will flow
at the same rate. But many fluids fall under the
category of non-Newtonian fluids.
In non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity
changes depending on the forces acting on the
Fluids
fluid. The force is known as the shear stress,

meaning the fluids are sheared or deformed.
Applying shear stress to non-Newtonian fluids
will change the viscosity. Turn a bottle of
ketchup upside down and youll usually wait
for the ketchup to flow. But if you shake the
ketchup bottle and pour again, the ketchup will
flow at a much faster rate. Its viscosity has
lowered.
Some non-Newtonian fluids will become
more viscous (thicker) when shear force is
applied. A non-Newtonian fluid also may
change viscosity with temperature and pressure
changes. Yogurt, quicksand, and paints are other
examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

the type of fluid
the temperature of the fluid
the container holding the fluid
the object moving through the fluid
the amount of fluid
are everything that might affect the time it
takes for the object to sink. If you change more
than one variable at a time, you will not be able
to determine which variable had the most
effect on the viscosity.
Fun with fluids Another important property of fluids is the surface tension, which is a
measurement of how much the liquid molecules
tend to stick together. Compared to many fluids, water has a relatively
high surface tension. This is why water bugs can walk along the waters
surface.
Fluids also move at different speeds or velocities. Then there are fluids
that form a coil, like a rope, when it streams downwards and others that
drop in a straight line. Some fluids spatter more than others.
In the experiments that follow, you will examine different properties of fluids. As you conduct the experiments, consider questions about
the fluids that you would like to explore further.
EXPERIMENT 1
Viscosity: How can temperature affect the viscosity
of liquids?
Purpose/Hypothesis Viscosity is an important property of fluids. In
general, liquids that are thick have a relatively high viscosity and thin
liquids have a low viscosity. Most fluids have a constant viscosity at a fixed
temperature. In this experiment, you will explore how changing the
temperature of fluids may affect the viscosity.
441
Fluids
100 ml
Step 1: Pour honey into the

graduated cylinder to the 100
ml mark. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
You will first test the viscosity of the fluid at

room temperature by timing how long it takes
for an object to move through the fluid. The
thicker the fluid, the longer it takes for the object
to fall. The fluids in this experiment are honey
and cooking oil. By lowering and increasing the
temperature of the honey and oil, you can measure how temperature affects the viscosity of the
two fluids.
learned about fluids and make an educated guess
about how temperature will affect the viscosity
of a fluid. This educated guess, or prediction, is
these things:

hypothesis for this experiment: The colder the liquid; the higher its
viscosity and the warmer the liquid, the lower its viscosity.
In this case, the variable you will change for each material is the
temperature. The variable you will measure is the time it takes an object
to move through the fluid.
Materials Needed
stopwatch
graduated cylinder, 100 ml (or a narrow see-through container
about a foot tall, such as a shampoo bottle)
honey
cooking oil
small paperclips, at least 6
442
Fluids
2 pots, which the graduated cylinder fits

into (stew pots work well); 1 pot will also
work
potholders
chopsticks or other long, slender item

Be careful when working with hot water.
Always use a potholder and have an adult help
you when working with the boiling water.
Approximate Budget $5 (assuming you can find
or borrow a stopwatch).
Timetable One hour and 30 minutes.
1. Pour honey into the graduated cylinder to the 100 ml mark. If

you are using another container, mark a line where you fill the
honey.
2. Drop the paperclip into the honey. Use the stopwatch to time how
long it takes for the paperclip to hit the bottom. Repeat for two
more trials and make a note in a chart.
3. Remove the paperclips (chopsticks work
well) and fill the honey again to the 100
ml or to the line.
4. To heat the honey: Fill the pot with water
until is slightly below the top of the graduated cylinder. (Be careful not to get any
water into the honey) Remove the graduated cylinder and heat the pot of water
until it simmers. Turn off the heat. Carefully, place the graduated cylinder in the
middle of the pot. Allow it to sit in the
hot water for 15 to 20 minutes.
5. Use the potholders to remove the graduated cylinder. Again, drop a paperclip
into the honey and time how long it takes
for it to hit the bottom. Repeat two more
times.
6. Remove the paperclips and fill the honey
to the same height.
7. To cool the honey: Fill the second pot
with ice. (If you only have one pot, pour
Step 2: Drop the paperclip into

the honey. IL LUS TR ATI ON B Y
TEM AH N EL SON .
100 ml
443
Fluids
It is common for experiments to not work
exactly as planned. Learning from what went
wrong can also be a learning experience. Below
are some problems that may arise during this
Problem: There was no change in viscosity
when the liquids changed temperature.
Possible causes: If you were using a container
that was insulated, the honey and oil may
have been too insulated from the surrounding water temperatures. Make sure the hot
water is hot and the cold water is ice-cold,
and that the container is not insulated. You
can use a thermometer to make sure that the
honey and oil are changing temperatures.
Repeat the trials.
Problem: The paperclip is dropping too quickly
to measure.
Possible causes: Use a taller container, such as
a 100 ml graduated cylinder, and make sure
you are using a small paperclip. You may also
need to find a more accurate timer or stopwatch. Repeat the experiment.
out the hot water.) The ice should not be

higher than the honey in the graduated
cylinder. Add cold water and set the graduated cylinder in the middle of the pot.
Allow it to set for 20 minutes.
8. Remove the honey and conduct three
trials on how long the paperclip takes to
fall to the bottom.
9. Clean the graduated cylinder, and repeat
the entire process, replacing the honey
with cooking oil.
Summary of Results Average the three trials for
each of the liquids. How does the viscosity of

the liquids compare to one another? How did
temperature affect both fluids? You may want to
make a bar chart of your results. Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your
findings.
Change the Variables If you want to change the
variables in this experiment, you can try changing the fluids. Compare the viscosity of several
different liquids. You can focus on different
types of oils, for example, or test a variety of
liquids. You can also examine how gradations
of heat or cold affect viscosity. You can use a
thermometer and measure viscosity at specific
temperature increments.
EXPERIMENT 2
Spinning Fluids: How do different fluids behave when
immersed in a spinning rod?
Purpose/Hypothesis One property of some non-Newtonians fluids is the
tendency for the liquid to climb up a spinning rod. This characteristic

is known as the Weissenberg effectnamed after the scientist Karl
Weissenberg, whose experiments demonstrated many properties of
non-Newtonian fluids.
444
Fluids
In this experiment you will compare the

properties of three fluids when the fluids are
submerged in a spinning rod. You can compare
water, a Newtonian fluid, to two different fluids:
egg whites and a viscous fluid made up of glue
and borax. Before you begin, make an educated
guess about the outcome of this experiment
based on your knowledge of fluids. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A


the composition of the liquids
the speed of the spinning rod
the amount of time the rod spins
the temperature of the liquids
everything that might affect the properties of the
fluid. If you change more than one variable, you will
not be able to tell which variable had the most effect
on whether the fluid climbed up the rod or not.

hypothesis for this experiment: Only the fluid made from glue will
climb up a spinning rod.
In this case, the variable you will change is the liquid, and the
variable you will measure is whether the object moves up the rod
or not.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate (due to the use of a power tool and
cutting).
Materials Needed
drill
white school glue, washable
borax
thick plastic glass
plastic cup
plastic spoons
drill
3 eggs
ruler
clock with a minute hand
445
Fluids
waterproof marker
1/4-inch diameter aluminum rod (available from hardware stores)
paper towels
hack saw or other tool to cut metal

Have an adult cut the aluminum rod. Be careful
when working with the drill and have an adult
present.
Approximate Budget $8. (If your household
does not have a drill try to borrow one.)

Step 6: Place the drill in the glass

and turn it on for 1 minute.
NEL SO N.
446
1. Have an adult cut the aluminum rod at about the 9-inch

(23-centimeter) mark. The exact length does not matter; the rod
should be about 2 to 3 inches (57 centimeters) longer than the
top of the glass.
2. Use the marker and ruler to mark onequarter inch (0.64 centimeters) notches
on the rod. Start at the 1-inch (2.54centimeter) mark and continue until
you reach about half-way up the rod.
3. Set the rod in the drill and have an adult
help you tighten the rod in the drill.
4. Pour approximately three-quarters of a
cup of water into the glass.
5. Set the glass on a counter so it is about eye
level, or you may need a helper to hold
the drill. You should be able to see the
marks on the rod.
6. With an adult helping, place the drill in
the glass and turn it on for one minute.
Observe how the water is behaving as the
rod is spinning.
7. Note if the water climbed up the rod at all
by looking at the marks.
8. Empty out the glass and wipe off the rod.
9. Carefully, separate the eggs and drop the
egg whites into the glass.
Fluids
10. Repeat Steps 58, noting how far the egg

whites climbs up the rod.
11. Use the plastic spoons to measure out 8
teaspoons (2 tablespoons) of white glue
and 8 teaspoons of water into the cleaned
glass.
12. In a plastic cup and using a clean spoon,
place one-half of a teaspoon of borax and
8 teaspoons of water (one-half cup). Mix
well.
13. Pour the borax solution into the glass and
briefly stir.
14. Repeat Steps 58, noting how far the glue
fluid climbs up the rod.
Summary of Results Examine how far each fluid climbed up the rod. Was
there a large difference among the fluids? Was your hypothesis correct?
Consider the similarities and differences in how the three fluids behaved.
You might want to graph your results and write a paragraph on your
conclusions.
Step 11: Use the plastic spoons

to measure out 8 teaspoons
(2 tablespoons) of white glue.
NEL SO N.
Change the Variables To change the variables, you can use one of the
fluids and experiment with changing the temperature. What would

happen in a cooler or warmer environment? You could also use many
different fluids.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The experiments pre-
sented here touch upon only a few aspects of the properties of fluids. With
so many fluids, there are many categories and characteristics fluids
demonstrate. Consider fluids you use and come across in daily life. Are
there questions you have about why they behave in certain ways?
for experiment idea that interest you related to fluids. You might also want
to read about and investigate polymers.
447
Fluids
When doing experiments, you may not get the
results you intended but your findings can still be a
learning experience. Here are some problems that
may arise during this experiment, some possible
causes, and ways to remedy the problem.

propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Problem: None of the solutions climbed up the rod.

Possible cause: Your drill may not have had
enough power. If your drill has settings, turn the
drill to the most powerful setting and allow the
rod to spin for longer. Repeat the experiment.
Problem: The glue solution became too puttylike for it to move.
You may have used too much borax. If you are
using plastic spoons, make sure you are not heaping
borax into the teaspoon. You can also try adding a
couple teaspoons more water and repeat the
experiment.
the experiments included here and in any experiments you develop, you can look for ways to
display your data in more accurate and interesting ways.
Problem: The rod keeps moving around.
Possible cause: The rod may not be centered in
the drill. Have an adult help loosen and center
you must present the information you have gaththe rod, then retighten. Repeat the experiment.
ered in as clear a way as possible. Including
photographs or illustrations of the steps in the
experiment is a good way to show a viewer how
Related Projects To develop other experiments related to fluids, think
about liquids you have used or are familiar with. Why does paint stick to
the brush? Investigate the surface tension of water compared to other
fluids. Investigate the fluid properties of oobleck, a cornstarch and water
mixture. You can also investigate how knowing the properties of fluids
can help in food science, crime solving, or materials science.

Polymer Science Learning Center, University of Southern Mississippi. The
MacroGalleria. http://pslc.ws/macrogcss/maindir.html (accessed on
448
Fluids
February 26, 2008). Detailed site on all aspects of polymers, from studying
them to everyday applications.
The States of Matter. Faces in the Molecular Sciences: Faces in Polymers. http://
www.chemheritage.org/educationalservices/faces/poly/tutorial/states.htm
(accessed on April 22, 2008). Information on the states of matter.
Van Cleave, Janice. Chemistry For Every Kid. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1989. Contains a number of simple and informative demonstrations
and investigations, including the properties of water.
449
Food Preservation
ood preservation is easy to take for granted. Its become common to

open a can of fruit in the winter or keep a bag of frozen vegetables for
weeks. We store produce and meats in the refrigerator where we might
not grab it for days. If the foods are dried, they can sit on a shelf for
months before making their way into a meal. Food preservation certainly
makes life more convenient but because we need food to live, it also
improves peoples lives.
The back story Food preservation is the process of treating foods
in order to stop or slow spoilage. The moment after a plant is harvested
or an animal is slaughtered, the spoilage process begins. Spoiled
food can cause vomiting, nausea, or more severe symptoms. Bugs,
microorganisms, and the natural environment can all cause food to
spoil. In many cases, spoiled food is noticeable by its odor, sight, or
texture.
Life before food preservation was challenging. The goal was to eat
food before it spoiled. People needed to live near where food was
produced or grown so they could eat it soon after it was collected.
During seasons when food was scarce, people were hungry. In seasons
when there was plenty of food, with no way to preserve it the extra food
would spoil.
When cultures discovered preservation methods, they could stay in
one place instead of constantly traveling to find fresh food. For people
who wanted to travel, they now could bring food with them.
Oldies but goodies Ancient cultures used some of the same preservation methods we still use today. Many preservation techniques center
around removing water and oxygen. Microorganisms need water and
oxygen to live, and many chemical reactions that can cause spoilage use
these substances.
451
Food Preservation
salt
water
molecules
Salt pulls water out of the food

through the process of osmosis.
NE LS ON.
Pickling is one way used to help

preserve food. # O WE N
FRA NK EN/ CO RB IS.
452
Salting: Covering a food in salt is one of

the oldest forms of food preservation. Salt
pulls water out of the food through the
process of osmosis. In osmosis, a substance
moves across a semipermeable membrane
from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration. A semipermeable membrane lets some substances
through but not others. The salt concentration on the outside of the food is higher
than the salt concentration inside the cells
in the food, and the water moves out of the
cells to balance out the concentration.
Along with removing water from the food, a high-salt content is
not an environment where many microorganisms can grow.
Sugar: Sugar can also cause osmosis, pulling water out of the food.
Sugar that is combined with salt and/or other substances is curing.
Meats are commonly preserved by curing.
Pickling: Combining the preservation properties of salt with those
of an acid is pickling. An acid environment, such as vinegar, is not
a desirable living environment for microorganisms. Pickled foods
are first soaked in a salt solution and then stored in vinegar, often
with spices.
Canning: In the late 1700s, French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte
realized that a lot of the men fighting in his army were starving and
sick from poor nutrition. He offered a large amount of money
to anyone who could come up with a way of preserving food.
Nicholas Appert, a French candy maker,
won the prize 14 years later with the first
canning method. He placed the food
in sealed glass bottles and then heated
it. Decades later the French chemist
Louis Pasteur (18221895), found out
why this method worked. (He saw that it
was microorganisms causing disease, and
that heating the food killed the microorganisms.) Canning kills the microorganisms and then seals up the food from air
and microorganisms. Once the can is
Food Preservation
opened, the food is at risk of becoming spoiled. Fruits, soups, and

vegetables are foods commonly canned.
Drying: Also called dehydration, drying is one of the oldest
preservation methods that is still widely used today. In drying,
heated air evaporates the water in the food. Without water, the
microorganisms cannot grow and spoilage chemical reactions
cannot take place. Ancient cultures dried food in the sun. The
French developed the first artificial dehydrator where it was used
in 1795 to dry vegetables. Eggs, milk, pasta, fruits, and vegetables are a few of the foods typically dried.
Freeze drying: A form of drying, freeze drying was first used to
preserve blood back in the 1890s. Food that is freeze dried
removes water from the food while the food is frozen. The frozen
food is placed in a strong vacuum chamber and is heated. Water in
the food evaporates, moving from ice straight to gas without ever
turning into a liquid. Freeze dried food is light and lasts a relatively
long time. Coffee is a food that is typically freeze-dried, along with
apples and other fruit. Food for astronauts is freeze-dried. When
water is added back to the food, the natural flavor of the
food returns.
Basic preservations There are several other
basic methods of food preservation. Keeping
food cold in the refrigerator or freezer slows the
growth of microorganisms. When food is vacuum-sealed, the oxygen is removed and microorganisms cannot survive. Chemical additives
are also used to preserve food. Some chemicals
are natural, such as vitamin C, and others are
synthesized (manmade).
Keeping food cold in the

refrigerator slows the growth of
microorganisms AP P HO TO/
JIM MC NIG HT .
All food preservation techniques can affect

the flavor. The type of preservation used depends
upon the food and its intended storage time. In
the following two experiments, you can experiment with different methods of food preservation. As you conduct these experiments, consider
questions you want to find out about food
preservation.
453
Food Preservation
WORDS TO KNOW
Canning: A method of preserving food using airtight, vacuum-sealed containers and heat
processing.
Concentration: The amount of a substance present
in a given volume, such as the number of molecules in a liter.
experiment but is not affected by the variable that
will be changed during the experiment.
Osmosis: The movement of fluids and substances

dissolved in liquids across a semipermeable
membrane from an area of its greater concentration to an area of its lesser concentration until
all substances involved reach a balance.
Semipermeable membrane: A thin barrier
between two solutions that permits only certain
components of the solutions, usually the
solvent, to pass through.
Dehydration: The removal of water from a material.
Synthesize: Something that is made artificially, in

a laboratory or chemical plant, but is generally


an experiment.
EXPERIMENT 1
Sweet Preservatives: How does sugar affect
the preservation of fruit?
Purpose/Hypothesis The purpose of this experiment is to measure how
sugar is used in keeping fruit from spoiling. The fruit you will use is
strawberries. When strawberries spoil they can become soft and form
black or white rot on them, caused by fungus. The experiment will have
four strawberry setups. You will use table sugar and water to make two
different concentrations of syrup. You can then compare the preservation
of strawberries soaked in syrups against a strawberry coated in sugar, and a
plain strawberry. The strawberry with nothing added to it will be the
control.
experiment based on your knowledge of food preservation and fruit. This
454
Food Preservation

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The strawberry with the heaviest syrup
the most sugarwill be preserved the longest.
sugar environment surrounding the strawberry. If
the strawberry in the heaviest syrup remains
unblemished longer than the other test strawberries, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed

results of an experiment. This experiment
involves both environmental variables and
biological variables. Here are the main variables
in this experiment:
the presence of air
the type of strawberry
the ripeness of the strawberry
the type of sugar
the temperature of the environment
are everything that might affect the spoilage of
the strawberry. If you change more than one
had the most effect on the preservation.
sugar
pot
measuring cups and tablespoons
stirring spoon
2 bowls
toothpicks
paper and markers, for labeling
4 narrow glasses or small, shallow dishes
4 strawberries, all the same type and purchased at the same time
Step 2: Add 1 cup water and

10 tablespoons sugar (-cup
plus 2 tablespoons).
NE LS ON.

Timetable 1 hour working time; 10 minutes
daily over four to seven days.

1. Label each of the glasses: 1) heavy syrup; 2)

light syrup; 3) sugar; 4) control.
2. To prepare the heavy syrup: In a pot, add
1 cup water and 10 tablespoons sugar
(-cup plus 2 tablespoons).
455
Food Preservation

Ask an adult to help you when working over the
hot stove. This experiment will need an environment outside of the refrigerator where food
will remain undisturbed for up to a week. Ask an
adult for the best place to setup the experiment.
After the experiment is complete, throw away
all the foods and clean the dishes well.
When experimenting with food preservation,
do not taste or ingest any of the food items, and
make sure to mark the item clearly to keep
others away.
3. Heat slowly while stirring until the sugar

is dissolved and the water comes to a boil.
Pour into a bowl and place in the refrigerator. (If a refrigerator is not available,
you can set the bowl in a larger bowl with
ice.) Rinse the pot.
4. To prepare the light syrup: In a pot, add
1 cup water and 4 tablespoons sugar. Bring
to a boil, stirring occasionally until the
sugar is dissolved. Pour into another
bowl and place in the refrigerator.
5. Wait approximately 30 minutes. The syrups should be cool to the touch.
6. When the syrups are room temperature

or slightly below, place one strawberry in
each of the four glasses. Try to find strawberries that are approximately the same size, and make sure each strawberry does not have
any blemishes.
control
light syrup
heavy syru
sugar
After setting up the experiment,

inspect all your strawberries
without touching them.
NEL SO N.
456
Food Preservation
7. Coat the strawberry in the sugar glass

with sugar and set back in the glass.
8. Pour the heavy syrup over the strawberry
in the designated glass and the light
syrup in the light syrup glass. The
syrup should just cover the top of the
strawberry.
9. Set the glasses aside in a place where they
will be undisturbed (and no one will eat
them!).
the problem.
Problem: One of the strawberries that was
preserved spoiled faster than the control.
Possible cause: You may have selected a strawberry that was already bruised and in the process
of spoiling. Repeat the experiment, making sure
that all the strawberries are fresh and firm. If you
see any blemishes or black indentations in the
berry, choose another strawberry.
10. The next day, inspect all your strawberries

without touching them. Make a chart and
note if there are marks, colors, or any
signs of spoilage on each strawberry. Use
a toothpick to poke each strawberry and
test if it is soft or hard, compared to the
control. You may want to sketch a picture of each strawberry.
11. Repeat Step 10 every day, for up to a week or until some of the
strawberries are noticeably spoiled.
Summary of Results Analyze your results and if you have pictures or
sketches compare them to one another. Look at what day each of the
strawberries began to show signs of spoilage. How does the strawberry
covered with water compared to those in sugar-water? What does the
strawberry coated in sugar illustrate about osmosis? Consider how you
would want to preserve strawberries, based on your results. Write up a
summary of your experiment.
Change the Variables To further explore how sugar affects fruit preser-
vation, you can vary the experiment in the following ways:

Use different types of strawberries, organic versus non-organic, for
example, and keep the sugar syrup the same.
Try experimenting with different types of sugar, such as brown
sugar or natural cane sugar.
Alter the environment of the strawberries, using a warmer or
cooler environment
457
Food Preservation
EXPERIMENT 2
the time of day
the condition of the fruit
the environment the fruits are kept in
the length of time the fruits sit out
the size of the fruit
the type of fruit
moisture content of the fruit. The variable you will
measure is mold, blemishes, or an other appearance of spoilage. At the end of the experiment
you will compare the dry fruit and moist fruit.
Step 4: Weigh the peach slices

on the gram scale.
I LLU STR AT IO N BY T EM AH
NEL SO N.
Drying Foods: Does drying

fruits help prevent or
delay spoilage?
Drying foods in the sun is one of the oldest
preservation techniques people have used. Bacteria and other organisms need water to live, and
drying removes the moisture from the food. In
this experiment you will dry fruits in the sun and
calculate how much moisture the fruit contained. You can then compare spoilage of the
dried fruits to the non-dried fruit.
your knowledge of food preservation and drying.

will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis
is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for
this experiment: The dried fruits will delay
the appearance of spoilage when compared to
the same fruit that is not dried.
Materials Needed
2 peaches of about the same size and

ripeness
gram scale
wax paper
458
Food Preservation
netting, about 14 inches (36 centimeters)

square (available from fabric stores)
4 strips of wood or other material, each about
12 inches (30 centimeters) long and an inch
(2.5 centimeters) thick, that you can apply
tape to
Duct or masking tape
knife
helper
props, such as chairs or books to lift the
drying rack off the ground
warm, sunny day

Be careful when handling the knife. Never eat
the foods when experiment with food preservation and spoilage. When you have finished
the experiment, throw all the foods away and
wash your hands. When experimenting with
food preservation, do not taste or eat any of the
food items, and make sure to mark the item
clearly to keep others away. Make sure you tell
an adult you are conducting this experiment.
Approximate Budget $10 (assuming you can find or borrow a gram scale).
Timetable Approximately one week. (About one hour working time in
total; with one day needing to check on the experiment every two hours
over a minimum of eight-hours waiting time.) You will need to start this
experiment in the early morning.
1. In the early morning just as the sun is coming out, begin to make a
drying rack. Lay out four pieces of wood blocks or other material into
a rectangle. Lay the netting half-way over the pieces. Tape the netting
to each of the blocks. The netting should be taut (tight); you will
probably need a helper to pull the wood while you tape the netting.
2. Cut one peach into thin slices. Cut as
much of the peach as you can and place
the slices on a piece of wax paper.
3. Leave the second peach on the counter, at
room temperature.
4. Weigh the peach slices on the gram scale
and note the weight.
5. Transfer all the peach slices onto the
netting.
6. Bring the drying rack to a clear spot in the
sun. Use two chairs, books, pots, or other
props to set down the drying rack and
keep it away from bugs. If you are in an
Step 6: Bring the drying rack to

a clear spot in the sun.
NEL SO N.
459
Food Preservation
Step 12: Check on both peaches

every day for the next 6 days.
NEL SO N.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
area where there are a lot of flying bugs, set a piece of netting over
the fruit. Set it on the books or other material so that it does not
touch the peaches.
Check in on the peaches about every two hours. Turn the peaches
over and make sure the drying rack remains in the sun. You may
need to move it throughout the day.
At the end of the day, bring the dried peaches inside and weigh
them. Note the weight.
Cut up the second peach and place the slices on the piece of wax paper.
Weigh the peach slices. It should be similar to the weight of the
first peach before it was dried. If it is not, take away or cut up more
peach until the weights are similar.
Place both peaches on a clean sheet of wax paper and set aside.
They should be at room temperature.
Check on both peaches every day for the next six days. Note any
appearances of spoilage every day.
Summary of Results Compare the spoilage appearance and rates of the
two peaches. Subtract the starting and ending weight of the peach slices to
determine how much water the dry peach lost. Was your hypothesis
correct? Did the dried fruit show fewer signs of spoilage than the fruit
that contained more water. Today, people dry food in a food dehydrator or
an oven. Consider how the taste of the food would change with different
food drying techniques. Write up a summary of your findings. You may
want to include pictures.
Modify the Experiment You can modify this experiment in several ways:
Change the type of fruit, you can apples or bunches of smaller

fruits, such as strawberries or grapes.
460
Food Preservation
Change the amount of time you allow the

fruit to dry: what happens if the fruit dries
for only four hours compared to eight
hours.
Change the environmental conditions the
fruit is left out in.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept Because food spoilage is a serious and
Below is a problem that may happen during this
remedy the problem.
Problem: The peach did not really lose that
much water in the sun.
Possible cause: The sun may not be strong
enough, or it may not have been in the sun
the entire day. Try to plan this experiment for
a day that will be warm and sunny for the
whole day. Also, make sure to move the
drying rack so it is facing the sun throughout
the day. When you think you will have a
sunny day, repeat the experiment.
common problem, people have developed many

methods of preserving foods. You can start thinking
of ideas by identifying some common preservatives
and techniques used in the foods you eat. Look
Problem: Neither peach showed more appearat food labels to identify the preservative. You can
ance of spoilage.
separate the natural and synthetic preservatives.
Possible cause: Depending upon the peaches
Consider how leftovers are preserved in your home.
and environment, you may need to leave the
peaches out for a longer period of time. Look
with your science teacher to learn more about
for any brown spots, and continue monitorfood preservation. You could also talk with a
ing the peaches.
microbiologist for details on the microorganisms
involved in spoilage.
When experimenting with food, do not
taste or eat any of the food items, and make sure to mark the item
clearly to keep others away. When you conduct an experiment with food
in the home, make sure you tell an adult.
question.
461
Food Preservation

Related Projects There are projects related to food preservation that are
inexpensive and waiting in the kitchen. You could conduct a project

examining the uses of synthesized versus natural preservatives. You could
explore how preservative delay spoilage for different types of foods. You
could examine packaging that preserves food. How are the properties of
different packaging materials designed to preserve specific foods. You
could also use expiration dates to compare different food preservatives.

Dalton, Louisa. Whats that Stuff?: Food Preservatives. Chemical & Engineering
News, November 11, 2002. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/science/8045/8045sci2.
html (accessed on May 16, 2008). Information on various food preservatives.
DAmico, Joan and Karen Eich Drummond. The Science Chef Travels Around the
World: Fun Food Experiments and Recipes for Kids. New York: John Wiley,
1996. Food experiments and recipes from around the world.
Eating for Health. Vol. 3. Chicago: World Book Inc., 1993. Part of the Growing
Up series, this volume provides thorough, interesting information about
carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals as well as metabolism, eating disorders,
and processing.
Food: Nutrition, Safety and Cooking. University of Nebraska Lincoln. http://
lancaster.unl.edu/food/myths ss/index.htm (accessed on May 18, 2008).
Quiz and common myths on food safety.
From Farm to Table. www.foodsafety.gov. http://www.foodsafety.gov/fsg/
fsgkids.html (accessed on May 18, 2008). Links to government sites on food
safety and spoilage.
Kids World: Food safety. N.C. Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services. http://www.ncagr.com/cyber/kidswrld/foodsafe/index.htm (accessed
on May 18, 2008). Food safety facts and interactive question on spoilage.
462
Food Science
ave you ever wondered why bread rises? Or why some chocolates
melt in your hand and others remain hard? Why does cooking
change the color of some vegetables and cause meat to become more
tender? The area of food science covers all of these questions and many
more.
Food science is a broad topic that applies scientific principles to foods
in order to better understand them. We use the applications of food
science every day in how we prepare and preserve foods. Food science
helps us understand the nutrients in foods and how heat, cold, light, and
air can affect them. It explores what foods are made of and looks at
chemical reactions that occur when foods are combined. Food scientists
also work to develop or improve a foods flavor, texture, and nutrition.
Chemistry, microbiology, and botany are some of the key areas food
science covers.
Cooking and flavors Meat is one of the more apparent examples of a

reaction that produces a lot of flavor: the Maillard reaction. The Maillard
reaction is named after French chemist Louis Camille Maillard who
began studying the reaction in 1912. Meats contain a lot of protein
molecules, which are held together by bonds. Heat breaks the bonds
and the protein unravels. This is called a denatured protein. The reaction
between denatured proteins combines with natural sugars (a form of
carbohydrates) in the meat. The reaction leads to changes in color and
hundreds of flavors.
The Maillard reaction is often referred to as the browning reaction,
because meat does turn brown. The Maillard reaction also produces the
toasty flavor on bread crust and the sweetness of browned onions.
Researchers use the Maillard reaction to create many artificial flavors.
If you have ever heated sugar and watched it brown you have witnessed
another chemical process called caramelization. In caramelization,
463
Food Science
which is not related to the caramel candy, sugars move through a series
of reactions at high temperature. Heating causes the sugar molecules to
lose water and break down. The sugars turn brown and form new
flavors.
The Maillard reaction and caramelization reactions are so complex
that researchers are still trying to understand exactly how they work.
The rising of chemical leaveners Place a cake or bread dough in the
oven and when its cooked, it is a lot higher. A leavening agent is any
substance that causes dough or batter to rise, or increase in volume. In
general the leavening agent makes food rise by producing air or gas that
pushes the food ingredients apart, causing it to expand and increase in
volume. In cooking, leavening agents work by chemical reactions and
physical changes.
Baking powder and baking soda are called chemical leavening agents
because they work by chemical reactions. Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate. When moisture and an acid are added to sodium bicarbonate, it
causes a reaction that releases the gas carbon dioxide. The bubbles of
carbon dioxide push the food apart, causing its volume to increase. Like
air, carbon dioxide also expands when heated. The reaction of baking
soda starts to work immediately so cooks need to bake the food
immediately.
Baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and an acid
ingredient, such as tartaric acid (cream of tartar), along with other dry
ingredients. Baking powder does not need an acid added because it is
already in there.
There are two types of baking powder. Single-acting baking powders
start to react immediately with moisture, whether it is warm or cool.
Double-acting baking powder reacts double because it releases gas in
two reactions. Some gas is released immediately when moisture is added.
Even more gas is released with heat. That means double-acting baking
powder can still cause the recipe to rise even if it sits at room temperature
for a period of time.
The physical agents that lead to rising When making bread, the
typical leavening agent is yeast. Yeast is a natural leavening agent that
people have used for thousands of years. It is a live single-celled fungus.
Yeast eat sugar in the form of starch, such as in flour, and release carbon
dioxide gas and alcohol. Along with making dough rise, people use yeast
to produce the alcohol in beer and wine.
464
Food Science
hydrophilic
Parts of the protein are

attracted to water (hydrophilic
or water-loving) and other
parts avoid the water
(hydrophobic or water-fearing).
hydrophobic
air bubble
NE LS ON.
Another method of leavening is whipped egg whites. Egg whites are

about 90% water and 10% protein. Parts of the protein are attracted to
water (hydrophilic or water-loving) and other parts avoid the water
(hydrophobic or water-fearing). In its natural state, the hydrophobic
parts of the proteins are curled up in the center and the hydrophilic
parts are surrounded by water.
Beating raw egg whites causes air bubbles to form and the protein
molecules to uncurl. The uncurled protein molecules twist about so that
the parts that dont like water touch air. The result is a network of protein
molecules that trap the air bubbles in place,
causing the egg whites to froth and increase in
volume and froth. Baking the frothy egg whites
yeast eat sugar
makes the bubbles become firm.
and release alcohol
Heating and change The best method of
heating foods is another area of food science.
Heating not only can kill harmful microorganisms, but it also affects the flavor, texture, and
color of many foods.
Yeast eat sugar in the form of

starch, such as in flour, and
release carbon dioxide gas and
alcohol. ILL US TRA TI ON B Y
TE MA H NE LSO N.
alcohol
carbon
dioxide
and carbon dioxide
Plants contain chlorophyll, the substance

that gives plants its green color. The greener
the vegetable, the more chlorophyll it contains.
465
Food Science
WORDS TO KNOW
Blanching: A cooking technique in which the food,
usually vegetables and fruits, are briefly cooked in
boiling water and then plunged into cold water.
yeasts, and mildews, that do not manufacture

their own food.
Hydrophilic: Having an attraction for water.
Caramelization: The process of heating sugars to

the point at which they break down and lead to
the formation of new compounds.
Cell wall: A tough outer covering over the cell
membrane of bacteria and plant cells.
photosynthesis.
Hydrophobic: Having an aversion to water.

experiment.
Leavening agent: A substance used to make foods
like dough and batter to rise.
Maillard reaction: A reaction caused by heat and
sugars and resulting in foods browning and
flavors.
Pectin: A natural carbohydrate found in fruits and
vegetables.
Fermentation: A chemical reaction in which

enzymes break down complex organic compounds (for example, carbohydrates and sugars)
Yeast: A single-celled fungi that can be used as a

leavening agent.
Fungi: Kingdom of various single-celled or multicellular organisms, including mushrooms, molds,

an experiment.
Chlorophyll lies in the plants cell and heat causes the cell walls to break
down. This leads to changes in the chlorophyll, which leads to the
vegetable turning browner.
One method used to retain the color and texture of vegetables is
blanching. In blanching, the food is briefly placed into boiling water and
then plunged into cold water. The heat causes the air in the vegetables to
expand and boil away, which leads to a more vibrant color. Carrots
become more orange and green beans a richer green. The cold water
immediately stops the cooking process.
In the following two experiments, you will explore two aspects of
food science. You will investigate how jelly becomes firm and how
different leavening agents make foods rise.
466
Food Science
EXPERIMENT 1
Jelly and Pectin: How does
acidity affect how fruit
gels?
Purpose/Hypothesis Pectin is what helps make

the gel in fruit gels, such as jellies and marma the temperature of the mixture
lades. Pectin is a type of carbohydrate found in
the amount of time the fruit is cooked
plant cell walls. It is found in apples and citrus
the type of fruit
fruits, such as limes and lemons, and is most
the amount of lemon juice
plentiful in the skin and core. Pectin forms nat the amount of time the gel is allowed to
urally as the fruit ripen.
cool
When fruit is cooked, the heat causes the cell
the amount of fruit
walls to break down and release the pectin. If the
the amount of sugar
fruit is cooked in water the pectin moves into the
water. The pectin molecules all have the same
are everything that might affect the formation
charge and so they repel one another. In order to
of an apple jelly. If you change more than one
make the pectin molecules bond, you need sugar
variable, you will not be able to tell which varand the right acidity. Sugar pulls the water moliable had the most effect on the gelling of the
ecules together and leaves the pectin on its own.
apples.
Adding an acidic substance gets rid of the pectins negative charges. The pectin can then bond
to one another and form a gel.
In this experiment you will make apple jam and test how the pH of
the mixture affects the gelling of the jam. The pH is a measure of the
acidity of a substance. A pH of 7 means the substance is neutral. Water is
a neutral substance. The lower the pH, the higher its acidity. For the
apple jam, the apples will supply the pectin and lemon juice will provide
the acid. Lemons contain citric acid, which gives lemon a pH of approximately 2 to 3. You will make three jams: in one jam you will add lemon
juice; the second jam you will add half the amount of lemon juice; and the
third jam will not include any lemon juice.
experiment based on your knowledge of food science and gels. This
467
Food Science


hypothesis for this experiment: The apple jam
with the most lemon juice will form the firmest
gel.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the amount of lemon
juice. The variable you will measure will be the firmness of the gel.
Be careful when handling the knife and

working on the stove. Ask an adult for help
when pouring the hot apple liquid into the
strainer.

Materials Needed
Step 1: Gather the sugar,

lemon juice, and apples.
NEL SO N.
3 tart apples, about the same size (Macintosh or Jonathan work well)
pot
measuring cup
strainer or colander
bowl that fits under strainer or colander
lemon juice
teaspoons
toothpicks
plastic wrap
stirring spoon
cutting knife
spatula or stirring spoon
3 small thick glass jelly jars, the same size
(you could also use small bowls)
Sugar
Lemon
Juice

Timetable Approximately two hours (one hour
working time and one hour waiting).

1. Label one glass (or bowl) 1 tsp. lemon;

the second glass tsp; and the third
glass 0.
468
Food Science
2. Cut the three apples into quarters and cut

those quarters again. You should include
the skins and cores.
3. Pour 3/4-cup water into a pot. Add the
apple chunks and heat until the apple
mixture is mushy. This should take
about 20 minutes.
4. When the apples are soft, place the bowl
under the colander and pour the applewater mixture into the colander. The
colander should strain out the seeds and
skin. You will need to press the apple
mixture through the colander with a spoon or spatula.
5. Allow the mixture to cool for about 15 minutes and then divide
the apple mixture evenly into thirds.
6. Place one-third of the mixture back in the pot.
7. Add 3 and -tablespoons of sugar.
8. Add 1 teaspoon of lemon juice.
9. Boil for approximately five to six minutes, stirring occasionally,
until large bubbles appear. The droplets should be large and come
together to form a sheet. (See illustration)
10. Pour the mixture into the 1 tsp jelly glass until the glass is about 3/4
full. Rinse out the pot
11. Repeat Steps 6 through 9 for each of the two remaining test jellies.
Replace the 1 teaspoon of lemon juice with -teaspoon for the
second jelly and no lemon juice for the third jelly.
12. Allow all the jellies to cool for at least an hour, until they have
reached room temperature.
13. If a skin has formed on any of the
jellies, carefully remove it.
14. Poke each jelly with a toothpick and note
the results.
15. Cover the glass jars with plastic wrap and
flip each jar upside. Note your
observations.
Summary of Results Look over your observa-
tions of each of the jellies. Was your hypothesis

correct? Note any other differences between the
Not Done
Step 4: You will need to press

the apple mixture through the
colander with a spoon or
spatula. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Step 9: The droplets should be

large and come together to form
a sheet. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TE MA H NE LSO N.
Sheeting
Done
469
Food Science
experiment, possible causes, and a way to
remedy the problem.
Problem: None of the jellies formed a gel.
Possible cause: The fruit may have been too
overripe, in which case the fruit does not
contain enough pectin. Try the experiment
again, using apples that are just slightly underripe.
Possible cause: You may not have heated the
apple mixture for enough time. When a cold
metal spoon is placed in the mixture, the droplets should come together before falling off the
spoon. Repeat the experiment, heating the
mixture for 1 or 2 minutes longer.
jellies, such as the color or texture. Write a paragraph summarizing your results.
Change the Variables You can conduct several
similar experiments by changing the variables.

You can change the type of acid. You can also
try peeling and coring the apple, to determine
what parts of the apple contains the most pectin.
You could also try altering the environment the
jelly sets in.
EXPERIMENT 2
Rising Foods: How much carbon
dioxide do different leavening
agents produce?
Purpose/Hypothesis Chemical leavening agents
need an acid and moisture to produce carbon

dioxide. Double-acting baking powder releases
carbon dioxide in two chemical reactions: with
the addition of an acid and heat.
In this experiment you will measure the amount of carbon dioxide
produced by baking soda, baking powder, and double acting baking
powder. After adding water, you will trap the carbon dioxide in a balloon.
By measuring the balloons circumference (the distance around the
balloon), you can determine the rate at which carbon dioxide is produced.
For each of the leavening agents you will measure the amount of gas in the
balloon with the leavening agent at room temperature and heated. Which
leavening agent do you think will produce the greatest amount of carbon
dioxide with heat?
experiment based on your knowledge of food science and leavening. This
470
Food Science

experiment: The double acting baking powder
will produce the greatest amount of carbon dioxide when heat is applied.
the leavening agent. The variable you will measure is the circumference of the balloon as it fills
with carbon dioxide.
Materials Needed

the time allowed for the leavening agent
to produce gas
the type of leavening agent
the temperature of the water added to
the leavener
the volume of the bottle
the type and shape of the balloon
carbon dioxide the leavening agent produces.
If you change more than one variable at the
same time, you will not be able to tell which
variable affected the circumference of the
balloon.
3 balloons, the same size and type

string
marker
ruler or tape measure
baking powder
double acting baking powder
baking soda
vinegar or lemon juice
measuring spoons
bowl
cup
3 small plastic or glass bottles, approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) high and with a top small enough to pull a balloon over
(small spray or lotion bottles work well); you can also use one
bottle and rinse it out
timer or clock with minute hand
funnel
wax paper (optional)
small pan
helper

471
Food Science
1. Fill up the bowl with room temperature

water. You will need about a cup.
In this experiment you will be working with
2. Set several cups of water in the pot or
boiling water. Be careful when pouring and
kettle to boil.
working around the water.
3. Stretch out all the balloons several times.
Line up the balloons next to one another
so that they are even. Mark a line on the
balloons at the widest part, so that all the marks are even. This is
the point where that should be the widest part; where you will
measure the balloons circumference.
4. Place a teaspoon of baking soda in the bottle. Depending upon
how large the bottle opening is, you may need to pour the baking
soda onto wax paper and then fold the wax paper to direct the soda
in.
5. With a helper, place the funnel in the balloon opening and pour in
3 tablespoons of the water from the bowl. If the balloon fills up,
stretch it out and keep adding the water. When you are done the
Step 6: With someone holding
top of the balloon should not have water in it.
the bottle, slip the balloon
6. With someone holding the bottle, slip the balloon opening over
opening over the bottle top.
IL LU STR AT ION BY
the bottle top. Empty the water into the bottle and begin timing.
TE MAH NEL SO N.
7. After one minute, wrap the string around
the balloon at the marked spot (the widest part) and draw a line on the string
where it has wrapped.
8. After two minutes wrap the string around
the balloon at the same line and mark its
circumference. Repeat after three
minutes.
9. Pour boiling water into the cup until it is
about half way full and set the bottle in
the cup. Hold the bottle down so that the
hot water surrounds the water inside the
bottle.
10. Every minute for the next three minutes,
place the string around the balloon and
mark its circumference. Remember to
472
Food Science
line the string up with the mark on the

balloon.
11. Repeat Steps 410 for the baking powder
and then the double acting baking powder. For each leavening agent, use a new
piece of string and line it up with the
mark on the balloon. If you use the
same bottle, make sure to rinse it well
after each use.
12. Measure each of the marks on the three
strings and record your data.
Summary of Results Create a data table to record
your observations. You may want to graph your

results, with the rate of expansion on one axis
and the number of minutes on the other axis.
Make a separate line or color for each of the
leavening agents. Was your hypothesis correct? You may want to look
through recipes to see which leavening agents are used for which types of
foods. What are the other ingredients in the recipe that would activate the
leavening agent?
Change the Variables There are several ways that you can change this
experiment. You can focus on the leavening properties of baking soda and
change the type of acid. Buttermilk and orange juice are two other acid
solutions. You can also change the proportions of acid you mix with the
baking soda. Using the same recipe, you can test how different leavening
agents cause the food to rise. If you were making
cookies, what results would each leavening agent
produce?
Step 9: Hold the bottle down so

that the hot water surrounds
the water inside the bottle.
NEL SO N.
Step 10: Every minute for the

next three minutes, place the
string around the balloon and
mark its circumference.
NE LS ON.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Food is such an important part of peoples lives

that ideas to explore the science behind foods
and how they work together are all around. You
might want to look at the ingredients in your
favorite food items or dishes. Think about what
473
Food Science
some ways to fix the problem.
Problem: The balloon did not expand much for
any of the leavening agents.
Possible cause: The leavening agent(s) may be
too old to produce a reaction. To test whether
the baking powder has expired, and a few
pinches of baking powder to a couple tablespoons of room temperature water. The
mixture should bubble and fizz. Replace the
water with vinegar to test the baking soda. If
the leavening agents are too old, buy a new
baking powder or soda and repeat the
experiment.
Problem: The balloon kept tearing when placing it over the bottle.
Possible cause: The balloon is probably too
small and stretching may not help. Try finding a bottle with a smaller cap or a larger
balloon. Make sure to stretch the balloon
several times, and repeat the experiment.
the properties of all the ingredients add to the

food. Consider your favorite meals, snacks, and
drinks and you may want to explore how these
foods are prepared and why.
with your science teacher to gather information
on food science questions that interest you. You
may want to talk with someone you know who
enjoys cooking. As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with a knowledgeable adult before trying them.
your are or should be measuring, or what your
experiment:

propose to do.
question at hand.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Its always important to

write down data and ideas you gather during an experiment. Keep a
journal or record book for this purpose. If you keep notes and draw
conclusions from your experiments and projects, other scientists could
use your findings in their own research.
Related Projects Food science experiments can go in many different
directions. For example, you might focus on the properties of one food
474
Food Science
type, such as milk or chocolate. How does this one food react to heat,
cold, or with other commonly added substances? Does the order of
ingredients make a difference in the finished texture or flavor? What
chemical properties of the food cause it to react this way? You might also
look at blending certain foods together. For example, why does salt alter
the taste of certain dishes?
Another possibility is to experiment with how cooking methods
affect foods. Blanching, boiling, and baking all can affect the same food
in different ways. You can look at techniques chefs use to preserve certain
flavors while they are cooking foods.

Arnold Nick. Freaky Food Experiments. United Kingdom: Scholastic, 2007.
Experiments with and about food.
BBC. Science of Cooking. Science and Nature: Hot Topics. http://
www.bbc.co.uk/science/hottopics/cooking/ (accessed on May 21, 2008).
Clear explanations, animations, and video of many cooking food science
topics.
Eating for Health. Vol. 3. Chicago: World Book Inc., 1993. Part of the
Growing Up series, this volume provides thorough, interesting
information about carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals as well as
metabolism, eating disorders, and processing.
Exploratorium. Science of Cooking. http://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/
(accessed on May 21, 2008). Recipes, illustrations and clear explanations of
the science behind many foods, including pickles, candy, bread, and meat.
Kids Health. Food and Nutrition. http://www.kidshealth.org/kid/nutrition/
index.html#All About Food (accessed on May 22, 2008). Series of easy to
read articles on food and nutrients.
Planet Science. The Planet Science Diner. http://www.planet science.com/
outthere/index.html?page=/outthere/diner/index.html (accessed on May 22,
2008). Clear information on many aspects of kitchen chemistry.
Wolke, Robert L. What Einstein Told His Cook: Kitchen Science Explained. New
York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2002. Answers to common questions about
cooking and food science in a simple, clear style.
475
Food Spoilage
hen food has spoiled it is usually noticeable to your senses of smell

and sight. Spoilage is when food has taken on an undesirable
color, odor, or texture. Eating spoiled food can result in food poisoning,
which can cause vomiting, nausea, and more severe symptoms. There are
two main causes of natural food spoilage: microscopic organisms and
chemical changes.
Attack of the microbes Leave food out on the kitchen countertop and
within seconds it can become the home of microorganisms that are
floating by in the air. When these microbes land on a suitable environment, they settle down and begin to grow. Many foods present an ideal
environment.
The three main types of microbes that cause food spoilage are yeasts,
molds, and bacteria. Bacteria are single-celled organisms that grow under
a wide range of conditions. Yeasts and molds are both types of fungi, a
large grouping of organisms that have both plant and animal characteristics. These microorganisms cause beverages to sour, fuzz to grow, slime
to form, and the color and smell of foods to change.
Microorganisms are everywhere: in the air, water, soil, homes, and
people. The majority of microorganisms are harmless or helpful to
humans and all life on Earth. When they start living on food items
though, they can quickly cause the food to spoil. The amount and rate
of food spoilage increases as the number of microorganisms rise. And
microorganisms grow, meaning they reproduce, at a speedy rate. Bacteria,
for example, can reproduce once every twenty minutes under ideal conditions. That means, if there are no limitations, a food product that starts
off with one bacterium will multiply to over five billion in about ten
hours. If bacteria grew at this rate in real life they would soon overtake the
planet. Fortunately, once too many bacteria live in one area, their food
runs out and eventually they start dying.
477
Food Spoilage
bacteria grow well

in foods high in
protein
molds can
grow in foods
with high acidity
Each type of microorganism has

its own unique requirements
for growth. GA LE GRO UP.
478
yeasts grow well

in sugary
foods
The leftover that became a home Each type

of microorganism has its own unique requirements for growth, but there are general conditions that most food-munching microbes need:
Food: Each typeand speciesof

microbe thrives on different nutrients.
Many bacteria thrive on proteins, such
as meat; the fungi mold commonly
grows on sugars and bread; and yeasts
like simple sugars.
Moisture or water: Yeasts, molds, and
bacteria all need water; some need more than others. Molds, for
example, grow at lower levels of water than most bacteria.
Suitable temperature: Many microbes grow well at warm temperatures roughly equal to the inside of the human body.
Exposure to air: Yeasts and molds need air to grow. Most bacteria
that cause food spoilage also need air to grow. One exception is the
Clostridium bacterium, which is a common cause of canned food
spoilage because it does not need air to live.
Suitable acidity level: Bacteria generally prefer mid- to low-acid
foods such as vegetables and meat. Certain yeasts and molds grow
in fruits that can tolerate a high-acid environment.
Time to grow: Even though bacteria can reproduce quickly, they
still need time to grow. If food is consumed immediately after it is
prepared, the bacteria wont have time to cause spoilage.
Slowing spoilage Long before people knew about microorganisms,
ancient civilizations developed methods to prevent their food from spoiling. These techniques prevented microorganisms from living on the food
in some wayeither by making living conditions unpleasant or deadly,
or by preventing the microorganisms from ever settling down on the
food.
Any substance added to food to give it a desired quality is called an
additive. Preservatives are a type of additive that causes food to last longer
without spoiling. There are both synthetic and natural preservatives.
Natural preservatives were one of the earliest methods used to prevent
spoilage. Spices are natural preservatives people have long valued. When
Italian explorer Christopher Columbus (14511506) set sail for the New
World, one of the items he was searching for was spices. Other natural
Food Spoilage
preservatives include vinegar, salt, and Vitamin

C. Some foods contain a high concentration of
these items, giving them a natural resistance to
microbial growth.
Antioxidants are substances that prevent
spoilage by reducing the foods exposure to
air. Vitamin C and Vitamin E are natural
antioxidants.
Dehydration involves removing the water
from food. When food is dehydrated, microorganisms no longer have the moisture they
need to live. Ancient peoples dried strips of
meat and other foods out in the sun. Dried
snacks, such as fruits and raisins, are common dehydrated foods.
Salting is another ancient method of preventing spoilage that combines the techniques of adding preservatives and dehydrating. Salt lowers
the amount of water in the food and also removes water from the microbial cells, making it a harsh environment for organisms to live. Using salt
to preserve food remains widespread in modern day. Pickles, meat, and
fish are commonly salted. While salting can make food last longer, it also
increases the sodium in food.
Canning was another major breakthrough in food preservation. In
the 1700s French leader Napoleon Bonaparte was searching for a method
that would preserve foods for his troops. He offered a large cash prize to
anyone who could develop a preservation
method. In response a French candy maker
came up with the idea of sealing foods in cans.
Although the technique has changed over time,
the basic process remains the same. The food is
placed in a can, heated, and the can is quickly
sealed. Modern canning techniques suck the air
from the can before it is sealed.
Chilling/heating: Microorganisms do not
like it too hot or too cold. Temperatures that
are outside the microorganisms living requirements will cause their growth to slow. Extreme
hot and cold temperatures will kill the microbes.
Before the refrigerator was invented, people
Dried snacks, such as fruits and

raisins, are common
dehydrated foods. COP YR IGH T
# KE LL Y A. QUI N.
Jars of home-canned vegetables.

# CRA IG L OV EL L/C OR BI S.
479
Food Spoilage
covering keeps new microbes

gentle heating over
time kills most organisms out, refrigerating slows growth
Pasteurization is a preservation
technique that destroys most
microbes by heating a liquid,
then placing it in an airtight
container. GAL E GR OU P.
wrapped foods in snow and ice. Refrigerators and freezers will slow or
stop the growth, yet the low temperatures will not kill the microorganisms. When the food item is returned to a suitable environment the
microorganisms will again start to grow. There are even bacteria that
grow well in the cool refrigerator air. Boiling is another method of
destroying microorganisms, yet boiling can change the taste and nutritional value of the food. Cooking food thoroughly also destroys
microorganisms.
French chemist Louis Pasteur (18221895) was the first person to
demonstrate that microorganisms in the air produce food decay. In 1865,
he developed a gentle heating method to destroy microorganisms in
liquids and cause little change in the taste. After heating the liquid to
131F (55 Celsius), he placed the liquid in an airtight container. This
process is known as pasteurization and in modern day, it uses slightly
higher temperatures. Pasteurization destroys almost all the microorganisms without altering the composition, flavor, or nutritional value of the
liquid. Most milk is treated this way.
All by themselves Spoilage also can occur from natural chemical
changes within the food without any help from microorganisms. Rancidity occurs when fats in the food break down, producing undesirable
flavors and smells. For example, rancidity gives butter a strong, bitter
taste. Salt in butter helps prevent the butter from turning rancid. Food
can also decay on its own from natural proteins that begin to decompose
or break down the food.
480
Food Spoilage
WORDS TO KNOW
Additive: A chemical compound that is added to
foods to give them some desirable quality, such
as preventing them from spoiling.
Antioxidants: Used as a food additive, these substances can prevent food spoilage by reducing
the foods exposure to air.
Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms that live in
soil, water, plants, and animals that play a key
role in the decay of organic matter and the
Canning: A method of preserving food using airtight, vacuum-sealed containers and heat
processing.
molds, yeasts, and mildews, that do not contain

chlorophyll.
Pasteurization: The process of slow heating that
kills bacteria and other microorganisms.
Preservative: An additive used to keep food from
spoiling.
Rancidity: Having the condition when food has a
disagreeable odor or taste from decomposing oils
or fats.
Spoilage: The condition when food has taken on an
undesirable color, odor, or texture.
Dehydration: The removal of water from a

material.
Spore: A small, usually one-celled, reproductive

body that is capable of growing into a new
organism.
Fungi: The kingdom of various single-celled or

multicellular organisms, including mushrooms,

experiment.
EXPERIMENT 1
Preservatives: How do
different substances
affect the growth of mold?
Bread can get moldy very

quickly. CO PYR IG HT # KEL LY
A. QUI N.
Purpose/Hypothesis Mold is a type of fungi that
reproduces via spores. Spores are similar to plant

seeds except they are microscopic. They move
about in the air and when they land on a food
source with a comfortable environment, they
begin to grow. Once spores begin to grow, the
mold releases more spores and the cycle continues. There are thousands of different kinds of
molds.
481
Food Spoilage

the type of bread
the temperature
the amount of light
the additive
the amount of the additive
the quantity of the preservative in the
additive
everything that might affect the molds growth. If
time, you will not be able to tell which variable had
the most effect on inhibiting mold growth.
Step 10: Place each damp slice

of bread in its labeled bag and
seal. GA LE GRO UP.
con
t
rol


possible hypothesis for this experiment: All the preservatives will inhibit
the growth of fungi to some degree; salt will inhibit it the most.
In this case, the variable you will change is the substance sprayed on
the bread. The variable you will measure is the amount of mold growth.
change between the control and your experiment.
For your control in this experiment you will spray
plain water on the bread. At the end of the experige
ment you can compare the control and the expern
a
r
o
t
sal
juice
imental results.
vin
e
lemon
In this experiment you will examine how

additives can act as preservatives for the bread.
You will use different types of possible preservatives: vinegar, salt, vitamin C, and lemon juice.
Molds grow well in a moist environment. You
will spray the liquid preservatives on the bread to
dampen the bread. For the salt, you will dampen
the bread with water before you apply the salt.
your knowledge of molds and spoilage. This

ga
r
Materials Needed
water
5 slices of nonpreservative white bread
482
Food Spoilage
spray bottle, such as one used to water

plants
5 plastic bags
graph paper marked in 0.05-inch or
1.0-millimeter increments
transparent paper
preservatives: white vinegar, lemon juice,
table salt, nonpulp orange juice high in
vitamin C (you can also select other, or
additional, items to test)
marking pen
microscope or magnifying glass (optional)

When conducting experiments with microorganisms, treat them all as if they could cause
disease. Do not touch the mold or try to smell
the bread. Never taste or ingest any of the
bread.

Timetable 1 hour, 20 minutes setup; about 15 minutes daily for about
6 to 9 days.
1. Lay out five slices of bread.

2. Label each of the bags with the name of one preservative; label one
bag Control.
3. Prepare the preservatives by making sure each of the liquids flows
easily through the spray bottle. If not, try to get a bottle with wider
holes or dilute the liquid.
Surface Area Growth

1 day
2 days
3 days
4 days
5 days
6 days
Bread
control
vinegar
orange juice
salt
lemon
Data chart for Experiment 1.

GA LE G RO UP.
483
Food Spoilage
4. Pour a small amount of vinegar in the

spray bottle. Spray the vinegar on a
piece of bread to dampen it, counting
the number of sprays it takes to dampen.
Do not soak it.
5. Rinse the spray bottle thoroughly with
water and repeat the process for the
Problem: Mold did not grow on any of the
lemon juice and orange juice, rinsing the
breads.
bottle out in between. Use the same numPossible cause: Make sure the bread you purchased has no preservatives in it. You may
ber of sprays for each.
want to buy fresh bread from a bakery. Once
6. Rinse out the sprayer and fill with water.
you have bread that has no preservatives,
7. Spray the same number of sprays on the
two remaining pieces of bread.
Possible cause: You may have saturated the
8. On one piece of bread sprinkle salt lightly
bread, not giving the fungi an environment
over the damp bread.
that promotes growth. Repeat the experi9.
Allow the breads to sit on the counter for
ment, lowering the number of sprays for each
one hour.
of the liquids to make sure the bread is only
dampened.
10. Place each piece of bread in the appropriProblem: Mold grew at the same rate on the
ate bag; put the water bread in the ConControl slice as on one of the slices with the
trol bag. Seal the bags.
preservative.
11. Set the bags in a dim area, such as in a
Possible cause: There may not have been
drawer.
enough of the preservative in the additive,
12. Either trace or copy the graph paper on a
such as if you used a juice that did not have a
clear piece of transparency.
high percentage of vitamin C or an imitation
13. Every day at roughly the same time,
lemon juice. Make sure the additive contains
examine each piece of bread for mold.
the preservative you want to test, and repeat
the experiment.
Do not remove the bread from the bag.
Possible cause: If you added water to the addiIf there is any mold, lightly place the
tive, you may have diluted the additive too
transparent graph over the bread and
much. Repeat the experiment, using another
determine the surface area of the mold
liquid additive or a spray bottle with wider
by counting the number of squares.
holes as opposed to diluting the liquid.
Note the results on a chart.
14. Continue examining each of the breads
until mold has covered at least one of the
slices.
15. If you have a magnifying glass or microscope, examine the mold(s)
up close and note their descriptions.
16. After you have completed the summary, throw away the breads in
their bags.
484
Food Spoilage
Summary of Results Graph your data, labeling
Days on the X-axis and Surface Area on the

Y-axis. Use a different color pen or type of line
for each of the substances on the bread, and mark
the graph clearly. What was the substance that
prevented mold growth for the greatest number
of days? Once mold did begin to grow, how did
the rate of growth compare to the first few days
when there was no growth? If the growth rate
increased rapidly, theorize why you think this
occurred. Describe the mold or types of mold
on the breads. Common types of molds that
grow on bread are bluish-green or green molds;
black or brown-black molds; and reddish or pink
molds. By examining the molds and referring to
a reference source you may be able to identify
them.

the temperature of the milk
the milks exposure to heat
the amount of light
the type (wholeness) of the milk
the type of milk
bacteria. If you change more than one variable
at the same time, you will not be able to tell
spoilage of the milk.
Change the Variables In this experiment you can
change the variables in several ways:

change the temperature, higher or lower
change the type of bread, using bread with preservatives or comparing brands
leave the breads out in both light and dark areas and compare
growth
use a different growth substance, such as a type of fruit instead of
bread
EXPERIMENT 2
Spoiled Milk: How do different temperatures
of liquid affect its rate of spoilage?
Purpose/Hypothesis The two main groups of bacteria in milk are Lactic
acids and Coliforms. Lactic acid is the natural bacteria present in milk
and dairy products. Coliforms are the main reason for milk spoilage.
Pasteurization kills almost all of the bacteria, but some of the bacteria that
cause milk to spoil still remain. If these bacteria are given an environment
that promotes growth, they will rapidly multiply.
485
Food Spoilage
In this experiment, you will be conducting

two mini-trials in which you will determine how
temperature affects the rate of milk spoilage. You
will examine the environmental temperatures
When conducting experiments with microorthat affect milk by allowing glasses of milk to
ganisms, treat them all as if they could cause
disease. Do not touch the milk and, if you do,
sit in cool, warm, and room-temperature enviwash your hands thoroughly. Do not taste or
ronments. You will also determine how the temingest any of the milk. Be careful when working
perature of the milk affects spoilage. One cup of
at the stove.
milk will be boiled, then left in a room-temperature environment. After three days, you will
examine each of the milks. When milk spoils it
changes in consistency, appearance, and smell. Spoiled milk also undergoes a chemical change. As the milk spoils, the bacteria produce acid. It is
the acid that causes the milk to clot. You can compare the acidity of the
test milks by using indicator strips.
experiment based on your knowledge of spoilage. This educated guess, or


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The milk in the warm area will
spoil the quickest; the milk that was boiled will take the greatest amount
of time to spoil.
In this case, the variable you will change is the temperature of the
milk. The variable you will measure is the relative amount of spoilage of
each milk.
will change between the control and your experiment. For the control for
the boiled milk at room temperature, use the unboiled milk at room
temperature. To compare milk spoilage among the test milks choose a
standard among them, such as the milk at room temperature. Use the
data from this standard to gauge the spoilage of the other test milks.
486
Food Spoilage

Materials Needed
whole milk
refrigerator
heat lamp, such as one used for plants
4 tall heat-resistant glasses
plastic wrap
4 rubber bands
pot
spoon
hot plate or stove
measuring cup
masking tape
marking pen
boiled
room tempp
cold
warm
control
Steps 6 and 7: Place a rubber

band around the plastic wrap
and then place in its designated
environment. G AL E GR OUP .
Approximate Budget $3 (not including lamp).

Timetable 20 minutes setup; about 10 minutes daily for 4 to 5 days.
1. Label each of the cups: Cold, Warm, Room Temp/Control, and Boiled.
2. Measure out 1 cup of milk and pour it in the glass labeled Cold.
Pour another cup in the glass labeled Warm, and another cup in
the Room Temp/Control.
3. Pour 1 cup in the pot and bring the milk to a low boil.
4. Stir continuously while letting the milk boil for one minute.
5. Pour the hot milk in the glass labeled Boiled.
6. Immediately, place plastic wrap over each of the glasses.
7. Wrap a rubber band around the plastic wrap to secure it to the
glass.
8. Set the Cold glass in the refrigerator; the Warm glass near the
heat lamp; and the remaining two glasses in an undisturbed area at
room temperature.
9. Describe how each glass of milk appears each day for four to five
days. Do not remove the plastic wrap or shake the glass.
487
Food Spoilage
remedy the problem.
Problem: After several days, the milk at room
temperature appeared to have the same
amount of spoilage as the milk in the
refrigerator.
10. At the end of the experiment, when at

least one of the milks has separated,
place an indicator strip in each glass and
note the resultsacid, base, or neutral
by comparing the color of the wet strips
with the chart provided with the indicator
strips.
note the acidity level of the milk(s) that spoiled at

the fastest rate. How did the control milk comPossible cause: The room may be at a cool
temperature and the bacteria could need
pare to the boiled milk? Compare the appearance
longer to grow. Continue the experiment for
of the milk at the warm environment to the cool
several more days.
environment. How did the spoiled milks
appearance change daily? When acid causes
milk to curdle it forms solids called curds, and
a liquid, called whey. Which of the test milks formed curds and whey? In
an analysis of this experiment summarize what conclusions you can draw
about the environment(s) that promote bacterial spoilage.
After you keep the milk clot for a while, the clot shrinks and a yellow
fluid (whey) is released. You can make this happen more quickly by
squeezing a little lemon juice (acid) into a small amount of milk. The
curds are the white caseins, or milk proteins, and they are sticky (people
once used them as glue). If you touch them, remember to wash your
hands.
Change the Variables In this experiment you can change the variables
in several ways. You can change the fat content of the milk by
comparing skim milk, whole milk, 2% milk, and other types. You
can add a substance to the milk, such as sugar or chocolate, that may
alter the speed of bacteria growth. Another way to change the experiment is to vary how much light the milk is exposed to by leaving the
same type of milk out in a bright and dark area. You could also alter
the food substance by using different beverages or solid foods instead
of milk.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Food spoilage is a
common problem, with many possible project ideas. You could examine
488
Food Spoilage
spoilage among different types of foods. You can also examine the steps
taken to prevent spoilage, both in terms of additives and food handling.
learn more about spoilage. You could also talk with a microbiologist for
details on the microorganisms involved in spoilage.
When experimenting with food, do not taste or ingest any of the
food items, and make sure to mark the item clearly to keep others away.
Aside from causing food poisoning, some microorganisms that are
attracted to food can cause diseases that are potentially deadly. If you
conduct an experiment with food in the home, make sure you tell an
adult.

question.
Related Projects Projects related to spoilage are numerous, inexpen-
sive, and waiting in the kitchen. You could conduct a project examining the uses of synthesized versus natural preservatives. Foods spoil
489
Food Spoilage
at different rates and under different environments. You could test

different foods, all with the same main ingredient, for variables that
affect the rate of spoilage. You could also examine how spoilage poses
a serious health threat by examining potential diseases and illnesses
from spoiled food.
You could group certain foods together and determine if the rate of
spoilage changes, depending on what the food is near. You could also
examine expiration dates and conduct an experiment that tests how
accurate the date is to when it begins to spoil. When working with
food, make sure not to taste or ingest any of the food, and to always
label it clearly as an experiment. Spoiled food contains microorganisms,
some of which could be extremely harmful.

Dalton, Louisa. Whats that Stuff?: Food Preservatives. Chemical &
Engineering News, November 11, 2002. http://pubs.acs.org/cen/science/
8045/8045sci2.html (accessed on March 6, 2008). Information on various
food preservatives.
DAmico, Joan, and Karen Eich Drummond. The Science Chef Travels Around
the World: Fun Food Experiments and Recipes for Kids. New York: John Wiley,
1996. Food experiments and recipes from around the world.
Food: Nutrition, Safety and Cooking. University of Nebraska Lincoln. http://
lancaster.unl.edu/food/myths ss/index.htm (accessed on March 8, 2008).
Quiz and common myths on food safety.
From Farm to Table. www.foodsafety.gov. http://www.foodsafety.gov/fsg/
fsgkids.html (accessed on March 8, 2008). Links to government sites on food
safety and spoilage.
Kids World: Food safety. N.C. Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Services. http://www.ncagr.com/cyber/kidswrld/foodsafe/index.htm
(accessed on March 8, 2008). Food safety facts and interactive question on
spoilage.
490
Forces
force causes or changes an objects motion: It is a push or pull on an

object. Forces have both a size and a direction. Forces also work in
pairs: In order for a force to occur there must be an interaction between
two objects. For example, when throwing a boomerang a person applies a
force to the object that makes it move. Weightlifting exerts a force on the
weight to pull it upward. These are forces that occur by physical contact
between the two objects.
Yet forces also occur upon a person who is standing still. Forces
are, in fact, occurring on everyone and everything on Earth, along with
celestial objects. In these forces, two interacting objects exert a push or
pull with no physical contact between them. An example of this force is
gravity. Gravity is the force of attraction between any two objects in the
universe.
Guiding principles While there have been numerous contributors to

peoples knowledge of forces, English scientist Isaac Newton (16421727)
formulated the laws of motion, the rules that explain how forces work. As
he was working on the laws of motion, Newton also explained the effect of
gravity throughout the universe. In 1687 Newton published his landmark
work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), which gave people a new understanding of the
universe and laid the foundation for the development of physics.
Newton developed three laws of motion to explain forces:
First law of motion: With no force, an object at rest will stay at rest,
and an object moving in a certain direction and speed will remain moving
in that same path and velocity. Velocity is the speed of an object in a
particular direction. This resistance of an object to change its motion is
called inertia. The greater the mass of an object is, the more force is
needed for the object to overcome its inertia. For example, a toy train
491
Forces
moving around a track would require relatively

little force to make it move compared with the
push a real train would need.
Second law of motion: When a force acts
upon an object it will accelerate. Acceleration is
the rate of change in velocity. The acceleration of
an object depends upon the size of the force and
the mass of the object. The relationship between
these variables in mathematical terms is: Force
(F) = Mass of Object (m) x Acceleration of
Newtons second law of motion:
Object (a), or F = ma, which can also be written a = F/m. As the force
acceleration. For example, if
increases, the acceleration will also increase. The more mass an object has,
someone throws two balls with
the lower the rate of acceleration.
equal force, the ball with the
lower mass will have greater
An example of this law is evident when comparing the force needed
acceleration. GA LE GRO UP.
to throw two objects, such as two balls. If Ball 1 has 10 times the mass as
Ball 2 and a pitcher throws the balls with equal force, then Ball 1 will
accelerate at one-tenth the acceleration of the lighter ball. To make the
two balls accelerate at the same rate, the pitcher will need to use ten times
more force on Ball 1 than on Ball 2.
Newtons third law of motion:
Third law of motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite
Forces always work in pairs.
reaction. This law states that forces always work in pairs. When one force
For example, when stepping off
moving in a certain direction acts upon another force, then there must be
of a boat there are multiple
forces at work. GA LE GRO UP.
a force of equal strength moving in the opposite direction.
There is usually more than one force at
work.
For example, when a boat is sitting still
downward
force of gravity
at the dock the force of gravity pulls with a
downward force and the water responds with
an equal and opposite upward force. A person
who boards the boat and pushes it away from the
dock exerts another force. The push starts the
boat moving gradually away from the dock due
to its inertia. Yet once moving, the boat will need
forward force
that same amount of force to stop it. When the
boat stops and the boater steps back onto the
backward force
dock, that is another force. As the person steps
off the boat with a push, the boat will move back
in the opposite direction.
upward force
Round and round we go Newtons laws
of water
explain both straight motion and circular
492
Forces
motion. A force that causes an object to follow a

circular path is called centripetal force. The word
centripetal comes from the Latin words centrum
and petere, meaning center seeking. (This force is
often confused with centrifugal force, meaning
center fleeing. Centrifugal force is not considered a true force, as there is no force acting upon
the object; it is only the tendency of the object to
continue in a straight line. See Ocean chapter.)
Anytime there is a circular movement around a
central point, then centripetal force is at work.
Centripetal force is based on Newtons first law of motion that states
an object will travel along a straight path with constant speed unless a
force acts upon it. Thus, for a circular motion to occur, there must be a
constant force pulling the object towards the center of the circle. This
force is always directed inward. For a planet orbiting the Sun, the force is
gravity; for a ball twirling on a string, the force is the tension in the string;
for a loop in a roller coaster ride, the force is applied by the curved track.
An object moving in a circle is constantly accelerating because it is
continuously changing its direction. This is true even if the object is
moving at a uniform speed. (Acceleration is a change in velocity and
velocity is the speed of an object in a particular direction.) The amount of
centripetal force needed to keep an object moving in a circular path
depends upon its acceleration, along with its mass.
When the centripetal force is taken away, the object follows Newtons first and third laws: Its inertia causes the object to move in a straight
line and the force by which it moves outward is equal in strength and
opposite in direction.
inward
force
forward
path
In centripetal force, the inward

force pulls the object or body
away from its straight path to
form a circular movement.
GAL E GR OU P.
EXPERIMENT 1
Newtons Laws in Action: How do water
bottle rockets demonstrate Newtons laws of
motion?
Purpose/Hypothesis The laws of motion explain how force affects the
movement of an object. Many objects such as trains, airplanes, and theme

park rides demonstrate these laws. In this experiment, you will work with
a water bottle rocket to observe Newtons laws. After constructing a basic
launcher you will use a plastic two-liter bottle and water to measure the
493
Forces
WORDS TO KNOW
Acceleration: The rate at which the velocity and/or
direction of an object is changing with respect to
time.
Centripetal force: A force that pushes an object
inward, which causes the object to move in a
circular path.
First law of motion (Newtons): An object at rest or
moving in a certain direction and speed will
remain at rest or moving in the same motion and
speed unless acted upon by a force.
Force: A physical interaction (pushing or pulling)
tending to change the state of motion (velocity)
of an object.
Gravity: Force of attraction between objects,
the strength of which depends on the mass
of each object and the distance between

them.
Inertia: The tendency of an object to continue in
its state of motion.
Second law of motion (Newtons): The force
exerted on an object is proportional to the mass
of the object times the acceleration produced by
the force.
Third law of motion (Newtons): For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
an experiment.
Velocity: The rate at which the position of an
object changes with time, including both the
speed and the direction.
force required to lift the rocket. By adding water to the rocket, you will
increase its mass.
A rocket exhibits all three of Newtons laws of motion. Newtons first
law states that an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion
continues in motion. When the rocket is sitting on the launcher it is an
object at rest. Once a force is applied to the rocket and it is in motion, it
continues in motion. Newtons second law explains that when a force acts
upon an object it causes the object to accelerate. This is seen when force
in this case, the pressure of the air pumped in the bottle by the tire
pumpis exerted on the rocket. The rocket launches and accelerates in
upward motion. Newtons third law refers to reactions, stating that for
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. When the rocket lifts,
the air and water that filled the bottle are forced out of the spout in the
opposite direction while propelling the rocket higher.
494
Forces
The rocket will be your object, either at rest

or in motion. The force is the pressure of the air
pumped inside the launcher. As the rocket propels forward, the water will escape and cause the
mass to change.
your knowledge of rockets and Newtons laws of
motion. This educated guess, or prediction, is
these things:
experiment: The greater the amount of water in
the rocket (bottle), the more air pressure (force)
is required for launching.
the mass (the amount of water in the rocket). The variable you will
measure is the force (the air pressure in the rocket) required for liftoff.
Materials Needed To build launcher:
5 feet (1.5 meters) of 3/4-inch CPVC pipe (available in the plumbing section of home improvement or hardware stores). It is generally a yellowish color and is sold in 10-foot (3-meter) lengths.
Use a saw or PVC cutters to cut.
7 inches (18 centimeters) of -inch CPVC pipe
T-joint fitting with 3/4-inch ends and a -inch center for CPVC
pipe
45-degree elbow with 3/4-inch ends for CPVC pipe
90-degree elbow with 3/4-inch ends for CPVC pipe
A rocket exhibits all three of

Newtons laws of motion. (1)
When the rocket is sitting on the
launcher it is an object at rest.
(2) Once a force is applied to
the rocket and it is in motion, it
continues in motion. (3) When
the rocket lifts, propellants in
the rocket are forced out in the
opposite direction while
propelling the rocket higher.
AP/ WI DE W OR LD
495
Forces

the amount of water in the bottle

the air pressure in the bottle
the tightness of the seal between bottle

and launcher
thickness of the bottle
preciseness of gauge on tire pump
are everything that might affect the mass of the
rocket and the force applied by the compressed
air inside. If you change more than one variable,
you will not be able to tell which variable
impacted the rocket liftoff.
two end caps for 3/4-inch CPVC pipe

PVC primer (minimal amount)
PVC glue/cement (minimal amount)
roll of masking tape (- or 3/4-inch wide)
2 inches (5 centimeters) of 5/8-inch inner
diameter clear vinyl tubing (available at
hardware or home improvement store)
tire valve stem (ask at a local tire store and
explain its for a science experiment; it
may be possible to get a donation)
saw or PVC cutting tool
drill
paring knife
expandable pipe wrench; it needs to have
the capacity to hold the 3/4-inch cap
scrap wood block
safety goggles
protractor
For launch:
water
bike tire pump with pressure gauge. Make sure it is a full-size
pump. Small pumps that fit in a backpack may not create enough
force.
measuring cup
2-liter plastic soda bottle
permanent marker
paper towels or a drying rag
tape measure
open space
partner and adult present when using tools
Approximate Budget $18 (not counting the bicycle pump).

Timetable 1 hour to build; 30 minutes to dry; 30 minutes for experiment.
Step-by-Step Instructions To build the launcher:
1. From the 5-foot (1.5-meter) piece of the 3/4-inch pipe cut two 6inch (15-centimeter) pieces and one 2-inch (5-centimeter) piece.
496
Forces
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The remaining piece should be approximately 46 inches (117 centimeters) long.

One person will clamp one of the 3/4-inch
end caps with the wrench. Rest the cap on
This is an involved experiment. It should be
the scrap wood block to avoid drilling
constructed and performed with the assistance
through the workspace. Have the helper
of another person. Have an adult present when
working with the drill and saw or similar cutting
drill a hole in the center of the PVC cap.
device. Wear safety goggles during construcThe hole needs to be large enough for the
tion. It is important to work in a well-ventilated
tire stem to come part way through,
area when working with PVC cement. The
approximately 14 inch. Check to ensure
rocket should be launched in a large open area.
the tire valve is able to be pushed partway
Do not attempt to catch the rocket. It is also
through the hole. It may be necessary to
important to only use plastic bottles and not
glass bottles.
trim away part of the rubber around the
valve stem. This may be done with a
paring knife.
Glue the end cap to the 2-inch length of pipe: Push the valve stem
partway through the 2-inch (5-centimeter) tube. Apply primer to
the outside of the 2-inch (5-centimeter) pipe, the inside of the end
cap, and a small amount to the base of the valve stem. Next, apply
the glue over the primer. (Note: PVC glue dries very quickly and
makes a lasting bond. Once the two pieces of CPVC touch, you
have only a few seconds before they are connected forever.)
Hold the valve stem partway out of the 2-inch (5-centimeter)
piece of pipe and place it through the hole on the end cap. The
valve stem should stick out of the hole in the cap. Pull firmly and
slightly twist the valve stem, making sure it is secure. Wipe away
excess glue.
Connect the 46-inch (117-centimeter) piece of pipe to the 2-inch
(5-centimeter) piece with the 45-degree elbow. Apply the primer
and glue to the inside of the elbow and the outside of the long
piece. Insert the pipe into the elbow. Next, apply to the other side
of the elbow and the outside of the 2-inch piece. Firmly press the
elbow on the 2-inch piece of pipe. Wipe away excess glue. Set aside
to dry.
Cut a 7-inch (18-centimeter) length of the -inch pipe. This will
become your launching post.
Connect the launching post to the T-joint fitting. Glue the two
3/4-inch CPVC pieces to the ends of the T-joint fitting. First apply
the primer, then the glue again to the inside of the connector and
497
Forces
Steps 2-4
hole in cap
tire stem
apply primer
and glue here
Steps 7-11
push vinyl
down tube
over tape
7" pipe
launching post
glue and
then tape
60 -70 angle
2" CPVC
Steps 2 to 4 and Steps 7 to 11:

Constructing the launcher.
GAL E GR OU P.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
the outside of the pipe. The 7-inch piece of -inch CPVC is then
glued into the empty hole of the T-joint fitting.
Tape masking tape around the connection of the 1/2 in PCVC
post and the T. It will be necessary to make several wraps and
tapering the tape slightly (about an inch or two) up the post. Next,
push the 2-inch piece of clear vinyl tubing down the tube and over
the tape. Use an extra piece of the 3/4-inch PCVC to assist in
pushing the tubing down snugly over the tape. The tape and
tubing will create a stopper for the bottle to fit on.
Using your bottle, test to see if the tape and tubing will create a
tight seal. If the seal is not tight, remove the tubing and add more
tape.
Glue the 90-degree elbow to the long piece made in the first five
steps.
Use your protractor to glue the T post to the 90-degree elbow. The
post should create between a 70-degree and 60-degree angle with
the ground, pointing away from the valve stem end of the
launcher. Do not angle the post less than 45 degrees.
Allow launcher to sit about 30 minutes to dry.
To launch:
1. In an open area, fill the 2-liter bottle with 2 cups (about 0.5 liter)
of water.
2. Place the launch post in the bottle and push for a snug fit. Mark
this spot with a permanent marker. (It works best to turn the
launcher slightly on its side, and gently roll it back to its
498
Forces
Steps 3 and 4: Pump the tire

pump to fill the bottle with air.
Keep pumping at a slow and
steady pace until the rocket
launches. GA LE GRO UP.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
standing position with the bottle on top. This way the water will
not come out of the bottle.)
Attach the tire pump to the valve nozzle.
Pump the tire pump to fill the bottle with air. Keep pumping at a
slow and steady pace until the rocket launches. The helper should
note the gauge and record the pressure required for liftoff.
Repeat launch for two more trials, noting the force (air pressure)
and distance for each trial.
Fill the 2-liter bottle with 3 cups (about 0.75 liter) of water.
Repeat Steps 2 through 5.
Fill the 2-liter bottle with 4 cups (about 1.0 liter) of water.
Repeat Steps 2 through 5.
Summary of Results Examine your results to determine which amount of
water required the greatest amount of force for liftoff? Was your hypothesis correct? Hypothesize what would happen if you changed the bottle
size, and maintained the water amount. What
would occur if a cone top and wings were
attached to the rocket? Write a brief summary
of the experiment and your analysis.
Step 5: Data chart for rocket

launch. GA LE GRO UP.
Data for Rocket Launch (averages)

Pressure/Force
can modify the experiment by changing the

variables. You can change the sizes of the bottle
and maintain the water amount. Another
approach could include using various bottle
Distance
2 cups water
3 cups water
4 cups water
499
Forces
remedy the problem.
Problem: The rocket will not take off.
sizes and filling each bottle to half of capacity,

rather than a uniform water amount. If you have
access to a football field, you could perform the
experiment on the field and attempt to measure
the distance of each launch. It may be beneficial
to prop the launcher on a block of wood to create
more of an angle (do not go less than 45 degrees).
Possible cause: Make sure your seal is tight.

Wipe the stopper off after each launch.
Check the tire pump to determine if it is
attached appropriately. The pump may be
too weak to perform the launch.
Modify the Experiment You can also explore

Newtons laws by conducting a simpler version
of the rocket experiment. You will need a piece of
wire several feet long. Gather together a balloon,
tape measure, string, wide straw and masking
tape. Slip the straw onto the wire so that it
moves about freely, and securely tie the wire to two objects, such as two
chairs.
Blow up the balloon, place a straw in it and tape the straw so that no
air escapes. Bending the straw will help keep the air from escaping. Place a
piece of masking tape on the end of the straw to seal the air inside. Tape
the straw to the balloon. As you look at your experimental setup, think
Slip the straw onto the wire so

that it moves about freely, and
securely tie the wire to two
objects, such as two chairs.
NEL SO N.
500
Forces
about all the forces. The air, for example, is a force acting on the outside
of the balloon.
Now take the tape off the end of the straw. What happens as the air
escapes? Newtons third law of motion states that for every action force
there is an equal and opposite reaction force. The air is the action and the
movement of the straw is the opposite reaction. Measure how far your
balloon moved along the wire. How can you make the straw move a
shorter distance? How can you make it move farther? Experiment with
blowing up the balloon different amounts. After each trial, write down
the distance the straw moved.
EXPERIMENT 2
Centripetal Action: What is the relationship
between distance and force in circular
motion?
Purpose/Hypothesis Centripetal force is any force that acts on an object
at a right angle to its path of motion. The constant right angle force results
in the object moving in a circular path. In this experiment, you will
examine how altering the force and radius will affect the acceleration of an
object. Radius is the distance from the center to the outer point of a circle.
The objects mass will stay the same.
A piece of string will have a mass attached to one end and washers
creating the force attached to the other end. You will first alter the radius,
and then alter the force. For a more accurate measure of how many times
the mass completes a circle or revolution, you will count how many times
it revolves in 30 seconds. That number will then be divided by 30 to give
its revolutions per second. Another way to increase accuracy is to complete three trials of each experimental trial.
Comparing the results to a control experiment will help you isolate
each variable and measure the changes in the dependent variable. In this
experiment there will be two variables that you will change, one at a time.
setup each time. In the first part, the distance will change when the radius
increases. In the second part, the force will change. At the end of the
experiment you can compare each of the results to the standard
experiment.
experiment based on your knowledge of centripetal force. This educated
501
Forces


the force
the radius
the mass
are everything that might affect the acceleration of the mass. If you change more than one
tell which variable had the most effect on centripetal force.


experiment: The greater the force, the greater
the acceleration; the greater the radius; the lower
the acceleration.
force and the distance, one at a time. The variable
you will measure is the acceleration of the mass.

Materials Needed
spool of thread with narrow hole

ruler
ten metal washers of equal size
3 feet (90 centimeters) of string
masking tape
bobbin, small spool of thread, rubber stopper or other lightweight
object that can be easily tied
helper
1. Slide the string in the large spool of thread and move the spool up
2 feet (0.6 meters).
502
Forces
2. On the long side of the string, attach four

metal washers (this is the force) to the end
and secure with a knot.
3. Tie the bobbin or rubber stopper to the
Be careful when swinging the mass and check to
end of the short side of the string. This is
ensure the knot is tight. Make sure you are
working in an open area.
the mass.
4. Wind a piece of tape about 1 inch (2.5
centimeters) below the spool to make sure
it does not slide down and change the radius. Mark the string at
the point above the tape.
5. Hold the washers with one hand and begin to swing the mass until
it is moving parallel to the floor. Practice swinging at a steady rate.
6. While you are swinging, have your helper time 30 seconds and
count the number of revolutions the bobbin makes.
7. Repeat Step 6 two more times so that you have three trials. This is
your standard experiment.
8. Remove the tape and slide the spool down 1 foot (0.3 meters)
towards the washers. Reattach the tape about 1 inch (2.5 centiSteps 5 and 6: Count the
meters) below the spool.
number of revolutions of the
9. Again, time the number of revolutions in a 30-second period, then
mass in 30 seconds. GA LE
repeat for two more trials. Note the results.
GRO UP .
10. Return the spool to its beginning position, reattaching the tape at the marked
point on the string.
11. Double the number of washers to eight.
Support the washers until you have a
steady swing and then have your helper
time 30 seconds while you count the
revolutions. Repeat two more times and
note the results.
Summary of Results Determine the time for
each revolution per second by dividing the

total revolutions by 30. Once you have the revolutions per second for each trial, average the
three trials. Make a chart of your data. Compare
how long it took to complete a full circle when
the radius lengthened. How much force would it
take to have the revolutions of different radiuses
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Forces
remedy the problem.
Problem: The radius looked like it was
changing.
be the same. Look at how the increased force

compares with the acceleration of the lesser
force? What would happen to the acceleration
if you halved the force? Hypothesize how the
force and/or radius would need to change if the
mass was doubled and you wanted to keep the
acceleration equal.
Change the Variables You can continue to

experiment on changing the variables in this
experiment in new ways and new combinations.
Try to halve the force and halve the radius. Look
at what occurs if the radius is tripled and the
force remains constant. You can also change the mass of the object,
making it lighter or heavier. Make sure you secure the mass tightly to
the string and try to work in an open area.
Possible cause: The paperclip might have slid

loose. Use a tight paperclip and make sure it is
attached firmly, then repeat the experiment.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Force is a broad topic that
A planet orbits a sunlike star.

Astronomers depend on the
principles of centripetal force to
help them predict orbits and
revolutions. # A FP/ CO RB IS.
has many possible experiments. To gather ideas on force, you can observe
how force is applied in daily life. Look at sporting events and playground
rides to see the application of Newtons laws and centripetal force. You
could also research how celestial bodies in the universe apply centripetal
force.
with your science or physics teacher to learn
more about force.
Steps in the Scientific Method To conduct an
original experiment, you need to plan carefully

and think things through. Otherwise, you might
not be sure what question you are answering,
what you are or should be measuring, or what
your findings prove or disprove.
experiment:
propose to do.
504
Forces
question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Your data could include
charts and graphs to display your data. If included, they should be clearly
labeled and easy to read. You may also want to include photographs and
drawings of your experimental setup and results, which will help other
people visualize the steps in the experiment.
Related Projects There are many possible projects related to force. You
could construct simple machines to experiment with the amount of force

required for work. These projects could explore how force varies with
distance and mass. Astronomers depend on the principles of centripetal
force to help them predict orbits and revolutions. You could examine how
the planets, suns, and moons each have their own unique orbits due to the
principles behind centripetal force. You could also explore the force of
gravity with everyday objects.

Christianson, Gale E. Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1998. The personal life story of Newton and his
work.
Clark, John O. E. Physics Matters! Danbury, CT: Grolier Education, 2001.
Provides a clear explanation of the science of physics with pictures and
applications.
Newtons Laws of Motion. NASA Glenn Research Center. http://
www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K 12/airplane/newton.html (accessed on
February 3, 2008). Explanations and illustrations of Newtons laws of motion
presented with different details for different grade levels.
Skateboard Science. The Exploratorium. http://www.exploratorium.edu/
skateboarding (accessed on February 3, 2008). A look at the science of
skateboarding and how it relates to centripetal force.
505
Forensic Science
ho, what, where, and when? At a crime scene, these are the pieces
of information forensic scientists work to piece together. Forensic
science is the application of science to the law. Often called forensics, it
covers many areas of the sciences, included microbiology, physical science, and chemistry. Advances in the field of forensic science have shifted
the way people solve crimes and the justice system.
Evidence left at the crime scene includes the physical (such as a scrap
of clothing or footprint) and biological (such as DNA). In many cases the
evidence may be invisible to the naked eye. Fibers and strands of hair are
examples. It took the development of high-powered microscopes in the
nineteenth century to bring forward this area of forensics. Once crime
solvers could see the object, they could study and compare it to possible
suspects. Analysis techniques on blood, materials, and biological evidence
have also revolutionized the field of forensics.
Fingering the evidence Hundreds of years ago people noticed that

humans all have unique fingerprints. This observation was put to use
officially in the late 1800s by Scottish doctor Henry Faulds. Credited
with the first fingerprint identification, Faulds became interested in
fingerprinting after noticing fingerprints on ancient clay pottery. Soon
afterwards, his hospital was broken into. Faulds identified the thief from a
greasy fingerprint on a surgical alcohol bottle.
Fingerprints have become an important piece of criminal evidence.
Over the years, technologies to analyze fingerprints have improved, but the
basic idea of fingerprint analysis remains the same. People are all born with a
unique fingerprint patternincluding identical twins. The pattern stays the
same over the course of a persons life, whether you are nine or 90 years old.
There are three basic patterns used to categorize fingerprints: the
loop, arc, and whorl. As its name says, the loop has a loop pattern, where
the print starts and ends on the same side of the finger. An arc pattern rises
507
Forensic Science
and falls slightly, from one side of the finger to

the other. The whorl forms circles around a
central point.
Looking at blood Blood found at a crime
scene can provide key pieces of information to
piece together how the crime happened. One
forensic technique is called blood pattern or
blood spatter analysis. A blood pattern can help
investigators reconstruct the angle the blood
came from, what direction it was traveling, and
its velocity (speed).
People are all born with a

unique fingerprint pattern. #
E D BO CK/ CO RB IS.
The shape and size of the blood spatter provides clues as to the surface it landed on. Droplets
that strike a hard surface, such as glass, will have a
smooth circle. Blood droplets that hit wood spatter outwards. The direction of blood can trace the
bloods angle of origin. When a blood droplet
strikes a surface straight down, perpendicular to
the floor, it forms a clean circle. Blood that strikes
a surface at an angle, such as 60 degrees, will have
a tear drop shape. By knowing both the length
and width of the blood drop investigators can
calculate the impact angle.
Even when there is no visible sign of blood,
investigators can spot blood by spraying a substance called luminol.
When luminol comes into contact with blood, it reacts with the iron in
the blood. The reaction produces a blue glow that last for seconds before
it fades. Investigators turn the lights off and look for the glow.
Fiber evidence If a piece of material or thread is left at a crime scene,
analyzing the fiber can help investigators identify where it came from.
The fiber can come from a rug, clothing, or handbag.
There are many types of fibers and each has its own characteristics.
For example, each fiber will burn in a slightly different way. Some
common types of fibers and their properties include:
Cotton: A plant fiber; the individual plant fibers that make up the
yarn are relatively short compared to other fibers. When ignited, it
burns with a steady flame and smells like burning leaves.
508
Forensic Science
Arch
Loop
Whorl
There are three basic patterns

used to categorize fingerprints:
the loop, arc, and whorl.
NE LS ON.
Linen: A plant fiber; the individual fibers that make up the yarn
are relatively long. Linen takes longer to ignite than cotton.
Silk: A natural protein fiber made from worms. When burned, it
burns quickly and smells like burning hair.
Wool: A protein fiber that comes from the fur of sheep. When
burned, the flame is steady.
Acetate: Produced from cellulose (wood fibers). Acetate burns
quickly with a flame that is relatively hard to put out.
Nylon: A synthetic (manmade) fiber made from petroleum products. Nylon melts and burns rapidly. It smells like burning plastic.
Polyester: A synthetic fiber, polyester melts and burns at the same
time. The smoke from polyester is black with a sweetish smell.
Rayon: A synthetic fiber made from
wood pulp, rayon burns rapidly and
leaves only a slight ash. The burning
smell is close to burning leaves.
High tech evidence In the last half of the
90
twentieth century, scientific findings have led to
key advances in forensics. DNA fingerprinting,
45
developed in 1984, is now a commonly used
technique in forensics. All people have unique
DNAexcept identical twinsthat is in almost
10
every cell in the body. DNA fingerprinting identifies sequences of DNA unique to each person.
The direction of blood can trace

the bloods angle of origin.
NEL SO N.
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Forensic Science
WORDS TO KNOW
Blood pattern analysis: The study of the shape,
location, and pattern of blood in order to understand how it got there.
DNA fingerprinting: A technique that uses DNA

fragments to identify the unique DNA sequences of an individual.

Forensic science: The application of science to the

law and justice system.

molecules found in the nuclei of cells
that carry genetic information for an
organisms development; double helix.
(Pronounced DEE-ox-see-rye-bo-noo-klay-ick
acid)

experiment.
Luminol: A compound used to detect blood.
an experiment.
Investigators need only a tiny amount of DNA to analyze it. The DNA
evidence can come from a hair root, saliva, or sweat. A DNA fingerprinting test can determine if the DNA from a crime scene matches the
DNA of a suspect. It can also show if the DNA samples are from the same
person or different people, and if the different people are related.
An example of a DNA
fingerprint from the forensic
department at the German
Federal Police in Wiesbaden,
central Germany. AP P HOT O/
MI CH AEL PR OBS T.
510
Forensic Science
There are many other techniques forensic

scientists use. In the following experiments you
will learn more about the forensic science techniques involved in fiber and blood pattern
analyses.
EXPERIMENT 1
Fiber Evidence: How can
scientific techniques be
used to identify fiber?
Purpose/Hypothesis What if a tiny piece of

the cleanliness of the fiber
the type of fiber
the coating on the fiber
the length of the fiber
the environmental condition
material is found at a crime scene? How would

are everything that might affect the identificayou identify it? In this experiment you will
tion of the fiber.
conduct several techniques to examine the
properties of three to four fiber samples. You
will first examine the fibers the materials are
made out of with a microscope, magnifying
glass, or from a digital photograph. You will
then conduct a burn test on the fibers.
On material samples, you will examine how each material absorbs
water and if it dissolves in acetone (most fingernail polish removers
contain acetone). Acetate dissolves in acetone; other fabrics do not.
A fabric that contains acetate will partly dissolve.
After you examine the properties of each
Watch how the acetone effects
type of fiber, you will identify a material sample
the fabric. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
from a crime scene.
TEM AH N EL SON .
your knowledge of forensic science and the fiber.
things:
(acetone)

511
Forensic Science

experiment: Fibers each have different properties, and if the properties of each sample are
known, the sample can be identified.
the type of fiber. The variable you will determine
is the type of material.
Water absorption step 1: Drop
two drops of water on each
fabric sample. I LLU STR AT IO N
Water absorption step 2: Note

if the water absorbs into the
fabric or stays bubbled on the
512

Materials Needed
1 to 2 spools of natural threads (cotton, linen, silk, or wool)

1 to 2 spools of synthetic threads, which include acetate and either
nylon or polyester (acetate can be 50% acetate; you can rip the
acetate thread from the fabric)
fabric swatches that match the type of threads used, and which
includes acetate; about 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) square (acetate
can be 50% acetate)
candle in a holder
match
eyedropper
scissors
fingernail polish remover that contains
acetone
3 to 4 small plastic or glass containers
long tweezers, about 12 inches (30 centimeters) or longer (available at science
supply sources or some hardware stores)
high-powered magnifying glass or microscope, or digital camera
sink
helper
aluminum foil
Forensic Science
Approximate Budget $15 (assuming you can

obtain a microscope or magnifying glass from
another source).
Timetable 2 hours.
Step-by-Step Instructions Magnification:

You will need to burn fibers in this experiment.
Have an adult assist you in burning the fibers
and be careful when disposing of the ashes.
1. Look at the material pieces under the

microscope or magnifying glass. If you have a high-resolution
digital camera, you can take a photograph and magnify the
pictures.
2. Note any features in a chart, such as loose threads, if the threads
are short or long; if there is a twist in the threads, the weave of the
material; and if there are holes in the weave. Draw or sketch your
observations.
The Burn Test:
1. Wrap one thread around your closed hand five times and cut.
Remove the clustered thread from around your hand and hold the
two clusters together. The thread should be about 5 inches (13
centimeters) in length.
2. Use the tweezers to grasp one end of the thread cluster.
3. Light the candle and place it in sink. Set a piece of aluminum foil
next to the sink. (If you do not have access to a sink you could
conduct the test over a pan of water.)
4. Carefully, place the bottom of the thread
into the candle flame. Observe it burn.
Note if the flame is steady and how fast
the flame moves. When the thread has
finished burning, note any odor.
5. Conduct another trial with the same
thread to make sure you have consistent
results.
6. Repeat Steps 37 for each of the other
threads.
The burn test. IL LUS TR ATI ON

Water Absorption:
1. Fill an eyedropper with water and lay out
the fabric samples.
513
Forensic Science
Problem: The threads burn too quickly to identify anything.
Possible cause: The threads may be too short.
Wrap the threads around your hands another
two to three times. You also may need to
conduct the burn test several times for each
thread, to compare how each thread burns
relative to the others.
Problem: I cant see much detail through the
magnifying glass.
Possible cause: The magnification in your magnifying glass is not strong enough. You
should be able to see the weave with a magnifying glass, or with your naked eye. Try to
use a higher-powered magnifying glass if you
want to see more detail, and repeat this test.
2. Drop two drops of water on each fabric

sample. For each fabric sample, note if the
water absorbs into the fabric or stays
bubbled on the top.
Dissolve in Acetone:
1. Fill three small plastic or glass containers
about half full with acetone. (If you
have four fabric samples you will need
four containers, or to wait until one is
completed.)
2. Cut about a half-inch square of fabric
from each material sample. Drop one
fabric sample into each of the containers
of acetone. Wait 10 minutes.
3. Use the tweezers to remove the fabric
onto the aluminum foil. Note if any of
the materials partly dissolve.
Material Matching:
1. Have a helper cut a small piece of a mystery fabric from one of the leftover
swatches. Dont look at which piece of
fabric it is!
2. Repeat all the tests, pulling a piece of string from the material for
the burn test. You can also have your helper hand you the matching string.
Summary of Results Could you match the mystery material to one of the
tested fabrics? Did any of the tests not fit the properties you identified?
You can try matching other fabrics, or having a helper try to match a
fabric. Consider how these tests would be helpful in solving a crime.
You may want to write up your results, including any pictures or
drawings.
Change the Variables If you want to change the variables in this experi-
ment you can use different fabrics. You could also use different types of
fiber, such as threads from carpets or furniture materials.
514
Forensic Science
EXPERIMENT 2
Blood Patterns: How can a
blood spatter help
recreate the crime?
Purpose/Hypothesis The impact of blood on an
object leaves forensic clues in its pattern and

shape. This experiment focuses on investigating
the angle of moving blood. You will test dropping artificial blood from different angles and
evaluate the shape and pattern of the blood
droplets. You will then use this knowledge to
piece together where a mystery blood spatter
came from.
To begin this experiment, use what you
know about forensic science and blood spatters
to make an educated guess about how blood
spatters can help reconstruct a crime. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A

the artificial blood
the surface the blood lands on
the force with which blood is spurted out
the height the blood is dropped from
are everything that might affect the blood
spatter. If you change more than one variable,
you will not be able to tell which variable most
affected the pattern of the blood.

hypothesis for this experiment: Blood that moves at an angle will have
longer droplets than blood traveling straight up and down.
In this case, the variable you will change is the angle of the blood and
then the direction of the moving blood, and the variable you will measure
is the blood droplet shape.
Materials Needed
brown paper rolls (available from craft store); you can also tape
paper together if rolls are not available
eye dropper
515
Forensic Science

There are no safety hazards but this experiment
has splattering, and it can be messy. You may
want to wear old clothes.
small hand scrubber

white corn syrup
ketchup or tomato paste
bowl
measuring cup
stirring spoon
protractor
tape measure
pencil
tape
wooden board or other object with a flat bottom, such as the back
of a long pan, about 24 inches (61 centimeters) high
large flat working space outside
helper
Timetable Approximately one hour.
Step 5a: Hold the eyedropper at
the 90 degree mark and squeeze
out a drop. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
T EMA H NE LS ON.
516
1. Lay the roll of paper down on a flat surface about 3 feet (91
centimeters) in length.
2. In a bowl, add 12 -cup of corn syrup and
about 2 teaspoons of ketchup until it
appears red. Stir. The blood should be
thick enough to fall slowly from the
spoon.
3. Tape the protractor to the flat board or
object, approximately 10 inches (25 cm)
above the ground. The 90 degree mark
should be perpendicular to the ground.
You can dangle the tape measure or a
piece of string to the ground to make
sure the 90 degree mark is perpendicular.
4. Fill up the eyedropper with the artificial
blood.
5. Have the helper hold the board flat on the
paper. Hold the eyedropper at the 90
Forensic Science
degree mark and squeeze out a drop.

Label the drop 90 degrees.
6. Move the eye dropper to the 60 degree
mark. Squeeze out a drop of blood. You
may need to squeeze several spurts to get a
good drop. Label the drop 60 degrees.
Move the object holding the protractor
slightly back on the paper so the drop will
not mix with the previous drop. Hold the
dropper at the 30 degree mark and shoot
out several drops. Label the drops 30
degrees.
Step 5b: Label the drops.

7. Repeat Step 6, moving the eye dropper to the opposite angle, at

the 120 degree and 150 degree mark. You may need to fill up the
eyedropper again and move the board with the protractor forward
and backwards on the paper. Label each drop.
NEL SO N.
8. Continue dropping blood at different angles until you can sketch

the shape of a drop at each angle. Note its shape and
characteristics.
9. Wet the bristles of the hand brush with the artificial blood.
10. Move the protractor holder to a clean area of paper. Stand back
and turn away. Have your helper select an angle and splatter the
blood at a specific angle. Your helper may
choose to drop the blood from a greater
height.
Step 10: Use the bristles of the

hand brush to splatter the blood
at a specific angle. IL LUS TR ATIO N BY TEM AH N EL SON .
11. Compare the splatter with the test splatters to reconstruct what angle the blood
was moving.
12. You may also want to move the brush
back and forth to see if you can determine
the direction pattern of the blood spatter.
Summary of Results Compare all the droplets
and spatter marks. Consider the tools that forensic specialists would use to collect and analyze
the blood. Sketch the patterns of blood and
summarize your results in writing.
517
Forensic Science
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept Forensic science covers a broad ranges
of fields and uses a wide range of techniques.

Many of the techniques used by forensic investigators draw upon relatively new scientific
advances. The techniques have opened up new
Possible cause: The opening for the dropper is
too small for the liquid. If you cannot find a
forms of forensic evidence and improved the
larger eyedropper, you can make the liquid
traditional types, such as eyewitness recognition.
thinner by adding more ketchup or water.
If you are interested in investigating forensics, you may want to first explore all the different ways evidence is gathered. When you read or
watch a mystery, consider the evidence at the crime scene and how
forensic scientists could use it. Check the Further Readings section and
talk with your science teacher to start gathering information on forensics
that interest you.
Problem: The artificial blood does not squirt out
of the eye dropper.
sure what question you are answering, what you are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove. Here are the steps in
designing an experiment:
your question.
can follow it.
518
Forensic Science
tables, and charts to display the outcome of your experiment.
Related Projects Experiments in forensics can cover collecting and ana-
lyzing physical and biological evidence. You may want to investigate

evidence collection to determine how training can help people see
crime details they might have previously missed.
Face recognition is another area of forensics you can investigate.
Footprints, tire tracks, and hand prints are other experiment ideas.
There are also many experiments in fingerprinting, which can cover the
best way to collect (lift) fingerprints and analyze them. For a research
project, you can explore how advances in chemistry, microbiology, and
other sciences have changed forensic science.

Gardner, Robert. Forensic Science Projects with a Crime Lab You Can Build.
Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow, 2008. Projects related to forensic science.
Harris, Tom. How Luminol Works. Virtual Museum of Canada. Virtual
Exhibit on Forensic Science. http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/Exhibitions/
Myst/en/index.html (accessed on May 19, 2008). Detailed overview,
timeline, and a game on forensic science.
Human Genome Project Information. DNA Forensics. http://www.ornl.gov/
sci/techresources/Human Genome/elsi/forensics.shtml (accessed on May
19, 2008). Basic information on DNA fingerprinting.
Layton, Julia. How Crime Scene Investigations Works. HowStuffWorks.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/csi4.htm (accessed on May 19, 2008).
Information on a range of forensic evidence.
Rainis, Kenneth G. Hair, Clothing, and Tire Track Evidence: Crime-Solving
Science Experiments. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow, 2006. Science
experiments related to forensic science.
519
Fossils
rom dinosaurs to prehistoric humans, fossils provide a glimpse into

Earths past events, environment, and life forms. Fossils are the
remains or traces of ancient organisms. Fossils can range in age from a
mere ten thousand years to several billion years old. They can be microscopic or hundreds of feet long. From the Latin word fossilis, meaning
something dug up, fossils are found on every continent. Scientists who
study fossils are called paleontologists.
Studying fossils has revealed a wealth of data about Earths 4.6 billionyear-old history, including its past geography, weather, animals, plants,
biodiversity, and how life has changed over time. Fossils can provide
information on past environmental conditions. Different types of plants,
for example, require specific temperature, acidity, and amounts of water to
live. By studying fossils, scientists can also determine an ancient animals
age, health, eating habits, and movements. Unearthing 3.5 billion-year-old
bacteria fossils led to theories on when life began and how it impacted the
development of future life. Other fossil evidence shows how continents
have shifted over time. Fossils can also create an understanding of modern
Earth and how people can best preserve the planet.
Until about two centuries ago, fossils were mysterious objects that
cultures explained in varying ways. Some theorized that fossils were
weapons left behind from the gods; others believed they were the seeds
of adult animals, or the remains of animals that did not make it onto
Noahs ark. In the 1800s, scientists began turning up fossils of strange
animals by the thousands: the giant reptilian ichthyosaur, the 40-foot (12meters)-long Megalosaurus, and teeth from the immense plant-eating
Iguanodon. People began to understand what fossils were and, in the
late 1800s, fossil hunting began in earnest.
Ancient rock formations The vast majority of living organisms live,
die, and decay without leaving behind any physical trace of their
521
Fossils
existence. Paleontologists estimate that only about 1 to 2% of all life

forms ever become fossils. In order for a fossil to form, a number of
conditions must occur simultaneously. Where an organism settles after
death and its surroundings are the main factors that determine fossil
formation.
Fossils occur in rocks. The majority of fossils are found in a type of
rock called sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock forms when sediment
particlessuch as mud, sand, and gravelsettle and form rock. The
sediments build up in layers. Thus, the oldest rocks normally lie on the
bottom layer and the youngest at the top. Sedimentary rock is the type of
rock most exposed at Earths surface. Shale, limestone, and sandstone are
examples of sedimentary rock.
One common fossilization process, called permineralization, creates
a three-dimensional replica of the remains when minerals replace some or
all of the organic matter. The first step in permineralization is for a dead
organism to become buried in sediment quickly, before it is eaten or
decomposed by other organisms. Over the next several hundred thousand
years, layers of sediments cover the dead organism.
The quicker a dead organism is covered with layers of sediment the
greater its chance of being preserved. How quickly sediment covers a dead
life form also determines the degree of preservation. Organisms are made
up of soft parts, such as skin and tissue, which decompose quickly.
Animals will eat them, microorganisms will break them down, and
weather will erode them. In general, these parts decompose before they
1
Turning bone into rock: the

fossilization process of
permineralization. GA LE
Animal dies. Soft tissue decomposes.
Sediment covers animal and turns to rock.
GR OU P.
522
Fossils
Bones are replaced by minerals. New layers

of rock form over millions of years.
Shifting in Earth causes bones to

come to the surface.
Permineralization continues.
When the organic matter is
completely replaced by minerals
it is called petrifaction. GA LE
GR OU P.
are protected by sediments, leaving only the hard parts of the dead
organism, such as teeth, bones, and shells.
As the sediment turns into rock, minerals and water from the rock
seep into the remains. Slowly, these minerals fill in the open pore spaces
of the organisms remains. When the organic matter is completely
replaced by minerals it is called petrifaction. The result is a duplicate of
the structure made of rock. Petrifaction commonly occurs in wood. One
of the largest examples of petrifaction is at the Petrified Forest National
Park in Arizona, which holds acres of 200-million-year-old logs that have
turned to stone.
Even after a fossil is formed, a set of circumstances still must occur
before it can be found. Shifting landmasses, weather eruptions, and
natural disasters can destroy the fossil. The rock must also move towards
a top layer of Earth in order for it to be exposed. This may occur over
millions of years as the rock is pushed to the surface, or human activity
can expose it.
Forming other fossils Another type of fossil occurs when no part of
the organisms body remains. A fossil mold is an imprint of a bone,
shell, or other hard body part. A mold forms when the dead organism
settles in sediment and then decays, leaving an outline of its shape. If the
mold fills with minerals it is called a cast. The rock cast has the same
outer three-dimensional shape as the organism. Paleontologists often
create casts of fossil molds by filling them with liquids, such as plaster,
that harden.
Body parts of ancient plants, insects, spiders, and other small animals
are also found preserved in tree resin. Fossils form when one of these
523
Fossils
creatures becomes trapped inside the sticky

resin, which hardens to become a substance
called amber. These life forms are often preserved with incredible detail. Some are so well
preserved that scientists have attempted to
extract the organisms genetic material, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.
The imprint of a 200-millionyear-old fossilized plant

discovered in 2002. AP /W ID E
WO RL D
Fossils that are not part of the animal or

plant are called trace fossils. Examples of
trace fossils include footprints, tunnels, and
dung. Trace fossils provide evidence of the
organisms physical characteristics, eating habits, and activities. Examining fossilized droppings or dung, called coprolites, can supply
evidence of where an animal lived and what it ate. A footprint can
reveal an animals weight, size, and whether it hopped, sprinted, or
walked.
Because an animal sets down many hundreds of thousands of traces
during its lifetime, but leaves only one body, paleontologists find trace
fossils far more frequently than body fossils.
The dating game In order to piece together a timeline of life on
Earth, scientists need to understand a fossils age and how it relates to
others. This information for all fossils is documented in the fossil
record, a key source in understanding how species have evolved. Some
organisms dominate the fossil record more than others because of
certain physical characteristics. For example, fossils of animals without
bones or shells are far more rare than those with hard parts. Marine
animals are preserved more readily than land animals because they
are more likely to be preserved in soft sediment. This is one reason
why estimating the existence span of a species, its first appearance
until its extinction, is one of the most challenging parts of the fossil
record.
One way to date a fossil is to determine its relative age, or how old it
is in relation to other fossils or rocks. Unless the rock layers were
overturned, fossils found in lower rock layers would be older than
those found in upper layers. Fossilized rock with similar features and
different locations are compared and placed relative to each other in the
fossil record.
524
Fossils
Million Years Ago

Homo sapiens
225
apes, horses, elephants
4,600
570
birds, dinosaurs, flowering

plants, small mammals
early sharks, land plants, mollusks,

corals, anthropods, invertebrates
single cell organisms
Absolute dating is a more precise approach that determines how many

years old the fossil is from the current year. These methods were developed
in the twentieth century with the findings of the known rate of decay of
certain radioactive elements. Each element decays at its own constant and
unique rate. Radioisotope dating techniques measure the amount of a
certain element in nearby rocks to date the fossil.
While relatively precise, absolute dating provides only an approximate date for the organism, accurate to hundreds of thousands of
years. One type of absolute dating method
examines the amount of the element carbon
14 found in the rock. All plant and animal
life absorb carbon 14, and its rate of decomposition is known. This method is useful on
material that is less than about 50,000 years
old, which includes many human remains but
excludes most fossils. For older fossils, scientists measure the amount of other radioactive
elements left in rock, such as potassium, thorium, and uranium.
The fossil record traces

organisms through Earths
history. G ALE GR OUP .
Discovered in the European

nation of Georgia and dated
by scientists at 1.7 million
years, these partial humanlike skulls are the oldest
human ancestral fossils ever
found outside of Africa. AP /
WID E WO RL D
525
Fossils
WORDS TO KNOW
Absolute dating: The age of an object correlated to
a specific fixed time, as established by some
precise dating method.
Paleontologist: Scientist who studies the life of

past geological periods as known from fossil
remains.
Cast: In paleontology, the fossil formed when a

mold is later filled in by mud or mineral matter.
Permineralization: A form of preservation in

which mineral matter has filled in the inner and
outer spaces of the cell.
Coprolites: The fossilized droppings of animals.

Fossil: The remains, trace, or impressions of a living
organism that inhabited Earth more than ten
thousand years ago.
Fossil record: The documentation of fossils placed
in relationship to one another; a key source to
understand the evolution of life on Earth.
Mold: In paleontology, the fossil formed
when acidic water dissolves a shell or bone
around which sand or mud has already
hardened.
Petrifaction: Process of turning organic material

into rock by the replacement of that material
with minerals.
Radioisotope dating: A technique used to date
fossils, based on the decay rate of known
radioactive elements.
Relative age: The age of an object expressed in
relation to another like object, such as earlier or
later.
Sediment: Sand, silt, clay, rock, gravel, mud, or
other matter that has been transported by
flowing water.
Sedimentary rock: Rock formed from compressed
and solidified layers of organic or inorganic matter.
an experiment.
EXPERIMENT 1
Making an Impression: In which soil
environment does a fossil most easily form?
Purpose/Hypothesis Paleontologists have found fossils on every continent, yet some areas contain more fossils than others. One of the key
factors leading to fossil formation is the type of sediment or material in
which a dead organism settles. (Most organisms settle where they die; in
some cases a river, wind, or animals can carry the organism to another
location.) Scientist use fossils to study and determine the lifestyles and
526
Fossils
adaptations of plants and animals. The more

details found in a fossil, the more information
the scientists gain.
In this experiment, you will determine how
the soil makeup of different geographical areas
impacts the number of fossil casts formed. You
will make three fossil casts in three soils of vary the soil makeup
ing moisture content. One of the soils will be dry
the consistency of the plaster of paris
sand. Sand is made up of large particles and does
the object/organism
not hold moisture. A second type of soil will be a
the depth the object is pressed
mixture between sand and moist topsoil, which
is made up of smaller soil particles that retain
water. The third soil will be a wet topsoil.
the object to make an impression. If you change
These soils will be the foundation layer for a
plaster of paris cast. Using one object, a shell,
most effect on the impression.
you will first press the organism into each soil to
equal depths. The plaster of paris will form a cast
from this mold. This cast will be the fossil.
To begin this experiment, make an educated guess about the outcome
of the experiment based upon your knowledge of fossils and sediment.


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The moist soil will make the
best fossil impression; the dry material will not be firm enough to cause a
fossil to form.
Once you have gathered your soil bases you need to make your
impressions. It is best to use a seashell with distinguishing qualities such
as scallops, ridges, and possibly an erosion hole or chip.
The variable you will change will be the soil. The variable you will
measure will be the general shape and amount of detail of the impression.
The item you use to make the impression should stay the same.
527
Fossils

Be careful when removing your fossil casts;
plastic containers may break.
Step 6: Push the straw down

until the mark on the straw is
level with the soil. G AL E
GRO UP.
Materials Needed
plaster of paris (available at craft stores)

shell, preferably one with identifiable features such as a hole, chip, or alternate mark
3 small disposable containers, such as a
butter dish, large enough to fit the shell
water
disposable spoons
measuring spoon
ruler
straw
tweezers
marking pen
bowl
3 cups (0.75 liters) of sand (available at garden store)
3 cups (0.75 liters) of moist, organic topsoil (available at garden
store)
Approximate Budget $5 to $10.
Timetable 1 hour for the experiment; overnight
for the plaster of paris to harden.

1. Make a sketch of your shell, noting the

width, depth, and any identifiable
features.
2. In a bowl, mix 1 cup (about 0.25 liters) of
moist topsoil with 1 cup (about 0.25
liters) of sand. This is the moist soil.
3. Mix 2 cups (about 0.5 liters) of topsoil
with 8 tablespoons (about 120 milliliters)
water. This is the wet soil.
4. Label each container with the type of soil
and place each soil type into the appropriate container. The soil should be at
528
Fossils
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
least 2 inches (5 centimeters) deep. Even

out the surface of the soil.
Use the ruler to mark a line on the straw
at 0.8 inches (2 centimeters).
Place your shell in the soil with the ridges
remedy the problem.
facing down. Gently place the straw in the
center of the shell. Push the straw down
Problem: You have no fossils, only a lump of
plaster.
with your pointer finger until the mark
on the straw is level with the soil.
Possible cause: All of your soil samples may
have been too loose. It may be necessary to
Using tweezers, carefully remove your shell.
choose a soil sample that has a more solid
Wash and dry the shell. Repeat Step 6 for
consistency.
the other two soil samples.
Mix enough plaster of paris to make a
1-inch-deep (2.5-centimeters) layer in
each container. The plaster should be the consistency of thick
pudding.
Pour a layer of plaster of paris into each container.
Allow plaster to harden overnight.
Remove your fossil casts by slipping a butter knife or similar thin
object in the side between the soil, fossil, and container. It may be
necessary to break the plastic containers.
Make sketches of each cast. (If a digital camera or Polaroid is
available, you could take pictures.) Include any measurements of
width and depth you are able to determine from your fossil cast.
Summary of Results Review the sketches of the casts compared to that of
the shell. Which soil type is best for making fossils? What qualities did
you compare to determine the best soil? Note on the sketch or photograph where any information can be observed on the fossil. For example,
a shell may have a hole in one point that can indicate erosion. What
type(s) of environments do you feel are most suitable for fossils to form?
From your conclusions, how would the environment impact the study of
species through fossils?
Change the Variables To change the variable in this experiment, you
could use different objects to make the cast. Try both heavier and lighter
objects. You could also change the soil type, creating a wet mud soil and
comparing that to the dry sand. Another way to alter the experiment is to
vary the thickness of the soil layer.
529
Fossils
EXPERIMENT 2
Fossil Formation: What are

the physical
characteristics of an
organism that make the
best fossils?
the hardness of the organism

the definable shape of the organism
Purpose/Hypothesis Organisms vary from the
microscopic and jelly-bodied to the mammoth

and skeletal. The physical characteristics of the
force applied to make mold
organism and its environment are two key factors
placement of the object on clay base
in forming a fossil. Dating back about 3,500 milIn other words, the variables in this experiment
lion years, the fossil record does not represent all
are everything that might affect the organisms
types of organisms equally. Paleontologists theorize
imprint. If you change more than one variable at
that many groups of animals and plants have left
no fossil remains. There are some types of organvariable had the most effect on the physical
isms that are more dominant in the record than
characteristics of each organisms mold.
others. There are some organisms that have hard
parts, some with only soft parts, and many with
both. Examples of hard parts include bones, teeth, and wood; examples of
soft parts include skin, muscle, and internal organs.
In this experiment, you will examine how an organisms characteristics determine the fossil remains left behind. You will create a fossil
mold out of four different types of organisms or parts from organisms.
You will begin by preparing a clay base for each of the items you are
going to fossilize. Clay is a soft, moist substance similar to the watery
sediment that preserves many fossils. You will first select four organisms
to observe from four different categories: an exoskeleton, meaning skeletal bones on the outside; an endoskeleton, meaning an internal skeleton;
an organism without a skeleton; and a plant. Examples of these four
categories are a shell (exoskeleton), chicken bone (endoskeleton), feather
(lacking a skeleton), and a leaf (plant).
Each organism has physical characteristics that you can note before
forming its imprint. Characteristics include if the organism has hard or
soft parts, its shape, width, height, and any distinguishing features. To
form an imprint you will drop a heavy book from the same height to
make sure you use the same amount of pressure for each organism. After
making an imprint of each organism, you can then compare the characteristics of the organism and the fossil imprint it makes.
the flexibility of the organism
530
Fossils

your knowledge of fossilization. This educated

Be careful when applying force using a heavy
object.


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The feather will produce a poor
fossil that is difficult to identify because it has no specific shape or form;
the chicken bone will produce the best fossil imprint.
In this case, the variable you will change is the organism. The variable
you will measure is the physical characteristics of the mold created by the
organism.
Materials Needed
modeling clay
plant (leaf, fern)
chicken bone, or another small bone
shell (or other object to represent an endoskeleton)
feather (or other object lacking a skeleton)
heavy book
ruler
pencils
magnifying lens
wax paper
tape
four pieces of cardboard

Timetable 60 to 90 minutes.
531
Fossils
shell
hard/softness
of organism
sketch of
organism's shape
sketch of
mold's shape
features of
organism
features of mold
height & width
of organism
height & width
of mold

Experiment 2. GA LE GRO UP.
Step 6: Drop a heavy object

from the same height onto each
organism. GA LE GRO UP.
532
bone
1. Create a data chart, listing the organisms

across the top columns and the observable
feather
fern
characteristics down the sides. Make the
chart boxes large enough to illustrate your
observation and include descriptive
words.
2. Feel each organism prior to making the
fossil mold and note whether it is hard,
soft, or both.
3. Draw a sketch of your organism. Measure
the height and width and include in the
sketch.
4. Cover each piece of cardboard with a
sheet of wax paper, and then create four
clay bases. Make the bases of equal size and thickness. The base
should be about twice as high as the highest organisms, and be at
least 1 inch (2.5 centimeter) larger in diameter than the largest
object.
5. Gently place the first organism in the center of the first clay base.
Do not apply pressure.
6. Place the clay base against a wall (or any flat, vertical object) and
tape the ruler against the wall perpendicular to the base. Hold the
book about 2 inches (5 centimeters) above the clay base with the
organism on it, and drop the book. The height of the book above
the organism does not have to be exactly
2 inches (5 centimeters); however, whatever the height is, use that same height for
all organisms.
7. Remove the book and gently remove the
organism.
8. Repeat Steps 5 through 7 for each
organism.
9. Use the ruler to reexamine the same physical characteristics that you noted for the
organism and note the results on your
chart. Use the magnifying glass to observe
any distinguishing features in the mold.
Fossils
Summary of Results Examine your chart. Which

qualities are the most varied among your organisms? Which mold provides the most accurate
information? How does the detail of the mold
relate to whether the organism is hard or soft?
What are some other characteristics on the
organism that the mold does not convey?
Hypothesize what would occur to each material
if you used a lighter book. Analyze what would
happen to each organism if it was turned over
and the imprint was made of the other side.
Write a brief summary of the experiment and
your analysis.
remedy the problem.
Problem: There was no imprint on any or most
of the objects.
Possible cause: You may not have used enough
force to press down on the object. Repeat the
experiment, using a heavier book or raising
the book to a higher measurement on the
ruler.
can modify the experiment by changing the variables. You can change the
organisms you use. Try several different samples from the same class; for
example, in the plants you could use a flower, a leaf, and a cactus. You can
also alter the substance that sets the imprint formation. You could try
dough made of a mixture of used coffee grounds, cold coffee, flour, and
salt. How would this moist base impact your experiment? Another way to
alter the variable is to change the force used to press down on the object in
the clay.
Modify the Experiment You can modify this experiment by filling the
impressions with Plaster of Paris. The Plaster of Paris represents the mud
or sediment that will fill the form. Follow the experiment, noting the
characteristics each of the four organisms leaves in the clay.
Keep track of which clay model has which organism imprint. (It
might be hard to tell them apart when they are covered with Plaster of
Paris.) Mix up the Plaster of Paris, and spoon the plaster onto the clay
until the impressions are filled. Allow the plaster to harden then carefully
remove it from the clay. Use a magnifying glass to examine the mold.
How do the imprints in the mold compare to the imprints in the clay?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Fossils open a window
into Earths life, geography, and environment that can reach back billions
of years. To think of fossil-related projects, you can make a list of all
533
Fossils
ancient events and people you have learned about and consider how fossils
could have been used to gather the data.
teacher to learn more about fossils. You can also gather ideas for topics
by visiting a natural history museum or science museum.
State your hypothesis, an educated guess about the answer to
your question.
conduct, you should look for ways to clearly convey your data. Your data
Paleontologists excavating a
fossil bed in Utah. # JA MES L.
A MO S/C OR BI S.
534
Fossils
should include charts and drawings such as the one you did for these
experiments. They should be clearly labeled and easy to read. You may
also want to include photographs and drawings of your experimental
setup and results, which will help other people visualize the steps in the
experiment.
Related Projects There are many project ideas that relate to fossils. If
there is a museum or university in the area in which you can see fossils,
you can compare the different types of preservation, including petrifaction and fossils preserved in amber (these are sold by several companies).
For a research project, you could explore the environmental conditions of
areas that are rich with fossils, both in the United States and other parts of
the world. You can explore fossil molds and imprints by examining how
the environment or other factors play a part in the fossilization process.
How paleontologists collect fossils is another area of study. Identifying and collecting fossils is a meticulous process that requires many
skills. There are many organizations and companies that offer fossil
hunts, complete with lessons on how to locate, unearth, and identify
fossils. Dinosaurs are a popular topic for documentaries and movies.
You can examine these films to look at how the filmmakers reached their
representation of these creatures, how much of it was artistic freedom,
and what was taken from the fossil record. For example, do paleontologists know that dinosaurs were certain colors? How do the more
modern representations of dinosaurs differ from those made in the
mid-1900s?

BBC. Prehistoric Life Science and Nature: Prehistoric Life. http://www.bbc.
co.uk/sn/prehistoric life/index.shtml (accessed on March 13, 2008). Radio,
animations, and explanations of prehistoric life and fossil evidence.
Fossil Gallery. The Paleontology Portal. http://www.paleoportal.org/index.
php?globalnav=fossil gallery&sectionnav=main (accessed on March 13,
2008). Choose a time period to see images of fossils.
Kittinger, Jo S. Stories in Stone: The World of Animal Fossils. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1998. Photographs accompany information on various types of fossils
and how they help people understand life on Earth.
535
Fossils
Rocks and Layers. U.S. Geological Survey. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/fossils/

rocks layers.html (accessed on March 13, 2008). Brief description of where
fossils are found in rocks.
San Diego Natural History Museum. Finding Fossils. Dinosaur Dig. http://
www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric life/index.shtml (accessed on March 13, 2008).
Information on how to look for and identify fossils.
Tour of geologic time. University of California Museum of Paleontology. http://
www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/geologictime.php (accessed on March 13,
2008). Information on the geologic time periods of Earth.
Trueit, Trudi Strain. Fossils. New York: Franklin Watts, 2003. What fossils look
like, and how paleontologists use them to understand Earth.
536
Fungi
s a way of organizing living things, scientists have created five main

classifications called kingdoms (some scientists use more than five).
Each kingdom breaks down into smaller and smaller classifications.
Plants and animals, for example, are two of these kingdoms. Fungi
form another kingdom.
There are thousands of types of fungi. They are both single-celled and
multicelled; living on land and in water. They include the microscopic,
such as yeasts, and the relatively mammoth, such as mushrooms. Scoop
up a single teaspoon of topsoil and you will find about 120,000 fungi.
One of the largest living organisms on Earth is a fungus. It is called the
humongous fungus and extends about 3.5 miles (5.6 kilometers).
Fungi play a vital role in Earths cycle of life. They decompose or
break down dead bugs and plant material, such as leaves, converting their
components into elements that living organisms can reuse. They are an
essential source of food for plants and animals. Many plants depend on
fungi for their nutrients. Fungi also have had a profound effect on human
life. Take a look at a moldy fruit and you are observing a type of fungi that
has transformed modern medicine. People eat fungi and use them to
manufacture bread, wine, and flavorings. Fungi can also cause plant and
animal diseases. In humans, dandruff and athletes foot are two widespread examples of disease caused by fungi.
Its a plant . . . Its an animal . . . Its a . . . People once classified

fungi as part of the plant kingdom. Years later they thought these
creatures were part of the animal kingdom. As scientists learned more
about this varied group of life, they found all fungi share characteristics
that make them a unique kingdom.
Fungi are eukaryotic (pronounced yoo-KAR-ee-ah-tic) organisms,
meaning that their DNA or genetic material is enclosed in a nucleus. A
nucleus is the round or oval structure inside a cell that is surrounded by a
537
Fungi
Animals
Plants
Fungi
Fungi are one of the five

kingdoms that scientists use to
classify living organisms.
GA LE GRO UP.
Some fungi are decomposers,

breaking down dead organic
matter as they draw nutrients
from it. A fungus that grows on
fallen leaves is an example of a
decomposer. # G ARY
BRA AS CH/ CO RBI S.
538
protective envelope. Fungi need air, food, and

water to live. They thrive in moist, warm environments, such as the underside of a rock or the
space between a persons toes. Most types of
fungi do not depend on sunlight for energy, as
plants do. Because of this, they thrive in dark
areas, such as caves and in soil.
Fungi do not manufacture their own food.
To grow, fungi draw nutrients from the materials on which they live. Some fungi are decomposers, breaking down dead organic matter as
they draw nutrients from it. A fungus that grows on a rotting tree or fallen
leaves is an example of a decomposer.
Fungi that grow on living animals and plants are called parasites.
Parasites take the materials from the creature, or host, sometimes harming
the organism in the process. A fungus that lives on a plants roots, for
example, receives its food from the plant. Ringworm is an example of a
human fungal parasite. Fruit that has mold on it, called a blight, is an
example of a plant fungal parasite.
One unique type of fungi is the lichen. Commonly found on rocks,
trees, and buildings, lichens are composed of fungi living in partnership
with one or more other types of organism. One common lichen unites
fungi with green algae. In this lichen, algae produce food for the fungi and
fungi provide an outer layer of protection for the algae.
There are microscopic single-celled fungi, but the majority of fungi
are more complex. Multicelled fungi string their cells together in long,
threadlike strands called hyphae (pronounced HIGH-fee). The hyphae
produce chemicals that break down the complex
nutrients of its food source into simpler forms.
These nutrients are absorbed through the walls
of the hyphae, and flow between their cells. In
search of food, hyphae spread outwards underneath the visible part of the fungi. The tangled
mass of hyphae forms a network called a mycelium. Myceliums range in size from clumps of
mold to systems that stretch for miles (kilometers). A funguss mycelium can expand
quickly, adding up to a kilometer of new hyphae
per day.
Protists
Monerans
Fungi
Reproducing styles Most fungi reproduce by

releasing tiny particles called spores. Usually composed of a single cell, spores are smaller than dust
particles and float through the air. A spore contains
all the chemicals needed to make its fungus. Wind
and water are the two main ways spores spread.
Animals can also carry the spores. For example, the
stinkhorn fungi produce an odor that attracts flies
and beetles, which then carry the spores away.
Spores can end up everywherethey are in
the air, on clothes, plants, and skin. When the
spore encounters the right conditions it will
grow and develop into the individual fungus.
Fungi can also reproduce by growing and extending their hyphae.
Hyphae grow as new cells form at the tips, creating ever-longer chains of
cells. Many yeasts reproduce by budding. In budding, a parent yeast
pushes out its cell to form a bud. In time, the bud pinches off and a new
yeast cell is produced.
Popular fungi Fungi can cause diseases in plants and animals. Yet
there are many types of fungi that humans commonly use, from tasty
treats to medicines.
Mold: Mold is a type of fungi. It was a few of these stray mold spores
that altered the treatment of bacterial diseases throughout the world. In
1928, British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming (18811955) was growing the Staphylococcus bacteria in his laboratory for study. Bacteria are a
type of microscopic organism, some of which can cause disease. At that
time, bacterial infections were sweeping throughout the world and killing
millions of people.
One day Fleming accidentally left a dish of
bacteria uncovered on his lab bench before he took
a vacation. When he returned Fleming noticed the
mycelium
dish was crowded with bacterial growth except for
one clear area where a patch of mold was growing.
The mold had produced a substance that stopped
bacteria from growing. Fleming named the substance penicillin, after the Penicillium mold.
Years later during World War II (19391945)
scientists Howard Florey and Ernst Chain continued Flemings work. Bacterial infections were
Fungi that grow on living

animals and plants are called
parasites. Fruit that has mold
on it is an example of a plant
fungal parasite. C OPY RI GHT
# KE LL Y A. QUI N.
The tangled mass of hyphae

forms a network called a
mycelium. GA LE G RO UP.
hyphae
539
Fungi
common in the war and were causing many soldiers to die. The scientists found penicillin effecspore
tive against a wide range of harmful bacteria and
they began to mass-produce it. Penicillin became
the first antibiotic. Antibiotics weaken or destroy
bacteria and other organisms that cause diseases.
The success of penicillin led to the developments
gills
of many other antibiotics, such as streptomycin,
that stop the spread of disease.
Mushrooms: Mushrooms are one of the
most familiar types of fungi. They can grow in
Most fungi reproduce by
damp soil and rotting wood. Although some mushrooms are edible to
releasing spores that float
humans, many of these fungi contain harmful poisons. Eating even a small
through the air and grow when
bite of some types, such as the white destroying angel mushroom, can kill a
they find the right
healthy adult.
environment. GA LE GRO UP.
The common mushrooms found in grocery stores produce their spores
from gills located under their umbrella-like cap. A single mushroom can
produce about two billion spores. The main part of the mushroom, its
hyphae, lives underground. Cup-shaped mushrooms are part of another
fungi group and they carry their spores in tiny pouches. Types of these
Many yeasts reproduce by
mushrooms are rare and highly valued, For exambudding. GA LE GRO UP.
ple, truffles are delicacies that belong to this
group. Truffles live completely underground.
yeast cell
bud
Truffle hunters use highly trained pigs and dogs
to sniff out their location.
Yeast: Yeasts are single-celled fungi that
belong to the same group as the truffles. These
1
2
cells look like little round or oval blobs under a
nucleus
microscope. Clusters of yeast create a white powdery appearance. They are commonly found on
leaves, flowers, soil, and fruits.
Bakers have long made use of a natural proc3
4
ess in yeast called fermentation. Yeasts eat a form
original cell
of sugar or starch. In fermentation, yeasts break
down the sugars and starches into carbon dioxide
gas and alcohol. The carbon dioxide gas bubbles,
5
causing an expansion or rising of the material
new yeast cell
around it. People use yeast to make bread rise,
from budding
and produce the alcohol in beer and wine.
540
Fungi
WORDS TO KNOW
Antibiotic: A substance produced by or derived
from certain fungi and other organisms, that
can destroy or inhibit the growth of other
microorganisms.
Eukaryotic: Multicellular organism whose cells
contain distinct nuclei, which contain the genetic
material. (Pronounced yoo-KAR-ee-ah-tic)
Fermentation: A chemical reaction in which
enzymes break down complex organic compounds (for example, carbohydrates and sugars)

can be tested by observation and/or
experiment.
Kingdom: One of the five classifications
in the widely accepted classification
system that designates all living organisms
into animals, plants, fungi, protists, and
monerans.
Mycelium: In fungi, the mass of threadlike,
branching hyphae.
Nucleus: Membrane-enclosed structure within a
cell that contains the cells genetic material and
controls its growth and reproduction. (Plural:
nuclei.)
Fungi: Kingdom of various single-celled or multicellular organisms, including mushrooms,

molds, yeasts, and mildews, that do not manufacture their own food.
Spore: A small, usually one-celled, reproductive

body that is capable of growing into a new
organism.
Hypha: Slender, cottony filaments making up the

body of multicellular fungi. (Plural: hyphae)

experiment.
In the following two experiments, you will explore how yeast breaks
down food and in what environment it grows best. For an experiment on
food spoilage and the fungi mold, see the Spoilage chapter.
EXPERIMENT 1
Decomposers: Food source
for a common fungi
Purpose/Hypothesis Decomposition is a critical part of Earths cycle of
life. In this experiment you will examine how fungi affect decomposition.
You will use a banana as the food source for the fungi. This fruit provides
a moist environment and other conditions that promote yeast growth.
For the fungi you will use dry yeast that is used in cooking. The yeast
541
Fungi

the food source (fruit)
the type of fungi
environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity
exposure to air
are everything that might affect the decomposition of the fruit. If you change more than one
decomposition.
becomes activated when it is given a source of

moisture. You will place the yeast on a banana
and then observe how it affects the fruit. Changes
to the fruit can include changes in color, breaks
in the skin, and odor.
your knowledge of fungi and decomposition.
things:


correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Yeast will
cause the banana to decompose more rapidly than it would without the
yeast.
In this case, the variable you will change is the addition of yeast to
the banana. The variable you will measure is the description of the
banana.
will change between the control and your experiment. For your control in
this experiment you will use a plain banana. At the end of the experiment
you can compare the control and the experimental results.
Materials Needed

Be careful when handling the knife. Do not taste
or ingest any food in this experiment.
542
dry yeast, about 1 tablespoon

1 banana
2 self-sealing plastic bags or plastic bags
with twisty ties
Fungi
knife
marking pen
Timetable 15 minutes setup; five minutes daily
for about a week.

Problem: The banana pieces decomposed at
equal rates.
Possible cause: You may have used yeast that
was dead. Check the expiration date of your

1. Peel the banana and slice two pieces. (You
yeast and, if necessary, purchase more.
may want to cut it in half first
Repeat the experiment using the new yeast.
lengthwise.)
2. Place a slice of banana inside each plastic
bag.
3. Sprinkle dry yeast on one slice.
4. Label the bag with the yeast Yeast and the bag without the yeast
Control.
5. Seal or tie both bags shut and leave them in a warm place.
6. Observe the bags daily for one week. Each day write a brief
description of how each banana appears. On the final day, note
the difference, if any, between the two banana pieces. Observe
changes in color, breaks in the skin, odors, and physical changes in
the shape, size, or consistency (hard, soft, mushy) of the fruit.
Summary of Results Look at the description of your results. Which
banana slice shows the most and fastest decomposition? Was your
hypothesis correct?
GR OU P.
Change the Variables There are several ways to
change the variables in this experiment. You can

alter the fungis food source by using another
fruit, fruit skin, or other item. Make sure the
food source contains some moisture to activate
the yeast. You can also use another type of fungi.
If necessary, you can purchase a specific fungi
from a biological supply company. Another way
is to change the environment of the fruit, such as
by placing one piece in a dark area and one in a
bright area.
Step 5: Seal or tie both bags and

leave in a warm place. GA LE
control
yeast
543
Fungi
EXPERIMENT 2
Living Conditions: What is
the ideal temperature for yeast
growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis People have long taken advantage of the natural
fermentation process of yeasts to produce foods, including alcohol and

risen bread. (Ancient cultures use of fermentation is one of the earliest
uses of biotechnology, which applies living organisms for human use.)
Bakers commonly use the Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast to produce carbon dioxide, which causes bread to rise.
In this experiment you will examine in which conditions yeasts best
live and grow. Yeasts kept in the most suitable living conditions will be
the most active; those kept in less suitable conditions will not be as active.
You will pour equal amounts of yeast into similar bottles and provide the
yeast with water and a food source, sugar. Each bottle of yeast will be
given a different growth environment: one warm and one cold. You will
compare them to a third bottle kept at room temperature.
You will measure the activity of the yeast by measuring the amount of
carbon dioxide the yeast releases. You can do this in two ways. To
measure the carbon dioxide, you will seal the opening of the bottle with
an empty balloon. The carbon dioxide gas produced will cause the
balloon to inflate. Every twenty minutes you will measure the amount
of gas produced by measuring the circumference of the balloon. Another
way to measure the carbon dioxide is to measure the acidity of the yeast
solution. Carbon dioxide mixes with water in the yeast solution to form a
weak acid, called carbonic acid. The more carbon dioxide produced, the
more acidic the solution. You will use acid/base indicator strips to check
the level of acidity after you remove the balloon.
experiment based on your knowledge of fungi. This educated guess, or
544
Fungi
possible hypothesis for this experiment: The

yeast given the warmest environment will grow
the most rapidly and produce the most carbon
dioxide gas; the yeast in the coldest environment
will grow the least rapidly and produce the least
gas.
temperature
the temperature of the yeasts environment. The
type of fungi (the yeast)
variable you will measure is the amount of car quantity of the fungi
bon dioxide produced.
type of food source (the sugar)
quantity of the food source
carbon dioxide produced from the yeast. If you
your experiment. The control you will use for
change more than one variable at the same
this experiment is a room temperature environtime, you will not be able to tell which variable
ment (water) for the yeast. Before you introduce
had the most effect on the yeasts growth.
the yeast to its environment, you will measure
the acidity of the plain sugar-water to have a
control for the acidity level. At the end of the experiment you can
compare the control results with the experimental results.
Materials Needed
3 identical small glass or plastic bottles with narrow mouths

3 balloons
3 packets of dry yeast (not rapid-rising)
about 9 teaspoons of sugar
string
tape
ice cubes
hot water
3 cups
2 clear bowls or rectangular containers, at least half the bottles
height
tape measure
measuring cup, with spout preferably
545
Fungi
measuring spoons
funnel (optional)
thermometer or temperature gauge, should
Fahrenheit
range
from
65115
(1846 Celsius) (optional)
marking pen

water. Do not taste or ingest any of the solutions in the experiment.
Timetable 1 hour allowing water to sit; 1 hour and 45 minutes for
experiment.
1. To get room temperature water: In three separate cups, measure

3
/4 cup water. The water should not be hot or cold to the touch.
Allow the water to sit for about one hour to reach room temperature. If you have a thermometer, the water should be at about
6873.4Fahrenheit (2023Celsius).
2. While waiting, label one bottle Hot, one bottle Cold, and one
bottle Control.
3. Add 3 teaspoons of sugar to each cup and mix thoroughly.
4. Dip an indicator strip briefly in one of the sugarwater solutions.
Compare the indicator color to the color chart. An acid should
turn the indicator red, a base should turn the indicator blue. Note
the results.
5. Pour the sugar-water into the three bottles. You may need a funnel
for this. Clean the cups for later use.
6. Prepare a warm-water bath and a cold-water bath. For the warmwater bath, fill one of the two clear bowls or rectangular containers
with warm water from the kitchen sink faucet. Let the water run
until it gets fairly warm to the touch, but not scalding hot (about
104113Fahrenheit [4045Celsius]). For the cold-water bath
fill the other bowl or container with cold water from the kitchen
sink faucet and add ice cubes until the water gets cool to the touch
(about 4159Fahrenheit [515Celsius]).
7. Add one packet of dry yeast to each of the three bottles.
8. Securely place a balloon over the top of each bottle opening. Tape
each balloon to the bottle to ensure no gas can escape.
9. Swirl each bottle gently to mix the contents.
546
Fungi
hot
control
room
temp.
cold
Step 10: Place yeast in hot, cold,

and room temperature
environments. G AL E GR OUP .
10. Place the bottle labeled Hot in the warm-water bath. Place the
bottle labeled Cold in the cold-water bath. You may need to
secure the bottles down with string and tape so that they sit firmly
in the water and do not bob.
11. After 20 minutes, measure the circumference of each balloon.
When you wrap the tape measure around the balloon make a
small mark on the balloon with the pen above the measure to mark
the spot. Note the results in a data chart.
12. Check to make sure the warm water is still warm. If it has cooled
significantly, scoop some out and replace with fresh warm water.
Add ice cubes to the cold water, if necessary
13. Continue measuring the balloons in 20-minute intervals until the
balloons no longer expand. It should take about 60 minutes or more.
14. Remove the balloon from the Cold bottle and pour some of its
contents into a clean cup. Dip an indicator strip briefly in the
solution. Compare the indicator color to the color chart and note
the results.
15. Repeat Step 14 for the bottles labeled Hot and Control,
making sure to pour the contents into a clean cup each time.
Note the results of each indicator strip.
547
Fungi
Summary of Results Examine the data chart and graph the results of the
circumference for each environmental condition. Label the measurements on one axis and the time on another. How does the balloon
circumference of the yeast grown in a room temperature environment
compare to that of the yeast grown in the cold-water and warm-water
bath? Which bottle showed the greatest increase in balloon circumference? Which bottle was the most acidic? What do the results of the
indicator convey about the growth of the yeast in each environment?
Can you construct a hypothesis about the environmental conditions for
all fungi from these results? Write a brief summary explaining your results
and any conclusions you can draw from them.
Change the Variables There are several ways to change the variable in this
experiment. You can alter the type of fungi. You can change different
environmental conditions, such as the light level on the yeast. By using
varying concentrations of acidic foods, such as lemon juice or vinegar
instead of sugar water, you can alter the acidity level of the yeast.
Modify the Experiment You can add to this experiment by examining the
fungi you grew up close. You will need access to a microscope and you
may need an adult to help you use it. After you identified the ideal
temperature for yeast growth, place a drop of the yeast solution onto a
slide and cover. Yeast are single-celled organisms that divide by a process
called budding. A yeast cell can divide in about 20 minutes. Sketch what
you see under the microscope.
Circumference
20
40
Acid/Base/Neutral
60
hot
cold
Step 11: Note the

circumferences of the balloons
and acidity of the solutions in a
data chart. GAL E GR OU P.
548
room
temperature
control/no yeast
Fungi
If you do not have access to slides, you can

purchase prepared yeast slides at a science supply
store. You can also compare the reproduction
rate of the yeast that was the most active to the
yeast that was the least active. Does one divide
slower than the other?
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept From the microscopic to the mam-
Problem: No balloons expanded and there was
no indication of acidity in the solutions in the
bottles labeled Hot and Cold.
Possible cause: You may have used yeast that
was no longer active. Check the expiration
date of your yeast and, if necessary, purchase
more. Repeat the experiment using this
yeast.
moth, fungi are a wide and diverse kingdom of

life. There are numerous projects related to
Problem: The balloon on the bottle labeled
fungi, from basic observation to exploring their
Hot did not expand.
living requirements. You could also explore funPossible cause: You may have used water that
gis profound effect on Earths life cycle and
was too hot, causing the yeast to die
human life.
instantly. Repeat the experiment, using warm
water.
fungi. While some fungi may appear edible,
remember to never eat any mushroom or other
fungus you find unless you have had it identified by an expert in fungi.
The mushroom may be poisonous or you could be allergic to it.

question.
549
Fungi

Results Your data should include charts and
drawings such as the one you did for these experiments. They should be clearly labeled and easy to
read. You may also want to include photographs
and drawings of any fungi you worked with, the
experimental setup, and results, which will help
other people visualize the experiment.
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may want
to display your results, such as any experimental
setup you designed. You may also want to include
specimens, in a closed container, so that others
can observe what you studied. If you have completed a nonexperimental project, explain clearly
what your research question was and illustrate
your findings.
Mushrooms are one of the most

familiar types of fungi. FI EL D
M ARK PUB LI CAT IO NS.
Related Projects Fungi are a broad kingdom

filled with many possible experiments at hand
because fungi grow on such a wide variety of
sources. Different materials will grow different
fungi. You could conduct a project on the differences among one group of fungi, such as molds.
Most molds grow well on materials such as bread, used coffee-grounds,
fruits, or other food items that are moist with no preservatives. You could
isolate and grow the same type of fungi on a variety of food sources. Or
you can keep the food source constant and grow different types of fungi
on it.
You could also perform a project on the reproduction of fungi.
Examine the spores of fungi and the different methods fungi use to
reproduce. For a research project, you could look at how fungi have
had an effect on humans, in both positive and negative ways. You could
look at how food manufacturers protect food against certain types of
fungi and how fungi are a natural part of many foods.

Darling, Kathy. Theres a Zoo on You! Brookfield, CT: The Millbrook Press,
2000. A look at fungi, bacteria, viruses, and other microbes that affect
humans.
550
Fungi
Fogel, Robert. Fun Facts About Fungi. http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/fungi/

FunFacts/factindx.htm (accessed on March 11, 2008). Fun facts and
information on fungi.
Ho, David. Alexander Fleming. Time.com. http://www.time.com/time/
time100/scientist/profile/fleming.html (accessed on March 11, 2008). A
profile of Alexander Fleming, who was one of the principal discoverers of the
antibiotic penicillin.
LichenLand: Fun with Lichens. http://ocid.nacse.org/lichenland (accessed on
March 11, 2008). Information and close up photographs of a wide range of
lichens.
Nardo, Don. Germs. San Diego, CA: KidHaven Press, 2002. Basic explanation
of microbes.
Pascoe, Elaine. Fungi. New York: PowerKids Press, 2003. Simple introduction
to fungi with many pictures.
Silverstein, Robert, Alvin, and Virginia. Fungi. New York: Twenty first Century
Books, 1996. Clear details on the fungi kingdom.
Volk, Tom. Tom Volks Fungi. http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms fungi
(accessed on March 11, 2008). Information on fungi with links, pictures, and
answers to frequently asked questions.
551
Genetics
our genes play a major role in who you are: your features and even
some personality traits come from your genes. Many other characteristics are produced from a combination of your genes and the environment. Genes are the basic units of heredity. They are passed from parent
to offspring, and are carried in almost every cell of the body. Genetics is
the science of genes and understanding how traits are passed down from
parent to child.
A chunk of DNA Genes are segments of DNA that are housed in the
nucleus (center) of cells. DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is a
long molecule shaped like a twisted ladder, which is called a double helix.
In organisms that have two parents, like humans, half the DNA in the
body comes from the father and half from the mother. All our DNA is
packed so tightly in every cell, that if you attached all the molecules
together it would stretch thousands of miles.
What makes each persons DNA unique is the order of the four
chemical letters that make up the molecule. The chemicals are A, G, C, T,
for short. Much like the meaning of words, the sequence of the letters
determines its meaning. The letters AGCCT may produce a different
characteristic than the CGCCT sequence. DNA sequences contain instructions to make proteins. Every organism has many thousands of different
proteins, and it is the proteins that carry out the instructions. Each section of
DNA that provides the instructions to manufacture a protein is called a
gene. A gene determines the protein, and the protein carries out its specific
function.
In each cell, DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes.
Species have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs
of chromosomes: 23 from the mother paired with 23 from the father,
making a total of 46. Sperm and egg cells have 23 unpaired chromosomes. When the sperm and egg cells join, the child gets 23 chromosomes
553
Genetics
What makes each persons

DNA unique is the order of the
four chemical letters that
make up the molecule.
ILLUSTRATION BY TEMAH NELSON.
When the sperm and egg

cells join, the child gets
23 chromosomes from
each parent, one of each.
NE LS ON.
554
from each parent, one of each. That means,

except for the sex cells, you have two copies of
every chromosome and thus, every gene.
It starts with a pea No one knew about
genes or DNA when the curiosity of Gregor
Mendel (18221884) led to a turning point in
the study of genetics. Mendel was an Austrian
monk who was interested in science and mathematics. He failed his teaching examination,
moved to a monastery and continued studying
science. He also enjoyed gardening.
Mendel wanted to understand the traits of pea
plants, such as color and shape. Between 1856 and
1863 he bred numerous pea plants, carefully noting his experiments and the traits of each offspring.
His results led him to several key genetic laws. One
is the law of independent assortment, which says
that parentss traits are passed to the offspring
independently of one another.
Some scientists at the time theorized that traits were blended
together, a mixture of both parents. In blending, the theory went, a
pink flowering plant would spring from a cross between a red flowering
and a white flowering plant. But Mendel showed that traits do not mix or
blend. The red trait stays red and the white trait remains white. Parents
pass down their traits intact.
Even if the offspring does not appear to have the parentss traits (a red
or a white color, for example) they are still carrying these traits. The traits
can appear in the next generation. Mendel showed this in his pea studies.
A plant with wrinkled peas bred to another plant
with wrinkled peas produced a plant that has a
quarter of its peas smooth. This led Mendel to
the idea of dominant and recessive genes.
We have two forms of every gene: one from
the mother and one from the father. These forms
are called alleles. If a trait is dominant, you needs
only one of the alleles for the trait to be visible, or
expressed. Dimples, for example, are a dominant trait. If a child inherits the dimple gene
from only one parent the child will dimple. If a
Genetics
trait is recessive, you need both copies of the gene

for it to be apparent. Red hair is a recessive trait. A
child would need to inherit the red-hair gene
from both the mother and father to be a red head.
After Mendel, many researchers have made
findings that have helped us better understand
genetics. The identification of mutations was
another major finding. A mutation is a change
in the DNA of a gene. There are many different
ways mutations can occur. Sometimes a mutation is repaired before it causes a trait to be
expressed. And there are many mutations that
have no negative effect. But there are also mutations that can cause health disorders. The sickle
cell disease, for example, is a blood disorder that
can cause pain and serious health problems. The
sickle cell gene is recessive, and it occurs from a
single letter mutation in the DNA.
Altering the genes As researchers have
learned how genes function and where they are
located, it has led to techniques that recombine or
modify genes. This technique is called genetic
engineering or recombinant DNA technology. In simple form, genetic
engineering first identifies a gene that expresses a desired trait. The gene is
snipped out of the DNA and inserted into the DNA of another cells DNA
in another organism. The new trait is then expressed in this organism.
The first genetically engineered medicine was, in 1982, the hormone
insulin. The gene for insulin was isolated from a person and inserted into
bacteria cells. The bacteria cells, which rapidly reproduced, began producing insulin. Genetic engineering is now commonly used in research to
track or see activity in the body. Researchers often use a gene that
produces bioluminescence. Organisms that carry this gene, such as the
firefly and certain fish, give off natural light. The gene is attached to a
specific gene or compound in the body, which allows researchers to
follow the light and see its activity. Today, genetic engineering is commonly used in research, medicine, and industry.
There is ongoing research to learn more about what genes do and
how they behave. In 2003, researchers finished a massive project to
sequence the entire DNA of humans. This was called the Human
Gregor Mendel used pea plants

to experiment with genetics.
GET TY I MA GES .
555
Genetics
spliced gene
Genome Project. By studying and understanding

what genes do and how they function, researchers
hope to answer many questions related to development and disease. There is also ongoing research to
sequence the DNA of many other organisms.
In the following experiment and project,
you will explore more about genes and how
they are inherited. If you want to learn more
about DNA, see the DNA chapter.
EXPERIMENT 1
Genetic Traits: Will you share
certain genetic traits more with
family members than nonfamily members?
Gene splicing is also called

genetic engineering or
recombinant DNA technology.
NE LS ON.
The allele for widows peak is

dominant; straight hairline is
recessive. IL LUS TR ATI ON BY
TEM AH NEL SO N.
widows peak
In appearances, there are many broad traits

humans share. But it is the unique set of characteristics that distinguishes people. Some physical
characteristics are more common than others. A trait that only needs one
allele to appear is a dominant trait; and a trait that needs both alleles to appear
is recessive. There are many characteristics, such as hair color, that are due to
a combination of multiple genes. Other characteristics, such as height, relate
to a combination of genes and the environmental influences. There are also
characteristics that researchers have traced to one or only a handful of genes.
In this experiment, you will compare five genetic characteristics to
family members and participants outside your family. You can then
determine the percent of family members and non-family members
who have the trait, and compare it to whether you have the trait. You
will need a lot of family and non-family members. Try to observe the frequency of the followno widows peak
ing characteristics in at least five to ten people.
These features are due to only one or a few genes.
Widows peak or straight hairline: A widows peak gives the forehead hairline a
downward dip, like a V. If there is no
widows peak, the hairline is straight. The
allele for widows peak is dominant;
straight hairline is recessive.
556
Genetics
WORDS TO KNOW
Alleles: One version of the same gene.
Bioluminescence: Light produced by living
organisms.
Base pairs: In DNA, the pairing of two nucleotides
with each other: adenine (A) with thymine (T),
and guanine (G) with cytosine (C).
Chromosome: A structure of DNA found in the
cell nucleus.
Double helix: The shape taken by DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules in a nucleus.
Gene: The basic unit of heredity; the genes contain
a section of DNA that codes for a protein.
Genetic engineering: A technique that modifies the
DNA of living cells in order to make them change
its characteristics. Also called genetic
modification.
Nucleus: The central part of the cell that contains
the DNA.
Dominant gene: A gene that passes on a certain

characteristic, even when there is only one copy
(allele) of the gene.
Pedigree: A diagram that illustrates the

pattern of inheritance of a genetic trait in
a family.

genetic information for an organisms development; double helix. (Pronounced DEE-ox-seerye-bo-noo-klay-ick acid)
Protein: A complex chemical compound consisting

of many amino acids attached to each other that
are essential to the structure and functioning of
all living cells.
DNA replication: The process by which one DNA

strand unwinds and duplicates all its information, creating two new DNA strands that are
identical to each other and to the original
strand.
Recessive gene: A gene that produces a certain

characteristic only two both copies (alleles) of the
gene are present.
experiment.
Dimples versus no dimples: Dimples are from the dominant allele;

no dimples is the recessive allele.
Earlobes: Detached or not detached: If the earlobes hang free they
are detached. Detached earlobes are a dominant allele; attached
earlobes are recessive. Earlobes are the dominant allele and
attached earlobes are recessive.
Mid-finger hair: Hair on any of the middle-section of the fingers is
a dominant allele. If the middle section of the fingers are hairless, it
is from a recessive allele.
557
Genetics


on your knowledge of genes and heredity. This
the participants


possible hypothesis for this experiment: I will share at least 50% of my
characteristics with my family members.
Variables are anything you can change in an experiment. In this case,
the variable you will change are the participants. The variable you will
measure will be whether participants have the specific trait.
Level of Difficulty Moderate (due to the number of participants needed).
Materials Needed
about 10 non family-member participants

family members, at least five
notepad and pen
Detached earlobes are a
dominant allele; attached
earlobes are recessive.

Timetable Varies widely depending upon the
number of participants. Each participant should

take about five to 10 minutes to document.
NE LS ON.
detatched ear
558
attatched ear
1. Make two charts of each trait you will be

observing, one for family members and
one for non-family members.
2. Note whether you have each of the
characteristics.
3. Begin testing family members and nonfamily members. For each person that has
Genetics
the characteristic, make a mark if it matches

you. For example, if you have a widows
peak and your sister has a widows peak,
make a mark. If your sister does not have a
widows back, note the results separately.
4. When you have finished testing all participants, add up how many family members and non-family members you tested.
Summary of Results For both the family and
absent
non-family member charts, divide the number of

participants by the number of participants who share the same trait as you.
This will give you what percent of people in each category share your traits.
What percent do family members share your traits? Are there certain traits
that you share equally or more with the people outside your family. You
may want to graph your data, and write up a summary of your findings.
mid-digit hair
Hair on any of the middlesection of the fingers is a

dominant allele. ILLUSTRATION
BY TEMAH NELSON.
PROJECT 2
Building a Pedigree for Taste
Purpose/Hypothesis It is not always practical or possible to breed organ-
isms the way Mendel did, and so scientists need other ways to understand
how traits are passed down through the generations. A pedigree is a
My Traits
Family
non-Family
widows
peak
dimples
earlobes
detatched
mid-finger
hair
% shared
traits
Step 1: Make two charts of

each trait you will be observing,
one for family members and
one for non-family members.
TE MA H NE LSO N.
559
Genetics
diagram that is similar to a family tree. The

pedigree shows as many generations as possible
and in genetics, it shows which family members
have a particular trait. Looking at who inherits a
This experiment is relatively straightforward and
trait over several generations helps predict if a
you should have no major troubles. The one
problem you may have is to get enough particitrait is genetic and if it is recessive or dominant.
pants to give you strong data. The number of
The purpose of this project is to construct a
family members and non-family participants
pedigree of one trait. The trait you will follow is
does not have to be the same, but the more
if someone can taste or not taste PTC. PTC
people you can collect data on for each group,
stands for phenylthiocarbamide. This compound
the more accurate your data will be.
gives foods like broccoli and coffee a bitter flavor.
By constructing a pedigree, it will help you determine if the trait is dominant or recessive.
You will need three generations of family members for this project.
For example, you and your siblings would be one generation; your
parents would be another generation; and their parents would be a
third generation. You do not need to use your family; you could make
a pedigree of a friends family.
All pedigrees have the same symbols. The basic symbols include:
squares symbolize males

circle symbolize females
a line between male and female symbolizes mating
individuals who show the trait have a dark circle or square
individuals who do not show the trait have a white circle or square
each generation is numbered to the left with Roman numerals
Arabic numbers, from left to right, represent birth order
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate (because of data collection).

Materials Needed
PTC paper (available from hobby and science supply sources); see
Note below.
family members
paper/pencil
Note: You could also construct pedigrees for other traits you are curious
about; see Experiment 1 for other options.
560
Genetics
Timetable Varies widely depending upon finding family members.

1. Use the symbols and the illustration as a

guide to make a pedigree of the family you
are going to analyze. Make sure to number
and label the pedigree.
2. Have as many people as possible taste the
PTC paper. If they can taste the PTC,
color in the square or circle.
3. For any people you cannot test, place a
question mark in the square or circle.
Step 2: Have as many people as

possible taste the PTC paper.
Summary of Results When you have finished testing all the family
NE LS ON.
members, study your pedigree. If only one parent has the trait, how
does it affect the offspring? If no parents can taste PTC, do any of the
offspring? The ability to taste PTC is a dominant trait. Can you tell this
from your pedigree? You might want to construct pedigrees of different
families, especially if the family you tested was a non-PTC tasting family.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The study of genetics can
reach into many different fields and areas. As researchers continue to understand genes, consider what answers genetics can give us. You may want to
explore characteristics of certain animals, such as dogs, or how different
animals are related to one another. You can also
investigate technologies that scientists use to understand genetics. What are some ways that genes are
manipulated, and how can this affect human life?
with your science teacher to start gathering information on genetics questions that interest you.
A pedigree is a diagram that is

similar to a family tree.
NEL SO N.

561
Genetics

There should be no major problems in this

project. The main issue will be finding enough
family members to test if they can taste PTC.
You may have to mail family members the PTC
test strips. If it is not possible in your family, you
can conduct the project on another family.

propose to do.
question at hand.
charts and graphs such as the one you did for these experiments. They should
be clearly labeled and easy to read. As DNA is difficult to visualize, you may
also want to include photographs and drawings of your experimental setup
and results. This will help others visualize the steps in the experiment.
Related Projects There are several genetic techniques you can do that give
more information on DNA and genes. Two commonly used techniques are
gel electrophoresis and DNA fingerprinting. These techniques will require
special equipment and help. (Check the Resources section for companies that
sell kits.) You can also replicate an experiment of Mendels with pea plants.
You can also focus on predicting genetic characteristics. There are
some genetic traits that differ among males and females. The trait for
color-blindness, for example, is carried on the females sex chromosomes
and affects mostly males. You can conduct color-blind tests in a certain
population (classmates and family) and determine if your sample matches
the overall population.
Advances in genetics and genetic manipulations has also brought
many ethical questions and controversies. You could investigate one
potential controversy, such as genetically manipulated food, and present
different viewpoints.
562
Genetics

Cells Alive. Animal Cell Mitosis. http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm
(accessed May 22, 2008). Interactive animation of chromosomes dividing
into two cells.
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. DNA from the Beginning. http://
www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/3/concept (accessed on June 2, 2008). Clear
explanation of genetic concepts with illustrations, animations, and audio.
DNA From the Beginning. http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb (accessed on March 1,
2008). An animated introduction on the basics of DNA, heredity, and
genetics.
National Institute of General Medical Sciences. The New Genetics. http://
publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/index.html (accessed May 22,
2008). Comprehensive information with illustrations of how genes work.
Ridley, Matt. Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters. New York:
HarperColllins, 2000. Each chapter looks at one gene on a humans
chromosome.
The Tech Museum of Innovation. Understanding Genetics. http://
www.thetech.org/genetics (accessed on May 17, 2008). Online DNA exhibit
includes images of cells and DNA.
The University of Utah, Genetic Science Learning Center. Tour of the Basics.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/tour (accessed May 22, 2008).
Basic information with illustrations of DNA and genes.
563
Germination
he first stage in the development of a seed, when it grows from seed to

seedling, is germination. Like humans, seeds are equipped with their
own growing mechanisms. An embryo and a supply of food exist within
these tiny life starters. But until they are exposed to certain conditions of
temperature, moisture, oxygen, and in some cases light, seeds remain
dormant, or inactive, for days, months, or even hundreds of years. For
example, scientists found a North American Arctic lupine seed that was
about 10,000 years old. It was the oldest seed found so far, and it
eventually grew into a plant similar to todays lupine. The seed waited
10,000 years and sprouted only when the right germination conditions
were in place.
Really old books about green things Botany, the study of plant life,
had its beginnings in ancient Greece. Theophrastus (c. 372287 B . C . E .)
wrote two large botanical works that were so revolutionary they guided
scientists for the next 1,800 years. In his books On the History of Plants
and On Causes of Plants, Theophrastus set down a theory of plant growth,
plant structure analysis, and the relationship of agriculture to botany. He
also identified, classified, and described 550 plants.
Getting through the ground Germination begins with a seeds

activation underground and ends when the first leaves push through the
soil. A seed may remain viable, that is, capable of germination, for many
years. Temperature plays a big factor in germination. The most favorable
temperature ranges from 59 F to 100.4 F (15 C to 38 C). Temperatures above or below this range slow down the germination rate.
Absorbing water is a seeds first activity. Every seed has a little helper
called a micropyle, an opening that enables water to enter the seed more
easily. Water kicks off the seeds life processes, including respiration.
Respiration is the process of oxygen from the air entering the seed and
helping the cell use its stored food as energy. Too much water can literally
565
Germination
In the first stages of a seeds

germination, the cotyledons
start to use up stored food and
its root system begins to grow.
drown out the necessary oxygen, so water has to

be available in the right amount.
The embryo, including one or two cotyledons, or seed leaves, starts to use up its stored
food. Its cells begin to divide and grow, which
causes the seeds coat, or testa, to burst open.
The seeds root system, or radicule, starts to
grow, threading its way through the testa into
the soil.
The cotyledon develops into the shape we
call a seedling. It has two parts. The upper part
supports an embryonic shoot at the end. This eventually pushes through
the soil as a stem and leaves. The lower part contains the roots. As seeds
grow, the stem and leaves push up. Food reserves provide the enormous
energy they need to heave their way through soil. Seedlings have been
known to push through tarred roads. Once they are above ground,
chlorophyll usually begins to form in the leaves and stems.
Germination is the process a dormant seed goes through when it
wakes up to begin the growing process. Our lives depend on plants.
Conducting germination experiments will take the mystery out of this
important life process.
EXPERIMENT 1
As they grow, seedlings use up
much energy. As a result, they
can actually push through
tarred roads while growing.
566
Effects of Temperature on Germination: What

temperatures encourage and discourage
germination?
investigate the ideal temperature needed to
awaken a seed and stimulate it to grow. Before
outcome of this experiment based on your
knowledge of seed growth. This educated
Germination
WORDS TO KNOW
Botany: The branch of biology involving the scientific study of plant life.
Micropyle: Seed opening that enables water to

enter easily.

photosynthesis, or the conversion of carbon
Radicule: Seeds root system.
Cotyledon: Seed leaves, which contain the stored

source of food for the embryo.
Dormant: The condition of a seed when its
growing processes are inactive.

oxygen to an animals body. It also describes a
series of chemical reactions that take place inside
cells.
Seedling: A small plant just starting to grow into its
mature form.
Embryo: The seed of a plant, which through germination can develop into a new plant.
Testa: A tough outer layer that protects the embryo

and endosperm of a seed from damage.
Germination: The beginning of growth of a seed.

experiment.

experiment.

measurable. It must be something you can
test through observation. Your experiment will
correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for
this experiment: Temperatures near or below
freezing and those over 100F will prevent
germination.
the temperature, and the variable you will measure is the number of seeds that germinate. You
expect those seeds stored in very hot and very
cold temperatures will not germinate.
Viable: The capability of developing or growing

under favorable conditions.

the temperature of the surrounding air
the amount of water provided
the type of soil used
are everything that might affect the germination of the seeds. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the seeds
germination.
567
Germination
Materials Needed
15 seeds (Lima beans, kidney beans, and

lentils are good seed choices; use only one
The lamp can cause fires when not handled
variety.)
properly. Ask an adult to help you set it up.
water
3 sponges
3 plastic trays big enough to hold a sponge
3 napkins big enough to hold a sponge
3 thermometers (Fahrenheit or Celsius)
access to a refrigerator
a lamp with a 40-watt bulb
Approximate Budget $10. (The seeds may be purchased at a supermarket
as dried beans or you may find them in your familys kitchen. Try to
borrow thermometers to reduce the cost.)
Timetable 20 minutes to set up the experiment; one to two weeks to
complete it.
1. Place a sponge into each of the plastic trays.

2. Place five seeds on top of each sponge.
Steps 1 and 2: Set-up of plastic

tray with sponge and five seeds
on top of sponge. GAL E GR OU P.
568
Germination
Steps 3 to 5: Set-up of plastic

tray with napkin over seeds and
thermometer. G AL E GR OUP .
3. Pour water over the seeds and the sponge so that water collects in
the tray. Do not pour too much. The seeds should not sit in the
water.
4. Place a napkin over the seeds to keep them from drying out.
5. Place one tray indoors, away from a window or door. Place a thermometer under
the napkin to record temperature.
6. Place another tray with seeds in the
refrigerator. Again, place the thermometer under the napkin to record the
temperature.
7. Place the third tray 10 to 12 inches (25 to
30 centimeters) away from the lamp and
turn it on.
8. After about an hour, begin to record
the temperature and condition of the
seeds. Make up a data sheet with the
headings Room Temperature and Location. Underneath add Date, Temperature, and Seed Activity. Then fill it in
daily. Lift the napkin and diagram the
changes in the seeds.
Step 7: Placement of third tray

underneath the lamp. GA LE
GRO UP.
569
Germination
remedy the problem.
Problem: The sponge dries out too quickly.
Possible cause: There is not enough humidity.
Cover the seeds with a loose layer of plastic
wrap. This will increase humidity and prevent
the seeds from drying out.
9. Make sure the sponge stays wet at all

times and the seeds are not under water.
Check on the seeds daily.
Summary of Results Compare the data on your
chart and summarize your findings. Did the
results support your hypothesis? Which tray of
seedlings grew the most? Which tray of seedlings
did not grow at all?
Change the Variables To further explore how
temperature affects germination, you can vary

the experiment in the following ways:
Use different types of seeds and see if one
type of seed is more tolerant of high or low
temperatures than others.
Try growing seeds at different temperatures without watering
them. Do any sprout?
Try growing seeds in the dark at different temperatures. Cover the
seed trays to block all light from reaching the seeds. Does light
seem to be a factor in germination?
EXPERIMENT 2
Comparing Germination Times: How fast can
seeds grow?
Purpose/Hypothesis Each seed type has an average germination time. The
seed waits for the correct conditions to occur. For example, if a seed emerged
after the first warm day in spring, it might get caught by a late frost and die.
So the seed may wait for consistent conditions that are ideal for growth.
In this experiment, the goal is to compare the germination time for
two different varieties of seeds. Before you begin, make an educated guess
about the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of seed
growth. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
570
Germination

When two different varieties of seeds are exposed
to the same growing conditions, one group will
consistently germinate before the other.
the type of seed, and the variable you will measure is the time it takes to germinate. You expect
one type of seed to germinate before the other.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate. (Daily atten-
tion is required during the two-week experiment.)

the types of seeds used
the amount of water provided
takes for the seeds to germinate. If you change
germination time.
Materials Needed
12 seedstwo different varieties; six lima

bean seeds and six radish seeds
2 to 3 cups of potting soil
egg carton (dozen size)
water in a spray bottle
tray big enough to hold the egg carton
fork
Approximate Budget $2 for seeds; borrow the spray bottle if possible.
Timetable 15 minutes to set up and two weeks to run the experiment.
1. Use the fork to poke holes in the bottom of the wells in the egg
carton. This will allow drainage. Label the wells with the numbers
one to 12one to six along the back row and seven to 12 along the
front row.
2. Place the six lima bean seeds in the back row (wells one to six) and
the six radish seeds in the front row (wells seven to 12).
3. Fill the wells with soil to the top. (Each seed should have the same
amount of soil in the well.) Place the egg carton on the tray.
571
Germination
Steps 1 and 2: Set-up of

drainage holes and seeds in the
egg carton. GAL E GR OU P.
4. Using the spray bottle, water each well with the same number of
squirts. Make sure all the soil is wet.
5. Place the egg carton/tray on a window sill in a warm room.
6. Water daily, making sure the soil stays wet.
7. Perform a daily inspection of your seedlings. Record the results on
a chart with your observations. Number across the top from one to
12, with columns underneath. Then number the days down the
far left of the chart, from one to 10. Use symbols illustrated to
depict the stage of germination that is occurring.
Step 7: Four views of egg carton

wells as the seeds grow: no
change, emergence of seedling,
cotyledons open, and first true
leaves open. GAL E GR OU P.
572
Germination
Summary of Results The goal of this experiment
is to compare the average time of germination

(from beginning to emergence of the first true
leaves) for each seed species. Look at your results
chart and determine the average number of days it
took for the first true leaves to appear for each seed
type. Which seeds germinated faster? Did one
group consistently germinate before the other?
Change the Variables To further explore seed
Here is a problem that may arise in your
experiment, a possible cause, and ways to
remedy it.
Problem: The seeds have not done anything for
two weeks.
Possible cause: They may need more water. Try
increasing the water and storing them in a
warmer location. If that does not work, replace
the seeds with new ones.
germination times, change the environmental

conditions under which you try to sprout the
seeds. In separate experiments, vary the amount
of water, sunlight, or warmth provided for one
type of seed, such as radish seeds. Do radish seeds sprout more quickly
under certain environmental conditions? Then repeat the experiments with
seeds of another type, such as bean seeds. Or you might expose identical
trays of radish seeds and bean seeds to the same harsh environmental
conditions (little water, cold temperatures) to see which seeds sprout first.
EXPERIMENT 3
Seed Scarification: Does breaking the seed
shell affect germination time?
Purpose/Hypothesis There are some plants that go through a period of
inactivity, called dormancy. Dormancy can protect the seed from harsh
Step 7: Sample seedling growth

chart for Experiment 2. GA LE
GR OU P.
573
Germination
environmental conditions, such as cold. To help

the seed stay dormant, some seeds have develWhat Are the Variables?
oped a hard, thick seed coat. The coat keeps out
water and nutrients.
Scarification is the process of cracking or
opening the seed coat. In nature, seed scarification can happen several ways, such as the seed
the types of seeds
falling from a tree or thawing after freezing.
People can cause seed scarification by hand. In
the amount of water
this experiment, you will look at how seed scar the amount of light
ification affects germination. Using the same
type of seeds, you will slightly nick open several
of the seed coats. With another group of seeds,
you will nick the seed coat and then allow the
takes for the seeds to germinate. If you change
seeds to soak in water. You can compare the
germination time of these experimental seeds to
a group of control seeds.
germination time.
your knowledge of what a seed needs to germinate and seed coats. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
Step 3: Gently make one or two

nicks in the seed shell. Do not cut
the seed too hard or it could injure
the inner seed. I LLU STR AT IO N
574


Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The group of seeds that are scarified will
consistently germinate before the seeds not
scarified.
changing the seed shell, and the variable you will
measure is the time it takes to germinate. You
expect one type of seed to germinate before the
other.
Germination

Materials Needed
12 seedsof the same type; sweet peas,

moonflowers, or morning glories work
well (the seeds should be relatively large
with a thick outer shell)
1 10-section peat pellet or similar type
starter pot, with a cover (available at gardening stores); you can replace this with 2
to 3 cups of potting soil and an egg carton
water
3 plastic bags
paper towel
plant labels
knife

Have an adult help you cut the seeds. Because
the seeds are small, your adult helper will need
to handle the knife extremely carefully.

Timetable 30 minutes to set up over 24 hour
period; four to 10 days for germination.
Step 5: Wrap Scarification/

Moisture group of the seeds in a
wet paper towel. ILLUSTRATION
BY TEMAH NELSON.
Step 7: Cover the peat pellet (or

carton) and set aside in a warm
environment. I LL UST RA TI ON
con
tro
l
scarifi
catio
control
scarification
n
to e
ca ur
if st
ar o
sc m
icatistounre
scarifm
o
1. Follow the direction for the peat pellet or add soil to the sections in
the egg carton.
2. Separate the seeds into three groups, with two to four seeds in each
group. Place one group of seeds into a plastic bag labeled Control. Place the second group of seeds
into the bag labeled Scarification, and
set the last group in a bag labeled Scarification/Moisture.
3. With the Scarification group, have an
adult help you take a knife and gently
make one or two nicks in the seed shell.
Do not cut the seed too hard or it could
injure the inner seed. Return the seeds to
its plastic bag.
4. Repeat this same process with the Scarification/Moisture group.
575
Germination
5. Wrap Scarification/Moisture group of

the seeds in a wet paper towel. Wrap the
Germination Time
seeds in the towel and place it in a plastic
10
bag labeled Scarification/Moisture.
9
Allow these seeds to sit overnight
8
6. Plant each group of seeds separately.
7
Place about two to three seeds in each
6
section. Dig a small well in the soil,
5
plant and water. Label a marker with
4
the type of seed and insert. Repeat this
3
with the other two groups of seeds. Each
2
of the seeds should have the same amount
1
of water.
control
scarification scarification
7. Cover the peat pellet (or carton) and set
moisture
aside in a warm environment.
8. Check daily, making sure the soil stays
Step 9: Sample graph to mark
moist.
when each of the seeds
germinate. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
9. Set up a graph (see illustration) to mark when each of the seeds
T EM AH NE LS ON.
germinate.
Summary of Results Take a look at your chart. Which group of seeds
germinated faster? Did the seeds that were soaked in moisture geminate
faster or slower than the seeds that were only nicked? Write a summary of
your results.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Since germination is
dependent on so many variables, looking at variables may be the best

place to start. For instance, cotyledons are the stored source of food for
the growing embryo. What would happen if one cotyledon was removed?
Or what would happen if a seed was cooked in boiling water for a minute?
What would happen if the seed coat was removed before germination?
Choose an aspect that interests you, then proceed with the research.
information on germination questions that interest you.
576
Germination

propose to do.
question at hand.
Here is a problem that may arise in your
remedy it.
Problem: The seeds are not germinating, even
after 10 days.

Possible cause: They may need more water or

the soil might not have any nutrients. Make sure
you have nutrient-rich soil. You can purchase it
at a gardening store. Give the seeds water and
repeat.

selected.
Problem: The seeds that were nicked with a

knife did not germinate.
Possible cause: You may have cut and

damaged the inside of the seed. Repeat the
experiment, taking care to only nick the seeds.
As a scientist investigating a question, you must

gather information and share it with others.
Bring all the data together and write a conclusion. Simplify the data into charts or graphs for
others to understand easily.
Related Projects When dealing with seeds, you
can take many different routes. You can try

growing experiments or your investigation can
be about seed anatomy, seed type (monocot or
dicot), or methods of spreading the seeds.
Problem: There was no difference in any of the

seeds germination.
Possible cause: Not all seeds need scarification.
You may have used a type of seed that did not.
Try to purchase one of the recommended seed
types, or ask for a recommendation at a gardening store for a type of seeds that needs
scarification.

Andrew Rader Studios. Plant Basics. Raders Biology4kids.com. http://
www.biology4kids.com/files/plants main.html (accessed on February 8,
2008). Information on plant biology and structures.
Burnie, David. Plant. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1989. Includes chapters on
plant life processes such as A Plant Is Born, which covers germination.
Missouri Botanical Garden. Biology of Plants. http://www.mbgnet.net/
bioplants/ (accessed on February 6, 2008). Basic information about plant
biology and life.
577
Germination
United States Department of Agriculture. Plants Database. http://

plants.usda.gov (accessed on February 6, 2008). Provides a list of plants in
every state, along with images of many plants.
The Visual Dictionary of Plants. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1992. Offers an
in depth overview of plants and their activities through text and clear,
detailed photos.
578
Gravity
arth orbits the Sun. The Moon orbits the Earth. But how do the
planets stay in the sky? How do we stay on Earths surface? Englishman Sir Isaac Newton (16421727) figured out the answers to these
questions while watching an apple fall in his orchard. Newton reasoned
that the force that pulls the Moon into its curved path around Earth
instead of a straight line was the same force that pulled the apple to the
ground. Newton was a scientist and mathematician, and he wrote his
theory on a scrap of paper, something he did with all his thoughts and
formulas. The falling apple initiated his famous universal law of gravity,
which states that the attracting force between any two bodies is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. It was published in his book
Principia in 1687.
Well, how do they stay up there? Danish scientist Tycho Brahe
(15711630) developed a theory of planetary motions. Then, in 1609,
Johannes Keppler used Brahes theory when he said that the planets
orbited elliptically rather than in a circle. An elliptical orbit is a curved
path similar to the shape of an egg. Newtons laws unlocked many
answers to questions scientists had been struggling with as they tried to
figure out, among other things, what kept the planets orbiting in the first
place.
The planets orbit and position themselves according to a balanced
set of natural laws. One law is called inertia, the tendency of objects
to continue whatever motion is affecting them. In other words, a rotating
planet continues to rotate; a stationary book remains sitting on a desk.
These objects continue to do what they do until a force causes an
acceleration or change in their state of motion. This was part of Newtons
First Law. In Newtons Second Law, he said the greater the force, the
greater the acceleration. He also introduced the concept of mass, the
579
Gravity
amount of atoms, in an object. The relationship

between an objects mass, acceleration, and the
forces exerted on it was defined in his Second
Law.
Newtons Third Law addressed gravity. For
example, both the Moon and Earth are attracted
to each other. But Earth has a much bigger mass,
so it has a more powerful gravitational attraction
that pulls the Moon into a curved path, or orbit,
around Earth. The Sun exerts pulling forces as
well. This attracting, pulling relationship exists
between all the planets, moons, and stars. It
keeps everything in the universe moving in an
orderly fashion.
Sir Isaac Newton developed the

theory of gravity as he watched
an apple fall. L IBR AR Y O F
C ONG RE SS.
High tide The gravitational forces of the

Moon and Sun pull on Earths surface water,
causing tides, or water surges, twice a day. The
Moon has a stronger gravitational pull because it
is closer to Earth than the Sun. Twice a month,
when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned, the
force of their gravitational pull causes the highest
tides, called spring tides. When the Sun and
Moon are at right angles, they pull in different
directions and have a weaker gravitational pull.
Then lower tides, called neap tides, take place.
What about me and the apple? What keeps your feet on the ground
is Earths gravitational force pulling you down. The amount of gravitational force Earth exerts on an object, in this case you, depends on your
mass. Earth has a very large mass, so its gravitational force is very strong.
That is why we are not falling into space. You exert an attracting gravitational force on Earth as well, but the pull is very weak.
If you are being pulled to the ground, it is easy to understand
why Earths gravitational force also pulled Newtons apple to the
ground. Gravitational forces have a great effect on our lives. Conducting experiments makes us aware of their presence and influence,
from keeping us from falling off the planet to allowing us to launch
rockets.
580
Gravity
WORDS TO KNOW
Acceleration: The rate at which the velocity and/
or direction of an object is changing with the
respect to time.

Elliptical: An orbital path which is egg-shaped or

resembles an elongated circle.
Universal law of gravity: The law of physics that

defines the constancy of the force of gravity
between two bodies.

experiment.
Inertia: The tendency of an object to continue in
its state of motion.

experiment.
Weight: The gravitational attraction of Earth on an
object; the measure of the heaviness of an object.
EXPERIMENT 1
Gravity: How fast do different objects fall?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will determine the effect
that mass has on the gravitational pull exerted on a falling object. You will
drop three pencils taped together at the same time as you drop a single
pencil to see whether the heavier group falls faster. You will also drop two
objects of about the same weight (a pencil and a Ping-Pong ball) but with
different shapes to see which falls faster.
According to the laws of physics, the falling
rate for all objects is the same. Gravity does pull
harder on objects with more mass. However,
objects with more mass also have more inertia.
Inertia causes objects to continue whatever motion
is affecting them. That means objects at rest tend
to stay at restthey resist moving. The more mass
an object has, the more inertia it has. The amount
of force needed to overcome inertia balances out
the pull of gravity, so objects with more mass fall at
the same rate as objects with less mass.
Falling rates can also be affected by air resistance, the force that air exerts on a moving object.
Air resistance pushes up on a falling object, while
The planets in the Andromeda

Galaxy, M31, follow an
elliptical orbit. P HOT O
581
Gravity

the weight of each pencil
whether the pencils are dropped in a
vertical or a horizontal position
the distance from which all objects are
dropped
the amount of force used when the
objects are dropped
are everything that might affect the mass and
shape of the objects. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on the speed with
which the objects hit the floor.
Step 1: Tape three of the pencils

together tightly. GA LE G RO UP.
gravity pulls down. The more surface an object

has, the more air resistance it has and the more
slowly it will fall. You can test this by crumpling
a sheet of paper into a ball and dropping it at the
same time as you drop a flat sheet of the same
paper. The flat sheet has more air resistance and
will fall more slowly.
Before you begin the experiment, make an
educated guess about the outcome based on your
knowledge of gravity. This educated guess, or
hypothesis for the pencil experiment: The group
of pencils and the single pencil will fall at the same
rate. For the Ping-Pong ball experiment, your
hypothesis might be this: The Ping-Pong ball
will fall more slowly than the pencil because its
shape gives it more air resistance.
the mass (pencils) and the shape (pencil and
Ping-Pong ball) of the objects. The variable
you will measure or observe is the time when
each object hits the floor.
Materials Needed
582
4 wooden pencils, unsharpened

masking tape
1 Ping-Pong ball
6-foot (1.8 m) step ladder
Gravity
Approximate Budget $5 for pencils, tape, and
Ping-Pong ball.

Ask an adult to climb the ladder so you can lie
on the floor and observe when the objects hit
the floor. No one should ever stand on the top
step of a ladder.
1. Tape three of the pencils together tightly.

2. Place the taped pencils and the single
pencil on the top of the ladder.
3. Ask your adult helper to climb the ladder.
4. Position yourself flat on the floor, about 6 feet (1.8 m) from the
ladder so you can observe the pencils hitting the floor.
5. Have the adult pick up the taped pencils in one hand and the
single pencil in his or her other hand.
6. Have the adult hold both sets of pencils at the same height from the
floor, in a vertical position, and drop them. Your helper should not
use any force, but simply let them both go at the same time.
7. Ask the adult to help you repeat this procedure with different
groupings of pencils. Record your observations in a table similar
to the one illustrated.
Steps 3 to 6: Adult drops pencils

from ladder; student positioned
for observation. GA LE GRO UP.
583
Gravity
Step 7: Results chart for

8. Have the adult repeat the procedure, dropping a single pencil, held
vertically to reduce air resistance, and the Ping-Pong ball. Observe
which object hits the floor first.
Summary of Results Study the observations on your table and decide
whether your hypotheses were correct. Did the taped pencils and the
single pencil hit the floor at the same time? If not, how would you explain
the difference? (The larger group of pencils would have slightly more
air resistance than the single pencil, even when dropped in vertical
positions.)
Did the single pencil hit the floor before the Ping-Pong ball? Why is
that? Write a paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining
whether they support your hypothesis.
Change the Variables Here are some ways you can vary this experiment:
Vary the distance from which you drop the objects. Can you
observe a difference in falling rates when the distance is longer
or shorter?
Try dropping other objects with different amounts of mass or the
same mass but different shapes. See how these changes affect their
falling rates.
584
Gravity
PROJECT 2
Measuring Mass: How
can a balance be made?
Purpose/Hypothesis A useful measurement for
science is not the weight but the mass of an

object. The mass is the amount of atoms that
make up an object. Here is your hypothesis: By
creating a balance with counterweights, you will
cancel out the effects of gravity and calculate the
mass of an object.
The materials used as a counterweight can be varied if the mass is
known. The balance you will create is accurate only for low-mass objects.
Do not exceed 0.9 ounces (25 grams) or accuracy will diminish.
Step 2: Mark the ruler in the

middle. G AL E GR OUP .

Materials Needed
2 5-ounce (148-ml) cups

plastic ruler, 1 foot (30 cm) long
dried beans
quarter, penny, nickel
30 small metal paper clips
pencil
Optional: dried split peas, Popsicle sticks
Approximate Budget $4 for the beans and wood.

1. Place the pencil on a level desk. If the pencil rolls, the desk is not
level.
2. Mark the ruler in the middle.
3. Place the ruler over the pencil at right angles, as illustrated.
4. At each end of the balance place the 5-ounce (148 milliliter) paper
cups. Draw rings to mark their positions.
5. Make sure the ruler is level, and neither side is touching the
tabletop.
585
Gravity
6. If a side is touching, very slightly move the ruler as it rests on the

pencil. Try to balance it perfectly.
7. As a test material, place a quarter (0.19 oz or 5.5 grams) in one
cup.
8. Place 1 nickel (0.175 oz. or 5 grams) and one paper clip (0.018 oz.
or 0.5 grams) in the other cup. The balance should be level.
9. Continue to test other combinations of materials to determine
which have equal mass.
Below is a list of common materials and their mass:
nickel: 0.175 oz. (5 grams)
dime: 0.08 oz. (2.3 grams)
penny: 0.087 oz. (2.5 grams)
quarter: 0.19 oz. (5.5 grams)
wooden Popsicle stick: 0.05 oz. (1.5 grams)
one paper clip: 0.018 oz. (0.5 grams)
dried split pea: 0.003 oz. (0.1 gram)
Summary of Results You now have made an instrument of measurement.
It is important that you keep a record of the standard measurements and

items for counterweights. Illustrated is a chart that you can make to keep
track of the mass of tested objects.
Modify the Experiment For a more in depth look at gravity and how air
pressure impacts gravity, you can do some simple experiments that will
illustrate the relationship between these two forces.
Steps 3 and 4: Place the ruler

over the pencil at right angles.
At each end of the balance place
the 5-ounce paper cups. GA LE
GR OU P.
586
Gravity
In Experiment 1, you learned that air resistance, the force that air exerts on a moving object,
affects the rate at which an object falls. Experiment
with this idea further by using a plastic soda bottle
and water. Using what you know about gravity and
air resistance, predict what would happen if you
added water to a soda bottle with holes and then
change the air resistance in the bottle. What would
happen to the water? How could air resistance
prevent the water from spilling out of the holes?
Carefully poke small holes in the bottom of
a plastic bottle. Fill the bottle with water and
twist on the cap. Hold onto the bottle cap and
lift it above a sink, while making sure you are not
squeezing the bottle. What happens?
Now remove the cap and lift the bottle
above the sink. What is happening to the
water? How do the results show how air resistance can work against the force of gravity?
during this project, possible causes, and ways to
Problem: When you tested the quarter, it did
not balance.
Possible cause: The balance is not accurate to
the 0.5 gram point. The actual mass of the
quarter is 5.6 grams. Try adding one or two split
peas to counter the weight.
Problem: The balance keeps tipping and it does
not seem to level out.
Possible cause: Try using a pencil that has flattened sides to decrease sensitivity.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Gravity is a force of
nature that can be examined and studied in

many different ways. Pretend to be Newton
and make observations about what happens
around you. Notice common events. Why does
a coin fall through water more slowly than
through air? Is gravity the same in water as it is
in air? The study of gravity will lead you into
other areas of physics such as friction, buoyant
force, and acceleration.
Recording chart for


587
Gravity

experiment:
propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Recording and Summarizing Results It is impor-
Air resistance working

against the force of gravity.
NE LS ON.
tant to be able to share your results with others. Put

any data you collect into charts or graphs. Even
Newton wrote down his measurements in journals.
When summarizing the results, reflect on
your question or purpose and describe how it
was answered or proven. Look at your hypothesis
and see if your initial idea was correct. Plot the
results on graphs and charts. Make them easy for
others to understand or follow.
Related Projects One type of experiment that would be fun might be a
scale to measure weight. All you need is a spring, hook, and some cardboard. By hanging objects on the hook and hanging them on the spring,
you can measure the pull of gravity on a mass.

Allaby, Michael, et al. The Visual Encyclopedia of Science. New York: Kingfisher,
1994. Includes illustrated science text and colorful photos that explain the
gravity concept.
Asimov, Isaac. Asimovs Chronology of Science and Discovery. New York: Harper &
Row, 1989. Offers a clear, direct explanation of gravity.
Magill, Frank N. The Great Scientists. Danbury, CT: Grolier Education Corp.,
1989. Contains a good background chapter about Isaac Newton, his
discovery of gravity, and other scientific theories he introduced.
588
Greenhouse Effect
n 1827, a French mathematician named Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier

came up with an interesting theory. He said Earths atmosphere protected its inhabitants against the freezing temperatures of space. Fourier
pointed out that Earths atmosphere acted as an insulator, an effect
similar to what happens when heat is trapped within the glass walls and
roof of a greenhouse. He called his theory the greenhouse effect.
Today we know that the greenhouse effect takes place when sunlight
passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by land and water. The
energy in the sunlight is converted to heat energy to warm the surface of
Earth. Some of this heat energy is re-radiated out into the atmosphere in
the form of infrared radiation. The infrared radiation has a longer wavelength than the sunlight and is absorbed by certain gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide. This traps the heat, keeping Earths surface
warm. The greenhouse effect is actually a good thing. Without it, we
would experience an average temperature of 2.2F (19C), and we
would all freeze.
Perfecting a theory Two scientists in the nineteenth century
expanded Fouriers theory. In 1861, English physicist John Tyndall
said that certain atmospheric gases, such as carbon monoxide and water
vapor, warmed Earths surface. In 1896, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius made the greenhouse theory clearer in a scientific article. He stated
that increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere could trap more of
the heat energy rising from Earth. More trapped heat energy meant
warmer temperatures on Earths surface. Arrhenius was the first to understand the concept of global warming and climate changes because of the
greenhouse effect.
We are all affected by the greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect

has been in the news a lot lately. Why? Carbon dioxide levels began to rise
during the late 1700s when machines began doing work that had
589
Greenhouse Effect
A greenhouse traps the Suns

heat within its glass walls and
roof, just as carbon dioxide does
in Earths atmosphere. PET ER
ARN OL D IN C.
Global warming, caused by the

greenhouse effect, causes polar
ice caps and glaciers to melt
faster. PHO TO R ES EAR CH ERS
I NC.
previously been done by humans and animals. The machines needed fuel
to work, and fossil fuels, such as coal and wood, were used. Fossil fuels
contain carbon. Burning these fuels releases the carbon, which combines
with the oxygen in air to form carbon dioxide. Back in the 1700s, this was
not a big problem because there were not as many people or machines.
But today, burning fossil fuels such as gasoline
has caused a critical situation.
Besides being used in vehiclesincluding
cars, trucks, and planesfossil fuels are used to
produce electricity. Burning these fossil fuels
releases billions of tons (metric tons) of carbon
dioxide into the air every year. At the same time,
many of the forests, which absorb carbon dioxide from the air, have been cut down. All of these
factors increase the volume of heat-trapping carbon dioxide gas in our atmosphere.
In addition, water vapor in the air and
about thirty other gases also trap Earths heat,
including gases from nitrogen-based fertilizers
and methane emissions from decomposing
vegetation.
590
Greenhouse Effect
WORDS TO KNOW
By-products: Something produced in the making
of something else.
Combustion: Any chemical reaction in which
heat, and usually light, are produced. The most
common form of combustion is when organic
substances combine with oxygen in the air to
burn and form carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Fossil fuels: A fuel such as coal, oil, gasoline, or
natural gas that was formed over millions of
years from the remains of plants and animals.
Global warming: Warming of Earths atmosphere
as a result of an increase in the concentration of
gases that store heat, such as carbon dioxide.
Greenhouse gases: Gases that absorb infrared

radiation and warm the air before the heat energy
escapes into space.
Infrared radiation: Electromagnetic radiation of a
wavelength shorter than radio waves but longer
than visible light that takes the form of heat.
Insulation: A material that is a poor conductor of
heat or electricity.
Microclimate: A unique climate that exists only in a
small, localized area.
Troposphere: Atmospheric layer closest to Earth
where all life exists.
an experiment.
These greenhouse gases absorb heat energy from Earth before it

escapes into space. According to scientists, these heat-trapping gases will
cause an average temperature rise of 38 F (1613 C) in the next 60
years, which could cause destructive weather changes.
Nitrogen-based fertilizers
contribute to the greenhouse
effect. PHO TO R ES EAR CH ERS
INC .
Conducting experiments and projects on

how the greenhouse effect works will help you
become aware of the delicate natural balance that
maintains Earths environment as we know it.
We have already experienced some of the problems caused by an overload of greenhouse gases,
including air pollution, which causes respiratory
problems. Being more aware of the greenhouse
effect may make you want to help reduce these
gases and help our planet.
591
Greenhouse Effect
EXPERIMENT 1
Creating a Greenhouse:
How much will the
temperature rise inside a
greenhouse?

measure the temperature inside a greenhouse.
A greenhouse is a small enclosure that maintains
the amount of sunlight that passes
a microclimate that is warmer than the climate
through the glass or plastic
outside it. A greenhouse is often used for growing
the amount of wind or rain
plants in cold weather. It is made of plastic or
the color of the material under the
glass that allows the Suns light energy to pass
greenhouse
through. When the light energy is absorbed by
the soil and plants inside, it warms them. Some of
are everything that might affect the temperathis energy is then re-radiated out into the greenture inside the greenhouse. If you change more
house in the form of infrared radiation, or heat
which variable had the most effect on
energy. Because the heat energy has a longer
temperature.
wavelength than the entering light energy, most
of the energy is absorbed and trapped by the
plastic or glass of the greenhouse walls and roof,
just as the greenhouse gases in our atmosphere absorb and trap the heat
energy from Earth. Although a small portion of the heat energy escapes,
most of it is reflected or re-radiated back into the greenhouse to warm
the air.
experiment based on your knowledge of greenhouses and the greenhouse
effect. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
the amount of sunlight reaching the
greenhouse

hypothesis for this experiment: The more sunlight that shines on the
greenhouse, the higher the inside temperature compared to the outside
temperature.
592
Greenhouse Effect
In this case, the variable you will change (or

let nature change) is the amount of sunlight that
reaches the greenhouse, and the variable you will
measure is the temperature inside the greenhouse
compared to the outside temperature. If the difference between the inside temperature and outside temperature is greater on days when more
sunlight reaches the greenhouse, you will know

Goggles and adult supervision are required
when hammering the nails. Wear gloves when
handling the glass.

Materials Needed
2 thermometers
4 wooden boards, roughly 1 x 6 x 20 inches (2.5 x 15 x
50 centimeters)
One 24 x 24-inch (60 x 60-centimeter) piece of transparent plastic
or glass, 0.25 inch (0.5 centimeter) thick
Eight 2-inch (5-centimeter) nails
hammer
goggles
gloves
How a greenhouse works. GAL E

GR OU P.
593
Greenhouse Effect
Approximate Budget $10. (Use any lumber that
is cost-effective.)
Timetable One week. (This experiment requires
a half-hour to assemble and one week to

monitor.)
Step 1: Carefully hammer two

nails through each end of a
piece of wood. GA LE GRO UP.
1. Hammer two nails through each end of a

piece of wood, as illustrated. Repeat with
a second piece of wood. Place the wood
into a square with the two pieces with nails opposite each other.
2. Hold the wood in position and assemble the box by carefully
driving the nails into the ends of the two remaining pieces of
wood.
Step 6: Sample recording chart

for Experiment 1. GA LE
GR OU P.
594
Greenhouse Effect
3. Place the piece of plastic or glass over the

wood box. Be sure it completely overlaps
the wood box so there are no gaps around
the edges.
4. Place the greenhouse outside in a sunny
spot. Put one thermometer inside the
greenhouse and one outside the greenhouse close by.
5. Record the temperature inside and outside at the same time in the morning,
afternoon, and evening for seven days.
Record for a longer period if three or
more days are mostly cloudy, windy, or
rainy.
6. Record the general weather conditions
during each day. See the results chart
illustrated.
Summary of Results Review the data collected at
the same time of day. Graph this data so you can

compare temperatures inside and outside of the
greenhouse. Note the general weather conditions
for each day on the graph. Do your results confirm
your hypothesis? Was the temperature inside the
greenhouse higher on days when there was more
sunshine? Was it consistently higher than the
temperature outside? Was the difference between
the inside temperature and the outside temperature greatest when there was more sunshine?
this experiment, possible causes, and ways to
Problem: The temperature inside the greenhouse is going up too high, for example, 110F
(43C).
Possible cause: If you conduct this experiment
during the warm summer months, the temperature inside the greenhouse will soar. Try
placing a large piece of thin white paper on top
of the greenhouse to block some of the Suns
rays.
Problem: The evening temperature inside the
greenhouse is always much higher than the
outside temperature.
Possible cause: If you place the greenhouse on
a dark surface, such as a brick patio or walkway,
the dark materials will absorb heat during the
day. That heat will remain trapped under the
greenhouse to keep the inside warm in the
evening, even when the outside temperature
drops.
Change the Variables You can change the variables and repeat this experi-
ment. For example, you can vary the amount of sunlight reaching the
greenhouse by placing one or more layers of thin tracing paper or wax paper
over the glass. You can also vary the color of the material under the
greenhouse by first placing the greenhouse on a white poster board and
then on a black poster board. Does the black poster board absorb more
incoming sunlight and make the temperature inside the greenhouse higher?
If you place two bricks inside the greenhouse, will they absorb and retain
enough heat to keep the greenhouse warm all night? To find out, you
595
Greenhouse Effect
would have to take temperature measurements at various times between

sundown and sunrise.
When you conduct further experiments, remember to change only
one variable at a time or you will not be able to tell which variable affected
the results.
EXPERIMENT 2
Fossil Fuels: What happens when fossil fuels
burn?
Purpose/Hypothesis Fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and natural gas, are
used to warm the world we live in and move the machines that make life
easier. However, for every advantage there usually is a disadvantage. That
is what this project will demonstrate.
Many fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, which means they contain hydrogen
and carbon. When these fossil fuels are burned during combustion, they
combine with oxygen and other gases in the air to produce carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and other by-products that may harm the environment or act as
greenhouse gases. The combustion of fossil fuels is a major contributor to the
greenhouse effect.
In this project you will observe how carbon dioxide and water vapor
are produced during combustion. You will also look for evidence of free
carbon before it combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (The experimenter must be mature and
Step 4: Carefully hold the
rounded end of the spoon 1 inch
(2.5 centimeters) above the
flame. GA LE GRO UP.
responsible when performing this project.)

Materials Needed
1 paraffin candle
matches
plate or candle holder
metal spoon
white index card
goggles
leather gloves
Approximate Budget $1 for the candle; other

items will likely be found in the home.
596
Greenhouse Effect
1. Place the candle in the holder or on the

plate. Make sure it will not fall over.
This project requires adult permission and
2. Remove all nearby flammable materials.
supervision. Always use caution when handling
3. Using the matches, light the candle and
matches and candles. Wear goggles, remove
let it burn for a minute. (Ask for help if
loose clothing, and tie back long hair. Do not try
this project with any other fuel source. Gasoline,
needed. An adult must be present.)
kerosene, propane, lamp oil, and other fuels can
4. Wearing goggles and gloves, hold the
be explosive and extremely dangerous.
rounded end of the spoon 1 inch (2.5
centimeters) above the flame. Notice if
anything accumulates on the spoon.
Hold it there 10 seconds or less. Caution! The spoon will get hot.
5. Next, place the spoon directly into the flame for five to 10 seconds
and remove. Notice if anything accumulates. Caution! The spoon
will be very hot.
6. After the spoon has cooled, use your finger to transfer some of the
black residue that has appeared on the spoon onto the index card.
The residue is carbon produced by the combustion. Notice that
the carbon was formed when the spoon was inside the flame.
However, when you held the spoon above the flame, there was
no black residue. A general formula for the combustion of paraffin-type hydrocarbons is illustrated above. During the first stage of
combustion, the carbon and hydrogen molecules in the paraffin
split apart. So, inside the flame, the carbon is free and has not
bonded to the oxygen yet. That is why the carbon collected on the
Step 6: The general formula for
spoon held in the flame. Once the carbon rises out of the flame, it
the combustion of paraffin-type
joins with the oxygen in the air and becomes the invisible gas
hydrocarbons. GAL E GR OU P.
carbon dioxide.
7. Put on the goggles and gloves again and
hold the glass upside down so the open
end of the glass is even with the top of the
candle, and the flame is inside the glass.
Use both hands to hold the glass and keep
it centered above the flame. Hold it there
for 10 seconds or less. Caution! The glass
will get hot. Watch for moisture accumulating inside the glass. This is the water
vapor produced by the combustion.
597
Greenhouse Effect
project, a possible cause, and a way to
remedy it.
Problem: There was black residue on the spoon
when held above the flame.
Summary of Results Make sure you keep a journal of your observations. Pay close attention to
what is happening. If you do not give the project
your full attention, you can miss events. You can
diagram these events in a journal.
Modify the Experiment In this experiment, you
built a greenhouse and measured the temperature inside and outside over a period of time.
Possible cause: The spoon was too close to the
You know that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse
candle. Try again, holding the spoon at least an
gas, and studies have shown that levels of carbon
inch above the top of the flame.
dioxide in the atmosphere have been rising. For a
more advanced version of this experiment, you
can explore how changing the carbon dioxide
level will affect temperature.
In modifying this experiment to introduce carbon dioxide, you will
need to make two simple greenhouses. You can make the greenhouses
from two plastic bottles. Cut the bottoms off and place a thermometer
inside each bottle. Place a heat lamp over both the empty bottle and the
bottle with the carbon dioxide. You can then add carbon dioxide into one
of the bottles. One way to add carbon dioxide is with baking soda and
vinegar. Baking soda mixed with vinegar creates a chemical reaction that
produces carbon dioxide. Mix the baking soda and vinegar in a small
container and immediately set the container inside one of the bottles.
Turn on both heat lamps.
Monitor the temperatures of both bottles over several hours and
record your results. Compare the temperatures of the carbon dioxide
bottle and its control. You can experiment with different concentrations
of the baking soda and vinegar. You could also find other sources of
carbon dioxide and see if they are more effective in producing a temperature change.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Since the atmosphere acts
as a giant greenhouse, sheltering life on Earth from harsh environments in

space, the atmosphere is a good starting point for experiments and
projects. For example, you might begin with an investigation into the
layers of the atmosphere and how they help insulate the earth. You might
598
Greenhouse Effect
Layers of the atmosphere

surrounding Earth. GA LE
GR OU P.
also identify which machines or sources of power generate the lowest

levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
information on greenhouse effect questions that interest you. As you
consider possible experiments and projects, be sure to discuss them
them. Some of them might be dangerous.
599
Greenhouse Effect

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Your data on the green-
house effect can be put into charts or graphs or even photographed to

enable the information to be shared with others. After the data is collected
and analyzed, your final responsibility is to make a conclusion based on
your experiment and decide whether your hypothesis was true.
Related Projects For atmospheric experiments, its best to study the layer
closest to earth called the troposphere. This layer is where all life exists.
For instance, you could design an experiment with plants and insects
living in an environment that has an altered atmosphere.

Bilger, Burk. Global Warming. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992.
Examines the phenomenon of global warming, discussing the greenhouse
effect in its positive, life giving form and again as this mechanism is knocked
out of balance.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Greenhouse Effect. http://
www.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/greenhouse.html (accessed on January 17,
2008).
Williams, Jack. The Weather Book. New York: Vintage Books, 1997. Includes
diagrams and text on the greenhouse effect and other atmosphere related
phenomena.
600
Groundwater Aquifers
he term groundwater sounds as if it refers to an underground lake or

river, but relatively little groundwater is found in this form. Groundwater lies below the surface of the land; in fact, it is almost everywhere
underground. Mostly it is found in the tiny pores, or spaces, between
rocks and particles of soil and in the cracks of larger rocks.
Where does groundwater come from? When rain falls, some of it
flows along the surface of the ground into streams and lakes as runoff.
Some of the rain evaporates into the atmosphere, some is taken up by
plant roots, and some seeps into the ground to become groundwater.
Aquifers are like big sponges Underground areas called aquifers
collect much of this groundwater. An aquifer is composed of permeable
rock, loose material that holds water. Permeable means having pores that
permit a liquid or a gas to pass through. You might think of a groundwater aquifer as a big sponge that soaks up the rain that seeps below the
surface.
As water from the surface slowly seeps down, or percolates, through
the soil, it eventually hits a solid, or impermeable, layer of rock or soil.
The aquifer forms as groundwater collects in the area above this impermeable layer. The water table is the level of the upper surface of the
groundwater. If the water table in an area is high, the upper surface of the
groundwater is only a short distance below the surface of the ground.
Confined or unconfined? Groundwater occurs in two conditions:
confined and unconfined. A confined aquifer has a layer of impermeable
clay or rock above it, and the water is held under pressure greater than the
atmospheric pressure. When a well is drilled into a confined aquifer, it
penetrates that impermeable, confining layer, allowing the water to rise
under pressure. This is called an artesian well. An unconfined aquifer has
no impermeable layer above it and is usually shallower than a confined
aquifer.
601
How groundwater forms. GA LE

GR OU P.
How big is an aquifer? The size of an aquifer depends on the

amount of rainfall and the composition of the underground rock and
soil. The worlds largest aquifer is in the United States. Called the
Ogallala, it spreads under eight western states, from South Dakota to
Texas. The Ogallala formed millions of years ago and is still supplying
water to cities, businesses, and farms. Unfortunately, people are using
water from the Ogallala faster than it can be naturally replenished, and
the water table is falling.
Our most precious resource? Water is a natural but limited resource.
Most of the water on Earth is saltwater; 97% of the worlds water supply is
located in the oceans. That means that only 3% is freshwater, and twothirds of that is frozen in the polar icecaps, icebergs, and glaciers. Only the
remaining 1% is groundwater or surface water in lakes, ponds, and
streams.
602
Where groundwater occurs.

GA LE G RO UP.
Confined and unconfined

aquifers. GA LE G RO UP.
603
Today, about three-quarters of the cities in

the United States depend on groundwater for
part or all of their drinking water. Wells also
withdraw groundwater to irrigate crops, keep
golf courses green, and meet other recreational
needs.
When water is pumped out of an aquifer
into a well, the water level drops. If rainfall does
not replace that water, the aquifer becomes overdrawn. When water is pumped out faster than it
is replaced, the ground may sink, creating
sinkholes.
Can aquifers become polluted? Contamination is another problem. Leaking underground storage tanks may seep petroleum
products into groundwater. Inadequate septic
systems, sewage treatment plants, fertilizer runoff from farms, salt runoff from highways, and
chemicals discharged from factories are other
sources of pollution that can make groundwater
unsuitable for humans to drink or use.
Where does your drinking
water come from? PH OT O
Pollution can come from specific, identified locations, called point sources, or from
scattered areas, called nonpoint sources. Most groundwater pollution
comes from nonpoint sources. Once an aquifer is polluted, it may
remain that way for years.
Wetlands provide homes for waterfowl and many other animal
species. Low-lying wetlands may receive water from an aquifer. If the
water is contaminated, it will pollute the wetlands, affecting all the wildlife that depends on these water habitats.
As the human population continues to grow, the demand
for fresh, clean water supplies grows too. Careful management and
use are essential to maintain the quality of our groundwater and
surface water. The following projects will help you understand how
aquifers can become contaminated and how dirty water can be
cleaned.
604
Sources of water pollution.

GA LE G RO UP.
PROJECT 1
Aquifers: How do they become polluted?
Pollution that enters rivers and

streams may eventually end up
in the groundwater. P HOT O
Purpose/Hypothesis Many communities and
homeowners must rely on wells that pump

groundwater from aquifers. Unfortunately,
groundwater can be contaminated by improper
use or disposal of harmful chemicals, such as
lawn fertilizers and household cleaners. These
chemicals can percolate down through the soil
and rock into an aquifer and eventually be
drawn into the wells. Such contamination can
pose a significant threat to human health.
605
Pollution in groundwater
aquifers can harm the wildlife
in wetlands. P ETE R A RNO LD
IN C.
In this project, you will build a model that shows how water is stored
in an aquifer, how groundwater can become contaminated, and how this
contamination can end up in a well. You will see that what happens above
ground can affect the aquifers below groundand the drinking water.
Materials Needed
6 x 8-inch (15 x 20-centimeter) clear plastic container at least

6 inches (15 centimeters) deep
1 pound (0.45 kilogram) modeling clay
2 pounds (0.9 kilograms) play sand
2 pounds (0.9 kilograms) aquarium gravel or pebbles, rinsed
plastic drinking straw
plastic spray bottle with a clear spray stem
green felt, 3 x 5 inches (7.6 x 12.7 centimeters)
25 cup (59 milliliters) powdered cocoa
red food coloring
clean water
tape
Approximate Budget $10 to $20 for the container, sand, clay, spray
bottle, and other materials.
606
WORDS TO KNOW
Aeration: Mixing a gas, like oxygen, with a liquid,
like water.
Nonpoint source: An unidentified source of pollution, which may actually be a number of sources.
Aquifer: Underground layer of sand, gravel, or

spongy rock that collects water.
Percolate: To pass through a permeable substance.
Artesian well: A well in which water is forced out

under pressure.
Coagulation: A process during which solid particles in a liquid begin to stick together.
Confined aquifer: An aquifer with a layer of
impermeable rock above it where the water is
held under pressure.
Disinfection: Using chemicals to kill harmful
organisms.
Filtration: Removing impurities from a liquid with
a filter.
Groundwater: Water that soaks into the ground
and is stored in the small spaces between the
rocks and soil.
Permeable: Having pores that permit a liquid or a

gas to pass through.
Point source: An identified source of pollution.
Pore: An opening or space.
Runoff: Water that does not soak into the ground or
evaporate, but flows across the surface of the
ground.
Sedimentation: A process during which gravity pulls
particles out of a liquid.
Surface water: Water in lakes, rivers, ponds, and
streams.
Unconfined aquifer: An aquifer under a layer of
permeable rock and soil.
experiment.
Impermeable: Not allowing substances to pass

through.
Water table: The level of the upper surface of

groundwater.
Impurities: Chemicals or other pollutants in

water.
Wetlands: Areas that are wet or covered with water

for at least part of the year.
1. Tape the straw vertically inside the plastic container along one
side, as illustrated. Do not let the bottom end of the straw touch
the bottom of the container. This will be the well.
2. Pour a 1.5-inch (3.8-centimeter) layer of sand on the bottom of
the container.
607
3. Pour water into the sand, wetting it completely without creating puddles. The
water will be absorbed into the sand, surrounding the particles, much as it is
Do not drink the water you are using in this
stored in an aquifer.
project.
4. Flatten the clay into a thin layer and cover
half the sand with it, pressing the clay into
three sides of the container. The clay represents the confining or
impermeable layer that keeps water from passing through.
5. Pour a small amount of water onto the clay. Most should remain
on top of the clay, with some flowing into the uncovered sand.
6. Cover the whole surface of the sand and clay with the aquarium
rocks. On one side, slope the rocks to form a hill and a valley.
7. Fill the container with water until it is nearly even with the top of
your hill. See how the water is stored around the rocks in the
aquifer. Also notice a surface supply of water (a small lake). This
model represents groundwater and surface water, both of which
can be used for drinking.
8. Put a few drops of red food coloring into the straw to represent
pollution. People often use old wells to dispose of farm chemicals,
trash, and used motor oils. The food coloring will color the sand.
This demonstrates one way that pollution can spread into and
through an aquifer.
9. Place the green felt on the hill. Use a little clay to fasten it to the
sides of the container.
Steps 1 to 7: How to build an

aquifer. GAL E GR OU P.
608
10. Sprinkle some cocoa on the hill, representing the improper use of materials
such as lawn chemicals or fertilizers.
11. Fill the spray bottle with water. Make it
Here is a problem that might arise, a possible
rain on the hill and over the aquifer. The
cocoa will seep through the felt and wash
Problem: The straw is clogged with sand.
into the surface water. This is another way
Possible cause: The straw is too close to the
that pollution reaches aquifers.
bottom of the container. Make sure you put the
12. Check the area around the straw. The
straw in first and leave a small space between it
pollution has probably spread farther.
and the bottom of the container. Then pour in
Remove the top of the spray bottle and
the sand. If sand still clogs the straw, gently
insert the stem into the straw. Depress the
blow through the straw to unclog it.
trigger to pull up water from the well.
Note its appearance. This is the same
water that people would drink. It also is contaminated.
Summary of Results From your model, you can easily see how pollution
spread into the surface water and the aquifer, contaminating the water
supply. Write a paragraph about what you observed.
PROJECT 2
Groundwater: How can it be cleaned?
Purpose/Hypothesis Surface waterwater in lakes, rivers, and wet-
landsoften contains impurities that make it look and smell bad. It

may also contain bacteria and other organisms that can cause disease.
Consequently, this water must be cleaned before it can be used. Water
treatment plants typically clean water by taking it through these
processes:
aeration, which allows foul-smelling gases to escape and adds
oxygen from the air
coagulation, which causes solid particles to stick together
sedimentation, which allows gravity to pull the solid particles out
of a liquid
filtration, which removes more impurities with a filter
disinfection, which uses chemicals to kill harmful organisms
This project will demonstrate the procedures that municipal water
plants use to purify water. Its important to maintain a clean water supply,
609

Do not drink the water you are using in this
project. Be careful using the scissors when you
cut the tops and bottoms off the soda bottles.
Step 5: Constructing a water

filter. GA LE GRO UP.
as this water often affects the quality of the

groundwater used by people who depend on
wells.
Materials Needed
5 pints (5 liters) of swamp water (or add

2.5 cups of dirt or mud to 10.5 pints of
water)
3 large clear plastic soft-drink bottles: 1 with a cap; 1 with its top
removed; 1 with its bottom removed
5-quart (1.5-liter) or larger beaker (or another clear plastic softdrink bottle bottom)
2 tablespoons (20 grams) alum (potassium aluminum sulfate;
available from biological supply houses or ask your teacher for a
source.)
5 pounds (0.7 kilograms) fine sand
5 pounds (0.7 kilograms) coarse sand
1 pound (0.5 kilograms) small pebbles (natural color aquarium
rocks, washed)
large (500 milliliter or larger) beaker or jar
coffee filter
rubber band
stirrer
scissors
Approximate Budget $10 for sand, pebbles, and
alum.
1. Pour about 1.5 quart (1.5 liter) of the

swamp water into the uncut soft-drink
bottle. On a data sheet, describe the
look and smell of the water.
2. To aerate the water, place the cap on the
bottle and shake it vigorously for 30
610
seconds. The shaking allows gases trapped

in the water to escape and adds oxygen to
the water. Then pour the water back and
forth between the bottle with the cap and
the cut-off bottle ten times. Describe any
changes in the water. Pour the aerated
water into the large beaker or bottle
bottom.
3. To coagulate solid impurities in the water
so they can be removed, add the alum
crystals to the water. Slowly stir for five
minutes.
4. To allow sedimentation, let the water stand
undisturbed for 20 minutes. Observe it at
five-minute intervals and write your observations about the changes in the waters
appearance.
Here is a problem that might arise during this
the problem.
Problem: During sedimentation, the sediments
mixed into the water that was being filtered.
Possible cause: You might have poured the
swamp water too quickly. Pour the contaminated water back into the sedimentation bottle
and let it sit undisturbed again. Or pour it
through the coffee filter and see if the sediment
makes the water flow more slowly. The filter
may not take all the sediment out, or it may
become clogged with sediment, one of the
many problems that occur during the actual
water treatment process.
5. Construct a filter from the bottle with its

bottom removed. First, attach the coffee
filter to the outside of the neck of the bottle with a rubber band.
Turn the bottle top upside down and pour in a layer of pebbles. The
filter will prevent the pebbles from falling out. Pour the coarse sand
on top of the pebbles. Pour the fine sand on top of the coarse sand.
Clean the filter by slowly and carefully pouring through 10.5 pints
(5 liters), or more, of clean tap water. Try not to disturb the top layer
of sand as you pour.
6. To filter the swamp water, wait until a large amount of sediment has
settled on the bottom of the bottle of swamp water. Then carefully
without disturbing the sedimentpour the top two-thirds of the
swamp water through the filter. Collect the filtered water in a beaker
or other container.
7. Compare the smell and appearance of the treated and untreated
water.
Note: The final step in water treatment is disinfection by adding chemicals to kill any harmful organisms. Because disinfectants must be handled
carefully, this process is not included here. Do remember that the water
you have treated is NOT safe to drink.
611
Summary of Results Write a report of your observations of the smell and
look of the water before and after treatment. Include the amount of time
that it took for the sediments to form.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept You have seen how water
enters an aquifer, how it flows from the aquifer into wetlands, and how it
is drawn into wells. Perhaps you wonder how long it takes to replenish the
supply of groundwater that is removed from the aquifer. You can use the
aquifer you built in Project 1 to design your own experiment to determine
how long it takes to replace the water that is removed.
information on groundwater questions that interest you. As you consider
possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with a knowledgeable adult
before trying them.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the two groundwater
projects, the results were not measurable. However, in designing your

own experiment, you should decide how to record the data, how to
measure much water you draw out, and how to determine how quickly
the same amount of water is replenished.
groundwater, such as finding out the source(s) of drinking water in

612
your community and what steps are being taken to prevent contamination. You might research the kinds of contaminants found most often in
your communitys water and the probable sources of these contaminants.
You might explore how flooding and drought each affect groundwater
and its purity. If possible, compare the smell and appearance of surface
water and groundwateror water that has been treated by the city water
division and water from a well. The possibilities just depend on your
interests.

Dobson, Clive, and Gregor Gilpin Beck. Watersheds: A Practical Handbook for
Healthy Water. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 1999. Provides an overview of the
fundamentals of ecology and the web of life through the water cycle.
Kellert, Stephen, general editor. MacMillan Encyclopedia of the Environment.
New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997. Provides information on the water
cycle and related topics.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web Site. http://www.epa.gov/
seahome/groundwater Provides information on groundwater aquifers and
projects and activities that help explain the water cycle and aquifers.
Van Cleave, Janice. Janice VanCleaves Ecology for Every Kid. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1996. Provides projects and information on the water cycle
and water pollution.
U.S. Geological Survey. Ground water aquifiers. Water Science for Schools.
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwaquifer.html (accessed January 18,
2008). Provides information on groundwater aquifers and projects and
activities that help explain the water cycle and aquifers.
613
Heat
our feet are bare, and the Sun has been beating down on the sidewalk
outside your home all day. You form a hypothesis or educated guess
that the sidewalk is cool enough to allow you to walk on it without
burning your feet. You decide to test your hypothesis, knowing that if you
are wrong, you could be in for some painful
moments!
But how does heat from the sidewalk burn
your feet? Heat is a form of energy produced by
the motion of molecules that make up a substance. The faster the molecules move, the more
heat they produce and the higher the temperature of the sidewalk or other substance. Temperature is the measure of the average energy of
the molecules in a substance. Heat can travel
from one body to another in three ways: by
conduction, by convection, and by radiation.
What is conduction? Conduction is the
flow of heat through a solid. When you walk
on a hot sidewalk, the concrete warmsor
burnsyour feet through conduction. When a
warmer substance with quickly moving molecules (the sidewalk) comes into contact with a
cooler substance with slowly moving molecules
(your bare feet), the faster molecules bump into
the slower ones and make them move faster, too.
The quickly vibrating

molecules in the hot sidewalk
can transfer their heat energy to
your cool feet. KE LL Y A. QUI N.
As the slower molecules pick up speed, the cooler substance gets

warmer. The warmer substance loses some of its heat energy and gets
cooler. Heat energy is the energy produced when two substances that have
615
Heat
different temperatures are combined. The greater

the difference in temperatures, the faster both
temperatures change.
Some substances conduct or transfer heat
better than others. In Experiment 1, you will
test five substances to see which is the best conductor of heat.
What is convection? The second way heat
travels is by convection. Convection is the rising
of warm air from an object, such as the surface of
Earth. Convection allows heat to travel through
both gases and liquids, moving from warmer
areas to cooler areas.
Heating the molecules in a gas or liquid
makes them move farther apart, so the substance
becomes lighter or less dense. The lighter air or
liquid rises; it also cools off as heat energy escapes
into the surrounding cooler air or liquid. As the
molecules cool, they move closer together, and
the substance becomes heavier or more dense
and falls again.
A burner heats the air inside
the balloon. As the hot air rises
into the cooler atmosphere, the
balloon rises, too. PH OT O
In Experiment 2, you will use colored water

to create convection currents that show how heat
moves through a liquid. A convection current is
a circular movement of a fluid in response to alternating heating and
cooling.
What is radiation? Radiation is energy transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic waves that travel through the vacuum of space at the
speed of light. Infrared radiation consists of wavelengths that are shorter
than radio waves but longer than visible light. Infrared radiation takes the
form of heat. These heat rays are much like light rays except that we
cannot see them.
That hot sidewalk was heated by infrared radiation from the Sun.
The Suns heat did not travel to the sidewalk by conduction or convection
because the Sun and sidewalk are separated by the vacuum of space. The
transfer of heat by radiation does not require that the hotter and cooler
substances touch each other.
616
Heat
Not only the Sun, but all hot objects give

out infrared radiation. This radiation gives up its
heat energy when it is absorbed by an object, but
this energy can also be reflected back toward its
source. If that sidewalk had been painted white,
it would have reflected the Suns radiation, just
as white clothing does. Why? The color white
does not absorb light; it reflects it. Dark colors
absorb lightand heat.
What is heat capacity? Heat capacity is the
measure of how well a substance stores heat.
Specific heat capacity is the energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.
As warm air rises over land,

convection causes cool air from
the ocean to rush in and take its
place. The result is wind.
All substances have the capacity to store heat but at different levels.
For example, water has a high specific heat capacity. Water can store a
large amount of energy before its temperature will rise. This is important
as the high heat capacity of water works to stabilize ocean temperatures
and maintain comfortable conditions for marine life. In Experiment 3,
you will test three solutions to determine which one has the highest heat
capacity.
Sunlight passes through the

glass and heats the plants. The
warm plants give off infrared
radiation, but these rays are
longer and cannot pass back
through the glass. Trapped
inside the greenhouse, the rays
heat the air. Pollution in the
atmosphere can trap heat close
to Earth in the same way. This
is called the greenhouse effect.
GA LE G RO UP.
617
Heat
WORDS TO KNOW
Conduction: The flow of heat through a solid.
experiment.
Heat energy: The energy produced when two

substances that have different temperatures are
combined.
experiment.
Convection: The circulatory motion that occurs in a

gas or liquid at a nonuniform temperature owing
to the variation of its density and the action of
gravity.
Infrared radiation: Electromagnetic radiation of a

wavelength shorter than radio waves but longer
than visible light that takes the form of heat.
Convection current: A circular movement of a fluid

in response to alternating heating and cooling.
Radiation: Energy transmitted in the form of

electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles.
Electromagnetic waves: Radiation that has properties of both an electric and a magnetic wave and
that travels through a vacuum with the speed of
light.
Greenhouse effect: The warming of Earths atmosphere due to water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
other gases in the atmosphere that trap heat
radiated from Earths surface.
Radio wave: Longest form of electromagnetic

radiation, measuring up to 6 miles (9.6 kilometers) from peak to peak.
Specific heat capacity: The energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of the substance by 1 degree Celsius.
Temperature: The measure of the average energy
of the molecules in a substance.
Heat: A form of energy produced by the motion of

molecules that make up a substance.
Thermal conductivity: A number representing a

materials ability to conduct heat.
Heat capacity: The measure of how well a substance stores heat.

an experiment.
EXPERIMENT 1
Conduction: Which solid materials
are the best conductors of heat?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will test short lengths of five
different materials to compare their ability to conduct heat. Each length

will have a dab of wax on one end holding a bead in place. You will heat
the opposite end of the lengths with hot water. The time it takes for each
bit of wax to melt and release its bead will tell you which material
618
Heat
conducted heat the fastest. Before you begin,

make an educated guess about the outcome of
this experiment based on your knowledge of heat.
things:

the types of conducting materials
the air temperature during the

experiment

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Copper will conduct heat faster than the
four other materials; wood will be the slowest
conductor.
the conducting materials, and the variable you
will measure is the time it takes each bit of wax to
melt and release its bead. You expect the wax on
the copper length to melt first, and the wax on the
wood to melt last or not at all.
You will also set up a control experiment to
make sure that it is conducted heat from the
water and not some other variable that melts
the wax. To set up the control experiment, you
will create an additional set of the five conducting materials, attach wax and beads to the ends,
but not heat them. If the wax melts off the
experimental copper length first and the experimental wood length last and if no wax melts
off the control materials, you will know your
hypothesis is correct.
the amount of each conducting material

that comes into contact with the water
the type of wax used
the amount of wax placed on the end of
each conducting material
the size and type of beads
takes for each bit of wax to release its bead. If
effect on the rate at which the wax melted.

Be sure to ask an adult to help you with this
experiment. Handle the matches, lighted
candle, and hot water carefully to avoid burns.
Keep your clothing away from the flame. Dripping wax can also cause burns.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/high, because of safety factors; ask an adult
to help you complete this experiment.

619
Heat
Materials Needed
LEFT: Step 1a: Have an adult

helper drip one drop of wax on
one end of the conducting
material. GA LE G RO UP.
RIGHT: Step 1c: Use a piece of
clay to attach the conducting
material to the side of one bowl.
Space the conducting materials
evenly around the bowl and
anchor them firmly with the
clay so they will remain
upright. GA LE GRO UP.
620
2 4-inch (10-centimeter) lengths of 18-gauge copper wire

2 4-inch (10-centimeter) lengths of 18-gauge aluminum
wire
2 4-inch (10-centimeter) lengths of 18-gauge steel wire
glass stirrer or solid glass rod
13-inch (0.3-centimeter) diameter wooden dowel
10 identical beads (glass or plastic)
candle
matches
2 glass bowls (with straight sides, if possible)
very hot tap water
clay
stop watch or clock with a second hand
Approximate Budget $4 for the wire, glass stirrer, dowel, and beads. The
other materials should be available in most households.
Timetable 30 minutes to set up and conduct the experiment.
Heat
1. Use a match to light the candle. Then

follow this procedure for each of the five
conducting materials:
a. Have your adult helper drip one drop of
wax on one end of the conducting material.
b. Quickly push a bead into the drop of
wax and make sure it is securely lodged
there.
c. Use a piece of clay to attach the conducting material to the side of one bowl,
as illustrated. Space the conducting materials evenly around the bowl and anchor
them firmly with the clay so they will
remain upright. Make sure each material
extends the same distance into the bowl.
2. Repeat Step 1 to set up the control
experiment in the second glass bowl.
3. Ask the adult to carefully pour about 2
inches (5 centimeters) of very hot tap water
into the center of the experimental bowl. As the water level rises, it
should touch the lower end of each conducting material. Make sure
each material extends the same distance into the water.
Steps 4 and 5: Recording chart

for Experiment 1. GA LE
GRO UP .
4. Immediately start the stop watch. Record on a chart (see illustration) how long it takes for each bead to fall from its conducting
material.
5. Observe the beads in your control experiment and record on the
chart their position at the end of the experiment.
Summary of Results Use the data on your chart to create a line graph
of your findings. The graph will indicate the time that lapsed before
each bead fell. Then study your chart and graph and decide whether
your hypothesis was correct. Did the bead on the experimental
copper wire fall first, and the one on the wooden dowel fall last
or not at all? Did the beads in the control experiment remain in
place? Write a paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining
621
Heat
Problem: The bead on a different conductor fell
before the bead on the copper conductor.
Possible causes:
1. The hot water might have splashed
against the conductors as you poured it,
giving some conductors a head start in
transferring heat. Try again, pouring
slowly.
2. Some conductors may have more wax
than the others, affecting the melting
speed. Try again, making sure to drip the
same amount of wax on all conductors.
Problem: A conductor other than the wooden
dowel was the last one to release its bead.
Possible cause: See possible cause 2 above.
Problem: A bead on a control conductor fell off,
or most of the beads fell off immediately.
For your reference, here is a list of the

materials in the experiment, plus a few more,
with a number that represents their ability to
conduct heat, called thermal conductivity.
The higher the number, the better the material conducts heat: silver (58.2); copper
(55.2); aluminum (29.4); steel (7.2); glass
(0.12); wood (0.012); air (0.004); styrofoam
(0.0034).
Change the Variables You can conduct similar
experiments by changing the variables. For

example, you can use other conducting materials, such as plastic, iron, or a stick of insulating
foam. You can also place a different small object
in the wax, such as a metal nail.
Another way to measure conductivity is to
use small containers made of different materials,
such as a glass jar, an insulated cup, a plastic cup,
and a steel can. Put an ice cube in each small
container and place them all in a larger container
holding a few inches of very hot water. To determine the best conductor, record how long it
takes for the ice to melt in each small container.
Possible causes:
1. The beads are too large or heavy. Try
again with smaller, lighter beads.
EXPERIMENT 2
2. The beads were not firmly attached. Try

again, pushing the beads firmly into the
wax.
Convection: How does heat

move through liquids?
3. The room air temperature is too warm,

helping to melt the wax. Move to a
cooler location or repeat your experiment
on a cooler day.
will put tinted hot water into cold water and

tinted cold water into hot water. In both cases,
you will observe and record the movement of the
water to determine how heat moves through
liquids. Your experiment should cause convection currents to develop as heat moves through
the water. Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome
of this experiment based on your knowledge of heat. This educated guess,
622
Heat

Here is a possible hypothesis for this experiment:
Hot water placed in cold water will rise, and
cold water placed in hot water will fall.
the temperature of the tinted water placed in the
container and the water already in the container,
and the variable you will measure is the motion
of the tinted water. You expect the cold blue
water will sink and the hot red water will rise.
As a control experiment, you will also pour
tinted room-temperature water into more
room-temperature water to determine if it, too,
moves in a certain pattern. During your experiment, if the hot water rises, the cold water falls,
and the room-temperature water mixes together
in no specific pattern, you will know your

the temperatures of the water in different containers
the amount of water being dropped into
water of a different temperature
whether the containers of water are
stirred or otherwise disturbed
not be able to tell which one had the most effect
on the movement of the water.
Step 1: Add 2 drops of the red

(hot) water to the container of
cold water. GA LE GRO UP.

Materials Needed
1 small container of very hot water,

tinted red with food coloring
1 large container of very hot water
1 small container of icy cold water, tinted
blue
1 large container of icy cold water
1 small container of room-temperature
water, tinted green
623
Heat
1 large container of room-temperature

water
2 eye droppers

Handle the hot water carefully to avoid burns.
You might ask an adult to help you put the hot
water into the containers.
Approximate Budget Less than $5 for food coloring and eye droppers.
1. Using one eye dropper, add 2 drops of the red (hot) water to the
large container of cold water. Observe and record the movement
of the red water on a chart similar to the one illustrated. DO NOT
STIR OR BUMP THE LARGE CONTAINER. Rinse the eye
dropper.
2. Using the other eye dropper, add 2 drops of the blue (cold) water
to the large container of hot water. Record the movement of the
blue water on the chart. AGAIN, DO NOT STIR OR BUMP
THE LARGE CONTAINER.
3. As a control experiment, use the rinsed, room-temperature eye
dropper to add 2 drops of green (room-temperature) water to
Steps 1 to 3: Recording chart for

624
Heat
the large container of room-temperature

water. Record what happens.
Summary of Results Study the drawings on your

correct. Did the hot water rise, the cold water
fall, and the room-temperature water mix in no
specific pattern? Write a paragraph summarizing
Change the Variables Change the way that
water of a different temperature is introduced:

immerse a glass tube that is open on both ends in
a container of very warm (not burning) water
colored red. Put your finger over the top of the
tube, which should stop the water from flowing
out either end. Now immerse the tube in a container of icy cold water. Hold the tube in a
vertical position and take your finger off the
end of the tube. Observe whether the red water
flows out of the top or the bottom of the tube.
Try the same experiment with cold, blue water in
the tube and very warm water in the large container. From which end of the tube does the blue
water flow?
Problem: The tinted hot water (or the tinted
cold water) simply spread throughout the water
in the experimental large container, in no particular pattern.
Possible cause: The difference between the
water temperatures was too small. Make sure
the cold water is icy and the hot water is very
hot. Heat water in a microwave for a minute, if
you wish, but ask an adult to help you handle it,
using pot holders. Use containers that are
microwave-safe.
Problem: You could not clearly see the movement of the hot (or cold) water in the large
container.
Possible cause: The water was not tinted dark
enough. Add more food coloring and try again.
EXPERIMENT 3
Heat Capacity: Which liquids have the highest
heat capacity?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will test the heat capacity of
three different liquids. You will use water, cream, and olive oil. Water has a
relatively high heat capacity. Fats, on the other hand, cannot store a large
amount of energy before a temperature rise.
Each liquid will be heated in a hot water bath of 200F (93C) and
temperature readings will be taken every minute for 10 minutes. You will
then cool the liquid in a cold-water bath taking temperature readings
every minute for 10 minutes. The time it takes to heat the liquids and the
625
Heat

the types of liquids tested
the volume of the liquids tested
the starting temperature of the liquids
the temperature of the water baths
the length of time the liquids are heated
time it takes to cool the liquids will tell you

which liquid has the highest heat capacity.
your knowledge of heat. This educated guess, or

Here is a possible hypothesis for this experiment:
The temperature of the cream will increase at a
slower rate than the other two liquids.
The variables you will change are the three
liquids being tested, and the variable you will measure is the change in
temperature of the liquids over a period of 20 minutes.
The control test you will measure against will be the temperature of
the three liquids at room temperature.

are everything that might affect the temperature of the liquids during the testing period. If
be able to tell which one had the most effect on
the temperature of the liquid tested.
Step 4: To the hot-water

bath, add the glass filled
with 1-cup of room
temperature cream.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/Difficult, because of safety factors.

Materials Needed
N ELS ON .
water
O ive Oil
1 medium sized pot for hot-water bath

1 medium sized pot for cold-water bath
3 glass, heat-resistant measuring cups (or
glass mason jars)
2 thermometers with a clip that can
attach to the side of the water bath
1 cup room-temperature water
1 cup room-temperature cream
1 cup of room-temperature olive oil
stop watch or clock with a second hand
Approximate Budget About $15.
626
Heat
Timetable 30 minutes to set up and 60 minutes
to conduct the experiment


Ask an adult to help you with this experiment.
Have an adult operate the stove. Handle the hot
water bath and hot liquids carefully to avoid
burns.
1. Measure out 1 cup of water, cream,

and olive oil in separate containers.
Set aside until they are at room temperature (about 72F, 22C).
2. Have an adult helper bring a medium pot
filled half way with water to a temperature of 200Fahrenheit
(93Celsius). Clip the thermometer to the side of the water bath,
making sure it does not touch the sides.
3. Prepare a cold water bath. Fill a medium-sized pot a quarter full of
cold water and add several cups of ice.
4. To the hot-water bath, add the glass filled with 1-cup of room
temperature cream.
5. Place another thermometer in the cream, clipping it against the
glass. Measure the temperature changes at one minute intervals for
10 minutes and record on chart (see illustration).
6. After 10 minutes remove the glass cup of cream with the thermometer from the hot-water bath and place in the cold-water
bath. Record the temperature changes at one-minute intervals for
10 minutes.
7. Repeat this procedure, from the hot to the
cold water bath, for the water and the
min.
cream
olive oil.
HOT COLD
Summary of Results Graph the results of your
temperature reading for all three liquids. The

graph will indicate the rate and rise of temperature of each liquid. How does the temperature
rise compare to the room temperature? Decide
whether your hypothesis was correct. Did the
temperature of the cream rise at a slower rate
than the water and olive oil? If not, which liquid
did rise at the slowest rate? Write a paragraph
summarizing your findings and explaining why
or why not it supports your hypothesis.
Step 5: Using this chart, record

the temperature changes at one
minute intervals for 10
minutes. I LL US TRA TI ON B Y
TEM AH N EL SON .
water
olive oil
HOT COLD HOT COLD
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
627
Heat
cream
Change the Variables You can conduct other

heat capacity experiments by finding the heat
capacity of different materials. You can use
other household liquids or solid materials that
change into liquids, such as paraffin wax or
calcium chloride (ice melt). If you choose to
use a solid material you must first melt or dilute
the material so that you can measure the temperature of the material.

Step 6: After 10 minutes remove
the glass cup of cream with the
thermometer from the hot-water
bath and place in the cold-water
bath. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
other aspects of heat movement. For example, you might investigate the
relationship between convection and wind, or you could find out how
surface area affects the rate of heat conduction. For example, does water
boil more quickly if it is in a wide pan or a narrow pan? Does ice melt
more quickly if it is crushed into small pieces?
information on heat questions that interest you. As you consider possible
experiments, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher or another
knowledgeable adult before trying them. Experimenting with heat is
potentially dangerous.
your question.
628
Heat
the heat movement experiments, your raw data

might include charts, graphs, drawings, and photographs of the changes you observed. If you
display your experiment, make clear your beginning question, the variable you changed, the
variable you measured, the results, and your
conclusions. Explain what materials you used,
how long each step took, and other basic
information.
Related Projects You can undertake a variety of
projects related to the movement of heat. For

example, you might explore which kinds of
home insulation, insulated cups, or insulated
gloves are most efficient at stopping the movement of heat through conduction. When a fireplace burns, how much of the heat escapes up the
chimney through convection? Which colors are
most efficient at reflecting radiated heat?
Problem: The hot-water bath keeps changing
temperature.
Possible cause: The temperature of the stove is
too high. Maintain a constant temperature by
using a low to medium temperature setting and
have cold water available to add to bath to
maintain the 200 degrees.
Problem: All three liquids showed the same
results.
Possible cause: The liquids might not have been
at room temperature at the beginning of the
experiment. Repeat the experiment, allowing
the liquids to sit out for at least an hour longer
and take the temperature of each of the liquids.

Friedhoffer, Robert. Molecules and Heat. New York:
Franklin Watts, 1992. Explores scientific concepts involving heat and heat
movement by turning them into magic tricks.
Gardner, Robert, and Eric Kemer. Science Projects about Temperature and Heat.
Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1994. Provides detailed explanations of
projects and the concepts they demonstrate.
Gutnik, Martin. Experiments That Explore the Greenhouse Effect. Brookfield, CT:
Millbrook Press, 1991. Outlines experiments that relate to the movement of
heat as it causes the greenhouse effect.
Wood, Robert. Heat FUNdamentals. New York: Learning Triangle Press, 1997.
Offers more than 25 heat related activities and brief explanations.
629
Insects
ts easy to think humans are the major animals on our planet, but in
reality, we are the minority. There are an estimated 10 quintillion
insects alive at any timethats 10,000,000,000,000,000,000! They
live in all different types of places: on water, on the tops of mountains,
under rocks, and inside trees. Researchers have identified more than one
million different species of insects, which make up about 80 percent of all
known species in the world. And experts theorize there are millions more
insect species not yet discovered.
The study of insects is called entomology. Understanding how insects
live and behave is important because they play such a large role in life on
Earth. They pollinate (transfer pollen), break down animal waste, and are
a major food source for animals. They also provide humans with products, such as honey and wax. The survival of animalsincluding peopledepend upon these small creatures.
Taking apart an insect There is a wide variety of insect shapes and
sizes, yet there are certain characteristics all insects share.
1. Six legs: That leaves out the eight-legged spiders and the numerous-legged centipedes and millipedes.
2. An exoskeleton: A strong, hard skin on the outside of their body.
The exoskeleton holds the muscles and protects the insect from
outside elements. It also prevents the insect from growing once the
exoskeleton has fully formed.
3. As insects grow, many need to shed their hard exoskeleton several
times. This is called molting. Beneath the exoskeleton a new layer
of skin forms. The insect becomes larger, which causes the exoskeleton to split and fall, making way for the new and larger
exoskeleton.
631
Insects
The three basic body segments all

insects have are the head, thorax,
and abdomen. I LLU STR AT IO N
Depending upon the insect,

they can use antennae to sense
smells, movements, and
vibration. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
antenna
antenna
632
4. Segmented bodies: An insects body is

segmented (separated) into three distinct
parts, which are all supported by the
Head
exoskeleton.
The insect segments The three basic body
Thorax
segments all insects have are the head, thorax,
and abdomen. The head is where the insects have
Abdomen
their antennae, mouthparts, and eyes. Antennae
can be long, as in a grasshopper, or short, as in
a fly. Depending upon the insect, they can use
an antennae to sense smells, movements, and
vibration.
The mouth of an insect depends upon the species. There are a lot of
ways insects can eat. Some of the ways they take in food includes sucking,
chewing, piercing, lapping, or a combination.
The type of eye an insect has depends upon the insect, but most
insects have two compound eyes. Compound eyes are made up of
thousands of different individual lens-like units in each eye. Unlike our
eyes, they do not rotate or move. Each unit takes in a tiny visual and the
brain puts them all together into the image.
The middle segment of the insect body is the thorax. Each part of the
thorax holds a pair of legs. If an insect has wings, they are attached to the
thorax. The bottom insect segment is the abdomen. The abdomen is where digestion and
reproduction take place. An insect also breathes
through its abdomen through openings called
spiracles.
Insects on the go There are a lot of ways an
insect can get around. Insects can hop, crawl,
jump, fly or some combination. About 300 milantenna
lion years ago, insects became one of the first
creatures to fly. Flying allows insects to travel
greater distances for food and escape predators
quickly. Many insects, such as the grasshopper
and bee, have two pairs of wings but only the
back pair is used to fly. The front wings are
smaller and protect the back pair. Insects such
as the butterfly and beetle have linked their sets
Insects
Butterflies have linked their sets

of wings together so that the
pairs flap together. R OBE RT
J. HUF FM AN. FI EL D MA RK
PU BLI CA TI ONS .
of wings together so that the pairs flap together. The fly has a single pair of
wings.
For insects that dont fly, and some that do, legs are how they move
around. An insect leg is split into distinct sections. In some insects, such as
ants, the legs are all about the same size and used mainly for walking.
Insects with longer and more powerful back legs use their legs to jump.
Grasshoppers and fleas are two types of insects that have powerful jumps.
Some insect legs are designed to dig, cling, or capture food. The
praying mantis has a large pair of spiked front legs that it uses to catch
prey. Legs can also provide sensory experiences. A flys feet has tiny taste
sensors that let the fly know if it should eat the substance it lands on.
The busy cycle of life Insects live relatively short lives of less than a year
in general. For example, flies can live about 15 to 30 days and butterflies for
about a month or two. But there are a few insects that can live for years. The
queen ants of some species can live for over 20 years!
No matter the type of insect or length of time it lives, most insects
pass through four life stages: 1) egg; 2) larva or nymph; 3) pupa; and 4)
adult. Insects are born from eggs. The second stage, which can also be
called other names, is the young immature insect.
A caterpillar is in the larva stage. The caterpillar moves into the pupa
stage when it goes through metamorphosis. In this type of metamorphosis (a complete metamorphosis), the insect goes through a distinct change
633
Insects
WORDS TO KNOW
Abdomen: The third segment of an insect body.
Bioluminescence: Light produced by living
organisms.
Entomology: The study of insects.
Exoskeleton: A hard outer covering on animals,
which provide protection and structure.
Insect: A six-legged invertebrate whose body has
three segments.
Metamorphosis: The biological process in which

an insect transforms from a larva into an adult,
changing its appearance.
Molting: A process by which an animal sheds its
skin or shell.
Pollinate: The transfer of pollen from the male
organs of plants.
Pupa: The insect stage of development between
the larva and adult in insects that go through
complete metamorphosis.
Spiracles: The openings on an insects side where
air enters.
Invertebrate: An animal that lacks a backbone or

internal skeleton.
Thorax: The middle segment of an insect body;

the legs and wings are connected to the thorax.
Larvae: The immature stage between the egg and

the pupa; this can also be called nymph.

an experiment.
in appearance and structure. As a pupa, also called chrysalis, the caterpillar does not move or eat. When it emerges into its final adult stage, the
caterpillar appears as a butterfly. Insects that look the same as adults and
immature insects do not go through a complete metamorphosis. For
these insects there is no pupa stage.
Most insects live isolated lives but several groups are known as social
insects. Ants, bees, and termites are among the social insects. Most social
insects live in large colonies (groups) with distinct division of labors. In
ant colonies, the ant nest is started by a queen who lays eggs. Some ants
are assigned to defend the colony and others to build the nest. The insects
in the colonies communicate with one another through chemical signals.
Insects are a broad and fascinating group of animals. Each group of
insects has its own unique characteristics, and you can learn a lot about
insects by simply observing them.
634
Insects
EXPERIMENT 1
Ant Food: What type of
foods is one type of ant
attracted to?

investigate the food that most attracts one kind of

the type of ant
ant. There are many types of ants and different
the item on the sponge
ants prefer different foods. Ant diets include sug the size of the sponge
ary substances, seeds, and proteins (in the form of
where the sponge is set in relation to the
other bugs and dead animals). You can find out
ants
the kind of food ants prefer by soaking a sponge
the environmental conditions
in four to five liquid-form foods. By placing the
food-soaked sponges in one outside area around
the same type of ant you can observe which food
ants attracted to the food on the sponge. If you
attracts the most ants. You can also observe how
ants communicate their food find to their fellow
on attracting the ants to the sponge.
ants. The foods you will use include: honey; beef
broth; milk; and juice. Water will be the control.
about the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of insects
and ants. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
experiment: The ants will be attracted primarily to the honey-soaked
sponge and then the juice sponge.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the food substance on
the sponge, and the variables you will measure will be the relative amount
of ants on the sponge over a length of time.
635
Insects

Do not touch the ants or disturb their living
environment; simply observe them. Wash your
hands after completing the experiment.
tests, and that variable is the liquid food. For the

control, you will soak the sponge in water.
Materials Needed
sponge
scissors
toothpicks with flags (for marking; you can make your own by
attaching strips of paper to toothpicks)
1 beef bouillon cube or canned beef stock
milk, about 3 tablespoons
juice, such as orange juice, about 3 tablespoons
honey, about 3 tablespoons
5 small cups or containers
spoon
tongs
plastic forks
large plate
beef stock
orange juice
milk
honey
water
Step 6: Place one sponge in each

container. Allow the sponge to
sit for at least 2 minutes and
then flip over the sponge.
NEL SO N.
636
Insects
marking pen
outside clear area, with primarily one
type of ant
a nice day
Timetable 1 hour.
1. Use the scissors to cut a sponge into 4 to 5

squares (depending upon if you are testing
4 or 5 food items), about 2 inches square.
2. On each of the flagged toothpicks, mark
each of the foods you are using.
Prepare each of the food items:
1. In container 1, pour about 3 tablespoons of milk.
2. In container 2, pour about 3 tablespoons of honey and stir in
several drops of water to thin down the honey.
3. In container 3, add about 3 tablespoons of warm water to the
bouillon. Use a spoon to crush and dissolve the cube. If you have
beef stock pour about 3 tablespoons of the stock in the container.
4. In container 4, pour about 3 tablespoons of orange juice.
5. In container 5, pour about 3 tablespoons of water.
6. Place one sponge in each container. Allow the sponge to sit for at
least two minutes and then flip over the sponge. Wait another two
minutes.
7. Use plastic forks or tongs to place the sponge squares on the plate.
As you set the sponge on the plate, place its matching marked
toothpick in the sponge. If you use a pair of tongs, clean or wipe
the tongs after you lift each sponge. Hold each sponge piece for a
few seconds over the container until it no longer drips. Set it
down, apart from the others, on the large plate. Make sure none
of the food sources spread on any of the other sponges.
8. Carry the plate outside to the area where there is mainly one type
of ant crawling about.
9. Set the sponge squares evenly spaced apart in a circle, with each
sponge at least one foot apart from the next.
Step 9: Set the sponge squares

evenly spaced apart in a circle,
with each sponge at least one
foot apart from the next.
NEL SO N.
637
Insects
Here are some problems that may come up
and some ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: One of the foods attracted a lot of
different types of ants or insects.
Possible cause: You may have placed the foods
in an area where there were too many insects,
and one of the insects may have scared away
the ants you were looking to track. Find another
area, such as a porch or sidewalk, which is clear
of other visible insects. Repeat the experiment.
Problem: The honey and another, unexpected,
food source both attracted about the same
amount of ants.
Possible cause: Some of the honey may have
soaked into the other sponge when the sponges
were on the plates and you were carrying it
outside. Try the experiment again, this time
place the sponges on separate plates, or using a
large plate and being very careful none of the
food dribbles onto its neighbor sponge.
10. Wait 20 minutes and note the relative

amount of ants on each of the sponges.
Does one sponge have a lot more ants
than any of the others?
11. Over the next 15 to 30 minutes, observe
the ants reaction to each sponge. Also,
observe how the ants travel to the sponge
they are attracted to. Look for lines of ants
or possible ways ants may communicate
to one another about the food.
12. When you have finished the experiment,
use a plastic fork to throw away the
sponges. (You may need to shake the
sponges free of ants!)
Summary of Results Look over your findings.
Was your hypothesis correct? Compare the foods

they were not as attracted to? How did the control
(water) sponge attract ants as compared to the
sponge with milk, or orange juice? Could you see
how ants communicated with one another about
the food? Write up a summary of your findings.
Test another type of ant: look around for

another size or color of ant.
Focus on one food, such as the honey,
and alter the concentration to determine how concentrated the
food needs to be for the ant to sense it.
Change the foods, using all sweet items or protein sources, and see
which attracts the most ants.
EXPERIMENT 2
Lightning Bugs: How does the environment
affect a fireflys flash?
Purpose/Hypothesis There are hundreds of different types of fireflies.
These insects, also called lightning bugs, are recognizable by their flashes
638
Insects
of light. Fireflies are bioluminescent, meaning

they produce light by a chemical reaction within
the organism. Fireflies produce a chemical in
their abdomen called luciferin. This substance
reacts with oxygen and another substance to give
off light. How much oxygen the firefly breathes
in determines the strength and pattern of the
the environment the firefly is in
light flashes.
the type of firefly
How often the firefly flashes depends upon
the time of day
several factors, including the type of firefly, its
the vibration of the jar
sex, and age. The flash of light can also depend
the amount of light
upon the temperature, which can affect the
amount of oxygen the firefly breathes. In this
experiment, you can observe firefly flashes and
measure if the rate of flashes changes depending upon the warmth or
coolness of the fireflys environment.
You will need to catch a firefly and place it in a large jar. You can time
the flashes and note the intensity of the light. You can then place the jar in
cold and warm water in order to change the air temperature of the firefly,
and again measure the flashes.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about insects and
fireflies to make an educated guess about how temperature will affect
the bioluminescence. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for
this experiment: The rate of light flashes
from the firefly will increase and they will be
brighter when it is warmer compared to when
it is colder.

Have an adult help you use the hammer (or any
heavy block) and nail to poke holes in the lid of
the jar. Treat the firefly gently, making sure not
to leave it in the jar for more than a few hours.
When you have finished observing the insect,
release it back outside.
639
Insects

the temperature of the fireflys environment, and
the variable you will measure is the number and
intensity of the its flashes.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, due to working
with live insects.

Materials Needed
Step 2: Try to catch one of

the fireflies in the jar.
large glass jar with a lid, such as a mason

or large mayonnaise jar
hammer or mallet
nail
warm evening
plastic container
ice
clock with a minute hand
helper (optional)
Approximate Budget $0. (Materials should be available in the average
household.)
Step 4: Pour ice and cold water in
the plastic container. Set the jar
in the container so that it is partly
submerged. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Timetable Approximately 30 minutes experimental time; the time to

collect fireflies will vary widely and you may want to spread out the
three trials over three evenings.
1. Have an adult help you use a hammer (or

any heavy block) and a nail to poke small
holes in the lid of the jar. This will allow
air to enter the jar.
2. After the sun goes down, go outside to a
dark area. Fireflies live in cities and open
grassy areas but it is easier to spot their
flashes away from streetlights or bright
lights. It also helps to have someone with
you when looking for and collecting the
firefly. Fireflies are relatively slow fliers
and they do not bite. When you see one,
640
Insects
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
clap your hands over the insect. If you do

not have a helper holding the jar, make
sure the lid is open before you catch one
in your hands.
When a firefly is in the closed jar, bring it
inside and darken the room so you can
clearly see its flashes. Count the frequency
of flashes over a period of time, such as
two minutes. The exact time does not
matter as long as it is the same in all the
trials.
Pour ice and cold water in the plastic
container. Set the jar in the container so
that it is partly submerged. Wait about
1 minute and time the flashes again. Note
the intensity of the flashes.
Replace the cold water in the container
with warm water. Wait about a minute.
Again, time the number of flashes over
the two-minute time period (or what you
used in the first trial) and note their
intensity.
Pour out the warm water. When you have
finished observing the firefly, release it
back outside.
If desired, repeat the entire process for
two more fireflies, one at a time. This
will strengthen your findings and help
you make sure the results are repeatable.
Collect the fireflies in the same area so
that you will have more chance of collecting the same type of firefly.
planned, especially when working with live
organisms. Here are some problems that may
arise during this experiment and ways to
Problem: I cant find any fireflies.
Possible causes: Adult fireflies only live
about several weeks. When they mature
into adults depends upon the area, but it
is somewhere in the late spring or
summer months. If you do not see any,
ask an adult to help you research when
they are expected in your area. And
when looking for the insects, make sure
you are in a dark area and be patient.
Problem: One of the fireflies gave far
different results than the other two firefly
trials.
Possible causes: There are hundreds of
types of fireflies and each produces
flashes in a certain pattern. It is possible
you caught two different types of fireflies. You might also have collected a
firefly that was too old, young, or sick.
Repeat the experiment with another
firefly. Make sure it is producing a steady
rate of light flashes before placing the jar
in a cool or warm environment.
Summary of Results If you conducted the experiment on more than one
firefly, average the frequency of the trials for the room temperature, cool,
and warm environment. Was your hypothesis correct? How quickly did
the flashes speed up or slow down when the fireflys environment
changed? Did the intensity of the flashes change also? Was there a certain
pattern to the flashes? Write up a summary of your findings. You may
641
Insects
want to include pictures of the firefly, and some possible reasons why the
firefly produces light.
Change the Variables One way you can vary this experiment is by looking
at other factors that may affect the light a firefly produces. Would
vibration or color affect the flash or intensity of a firefly? If you can
collect different types of fireflies, you can see the unique lighting patterns
in each. In general, male and female fireflies produce light at different
frequencies. The male gives off a repeated signal and the female responds.
You may want to observe firefly lighting in the wild before deciding on
experiments.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Insects are all around you,
living on the sidewalks, in the grass, and often hiding inside homes. As
you think about experiments and projects relating to insects, consider
what insects you have questions about. Are there insects unique to your
area? Think about insect interactions that you have observed. You can
also consider when an insect turns into a pest, and how people use insect
characteristics to develop pest controls.
teacher to start gathering information on insects and questions that
interest you. You may want to speak with people who are knowledgeable
about working or dealing with insects. As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher or another
knowledgeable adult before trying them. Remember that some insects
can be harmful to people and you should research the insect before
working with it. Work with someone familiar with the insect and plan
how you will care for or handle insects that you collect or purchase.
642
Insects

question at hand.
egg
adult
larva

selected.
pupa
The most important part of the experiment is

the information gathered from it. Think of how
you can share your results with others. Charts, graphs, and diagrams of
the progress and results of the experiments are helpful in informing others
about an experiment. You may also want to take photographs or draw the
insect.
Insects have four life stages.

NEL SO N.
Related Experiments You can do many experiments and projects with
insects through careful observation. You may want to collect your own
insects and observe them over a period of time.
One project that can help you learn about a variety of insects is by
identifying the three body segments of different insects. How do the
wings, lets, and antennae compare among different insects?
You can also observe the four life cycles of insects. How does the timing
of the life cycles compare among different types of insects? Are there certain
environmental conditions that speed or slow down the change into one of
the life cycles?
You can experiment with how environmental conditions may speed
or slow one of the life stages. Insect senses is another possible area of
study. You can explore how different types of insects sense food, and
threats. You can also experiment with groups of social insects, such as
ants. Possible experiments include determining how they communicate
with one another and how they build homes.

Bugbios. http://www.insects.org/entophiles/index.html (accessed on June 4,
2008). Comprehensive database of photographs and facts about a wide range
of insects.
643
Insects
Butterflies and Moths of North America. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org

(accessed on June 6, 2008). Searchable database with photographs of
butterflies and moths.
Camouflage. BBC: Walking with Beasts. http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/
fossilfun/camouflage/camouflage.swf (accessed on May 11, 2008). An
interactive game on animal camouflage.
Doris, Ellen. Entomology. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1993. Describes
different microorganisms, their functions, and purpose.
Lang, S. Invisible Bugs and Other Creepy Creatures That Live With You. New
York: Sterling Publishers, 1992. Describes different microorganisms, their
functions, and purpose.
Mound, Laurence. Insect. London, New York: DK Publishing, 2007.
Parker, Steve. Ant lions, Wasps, and Other Insects. Minneapolis: Compass Point
Books,, 2006.
Virtual Insects and a Spider. 3D Insects. http://www.ento.vt.edu/sharov/3d/
virtual.html (accessed on June 4, 2008). Movies and information about
different insects.
644
Life Cycles
ll animals go through changes during their lives. Some simply grow

larger, while others completely change their forms. This kind of
change is called metamorphosis, which means change in form.
A caterpillar represents the

larval stage in a complete
metamorphosis. CO RB IS.
Some insects have no metamorphosis, simply growing larger and

becoming able to reproduce. Others undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, in which the immature insects are known as nymphs. Nymphs, which
often live in water, resemble the adult forms, but
their wings are not fully developed and they
have no reproductive organs. Nymphs gradually
become adults by molting, or shedding their outermost layer.
Other insects go through a complete metamorphosis, in which the immature stage is called
a larva. Caterpillars, for example, are the larvae
of butterflies. The larva becomes a pupa, which
is mostly a resting stage. Finally, the pupa
emerges as a full-fledged adult, such as a butterfly. Organisms in different stages of the life cycle
often live in different habitats and eat different
foods.
What other organisms go through metamorphosis? Amphibians also go through a dramatic metamorphosis. You are probably
familiar with the life cycle of the frog, which
begins with a tadpole. You may have seen tadpoles in a pond or stream. An aquatic animal
with a tail, the tadpole not only grows as it gets
older, it also changes its form, growing legs,
living at least partly on land, and losing its tail.
645
Life Cycles
WORDS TO KNOW
Amphibians: Animals that live on land and breathe
air but return to the water to reproduce.
Complete metamorphosis: Metamorphosis in
which a larva becomes a pupa before changing
into an adult form.
Ecologists: Scientists who study the interrelationship of organisms and their environments.
Incomplete metamorphosis: Metamorphosis in
which a nymph form gradually becomes an adult
through molting.
A froglet is one stage in the

frogs life cycle. PH OT O
646
Larva: Immature form (wormlike in insects;

fishlike in amphibians) of an organism
capable of surviving on its own. A larva does
not resemble the parent and must go
through metamorphosis, or change, to reach
its adult stage.
Metamorphosis: Transformation of an immature
animal into an adult.
Molting: Shedding of the outer layer of an animal,
as occurs during growth of insect larvae.
Nymph: An immature form in the life cycle of
insects that go through an incomplete
metamorphosis.
Pupa: A stage in the metamorphosis of an insect
during which its tissues are completely reorganized to take on their adult shape.
an experiment.
While tadpoles eat tiny aquatic vegetation, adult frogs eat just about
any small animal that flies, jumps, or crawls past and can fit in their
mouths.
Why should we learn about metamorphosis? Many people are interested in the life cycles
of animals. Farmers must know about insect life
cycles in order to control harmful insects and
encourage the helpful ones that help pollinate
their plants, such as bees and butterflies. Ecologists are also interested in metamorphosis. Many
amphibians are threatened with extinction due
to the destruction of their habitat. Ecologists
study metamorphosis to learn the needs of different stages of amphibian life cycles and better
understand how to save them.
Life Cycles
What questions do you have about life

cycles? You will have an opportunity to explore
life cycles in the following experiments. You will
learn more about this natural phenomenon that
can be so fascinating and dramatic to observe.

EXPERIMENT 1
Tadpoles: Does
temperature affect the rate
at which tadpoles change
into frogs?
the number of tadpoles in each bucket
Purpose/Hypothesis WARNING: Do not per-
the age, size, and health of the tadpoles

in each bucket
the tadpoles diet
takes for the tadpoles to become frogs. If you
on the time for the tadpoles to metamorphose.
form this experiment unless you have a safe,

approved spot to release live frogs once experiment
is completed. You should be aware that it is illegal
to release or dispose of live frogs in certain areas. If
you are not sure about performing this experiment,
ask your science teacher.
In this experiment, you will discover how the water temperature in
which tadpoles live affects how fast they grow and become adult frogs.
Tadpoles are the larval form of frogs. They hatch from eggs laid by a female
frog. Tadpoles live in the water and breathe through gills, but when they
become frogs or toads, they breathe air and live mostly on land. Tadpoles
eat only plants, while adult frogs eat insects and even small snakes. Before
based on your knowledge of tadpoles. This educated guess, or prediction, is
experiment: The higher the water temperature, the faster tadpoles will
become frogs.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the temperature of
the water, and the variable you will measure will be the number of days it
647
Life Cycles

Be careful when handling live animals, and treat
them with respect and care. Avoid touching the
tadpoles because amphibians have extremely
sensitive skin. Wash your hands before and
after you touch the water. If you decide to find
your own tadpoles in a pond or stream, ask an
adult to help you. You should be aware that it is
illegal to release or dispose of live frogs in
certain areas. If you are not sure about performing this experiment, ask your science
teacher.
takes for the tadpoles to become frogs. You expect

the tadpoles in the warmest water to develop into
frogs first.
Setting up a control experiment will help you
isolate one variable. Only one variable will change
between the control and the experimental buckets,
and that is the temperature of the water. For the
control, you will use water at the air temperature
outside (or at room temperature if your region is
experiencing winter now). For the experimental
buckets, you will have warmer and cooler water.
You will measure the number of days it takes
the tadpoles to become adult frogs. You will
know they are fully adult when they completely
lose their tails and have fully developed legs. If
warmer water results in a faster metamorphosis,
Level of Difficulty Difficult, because of care required with live animals.

Materials Needed
5 buckets or large glass jars with lids

water to fill the containers (Allow it to sit at least overnight to let
any chlorine in it evaporate.)
a steady supply of boiled lettuce
5 thermometers
Steps 1 and 2: Fill the five

containers each with the same
amount of water. Place five
tadpoles in each container.
GAL E GR OU P.
648
Life Cycles

large aquarium fish net

about 25 tadpoles (You can order tadpoles from a biological
supply company, such as those listed in the Further Readings
section, or you might find them in a stream or pond.)
Approximate Budget $30 for thermometers and tadpoles.
Timetable About 4 weeks.
1. Fill each of the five containers with the same amount of water. Add
a thermometer to each container.
2. Use the net to place five tadpoles in each container.
3. Place each container so that the water temperatures will be different. Leave one at room temperature. Place one outside as your
649
Life Cycles
Step 7: Measure the size of the

tadpoles in each container every
week. GA LE GRO UP.
control. Place another under a lamp that

will be left on constantly. Place one container in a cool, dark place, such as under
a counter. Put the last one in the refrigerator. (Tadpoles in the wild often live in
quite cold water.)
4. After an hour, record the water temperature in each container on a data sheet
5. Feed all your tadpoles about a silverdollar-sized piece of boiled lettuce every
day or every other day. Do not overfeed
because the lettuce will rot. Record
how much food you put in the containers
each day.
6. Change the water regularly, perhaps
every other day. Use water that has been
allowed to sit overnight and is at the same
temperature as the water you are replacing. Putting tadpoles in water that is
much warmer or cooler than they are used to could kill them. If
any tadpoles die for any reason, remove them as soon as possible.
7. Record the water temperature in each container each day, and
describe each group of tadpoles. You may want to sketch them.
Measure their size each week and record it on your data sheet.
8. After a group of tadpoles becomes frogs, which could take several
weeks, record the number of days and release them into an area
where it is safe and legal to do so. You should be aware that it is
illegal to release or dispose of live frogs in certain areas. If you
are not sure about where to release your frogs, ask your science
teacher.
9. Continue making observations and recording data until all the
tadpoles have become frogs.
Summary of Results Study the results on your chart. How many days did
it take for the first group to become frogs? What was the water temperature in that container? Did tadpoles in cooler containers take longer to
go through metamorphosis? Was your hypothesis correct? Summarize
what you have found.
650
Life Cycles
ment in several ways. For example, feed the tadpoles different amounts of food and keep the
temperature of the water constant. Then you
can determine how food availability impacts
their growth rate. Or you might feed them different kinds of vegetation.
You can also place different amounts of
water in each container or a different number
of tadpoles in each container. How does that
affect their growth rate? Try varying the amount
of sunlight that falls on each container. How
does light affect tadpole growth?
EXPERIMENT 2
Insects: How does food supply
affect the growth rate of
grasshoppers or crickets?
Problem: All the tadpoles are going through
metamorphosis at the same time.
Possible cause: The water temperatures are too
similar. Find warmer and cooler places to put the
jars.
Problem: Some of the tadpoles are dying.
Possible causes: They are not getting enough to
eat, or the water is too warm, too cold, or too dirty.
Try feeding tadpoles more or make the water a
little warmer or cooler in the jars where tadpoles
are dying. Also, change the water regularly.
Purpose/Hypothesis WARNING:You should be
aware that it is illegal to release or dispose of live insects in certain areas. If you
are not sure about performing this experiment, ask your science teacher.
Insects such as grasshoppers and crickets go through an incomplete
metamorphosis, where they gradually progress from eggs through several
nymph stages to adulthood. In this experiment, you will explore how the
amount of food available affects the growth rate of these insects from
nymph to adulthood. Before you begin, make an educated guess about
the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of insects. This
experiment: The more food supplied to grasshoppers, the faster they
will become adults.
651
Life Cycles

the amount of food you supply
the number of insects in each container
the age and health of the eggs you begin
with
the temperature at which the insects are
kept
takes the grasshoppers to develop into adults. If
effect on the grasshoppers growth rate.

be the amount of food you feed the grasshoppers,
and the variable you will measure will be the time
it takes them to become adults. You expect the
grasshoppers that are fed the most food will
become adults first.
Only one variable will change between the
control experiment and the experimental containers, and that is the amount of food you supply. For
the control, you will supply a medium amount of
food. For the experimental insects, you will supply a
greater and a lesser amount. You will measure how
many days it takes from the egg stage to the adult
stage. If the insects in the containers with the most
food grow fastest, your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Difficult, because of care
required with live animals.

Materials Needed
3 glass jars with lids

approximately 30 grasshopper or cricket eggs (You can obtain
them from a biological supply company, such as those listed
under Further Readings.)
fruit flies and a covered container to keep them in (You can also
obtain fruit flies from a biological supply company.)
measuring tape (with millimeters)
Approximate Budget $30, if you need to pur-
chase insects and food.
Always be careful with live animals and treat

them with respect. Move their containers
slowly. Wash your hands carefully before and
after handling them. If any insects die, dispose
of them. You should be aware that it is illegal to
release or dispose of live insects in certain areas.
If you are not sure about performing this
experiment, ask your science teacher.
Timetable 2 to 3 weeks.
652
1. Place an equal amount of eggs in each of the

three jars. Label the jars medium/control,
small amount, and large amount.
2. Place the jars in a warm, dry place out of
the direct sun.
Life Cycles
Step 1: Place an equal amount

of eggs in each of the three jars.
Label as shown. GA LE G RO UP.
3. When the eggs hatch, record the day and time on a data chart
4. Provide the amount of food named on the jar labels to each group
of nymphs. It will be difficult to count the fruit flies you supply,
but try to record the approximate number you give to each group.
Or you might vary the number of times you feed each group each
day. Feed the small group only once, the control group twice, and
the large group three times.
5. Every day record the growth of your insects. Measure the length of
at least one insect in each group each day.
6. The supply house probably provided
information about how large these insects
will be as adults. When the insects in any
group reach that size, release them in an
appropriate area. You should be aware
that it is illegal to release or dispose of
live insects in certain areas. If you are
not sure about where to release your
insects, ask your science teacher.
Step 5: Measure the length of at

least one insect in each group
each day. G AL E GR OUP .
7. Continue feeding and measuring until all

groups have reached adulthood.
653
Life Cycles
Recording chart for Experiment

2. GAL E GR OU P.
Summary of Results Study the results on your chart. How many days did
it take your control group to reach adulthood? How many days did it take
the group you fed the least? The most? Did food availability affect the
growth rate of your insects? Was your hypothesis correct? Summarize
what you have learned.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways. For
example, change the temperature where you keep the insects. How does
heat or cold affect them? How about sunlight? Vary the number of eggs in
each container. If some containers are very crowded, how does that affect
the insects growth rate? Check the labels that came with your eggs for the
different kinds of food the insects eat. Does a different diet affect their
growth rate?
Modify the Experiment In Experiments 1 and 2, you examined the
metamorphosis of a tadpole, and the grasshopper or cricket. If it is difficult

for you to obtain and care for live animals, you can simplify these experiments by drawing or constructing representations of the animals life cycle.
First, conduct research at your local library or on the Internet of an
animal that undergoes a complete metamorphosis and one that goes
654
Life Cycles
through an incomplete metamorphosis. You can

explore the life cycle of the tadpole, grasshopper,
caterpillar, or cricket. In a notebook, keep track of
your research and sketch the stages of the life
cycles. For example, the monarch butterfly undergoes a complete metamorphosis. You can draw
the unique stages of the caterpillar life cycle as it
transforms into a butterfly. You could also sculpt
the changes out of modeling clay, cut out paper
figures, or mold the shapes out of pipe cleaners.
Refer to your notebook and your representations to compare the life cycle of the two animals.
List important features of each life stage.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept If you are interested in life cycles, you
Problem: The growth rate of the insects in all
the containers seemed about the same.
Possible cause: The amount you are feeding
your insects is too similar. Try feeding one group
several more times in a day than the other
groups.
Problem: Many of the insects appear to be
dying.
Possible causes: You are not feeding the insects
enough, or the temperature is too cold. Try
feeding more fruit flies, or check the information
that came with the eggs to see if they need other
kinds of food. Move them to a warmer place if the
place you have been keeping them is rather cool.
could study the different stages (eggs, larvae,

nymphs) and the organisms diets, habitats,
sizes, forms, and activities. Perhaps you are interested in the transformation from caterpillars to
butterflies. How long is each stage in the life
cycle for various species? Where do they lay their eggs? What do they
eat, if anything? Many butterflies, such as the monarch, migrate long
distances. Where do they go? How can they fly so far, and how long do
they stay there?
Maybe you are more interested in the life cycles of amphibians, such
as frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts. Investigate which ones live in
your area and what time of the year you could best study the different
stages of their life cycles.
information on animal life cycle questions that interest you.
655
Life Cycles

experiment:
propose to do.
question at hand.
The butterfly is the adult

stage in the life cycle that
begins as a caterpillar.
P ETE R AR NO LD I NC.

selected.
charts, such as the ones you did for these experiments. They should be
If you have done a non experimental project, explain clearly what
your research question was and illustrate your findings.
Related Projects Besides doing experiments, you could prepare a poster
or model illustrating the life stages of a particular animal. Or you could
research the migration patterns of a particular butterfly or study the
effects of different stages of insects on agriculture. You could present
your findings as a booklet, poster, or report. The possibilities are
numerous.

Carolina Biological Supply Company, 2700 York Road, Burlington, NC
27215, 1 800 334 5551. http://www.carolina.com
Frey Scientific, 100 Paragon Parkway, Mansfield, OH 44903, 1 800 225
FREY. http://www.freyscientific.com
Goor, Ron, and Nancy Goor. Insect Metamorphosis: From Egg to Adult. New
Jersey: Simon & Schuster, 1990. Discusses both complete and incomplete
metamorphoses step by step with full color photographs.
656
Life Cycles
Kalman, Bobbie. Animal Life Cycles: Growing and Changing. New York: Crabtree
Publishing, 2006. A simple explanation of the life cycle of different animals.
Kneidel, Sally. Creepy Crawlies and the Scientific Method. Golden, CO: Fulcrum
Resources, 1993. A series of informative chapters on insects and other small
animals, experiments, and information on keeping those animals at home or
school.
Ruiz, Andres Llamas, and Francisco Arredondo. Metamorphosis (Cycles of Life
Series). New York: Sterling Publications, 1997. Details concepts and
processes of metamorphosis, focusing on frogs, butterflies, and dragonflies
with colorful illustrations.
Wards Natural Science Establishment, Inc., 5100 West Henrietta Road,
PO Box 92912, Rochester, NY 14692, 1 800 962 2660. http://www.
wardsci.com
657
Light Properties
S
Newton wrote about his
experiments with a prism and
compass in his manuscript
Opticks, which was published
in 1704. A RC HIV E PH OTO S.
cholars wondered about the properties of light as early as 600

B . C . E . in Miletus, which was part of the Greek empire. We now
know that light is a form of energy that travels through the universe
in waves. All light energy exists in an electromagnetic spectrum. The
visible spectrum, what we see as light, is part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Experiments with a shutter Isaac Newton (16421727), a brilliant

English mathematician, had just received his bachelors degree at the
University of Cambridge when the bubonic
plague hit Great Britain. Because the plague
spread faster in cities, Newton continued his
graduate studies for two years at his countryside
home. During this time, he conducted many
experiments. Early in 1666, Newton darkened
his room and made a small hole in his shutters.
After positioning a triangular glass prism in
front of this small beam of sunlight, he noticed
a band of colors called a spectrum. He concluded that when the light hit the prism, it
was bent, or refracted, to form many colors.
He demonstrated how the colors in sunlight
could be separated, then joined again to form
white light.
In his work, Newton proved three of the
most important characteristics of light: that it
travels in straight lines, that it can be reflected,
and that it can be refracted, or bent. Newton
also did an experiment showing sunlights
reflection and refraction inside raindrops. He
659
Light Properties
discovered that raindrops formed tiny transparent prisms that reflected and refracted the
Sun to produce colorful rainbows.
Making waves In 1801, Thomas Young, a
London doctor, developed a theory that light
traveled in waves and presented it to the Royal
Society, a prestigious group of scientists. Christian Huygens of Holland had suggested the presence of light waves in his book published in
1690, but Young would go on to prove it with
his experiments in 1803.
This spectrum is produced by a

modern diffraction grating.
Young used a screen with one slit. In

front of that, he placed another screen with
two side-by-side slits, and watched how sunlight passed through. What he saw was bands
of color fanning out and meeting each other
on the other side. Young realized these bands
of color called interference fringes could be
made only by waves of light. Up to that time
it was thought that there was no form to
light and that it existed everywhere. Youngs
experiment also showed diffraction. Diffraction occurs when an uninterruped wave of
light hits an obstacle. The obstacle bends the wave into a shadow
zone. This results in light and dark fringes outside the shadows
edge.
It glows in the dark Some substances produce visible light if
excited by radiation, such as invisible ultraviolet light. Visible light
that is produced only when the radiation source is present is called
fluorescence. Certain chemicals in laundry soaps react with sunlight
to produce a fluorescence that makes clothes look brighter. Visible
light that is produced even after the radiation source is removed is
called phosphorescence. Some plants and animals in the sea produce
a phosphorescence.
Great scientists throughout history came to their conclusions about
light by experimenting. Conducting some projects will enable you to
become familiar with some of lights properties.
660
Light Properties
WORDS TO KNOW
Diffraction: The bending of light or another form
of electromagnetic radiation as it passes
through a tiny hole or around a sharp edge.
Diffraction grating: A device consisting of a
surface into which are etched very fine, closely
spaced grooves that cause different wavelengths of light to reflect or refract (bend) by
different amounts.
waves (at the longest-wavelength end), microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma rays (at the
shortest-wavelength end).
Fluorescence: The emission of visible light from an
object when the object is bombarded with
electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet
rays. The emission of visible light stops after the
radiation source has been removed.
statement that can be tested by observation
and/or experiment.
Interference fringes: Bands of color that fan out
around an object.
Light: A form of energy that travels in waves.
Phosphorescence: The emission of visible light from

an object when the object is bombarded with
electromagnetic radiation, such as ultraviolet rays.
The object stores part of the radiation energy and
the emission of visible light continues for a period
ranging from a fraction of a second to several days
after the radiation source has been removed.
Radiation: Energy transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles.
Reflected: The bouncing of light rays in a regular
pattern off the surface of an object.
Refracted: The bending of light rays as they pass at
an angle from one transparent or clear medium
into a second one of different density.
Ultraviolet: Electromagnetic radiation (energy) of a
wavelength just shorter than the violet (shortest
wavelength) end of the visible light spectrum and
thus with higher energy than the visible light.
experiment.
Visible spectrum: The range of individual wavelengths of radiation visible to the human eye when
white light is broken into its component colors as it
passes through a prism or by some other means.
PROJECT 1
Looking for the Glow: Which objects glow
under black light?
Purpose/Hypothesis Fluorescence is a scientific term that refers to some-
thing (usually a chemical compound) that reacts with light energy and
glows brightly. In this project, you will examine compounds that react
with ultraviolet light (UV), causing the compound to glow. When certain
chemicals are exposed to UV light, the molecules absorb the light energy
and then release it in the form of visible light.
661
Light Properties
Materials Needed
The chemicals in many detergents can irritate

the skin, so avoid contact with the skin and
eyes. Always use caution when handling
household chemicals. Normally UV light is considered dangerous and harmful to the eyes.
However, the fixture you are using emits very
long wavelength UV, which is safe to use.
UV light, also called a black light (fluorescent fixture with black or dark purple
lightbulb)
Wisk or Woolite brand laundry detergent
glow-in-the-dark plastic (can be a plastic
toy)
calcite (mineral found in nature or rock
stores)
white paper
objects to test (rocks and minerals, household detergents or
cleaners, clothing, plants, etc.)
LEFT: Detergent needed for

Project 1. GAL E GR OU P.
RIGHT: Step 2: Place a small
amount of Wisk or Woolite on a
piece of white paper. GA LE
Approximate Budget
$20 for black light, $5 for detergents and for
calcite.
GR OU P.
662
Light Properties
1. Place the black light in a dark room and

turn it on.
2. Place a small amount of Wisk or Woolite
on a piece of white paper. Let the detergent dry a little and place the paper so that
the light shines on it. Notice the color of
the chemical. Wisk is blue/green. Woolite
is green/yellow.
3. Place different objects in front of the
black light, such as white socks, white
or colored towels, or blue jeans. Record
any color you notice. Test groups of
objects such as rocks, minerals, household
the problem.
Problem: None of the objects emits light.
Possible cause: The black bulb should glow a
dark purple when on. If the bulb is not glowing,
the light is not working. Turn the lights on in the
room and unplug the black light from the wall
outlet. Check to see if the lightbulb is firmly
seated in its sockets on both ends. Repeat the
project.
Step 4: Sample recording chart

for Project 1. GA LE GRO UP.
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Light Properties
detergents, flowers, fabric dyes, and plastic objects.

4. Repeat the test for each object. Record
your observations.
Summary of Results Keep a record or chart of
the results of the project. Its fun to discover how
many things glow under UV light.
PROJECT 2
An example of light refraction
using a glass of water. G AL E
GRO UP.
A diffraction grating is a
microscopically scratched
plastic film that bends light as it
goes around the scratched film,
causing a spectrum to become
visible. GA LE GRO UP.
Refraction and Defraction:

Making a rainbow
Purpose/Hypothesis Rainbows are a good example of refraction. Water
droplets are the first step in rainbow formation. The droplets form tiny
transparent prisms that reflect and refract sunlight. Refraction or bending
of sunlight, or white light, makes the spectrum colors of red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, and violet spread out and become visible. Refraction
can be made to occur in many transparent materials, including glass,
plastic, or water.
In this project, you will use a special plastic material to display the
different spectrums found in colored light. The plastic material is called a
diffraction grating. A diffraction grating is a microscopically scratched
plastic film that bends light as it goes around the scratched film, causing a
spectrum to become visible.
Materials Needed
diffraction grating (Local science and

nature stores have these. They also may
have toys called rainbow peepholes and
rainbow makers, which contain diffraction gratings.)
colored lightbulbs (25-watt party lights in
red, blue, green, yellow, purple, and orange.)
white lightbulb (any wattage)
light fixture or lamp that fits lightbulbs
colored markers
664
Light Properties
Approximate Budget $30: $4 to $5 for each bulb
and $1 for a diffraction grating. (You might

borrow colored Christmas lights.)
Timetable Approximately 30 minutes to per-
Do not stick your fingers into the light sockets.

Make sure the fixture is unplugged before
removing the bulb. Do not touch hot bulbs.
form and record the results.

1. Insert the white light bulb into the lamp. Plug the lamp in and
turn it on.
2. Turn off all other lights and darken the room as much as
possible.
3. Hold the diffraction grating approximately 0.5 inch (1.25 cm)
away from your eye and look through it.
4. Notice the colors of the visible spectrum. Use the colored markers
to draw the spectrum on a piece of paper and label it.
5. Turn the lights back on, shut off the lamp, and allow the bulb
to cool.
6. Unplug the lamp and remove the bulb.
7. Repeat Steps 1 through 6 with each colored light.
Summary of Results Make a chart displaying the spectrums made by the
different colored bulbs. Compare your results. Write a summary of your

findings.
Step 4: Use the colored markers

to draw the observed spectrum
on a piece of paper and label it.
GA LE G RO UP.
665
Light Properties
EXPERIMENT 3
Refraction: How does the
material affect how light
travels?

determine how light refracts as it interacts with

different materials. You will first observe the
the distance from the material
reflection and transmission of light. Then you
the light beam
will determine how different materials affect
the distance from the ruler
light refraction. The materials you will test are
plastic wrap, wax paper, a glue stick, and a glue
are everything that might affect the passage of
stick wrapped in aluminum foil. Aluminum foil
the light. If you change more than one variable,
traps the light, reflecting it back into the material.
you will not be able to tell what had the most
Light transmits or passes through clear materials.
effect on how the material affected the light.
As light passes through transparent materials it
can refract, causing the light to bend. How much
the light refracts depends upon the material.
In order to find out how light travels, you will measure the diameter
of the beam of light through the materials. Also, you can see how much
light is moving through the material by noting the lights intensity.
For the light source, you will use an LED to determine the path of
light as it travels. An LED stands for an light emitting diode. It is a small
electronic device that lights up when electricity passes through. LEDs
emit a bright colored light yet consume little energy. With an LED, you
can determine how and where the light travels.
Step 2: Observe light reflection.
experiment based on your knowledge of the materials and the properties
of light. This educated guess, or prediction, is
NE LS ON.
these things:
the type of materials
Paper
666
Foil

prove or disprove your hypothesis. Here is one
Light Properties

glue stick wrapped in foil will cause less light to
escape, leading to the strongest and narrowest
beam of light.

Avoid direct eye contact with the LED light.

be the materials the light passes through. The
variable you will measure will be the diameter
and intensity of the LED beam.
Materials Needed
LED, available at hardware or electronic

stores
white paper
aluminum foil
wax paper
plastic wrap
glue stick
a ruler with exact markings
scissors
a dark room
a helper
Approximate Budget $8$12.
Step 3: Record the diameter of

the spot and note the intensity
of the light. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Step 6: Test light refraction by

holding the LED above the
ruler and measuring the
diameter and intensity of the
beam of light. ILL US TRA TI ON
1. Turn off all lights and darken the room as

much as possible.
2. Observe light reflection: Place aluminum
foil 6 inches (15 centimeters) in front of
the LED light with white paper 6 inches
behind the light. Have a helper turn on
the LED and make a note of the location
and intensity of the light.
3. Repeat this process, replacing the aluminum foil with a piece of plastic wrap.
667
Light Properties
wrong can be a learning experience. Here are
some problems that may arise during this
Problem: The light did not change in diameter
as expected.
Possible cause: You may have moved the LED
so that it was not the same from the ruler. Try
having a friend place an object that is the same
height as where you are holding the LED, and
Problem: The beam of light was not visible
many times.
Possible cause: The room may not be dark
enough. Try conducting the experiment in the
evening, or block out more light from the
windows.
4. Observe light transmission: Place a white

piece of paper in front and in back of the
aluminum foil. Record where you see the
spot of light. Have a helper shine the LED
toward the aluminum foil. (See
illustration)
5. Observe light refraction: Hold the LED
against a -inch (0.64-centimeters) piece
of glue stick and turn on the LED. Note
the intensity of the light. Now cover the
LED with a piece of aluminum foil and
again turn on the LED. Record your
observations.
6. Test light refraction; Hold the LED 3
inches (7.6 centimeters) above the ruler.
It does not need to be exactly 3 inches
(7.6 centimeters) above the ruler but you
have to keep it the same distance for each
material you test.
7. Shine the LED on the ruler. Measure the
diameter of the beam of light and note the
lights intensity.
8. Place a piece of wax paper against the

LED and shine the light. Measure the diameter of the spot on
the paper. Record the data.
9. Repeat the process, replacing the wax paper one at a time with
plastic wrap, -inch (0.64-centimeter) piece of glue stick, and a
-piece (0.64-centimeters)of glue stick wrapped in foil. Each
time, record the diameter of the spot and note the intensity of
the light.
Summary of Results Take a look at your data and notes. Was your
hypothesis correct? When the light was directed at the glue stick, how
did it differ with and without the aluminum foil? Was there one or more
materials that caused the light to lose intensity? What material led to the
beam of light having the largest diameter? Write a paragraph on your
findings.
668
Light Properties
Change the Variables There are many variables you can change in this
experiment. For example, you can try passing the light through a variety
of materials that are only solids, such as different metals. Or you can turn
the light on in front of various liquids. You can also dye the same liquid,
such as water, to measure how color plays a factor in light transmission.
You can also change the type of light you are using.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept There are many aspects of
the properties of light you can study, either as a project or as an experiment. One aspect you may want to study might be reflection. If you
choose reflection, one question might be: How can I see into a puddle
past my reflection? Check the Further Readings section for this topic, and
talk with a teacher or with a librarian before finalizing your choice.
sure what question youre answering, what you are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the two properties of
light projects, your data might include drawings or photographs. If you

exhibit your project, you need to limit the amount of information you
offer, so viewers will not be overwhelmed by detail. Make sure the
beginning question, the variable you measured, the results and your
conclusions about light are clear. Viewers and judges will want to see
how each experiment was set up. You might want to take a detailed photo
at each stage. Label your photos clearly. Have colorful tables and charts
ready with information and results.
669
Light Properties
Related Projects Your project does not have to be an experiment that
investigates or answers a question. It can also be a model, such as Newtons original experiment with window shutters and a prism. Setting up
such a model would be fun, and you would learn how this concept works.

Burnie, David. Light. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1992. Includes a chapter on
how Newton split light and other interesting aspects of this phenomenon
with great photos and illustrations.
Davidson, Michael W. et al. Light and Color; Molecular Expressions. http://
micro.magnet. fsu.edu/primer/lightandcolor/index.html (accessed on
January 18, 2008).
Hamilton, Gina L. Light: Prisms, Rainbows, and Colors. Chicago: Raintree,
2004.
670
Magnetism
O
The pattern of the iron filings
in this demonstration shows the
magnetic field of the bar
magnet. PHO TO
ne of the most mysterious phenomena we witness every day is

magnetism, a fundamental force of nature caused by the motion
of electrons in an atom. You put a note on a refrigerator door. You watch
the speedometer in a car tell you how fast you are travelling. You listen to
a tape of recorded music. All of these depend on magnetism, but how do
these things work? How does the simple physics
of the magnet make so much possible?
Magnetism is a matter of alignment What
turns an ordinary piece of iron into a magnet? A
large iron bar actually contains millions of
mini-magnets, small magnetized areas called
domains. Each has a north pole and a south
pole. If the poles of the irons domains are
aimed in all different directions, their magnetic
forces act against one another and cancel each
other out. When all of the domains are facing
the same way, the bar becomes a magnet because
it now has a single, strong magnetic field, a space
in which its magnetic force can be observed.
How can we get all the domains facing the
same way? This can be achieved by repeatedly
rubbing the bar with one pole of another magnet
in the same direction. Once the bar is magnetized,
its magnetic field will exert enough force on the
domains in nearby iron filings to temporarily
magnetize them. Each filing has its own north
and south poles, and those poles are attracted to
or repelled by the magnets poles. (Remember
that unlike poles attract and like poles repel.)
671
Magnetism
When a metals domains face in

all different directions, it has no
overall magnetism. When they
are lined up, as illustrated, they
create a strong magnetic field.
GAL E GR OU P.
Hans Christian Oersted

studied the relationship
between electricity and
magnetism. PH OTO
RE SEA RC HER S I NC.
The position of the domains in such a magnet is not permanent,

however. Striking or jarring the bar will literally knock its domains out
of alignment, and the bar will lose its magnetism. Even as time passes
and the magnet sits in a drawer, it will slowly lose its magnetism as
the domains shift back to their original positions. One way to preserve a magnet is to keep
it in a magnetic circuit, in which each domain
is held in place by the direction of the next
domain. Placing a steel plate across the poles
of a horseshoe magnet will complete the circuit: all the domains in the circuit will point
in the same direction and will tend to remain
that way.
In the first experiment you will create a
magnet and then test the effects on the magnets
strength of heat, cold, jarring, and rubbing with
another magnet.
Electricity can also produce magnetism
Electrical current flowing through a wire produces a magnetic field. If the wire is wound into a
coil, it will produce a stronger magnetic field,
similar to that of a bar magnet: each end of the
coil will become a magnetic pole. This effect was
discovered by Danish physicist Hans Christian
Oersted (17771851). He noticed that electric
current disturbed the normal functioning of
magnetic compasses.
672
Magnetism
WORDS TO KNOW
Alignment: Adjustment in a certain direction or
orientation.
Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals with
properties different from those metals of which
it is made.
Circuit: The complete path of an electric current
including the source of electric energy.
Domain: Small regions in iron that possess their
own magnetic charges.
Electron: A subatomic particle with a mass of
about one atomic mass unit and a single electrical charge that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Electromagnetism: A form of magnetic energy
produced by the flow of an electric current
through a metal core. Also, the study of electric
and magnetic fields and their interaction with

charges and currents.
Insulated wire: Electrical wire coated with a nonconducting material such as plastic.
Magnetic circuit: A series of magnetic domains
aligned in the same direction.
Magnetic field: The space around an electric
current or a magnet in which a magnetic force
can be observed.
Magnetism: A fundamental force in nature caused
by the motion of electrons in an atom.
Terminal: A connection in an electric circuit; usually
a connection on a source of electric energy such
as a battery.
experiment.
Electromagnetism is a form of magnetic energy produced by the

flow of an electric current through a metal core. It has many applications in our modern technology. Stereo speakers are one of the most
common applications. Electrical signals pass through a coil, creating a
varying magnetic field that pushes and pulls on another magnet
attached to the speaker. This causes the paper speaker cone to move
back and forth to produce sound. Some metals, including iron, can be
made into electromagnets strong enough to lift tons of scrap steel. One
advantage of electromagnets is that they can be turned on and off with
the flip of a switch.
In the second experiment, you will create a small electromagnet using
an electric current and you will test the effect on the magnet when the
strength of the current is varied.
673
Magnetism
EXPERIMENT 1
Magnets: How do heat, cold,
jarring, and rubbing affect
the magnetism of a nail?
The keeper placed across the

positive and negative poles of
this horseshoe magnet create a
magnetic circuit that holds the
domains in place and stops the
magnet from losing its strength.
GA LE GRO UP.
will first test the effect of rubbing a bar magnet

on a steel or iron nail. The bar magnet should
align the domains in the iron so that the nail
becomes magnetized. You will then measure the
effect of four actions upon the nails magnetic
strengthheating, cooling, rubbing with a magnet in the opposite direction, and striking with a
hammer. Each of the four actions will be tested
on a different magnetized nail. Before you begin,
this experiment based on your knowledge of
magnetism. This educated guess, or prediction,
these things:
hypothesis for this experiment: Rubbing a magnetized nail with the
opposite pole of the bar magnet that was used to magnetize it, striking or
dropping it, and raising or lowering its temperature will decrease the
strength of its magnetic field.
In this case, the variables you will change are the four actions
you will take on identically magnetized nails, and the variable you
will measure is the resulting strength of the nails magnetic field.
You expect that all four actions will reduce the nails magnetic
strength.
674
Magnetism
Materials Needed
bar magnet
5 steel or iron nails about 3 inches (7.5
centimeters) long (iron is preferable; steel
is an alloy containing other metals that
cannot be magnetized)
hammer
1 cup of hot tap water
1 cup of cold tap water with ice added
10 staples (separated and unused)
10 steel paper clips
10 plastic-coated paper clips
small wooden block
safety glasses
Approximate Budget Less than $10 for the mag-
net. (Try to borrow the hammer and safety

glasses, if you do not have them.)
1. Rub one pole of the bar magnet lengthwise down one nail fifty times, always in
the same direction.
2. Test the nail for magnetism by touching
its point to a staple, then to a steel paper
clip, then to a coated paper clip.
3. Observe and record on your data chart
which objects the nail can lift. Carefully
set the nail aside. Keep it several inches
away from the other nails.
4. Repeat this procedure with three other
nails, rubbing them the same number of
times in the same direction with the
same pole of the bar magnet. The magnetic strength of the nails should be
almost the same. If one is significantly
weaker, rub it with the magnet until the

type of metal in the nails
the size of the nails
the strength of the bar magnet used
the number of times the nail is rubbed
with the bar magnet
the direction in which the nail is rubbed
with the bar magnet
the actions performed on the nails (striking, heating, etc.)
are anything that might affect the magnetic
strength of the nails. If you change more than
one variable for each nail, you will not be able to
resulting magnetic strength of the nail.
A fifth nail will be magnetized and tested
without any action performed on it. This control
experiment lets us know that any changes we
see in magnetism result from the actions and
not from some unseen factor.

Safety glasses must be worn any time you are
striking metal on metal. Do not strike the nail
with great force, and be sure to rest the nail
on the wooden block so it does not bend or
snap when hit. Do not lift the hammer more
than 6 inches (15 centimeters) from the block.
(See illustration.)
675
Magnetism

Step 7d: Rest the shaft of the

nail flat on the block. G AL E
GRO UP.
676
strength of its field is similar to the others. Your data chart should
look like the illustration.
5. To establish your control experiment, test the remaining nail for
magnetism. If this nail picks up any of the test objects, it has
somehow been magnetized. Do not be surprised if the nail does
have a very weak magnetic field. Just the movements of nails
against one another in a box can align a small percentage of the
domains in the metal. To prove that rubbing the first four nails
with the bar magnet caused them to
become magnegtized, however, you
must see a significant difference between
their magnetic strength and that of the
control nail.
6. Now rub the control nail the same number
of times in the same direction. Check to be
sure it is magnetized, record the results,
and carefully set it aside away from the
other nails.
7. Perform one action on each nail. (Remember not to disturb the control nail.)
Magnetism
a. Place the first nail in hot water and

leave it for ten minutes.
b. Place the second nail in the ice water
and leave it for ten minutes.
c. Rub the third nail with the same
pole of the magnet used earlier, but
in the opposite direction, twenty-five
times.
d. With everyone present wearing safety
goggles, place the shaft of the fourth
nail flat on the wooden block and strike
it firmly three or four times. (Do not
lift the head of the hammer any more
than 6 inches [15 centimeters].)
8. Test the magnetic strength of each nail
and note any changes on your chart.
9. Finally, check the control nail to make
sure that nails do not lose their magnetic
strength simply by sitting unused for
several minutes. Record the strength of
the control nail in the appropriate row
on your chart.
This experiment is fairly straightforward. You
should encounter little difficulty if you use the
listed materials. When you are doing experiments with magnetism, results can be difficult
to measure precisely. To compare the strengths
of magnets, test their lifting power several times
and average the results to achieve a greater
degree of accuracy.
Problem: All of the nails are strongly
magnetized to start with.
Possible cause: They may have been exposed
to a strong magnetic field prior to the experiment. Demagnetize them by striking each
several times with the hammer. (It is not
necessary to strike with great force. Remember
to wear safety glasses and place the nails flat
on a wooden block so they will not bend or
snap.)
Summary of Results Compare your data from
Problem: The nails will not magnetize.
the four tests. Determine which of the actions

demagnetized the nails and which did not.
Check your findings against the predictions you
made in your hypothesis. Which actions did
you accurately predict would demagnetize the
nails? Which actions did not have the effect you
expected? Summarize your results in writing.
Possible causes:
Change the Variables By altering your variables,
you can make this experiment the basis of a series

of interesting and informative investigations into
magnetism. For example, how fast does magnetic strength weaken? Can we preserve a magnet
longer by refrigerating it? Are the effects
1. The nails are made of a metal or alloy that

cannot be magnetized. Use iron or steel
nails. (Iron is preferable.)
2. Your bar magnet is too weak. Check
its strength and replace it if
necessary.
3. You are changing the direction of the
stroke as you rub the magnet on the nail,
or you are accidentally switching poles as
you rub the nail. Either mistake will
sweep the nails domains in different
directions. Follow this procedure
carefully.
677
Magnetism

the type of nail used
the number of batteries attached to the
circuit, which is directly proportional to
the current
the type and gauge of wire used
the shape and weight of the test objects
used
are everything that might affect the magnetic
field strength of the electromagnet. If you
on the magnetic strength.
Steps 1 to 3: Set-up of nail and
D-cell battery. GAL E GR OU P.
678
of demagnetization always reversible, or can

domains be put permanently out of order?
EXPERIMENT 2
Electromagnets: Does the strength
of an electromagnet increase
with greater current?
will create an electromagnet and test the effect

of varying levels of electric current on the
strength of the magnetic field. You will increase
the current by adding batteries to the circuit
the path of the electric current through a wire
attached to the terminals of a source of electric
energy. Before you begin, make an educated
guess about the outcome of this experiment
based on your knowledge of electromagnets.
things:
experiment: The strength of an electromagnets
magnetic field will increase when the current
applied to the electromagnet is increased.
the electrical current, and the variable you will
measure is the resulting strength of the magnetic
field of the electromagnet. You expect that a
higher current will result in a higher magnetic
field strength.
Magnetism

Materials Needed
2 feet (0.6 meter) of insulated, 16 to 18

gauge solid copper wire
3 fresh D-cell batteries
iron or steel nail (iron is preferable)
electrical tape
10 staples (separated and unused)
10 steel paper clips
10 plastic-coated paper clips
magnetic compass
wire strippers

Do not change the number or type of batteries
used in this experiment without first consulting
a teacher. NEVER experiment with household
current or car batteries! Both are dangerous
and potentially life-threatening.
Approximate Budget Less than $15 for wire, batteries, and electrical tape.
(Try to borrow the wire strippers and compass, if necessary.)

1. Secure one of the D-cell batteries to a flat surface using a strip of

electrical tape.
2. Coil the insulated copper wire ten or more times around the nail,
starting at one end of the nail and working toward the other. Leave
about 2 inches (5 centimeters) of straight wire at each end.
Step 6: Sample data chart for

679
Magnetism
When doing experiments with magnetism,
results can be difficult to measure precisely. To
compare the strengths of magnets, test their
lifting power several times and average the
results to achieve a greater degree of accuracy.
Here is a problem that may arise during the
Problem: The nail does not show any
magnetism.
Possible causes:
1. A connection is loose. Check your connections, especially where the copper
wire meets the battery terminals. Secure
them with electrical tape if necessary.
2. The nail is made of a metal or alloy that
does not magnetize. Use an iron nail.
3. You are using uninsulated wire, causing
the current to travel across the coil and
disrupt the magnetic field. Use insulated
wire.
4. Your batteries are dead. Check them
with a flashlight and replace them if
necessary.
3. Strip the insulation off both ends of the

wire. Hold one end to the positive terminal on the battery, and the other end to
the negative terminal.
4. Check the nail for a magnetic field by
holding it over the compass. Does the
compass needle always point along the
same direction on the nail? Which end of
the coil forms the north pole of the magnetic field, the one leading to the positive
terminal or the one leading to the negative
terminal?
5. Use the magnet to lift as many staples as
possible. Repeat with the steel paper clips
and with the coated paper clips.
6. Record on your data chart the number
lifted each time. Your chart should look
7. Increase the voltage applied to the electromagnet by adding another D-cell battery
to the circuit. This will double the electrical current. Secure the batteries firmly
together with electrical tape, making sure
the positive terminal of one is touching
the negative terminal of the other.
8. Repeat the test of the magnets lifting
power and record your observations on
the chart.
9. Finally, repeat the tests once more with three batteries. This will
triple the current. Do not use more than three D-cell batteries! Do
not use any other type of battery without first asking your teacher.
Summary of Results Your data from Steps 6, 8, and 9 should be recorded
on a chart. This chart should contain the information that will show
whether your hypothesis is correct. Did changes in current strength affect
the magnetic strength? You can increase the clarity of your results by
converting the data into graph form. Summarize your results in writing.
680
Magnetism
Change the Variables To further explore the

topic of electromagnetism, you can vary this
experiment in the following ways:
Use a different type of nail, such as copper or aluminum, or a heavier iron or
steel nail
Try a heavier gauge copper wire
Vary the shape and weight of the items
you try to pick up
One variation you must avoid is adding

more than three batteries to the circuit or using
a kind of battery other than D-cell. This can
create enough electric current to be dangerous.

If you look carefully around your house, you

will discover that magnets play a hidden role
in much of the technology we use today. You
can investigate other uses of magnets and
develop interesting ideas for experiments
and demonstrations. Remember that magnetic particles make tape recordings and
computer diskettes function. Magnets are at work in every electric
motor you see. Magnetism also affects natural phenomena, such as
the aurora borealis (northern lights) and the migratory patterns of
birds.
teacher of school or community media specialist to start gathering information on magnetism questions that interest you. Remember that any
experiment involving electricity should use no more than three 1.5-volt
batteries, and any experiment proposal should be approved by your
teacher.
The electromagnet is especially

useful in the scrap yard because
it can be easily switched on and
off. P HOT O RE SE AR CHE RS
INC .
681
Magnetism

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the experiments included
here, and in any experiments you develop, try to display your data in
accurate and interesting ways. When presenting your results to those who
have not seen the experiment performed, showing photographs of the
various steps can make the process more interesting and clear.
Related Projects Simple variations on the two experiments in this
section can prove valuable and informative. The magnetic field created
by an electromagnet has poles just like a permanent magnet. How could
you discover which end of the coil is north and which is south? How
does reversing the positive and negative contacts on the coil affect the
field? What happens if you put an electromagnet coil around an
already magnetized nail? Does it increase the strength of the field?

The Exploratorium. Snacks about Magnetism. The Exploratorium Science
Snacks. http://www.explo ratorium.edu/snacks/iconmagnetism.html
(accessed on February 19, 2008). A number of short experiments on
magnetism.
The Interactive Plasma Physics Education Experience! Electricity and Magnetism.
http://ippex.pppl.gov/interactive/electricity/ (accessed on February 19,
2008). Information and animations on magnetism, and how it relates to
electricity.
Macaulay, David and Neil Ardley. The New Way Things Work. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Detailed description of how machines work,
including those that use electricity and magnetism.
682
Magnetism
University of Maryland, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
Gallery of Electromagnetic Personalities. http://www.ece. umd.edu/taylor/
frame1.htm (accessed on February 19, 2008). Brief biographies of the people
who make contributions to magnetism and electromagnetism.
683
Materials Science
e live in a world filled with materials. There are materials that

people have created, such as plastics, and others that come from
nature, like wood. Our clothes, furniture, dishes, music players, sports
equipment, and homes are all made of materials. Materials are a part of
medicine in the threads for stitches and artificial hearts. Materials are key
to space exploration in the astronauts spacesuits and the metals used in the
spacecraft. The materials that make up packaging keep our food fresh and
safe from harmful microorganisms. Materials science is the study of all
these materials to better understand and use them.
By understanding the properties, materials scientists can find ways to
improve existing materials and develop new ones.
Following natures lead The story of Velcro began when an electrical engineer, George de Mestral, noticed how burrs were sticking to his
dogs fur. An up-close look at the burrs under a microscope showed him
that the burrs had natural hooks that were sticking to the fur. That led
him to develop Velcro, a material that fastens with hooks on one side and
loops on the other.
The development of Velcro is an example of biomimetics. The science
of developing materials inspired by nature is called biomimetics. Many
organisms create materials with such amazing properties that scientists have
long tried to mimic them for manmade materials. For example, scientists
have long studied the silk a spider produces. Spider silk is so light and strong
that if a thread of spider silk was the same weight as a thread of steel, the silk
would be stronger. Spider silk can also stretch a long way without breaking.
A material that could be manufactured having the same properties as
spider silk would be useful for humans.
All types of materials There are several ways to categorize materials,

and some materials can fall under more than one category. Different types
of materials are:
685
Materials Science
Electrical engineer, George de

Mestral, noticed that burrs have
natural hooks, leading to the
development of Velcro. I LLU S-
velcro
burr
TRA TI ON B Y TE MA H NEL SO N.
Metals: These materials include metals or mixtures of metals.

Polymers: Polymers are long chains of repeating smaller units.
Examples of polymers include plastic bottles, nylon, and polyester.
Textiles: Any type of cloth, yarn, or fabric is a textile.
Spider silk is so light and strong
that if a thread of spider silk
was the same weight as a thread
of steel, the silk would be
stronger. ( C) LAY NE KE NNE DY/
CO RB IS.
Ceramics: Glass, cement, and pottery all fall under ceramics,

which is any material that is not metal and not organic (from
living organisms).
Semiconductors: Material that have electrical properties inbetween a conductor and insulator.
New materials: Developments in science
and technology are leading to new materials by mixing two or more materials
together (composites) or by manipulating
particles in current materials.
Material properties With so many materials, there are a lot of material properties. Some
properties can change with heat, cold, pressure,
or other conditions. When developing and finding the best-suited materials, a few common
properties that scientists look at include:
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Materials Science
Strength: There are different types of measuring strengths for materials. Tensile
compressional strength
strength is one commonly used measure
of strength. Tensile strength measures the
point at which a material will break when it
tensile strength
is pulled. For materials that are pulled or
stretched frequently, such as plastic bags,
having a high tensile strength is an important feature. Compressional strength is
another category, referring to the strength
of a material when weight is pushing down or compressing the
There are different types of
measuring strengths for
material. Materials where compressional strength is important
materials: tensile strength and
include steel and concrete.
compressional strength. I LL US Toughness: The toughness of a material is the amount of energy
TRA TI ON B Y TE MA H NEL SO N.
needed to break a material. A plastic spoon that easily snaps into
two pieces would have far less toughness than a strip of wood that
you cant break.
Heat: Thermal properties relate to heat and include how well a
material can hold, insulate, or conduct heat. Some materials, such
as winter fabrics for the outdoors, are selected for their ability to
insulate, not allowing heat to passeither out or into the body.
Flammability is a measure of how quickly a materials lights on fire
and is a common test for many household materials.
Electrical: How well a material conducts electricity is a measure of
its conductivity. Materials chosen for their ability to conduct
electricity (electrons) include metals such as copper and silver.
Other materials, such as rubbers and plastics, are selected because
they do not conduct electricity.
Chemical: A materials chemical properties are a measure of how
the material will chemically change or react with other substances.
When iron rusts, for example, that is a chemical change as the iron
reacts with oxygen.
Biodegradable: Materials made of natural biological materials that
are broken down by natural processes are called biodegradable.
Materials made from primarily from plantssuch as wool, corn,
wood, and cottonare examples of materials that could be
biodegradable.
Materials science is an interdisciplinary field. Professionals who work
to develop materials could specialize in chemistry, engineering, or
687
Materials Science
WORDS TO KNOW
Biodegradable: Capable of being decomposed by
biological agents.
Biomimetics: The development of materials that
are found in nature.
Conductivity: The ability of a material to carry an
electrical current.
Electricity: A form of energy caused by the presence
of electrical charges in matter.
Flammability: The ability of a material to ignite and
burn.

experiment.
heat energy will pass.
Tensile strength: The force needed to stretch a
material until it breaks.
an experiment.
physics. In the experiments below, you will investigate two types of

materials. As you conduct the experiments, consider what questions
you have about materials and what you would like to explore.
EXPERIMENT 1
Testing Tape: Finding the properties that
allow tape to support weight.
Purpose/Hypothesis How would you develop a tape that supports a lot of
weight? There are a variety of properties that make tape support weight.
One property is the adhesive on the tape. Some tapes have an adhesive that
bonds tightly to an object while others are developed with a relatively weak
adhesive.
Another property of material strength is how much the tape can
withstand tearing when it is pulled. This is called tensile strength. The
higher the materials tensile strength, the more pressure it can take before
breaking.
In this experiment, you will measure how a variety of tapes support
weight to determine the properties of the tapes. You will first examine
688
Materials Science
how each tape tears. You can then add an increasing amount of weight supported by the tape.
Water will be the weight: One cup of water
weighs approximately 8 ounces (0.24 milliliters).
By measuring when the tape can no longer hold
the weight, you can draw conclusions about the
properties of the strongest tape.
To begin this experiment make an educated
guess, or prediction, of what you think will occur
based on your knowledge of material science and
tapes. This educated guess, or prediction, is your
things:


the type of bag
the bottle
the type of tape
the amount of tape used
everything that might affect the amount of
weight the tape can hold. If you change more
which variable impacted the tapes strength.

possible hypothesis for this experiment: The more difficult a tape is to
tear, the more weight it will support.
In this experiment the variable you will change will be the type of
tape, and the variable you will measure will be the amount of weight the
tape can hold before it breaks.
Materials needed for

Experiment 1. I LL US TRA TI ON
Materials Needed
5 small paper bags, lunch bags work well

funnel
scissors
2-liter soda bottle
measuring cup
water
ruler
4 to 5 different types of tapes, including
Duct, packing, and masking (clear
689
Materials Science

If you use the scissors to cut the bottle or bag,
be careful. Check with an adult that you can
stick tape to the wall. This experiment can be
messy. If you have an outside area with a flat
wall you may want to set up the experiment
outside.
Step 6: Carefully add cup

(about 2 ounces) of water to the
bottle. When the tape can no
longer support the bottle, write
down the amount of weight the
tape held. IL LU STR AT ION BY
TE MAH NEL SO N.
household tape and painters tape are

other types)
large container (to catch falling water)
Timetable 30 minutes
1. For each tape, tear off a piece about

6 inches (15 centimeters) using your
hands. Note how difficult each tape is to rip crosswise. If you
have to use scissors to tear the tape, write that down in a chart.
2. For each tape, tear the piece lengthwise and note how difficult
each tape is to rip.
3. Tear a new piece of the first tape one inch less than the width of the
bag and stick it on the bag with half the width of the tape on the bag.
4. Stick the bag on the wall and set the empty bottle in the bag. The
bottle should be slightly higher than the bag. You may need to cut
the top of the bottle or the bag with the
scissors.
5. Set the large container underneath the
bag/bottle and place the funnel in the
bottle.
6. Carefully add cup (about 2 ounces) of
water to the bottle, being careful not to
drip any water on the bag. Continue adding water in cup increments, remembering to note how much water you are
adding. When the tape can no longer
support the bottle, write down the
amount of weight the tape held.
7. Repeat Steps 36 with each of the tapes,
using a new, dry bag in each set-up. Note
your results.
Summary of Results Look at your chart. You
may want to graph the results with the amount
of water on the y-axis and the tape on the x-axis.
690
Materials Science
Did the tapes break at different weights? How

did the ease or difficulty of tearing the tape relate
to the tapes ability to hold weight? Consider
other properties of the material that helped it
withstand weight. If you were developing a tape
that was stronger than the strongest tape you
tested, what properties would you use? Write a
summary of your results.
ment in several ways, depending on the goal of

the material you want. If you want to continue
testing strength, you can test the tape strength
from another direction. You can also change the
temperature, test the strength at both colder and
warmer temperatures. If you wanted to focus on
one tape, you could keep the weight the same
and examine how the dimensions of the tape play
a role in its strength.
EXPERIMENT 2
Developing Renewables:
Can a renewable packing
material have the same
qualities as a nonrenewable material?
Problem: The bag broke before barely any
weigh was added.
Possible cause: You may have dribbled some of
the water on the bottom of the paper bag,
which could have caused it to tear. Using a
new, dry bag, repeat the test.
Problem: The tape kept peeling off the wall.
Possible cause: The surface may have a coating
that is difficult to adhere to. Try to find a
smooth, non waxy flat surface, and repeat
the experiment.
Problem: The bottle was filled with water and
the tape did not break.
Possible cause: That is a strong tape. If another
bottle of any sort fits in the bag, insert it into
the bottle and continue adding weight
(water). You can also try using a larger paper
bag that holds two bottles.
Purpose/Hypothesis Developing and testing renewable material is a
major area of material science. In general, renewable materials cause less

harm to the environment than the counterpart materials. There are many
issues to consider when developing a renewable material. For a renewable
material to replace a non-renewable, it needs to show similar qualities as
what it is meant to replace. Cost and manufacturing are two other issues
involved in material development.
In this experiment, you will work to develop a renewable packing
material that can replace a non-renewable material. Packing peanuts are
commonly made out of a form of polymer, such as Styrofoam, which can
take hundreds of years to degrade. Properties that make Styrofoam a
popular packing material include its lightness (it does not add weight to a
691
Materials Science

the type of manufactured peanut
the item being tested
the amount of material tested
the height the egg is dropped
are anything that might affect the protective
properties of the corn-based material. If you
on materials qualities.
package) and its protective qualities. Styrofoam

packing peanuts cushion objects to protect them
from breaking.
In this experiment you will focus on only
matching the materials qualities. You will produce and test renewable packing peanuts, made
from corn. Corn-based packing peanuts dissolve
in water. The goal is to produce a renewable
material that has comparable qualities to the
non-renewable packing peanut. You will vary the
amount of water in your material before you test
its protective qualities. By dropping a hard-boiled
egg on both the renewable and non-renewable
materials you can determine how they compare.
about the outcome of the experiment based on
your knowledge of renewables and material science.


experiment: Materials made from corn will have the same protective
qualities as the Styrofoam packing peanuts.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the main component
of the material, and the variable you will measure will be the protective
quality of the material.
Materials Needed
Styrofoam packing peanuts, approximately 1 cup

yardstick
measuring cup
692
Materials Science
tablespoon
hard boiled eggs, at least 4 to possibly 12
3 bowls, all the same size and shape
microwave
2 microwave-safe mixing bowls
spoon
water
cornstarch

When you use the microwave, make sure the
bowl is microwave-safe. Cornstarch can clog a
garbage disposal so ask an adult how to dispose
of it.
Approximate Budget $5; assuming you can find Styrofoam packing
peanuts in the household or school.

Timetable 1 hour.
Step-by-Step Instructions 1.) Making the corn-based packing material:
1. Pour 1 cup of cornstarch into the microwave-safe bowl. Add 4

tablespoons of warm water and stir.
2. Heat the bowl in the microwave for about 10 seconds.
3. Continue stirring the mixture. It should be the consistency of a
thick paste. You may want to put it back in the microwave for
another two to five seconds at a time. This is Material 1.
4. Repeat Steps 13, using a new bowl and adding 5 tablespoons of
water to the cornstarch. This is Material 2.
5. Shape each of the corn paste into shapes
that match the shape and size of the Styrofoam materials, keeping the two materials separate.
Step 1:5 Shape each of the corn

paste into shapes that match the
shape and size of the Styrofoam
materials, keeping the two
materials separate. IL LUS TR ATI ON B Y TE MA H NE LSO N.
2.) Testing the materials:

1. Set a yardstick against the wall; you may
need to tape it or have a helper hold it.
2. Pour 1 cup of the Styrofoam peanuts into
bowl 1. The peanuts should cover the
bottom of the bowl and be at least 1-inch
(2.5 centimeters) higher than bowl. The
exact amount you use does not matter,
as long as all the bowls have the same
amount.
693
Materials Science
3. Pour 1 cup (or the matching amount) of

the corn peanuts from Material 1 into the
second clean bowl. Pour 1 cup (or the
matching amount) of the corn peanuts
from Material 2 into the third clean bowl.
4. Test how high you can drop the egg from
in the Styrofoam peanut bowl before the
shell cracks. Start at 6 inches and continue dropping the egg at 1-inch increments until you see or hear a crack. Note
the height.
Step 2:5 Test how high you can

drop the egg into the Styrofoam
peanut bowl before the shell
cracks. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
5. Drop a new hardboiled egg in the Material

1 bowl, starting at the same height you
noted for the Styrofoam material. If the
egg cracks, lower a new egg 1-inch and
drop it again. Continue lowering the egg
in 1-inch increments until the egg does
not crack, using a new egg every time. If
the egg does not crack, continue raising the egg in 1-inch increments until it cracks. Note the height.
6. Repeat this same process for Material 2, using new eggs.
T EMA H NE LS ON.
7. When you are done with the experiment, slowly pour water over
the corn packing material and watch it dissolve.
Summary of Results How do the three materials compare to each other in
terms of protecting the egg from cracking? If one material provided a far
better cushion look at the materials and consider why. When producing
the two corn-based packing materials, which of the materials was easier to
make and shape? Which provided more of a cushion? Write a paragraph
summarizing the challenges and testing of the renewable packing materials. You can hypothesize how you would improve upon the renewable
material and other tests you would conduct.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment. Try using different
types of packing materials to test the renewable against. How does the
corn-based material compare to bubble materials, for example? You can
also add different ingredients to the corn-based material, such as a few
drops of oil.
694
Materials Science
Design Your Own

Experiment
Materials are all around you. Consider if there is

one item that you have seen change materials
over time. Look around you at all the different
objects in your house and school and see what
properties interest you about these materials.
with your science or engineering teacher to learn
more about the properties of different materials.
As you consider possible experiments, make sure
to discuss them with your science teacher or
another adult before trying them.
Problem: The corn paste keeps crumbling when
it is shaped into a peanut.
Possible cause: You may not have added
enough water or mixed the water in thoroughly. Try again, microwaving before you stir
and using your fingers to make sure the mixture
is smooth.

Problem: There was no noise but the eggs had a

crack in them many times.
Possible cause: The eggs might have started
with small cracks. Before you drop the eggs,
inspect each one thoroughly to make sure it is
uncracked, and repeat the tests.

propose to do.
question.
695
Materials Science

Related Projects There are numerous possible experiments and projects you
can undertake related to materials science. For example, you can investigate
how the materials for one sports item, such as skis or a tennis racquet, have
changed over time. What properties set a professional, expensive tennis
racquet apart from an everyday, less-expensive racquet? How have materials
affected the sport?
You can look at one property of clothing, such as waterproofing, weight,
or insulation. Or you can experiment with recently developed fabrics, such
as polyester or materials that are lightweight and warm. Does the warmth of
a fabric relate to its weight? You could also test materials made from nature
against similar, manmade materials.

BBC. The Science of Sport. http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/sci tech/
features/science of sport (accessed April 24, 2008). Information on the role
of science and materials in sports.
Gardner, Robert. Science Projects about Chemistry. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers,
1994. Describes many science projects, including separating and identifying
substances and detecting unknown solids.
Mueller, Tom. Biomimetics: Design by Nature. National Geographic.com.
April 2008. Available online at http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/
04/biomimetics/tom mueller text (accessed April 24, 2008).
Peacock, Graham. Materials. New York: Thomson Learning, 1994. Basic
activities on a range of materials.
MacroGalleria. http://pslc.ws/macrogcss/maindir.html (accessed on April 14,
2008). Detailed site on all aspects of polymers, from studying them to
everyday applications.
696
Memory
hen you recall a particularly memorable event, think about what

you remember. For example, what if you went to a great waterpark several years ago. You likely will remember your family or friends
who you went with. You probably recall the rides, something you ate, and
the thrill of the ride. But do you remember what you wore that day? What
about where you parked or what you drank?
Our brain processes so much information throughout a dayor
eventthat it picks and chooses what to file. The ability to store, retain,
and recall information is memory. If someone had asked you on the way
home from the hypothetical waterpark what you drank that day, it likely
would have still been filed in your memory. And if every day you thought
about what you drank at the waterpark, you would probably be able to
recall it two years later. Where and how memories are stored tells a lot
about how humans learn. Understanding memory can also lead researchers to help people retain their memories.
Types of memory Memory is generally organized into three categories, depending upon the length of time it stays in the brain.
Sensory memory: Most of what we senses that gives us a picture of
the scene around us is known as sensory memory. Sensory memory is fleeting, the brain can hold onto the information for seconds
before it becomes lost. When you are taking a walk and spot a dog
run by or a crack in the sidewalk, those scenes are sensory memory.
Short-term memory: When sensory memory moves into a longer
form of storage it becomes short-term memory. This is also known
as working memory. When you remember a shopping list, this is
short term memory. Working memory allows us to link the past to
the present.
Long-term memory: Once a memory is here, it is stored for days
or decades. There are different types of long-term memory. One
697
Memory
short term
sensory
long term
There are three types of
memory: sensory, short term,
and long term. IL LUS TR ATI ON
B Y TE MA H NEL SO N.
type is how we remember to tie our shoes or ride a bike. This type
of long-term memory records skills and facts that we have learned.
The other type of long-term memory is the memory related to an
episode or experience (this is called episodic memory). This is how
we remember the sights, sounds, and emotions of an event years
after it happened.
How the filing system works The brain is made up of several different
parts, which each have distinct functions. One area of the brain that plays
an important role in memory is the hippocampus. The hippocampus,
located deep inside the brain, is where new memories are formed. It is
also important in directing the storage of memories to different parts of
the brain.
The hippocampus works with another part of the brain, the cerebral
cortex. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain that is often
linked to higher learning and processing information. It is also called the
698
Memory
grey matter. Researchers theorize that memories

are stored in different parts of the cerebral
cortex.
Memory problems Memory can falter or be
harmed in several ways. Forgetting where you
put your books or a math formula is common.
But when memory is truly lost, it is called amnehippocampus
sia. Because the brain stores and processes memory, if the brain is harmed it can cause amnesia.
In some cases, such as a stroke or car accident,
memories will return. In other cases, such as
Alzheimers disease, memories may be permanently lost. Alzheimers is a disease that affects the hippocampus and as a
result, affects the formation and storage of memories.
cerebral cortex
The hippocampus works with

another part of the brain, the
cerebral cortex. ILL US TRA TI ON
The major cause of amnesia in people who are not elderly is from
some form of brain damage. Damage to different parts of the brain can
lead to different types of amnesia. In one form of amnesia, a person
cannot form new memories but the person can recall childhood memories. In another form of amnesia, a person will not be able to recall
memories right before the injury but all other memories remain intact.
When people remember an event that never happened or change the
way it actually occurred it is called a false memory. False memories are not
PET scans comparing

Alzheimers sufferers brain
with healthy brain. The red
color shows maximum, healthy
blood flow, the yellow-green
indicates less blood flow, while
dark green and purple-blue
areas indicate no flow.
JONATHAN SELIG/COLLECTION/
GETTY IMAGES.
699
Memory
WORDS TO KNOW
Acronym: A word or phrase formed from the first
letter of other words.
Amnesia: Partial or total memory loss.
Long-term memory: The last category of memory

in which memories are stored away and can last
for years.
Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain.
Memory: The process of retaining and recalling

past events and experiences.

Mnemonics: Techniques to improve memory.
False memory: A memory of an event that never

happened or an altered memory from what
happened.
Sensory memory: Memory that the brain retains

for a few seconds.
Hippocampus: A part of the brain associated with

learning and memory.
Short-term memory: Also known as working

memory, this memory was transferred here
from sensory memory.


an experiment.
due to brain damage. They can occur when memories or suggestions are
planted to a person, or when the brain is trying to make sense of a
complex scene. In false memories people can truly believe the event
occurred as they remember it.
Keeping memory sharp Using what you have learned and stored in
your memory is a way to keep it available. When people dont use skills or
knowledge for long periods of time, it can be hard for the brain to recollect it.
There are also many ways to make memories stick. Mnemonics
(pronounced ne-mon-ics) are techniques or devices that help people
retain memories. Different people have different mnemonic techniques
that work for them. An examples of a visual mnemonic technique links an
image to the item to be remembered.
Creating a memorable acronym or phrase is another mnemonic
device. An acronym is a word or phrase formed from the first letter of
another word or name. Roy G. Biv is a well used acronym for the order
of the colors in white light: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet. My Dear Aunt Sally uses the first letter of each word to call to
mind the math rule: multiply and divide before you add and subtract.
Setting numbers or facts to song is another common memory technique.
700
Memory
EXPERIMENT 1
Memory Mnemonics: What
techniques help in memory
retention?
Purpose/Hypothesis One of the most famous

me
te
dia
circu
mathematical concepts is pi (pronounced pie).

the participants
Pi () equals the distance around a circle (its cir events or noise occurring in the
cumference) divided by the distance across the
background
circle (its diameter). Pi is a constant, meaning it is
the amount of time given to participants
always the same number no matter what the size of
the number to memorize
the circle. And pi is a number that never ends. In
shorthand, pi is commonly memorized as 3.14.
are everything that might affect the ability of the
Some people might know it is 3.14159. But the
participants to memorize pi. If you change more
decimal of pi goes on forever, and there is no
which variable had the most effect on memory.
pattern to the numbers. Computers have calculated
pi to over a trillion decimal places! And people have
contests memorizing as many as they can.
In this experiment, you can use pi to measure how different mnemonic devices help people remember up to 12 digits of pi. You can use two
different mnemonics: Music, images, and repeating in patterns are three
options. Because people have different abilities to memorize, it will help to
find at least three people in each group so that you can find an average.
Pi equals the distance around a
The first group will set the numbers of pi to a song. The second group
circle (its circumference)
will relate patterns of numbers to images. The third group will be the
divided by the distance across
the circle (its diameter).
control. This group will not use a mnemonic. All the groups will have the
same amount of time to look at and memorize the number. The next day,
NE LS ON.
you will measure how many numbers of pi people
in each group remembered. You will need to ask
ce
each person separately so one person does not
ren
fe
influence another. (If finding a lot of people is
difficult you can select one mnemonic devices and
a control.)
your knowledge of memory and mnemonics.
things:
701
Memory



hypothesis for this experiment: The people who use music will recall
the most digits of pi, compared to the other mnemonic device and the
control.
In this case, the variable you will change is the mnemonic device, and
the variable you will measure is the amount of numbers the participants
can recall. The participants who do not use a mnemonic device will serve
as the control. If the people who set the numbers to song recall more digits
on average than all other groups, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/difficult (because of the time and partic-
ipants involved).
Materials Needed
Step 1: Think of a song you and

the participants will know and
set the 12 decimal places of pi to
its tune. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Twin-kle twin-kle
the number pi (below)

paper and pencil
watch or timer
participants, at least three in each group for a minimum of nine,
with the more tested the stronger the experiment (if finding
participants is difficult, you can select one mnemonic device to
test. Participants will need to be available
20 minutes on Day 1 and about five
minutes on Day 2)
lit-tle star

Timetable Approximately two hours over two
How I won-der
702
what you are
days. The time will increase if participants in

each group are tested separately or if each group
is gathered on separate days. Each participant
(group of participants) should have 20 minutes
to remember the digits in pi on Day 1 and you
Memory
will need several minutes with each participant

on Day 2. It does not matter what day each
group is gathered, as long as the following day
you test their recall.
1. Think of a song you and the participants

will know and set the 12 decimal places
of pi to its tune. (See illustration.) The
song can be as simple as Happy Birthday to You or a song that has a set
rhythm.
2. Gather the first group of participants. Tell them you are conducting a memory experiment and have them all sing the song with the
pi lyrics. Give them 20 minutes to sing the song.
3. Consider the second mnemonic device and come up with images
for groups of numbers. The images can tell a story. For example,
one set of images could be about a day at school where you are
getting back a big math test. You look at the test and happily see
you got 14 out of 15 correct (1415); the date on the calendar is
September 26 (926); on a desk is a set of colored pencils, five of
them are red, three are green, and five are orange (535); the
window in the classroom has 8 out of the 9 windows dirty (89).
Whatever the story or images are, sketch or print images that relate
to each group of numbers.
4. Gather the second group of participants. After telling them you are
conducting a memory experiment have them look at and say the
numbers related to each image. Allow
them to continue looking at the images
and saying the numbers for 20 minutes.
5. For the control group, tell participants
person 1
you are conducting a memory experiment
person 2
and show them the numbers of pi, up to
person 3
12 decimal places. Ask them to simply
# of
person 4
repeat the number and try to memorize
digits
person 5
it over the next 20 minutes.
average
6. The day after working with Group 1, ask
each participant individually in Group 1
Step 3: Come up with images

for groups of numbers. For
example, one set of images
could be about a day at school
where you are getting back a big
math test. IL LUS TR ATI ON B Y
TEM AH N EL SON .
Step 6: Make a note of how

many numbers each person
remembered. I LLU ST RAT IO N
Mnemonic Mnemonic
(group 1) (group 2) Control
703
Memory
Problem: The people in each group differed
widely in how many numbers they recalled.
Possible causes: The ability to memorize and
retain information can differ among people. You
may need a larger sample size to get a better
average. If possible, increase your sample size to
five people in each group and repeat the
experiment. When you are calculating averages,
do not use the highest and lowest numbers.
Average only the three middle numbers for each
group. There are generalities to the way people
learn and memorize, but individuals have different learning styles. If possible, increase your
sample size to five people in each group and
repeat the experiment. When you are calculating averages, do not use the highest and lowest
numbers. Average only the three middle
numbers for each group.
Problem: The people who put the numbers to
lyrics could not recall as expected.
Possible causes: Participants may not have
been familiar with the song or tune. Find a song
or tune each participant in the song group
knows well, and set the pi numbers to that.
Repeat the experiment.
to recite as many numbers of pi as they

can recall. Start to hum the tune and ask
again. Make a note of how many numbers
each person remembered.
7. The day after working with Group 2, ask
each participant individually to recite as
many numbers of pi as they can recall.
Show them the images you used. Note
how many numbers each person recalled.
8. Repeat the same test for the control group
one day after working with the control
participants.
Summary of Results Average the number of digits
each group recalled. (To calculate the average, add

up the number of digits participants in each group
remembered and divide by the total number of
digits. If there were three participants and you
tested 12 decimal places, the total number of
digits would be 36. If there were four participants,
the total digits would be 48.) Was your hypothesis
correct? Could one group that used mnemonics
recall the numbers of pi significantly better
than the other group? How did the mnemonic
groups compare to the control. Were there one
or two participants who were especially good at
recalling the numbers? Consider why certain
mnemonic devices may help people with memory recall. Write a paragraph summarizing your
findings and explaining whether they support
your hypothesis.
Change the Variables Here are ways to vary this experiment:
Use different types of mnemonic devices, such as associating each

number with a letter or object.
Test the type of people, using the same memorizing device. Will
children show better memory retention than adults?
Change what is memorized; use a group of words or science terms,
such as the names of the bones in our skeleton.
704
Memory
EXPERIMENT 2
False Memories: How can
memories be influenced?
Purpose/Hypothesis Sometimes, the brain can

lead people to remember things that did not

actually occur. This is called false memory. One
the length of time witnesses are watchway a false memory can form is if a memory is
ing the scene
planted or suggested to the person who is
background noise and activity
recalling the memory. In this experiment, you
the questions
will test how false memories can be created.
You will tell several helpers that you want to
are everything that might affect the witnesses
find out if you can recreate a crime scene from
memory.
their description. Set-up a scene in which there is
activity and color: A person wearing colorful
clothing and holding a bag comes into the
room and places two to three items in the bag. The person will be wearing
a large, colorful band-aid or other item on one hand. The witnesses will
watch the scene. By asking some witnesses a leading question that suggests
the band-aid was on the opposite hand, you can determine if each witness
will retell the scene with the false memory.
Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of
this experiment based on your knowledge of false memory. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should


prove or disprove your hypothesis. Here is one possible hypothesis
for this experiment: False memories can form from a misleading
suggestions.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the planting of the
memory, and the variable you will measure will be asking or not asking a
leading question. You expect that when you ask a misleading question,
you implant a false memory.
705
Memory
Materials Needed
6 witnesses, you can have more but try

not to have less than 4
1 helper
bright shirt or other clothing for the helper
bag or purse
pen and notebook
colorful accessory to place on helpers arm (large band aid
works well)
Timetable Approximately 30 minutes, depending upon the number of
participants.
1. Gather all your witnesses and tell them you want to see if they can
recreate the scene and suspect for an experiment you are doing on
forensics.
2. Have the helper put the colorful band aid in a prominent place on
the right arm before entering the room.
3. Have the helper enter the room, place several small room items in
the bag and leave.
4. Ask your witnesses not to talk about the scene and question each
witness individually in a separate room.
5. Ask the first witness a series of questions: For example: What did
the suspect take? In what order were the items taken? What color
hair did the suspect have? What color clothes was s/he wearing? At
the end of your questioning, ask: What color band-aid was the
suspect wearing on his/her left arm?
6. Write down all the answers and repeat the answers, clearly stating
the color of the band aid on the left arm, if the witness did not
correct you.
7. Repeat these questions for half of the witnesses.
8. Repeat the questions for the other half of the witnesses, except in
place of the misleading question ask directly: What arm was the
band-aid on? What color was the band aid?
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Memory
9. When everyone is back together talk about

what people remembered. Bring up the
fact, if true, that some of the witnesses
said the band aid was on the left arm. Do
they still remember it that way?
Summary of Results Did the witnesses who
were asked directly to recall the band aid

remember it more accurately? Did the witnesses
recall the color more than the placement? Were
there certain memories that all the people
recalled? When the witnesses were told that
others remembered the placement of the band aid on a different arm,
did they revise their memory? Write a summary of your results.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways.
Step 3: Have the helper enter

the room, place several small
room items in the bag and
leave. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Try varying the ages of the witnesses. Are younger people more
likely to accept a false memory than adults?
Change the activity of the helper, to test how a more or less active
scene will affect false memories.
Change the amount of time of the scene.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Memory is such a
fundamental part of our lives that studying it is important. You might

decide to research the different forms of memories and what causes
events to become memorable. Consider the ways that you use the
different types of memory on a daily basis. When you instinctually
step over a hole in the sidewalk, consider how your memory compares to
what a small child would do? You might also what to investigate how
memories are retained.
teacher to gather information on memory questions that interest you.
You might also want to consider talking with someone who is a physician
or involved in brain research.
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Memory
There should be no major problems with this
experiment. Recall can vary depending upon
the person. The more people you conduct this
experiment on, the better the chance you will
have clear results.
what question you are answering, what your are or

or disprove.
propose to do.
question at hand.

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Its always important to
write down data and ideas you gather during an experiment. Keep a
journal or record book for this purpose. If you keep notes and draw
conclusions from your experiments and projects, other scientists could
Related Projects Memory-related projects or experiments can go in
many different directions. For example, you might conduct experiments on what leads a sensory memory to transfer into a long-term
memory. You might investigate what techniques help you or your
classmates memorize facts or formulas. You could investigate how
factors that relate to influencing memory. You could also experiment
with memory in animals, such as cats, dogs, and insects. Do certain
animals have longer memories than others? For a research project, you
could also conduct a research project on memory loss: the types of
amnesia and causes.

DiSpezio, Michael A. How Bright Is Your Brain?: Amazing Games to Play with
Your Mind. New York: Sterling Pub. Co, 2004. Games and simple activities
that explore the brain.
The Exploratorium. Memory. http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory (accessed
on May 19, 2008). Articles and webcasts from a museum exhibit.
708
Memory
Memory Matters. KidsHealth. http://www.kidshealth.org/kid/health problems/

brain/memory.html (accessed on May 21, 2008). Clear information on memory
and the brain.
Murphy, Pat, et al. The brain explorer: puzzles, riddles, illusions, and other
mental adventures. New York: H. Holt, 1999 Brain based experiments and
activities.
PBS. 3 D Brain Anatomy. The Secret Life of the Brain. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/
brain/3d (accessed on May 21, 2008). A three dimensional tour of the brain.
709
Microorganisms
n 1675, Anton van Leeuwenhoek (16321723), a Dutch merchant with

an interest in science, looked through a microscope at a drop of stagnant
water. He had originally built a simple microscope to examine textile
threads for the draperies he made. Eventually, as a result of his scientific
investigations, he built a more powerful microscope that could magnify
objects 200 times. Under such a microscope, van Leeuwenhoek saw that
the dirty water was full of tiny living creatures. Before his discovery, the
smallest living creatures known were tiny insects. He called the life forms he
looked at animalcules, but they would later become known as protozoa and
bacteria. Other scientists would also find different life forms under the
microscope and give them specific names. In time, the term microorganisms would be used to describe all microscopic forms of life.
Microorganisms come in a wide

range of shapes but are too tiny
to see with the naked eye.
Connecting bacteria to disease Van Leeuwenhoeks animalcules had

an active life, scurrying around by means of small whip-like tails or by
expelling streams of fluid. The bacteria he observed were quieter. They
mostly lay about and multiplied. It was Louis Pasteur (18221895), a
French chemist, who pieced together the connection between disease and these microorganisms.
In the 1850s, while Pasteur was a professor
and dean at the University of Lille in France, he
helped a man who wanted to know why some of
his sugar-beet juice, which was being distilled for
alcohol, was going bad. What Pasteur discovered
were rodlike organisms in the bad batches. They
were bacteria, which multiply quickly. In his
experiment, he found that heat killed these
microorganisms.
Pasteur applied his theory to the wine industry and showed wine growers in his hometown
711
Microorganisms
that bad-tasting wine occurred when bacteria fell

into wine as it was being bottled. Pasteur advised
them how to heat bottled wine just enough to kill
bacteria. This method, known as pasteurization,
is still used in the wine and milk industries.
Between 1865 and 1870, Pasteur also discovered what was killing off Frances silkworms.
Under a microscope, he saw microorganisms
infecting the sick silkworms as well as the leaves
they were eating. After Pasteur recommended
that the infected silkworms and leaves be
destroyed, the unaffected ones thrived. These
incidents supported Pasteurs germ theory of
disease, that microorganisms cause diseases. He
advanced the field of bacteriology, the study of
different groups of bacteria.
Louis Pasteur discovered the

link between disease and
bacteria. L IBR AR Y O F
C ONG RE SS.
Penicillin mold growing in a

culture. PHO TO R ES EAR CH ERS
I NC.
712
These little guys do a lot Tiny microorganisms are basically everywherein the air, in
your body, in your cats or dogs fur, and in
the soil. Bacteria are the smallest single-celled organisms. To help us see
them, todays microscopes can magnify subjects up to 2,000 times.
Thats ten times stronger than the microscope van Leeuwenhoek developed, which was quite an accomplishment for his time. We usually
group all microorganisms together as disease-carrying germs, but many
are important to life functions.
Microorganisms are categorized into five
major groups: bacteria, such as salmonella;
algae, such as blue-green algae; fungi, such as
yeast; protists, such as amoebas; and viruses,
such as chickenpox. Microorganisms are essential in the production of antibiotics, pickles,
cheeses, and alcoholic beverages. Yeasts, which
are in the fungi group, are used in bread and
cheese making. The fungi group includes a mold
called penicillin, which is an antibiotic. Bacteria,
protozoa, and fungi feed on dead, decaying
organisms, such as the organic material placed
into composters.
Microorganisms
We cannot see microorganisms with the

naked eye unless they multiply. Conducting
some experiments will put us in touch with
these amazing living creatures.
EXPERIMENT 1
Microorganisms: What is the
best way to grow penicillin?
Purpose/Hypothesis Penicillin is a microscopic

the type and age of the fruit
the amount of bruising of the fruit
temperature of the environment
amount of light reaching the fruit
mold that grows on fruit. It looks green and

humidity of the environment
powdery and is shaped like a small paint brush
when viewed under a microscope. The word,
penicillin, in fact, means small brush in Latin.
penicillin mold on the fruit. If you change more
Early writing was often done with a small, finethan one variable, you will not be able to tell
which variable had the most effect on mold
pointed brush, and the English words pen and
growth. Citrus fruits are the best source for this
pencil are also derived from this Latin word.
mold, so only citrus fruit will be used.
In this experiment, you will determine the
best growing conditions for the penicillin mold.
You will place one set of fruit in a warm location and another set in a cool
location. The difference in the amount of mold that grows will tell you
whether temperature affects penicillin growth.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about mold growth to
make an educated guess about the effect of temperature. This educated
things:
A moldy lemon (a small inset

shows how mold looks under a

microscope). GA LE G ROU P.

experiment: Penicillin mold will grow more
rapidly and produce more visible mold under
warm conditions.
713
Microorganisms
WORDS TO KNOW
Animalcules: Life forms that Anton van Leeuwenhoek named when he first saw them under his
microscope; they later became known as protozoa and bacteria.
Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms that live in
soil, water, plants, and animals and that play a
key role in the decaying of organic matter and the
Bacteriology: The scientific study of bacteria, their
characteristics, and their activities as related to
medicine, industry, and agriculture.
Colony: A mass of microorganisms that have been
bred in a medium.
Cultures: Microorganisms growing in prepared
nutrients.
Germ theory of disease: The belief that disease is
caused by germs.
or experiment.
Lactobacilli: A strain of bacteria.

Medium: A material that contains the nutrients
required for a particular microorganism to
grow.
Microbiology: Branch of biology dealing with
microscopic forms of life.
Microorganisms: Living organisms so small that
they can be seen only with the aid of a
microscope.
Pasteurization: The process of slow heating that
kills many bacteria and other microorganisms.
Penicillin: A mold from the fungi group of microorganisms; used as an antibiotic.
Protists: Members of the kingdom Protista, primarily single-celled organisms that are not
plants or animals.
Protozoa: Single-celled animal-like microscopic
organisms that live by taking in food rather than
making it by photosynthesis. They must live in
the presence of water.
an experiment.
In this case, the variable you will change is the temperature of the
environment, and the variable you measure is the amount of visible mold
that grows.
Materials Needed
2 cotton balls or small sponges

2 oranges, about equally ripe
2 lemons, about equally ripe
714
Microorganisms
2 clear plastic bags (gallon size)

bowl
twist ties
water
use of a refrigerator
microscopes and slides are optional

Wash your hands after performing the
experiment.
Approximate Budget $2 for fruit and bags.

Timetable 20 minutes to set up, and one or two
weeks to complete.
1. Bruise the fruit by rubbing it on the floor

and dropping it. This helps the mold to
invade the tough skin of the fruit.
2. Place the fruit in a bowl for one to three
days. Leave the bowl out in the open where
it will come into contact with mold in
the air.
3. In one bag place one orange, one lemon, and one moist cotton
ball. (The moist cotton ball raises the humidity.)
4. Repeat Step 3 for the other bag.
5. Tie each bag closed with a twist tie.
6. Place one bag in the refrigerator and the other in a warm place.
7. Every day, record any changes you observe.
8. After two weeks, open the bags and examine the fruit.
9. If you have access to a microscope, smear a small sample of mold on a
slide and view it.
Steps 3 and 4: Place one

orange, one lemon, and one
moist cotton ball in clear plastic
bag. GA LE GR OU P.
Step 8: After 2 weeks, open the

bags and examine the fruit for
mold. G AL E GR OUP .
Summary of Results Compare the mold growth
in each plastic bag. The bag in the warmer place

should show considerably more growth because
mold thrives in warm environments. Photograph your final results or draw a picture of
what grew.
Change the Variables You can conduct several
similar experiments by changing the variables.
For example, you can vary humidity by varying
715
Microorganisms
remedy the problem.
Problem: Neither bag showed any mold growth
after two weeks.
the number of soaked cotton balls or sponges.

You could also change the fruit. Remember, if
you change more than one variable at a time,
the most effect on mold growth.
Modify the Experiment This experiment exam-
ines the best temperature for mold growth. You

can add to this experiment by measuring other
Possible cause: There was not enough humidity
environmental conditions that could affect mold
present in the bags. Remoisten the cotton balls
growth. Factors you can examine include light
and allow the experiment to run for an addiand air. From what you know about how organtional two weeks.
isms live and grow, make a hypothesis about how
light and air will affect the amount of mold that
will grow on the fruit.
Follow Steps 1 and 2 in the experiment, adding four more oranges and
four lemons. Prepare four addition bags containing an orange, lemon, and
moist cotton ball. You should have six bags. In addition to placing bag 1 in
the refrigerator and bag 2 in a warm place: Place bag 3 in a drawer or other
dark area and bag 4 in a well-lit area, such as by a window; Wrap plastic
wrap around each of the two fruits in bag 5 and leave bag 6 in a room
temperature environment. The plastic wrap will seal the fruit from air.
After two weeks examine the fruit in all the bags. Make a chart of each
of the environments and note or draw the amount of mold growth in each
setting. Was your hypothesis correct? You can measure mold growth on
each of these environments separately using different fruits.
EXPERIMENT 2
Growing Microorganisms in a Petri Dish
Purpose/Hypothesis Microbiologists often breed microorganisms in
large quantities called colonies. For this experiment you will prepare the
medium needed to grow colonies of microorganisms.
In this experiment you will change the source of the microorganisms.
You will prepare the same medium for all samples. This medium is rich in
nutrients needed by most microorganisms. You will then obtain microorganisms from different sources and observe their growth in the
medium.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about the source of
microorganisms to make an educated guess about whether different types
716
Microorganisms
will grow in the same medium. This educated

guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
Different kinds of microorganisms can be
obtained in many places, and all will thrive in a
nutrient-rich medium to produce visible growth
that varies in amount, color, and texture.
source of the microorganisms, and the variable you
measure is the amount, color, and texture of the
visible growth that appears.

the type of medium
the temperature of the environment
the humidity of the environment
the amount of light reaching the petri
dishes
the sources of the microorganisms
are everything that might affect the type and
growth of microorganisms. If you change more
amount, color, and texture of the visible
growth.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (This experiment requires special attention to
cleanliness. Sterile conditions are ideal but almost impossible to obtain

without training and special equipment.)
Materials Needed
6 petri dishes and lids (If petri dishes are not available, use small
bowls and clear plastic wrap.)
1 package unflavored gelatin
cup (60 milliliters) sugar
1 tablespoon (15 milliliters) salt
1 tablespoon (15 milliliters) pork or beef,
finely ground
1 quart (1.5 liter) pot with a cover
1 quart (1 liter) water
This experiment requires boiling hot water to
tongs
cook gelatin and to sterilize the equipment. Ask
Approximate Budget $10 for petri dishes and
an adult to help you when using the stove or

when handling boiling water.
food products.
717
Microorganisms
Timetable 90 minutes to prepare, and one to two

weeks for results.
Steps 1 and 2: When the water

is boiling, use tongs to submerge
the petri dishes into the water
for 1 minute. GA LE GRO UP.
1. In the pot, boil one quart of water.

2. When the water is boiling, use tongs to
submerge the petri dishes into the water
for one minute.
3. Remove the petri dishes from the water.
Place on the counter or table. Place the
lids on top to keep the inside clean. Allow
them to cool.
4. Follow directions on the package to prepare gelatin.
5. Add sugar, salt, and finely ground meat.
6. Bring gelatin to quick boil and remove from the heat.
Steps 10 to 12: Example of

collecting microorganisms from
the inside of the mouth. Be sure
to collect samples from five
different sources. GAL E GR OU P.
718
Microorganisms
Step 15: Examples of

microorganism colonies from
mouth samples in petri dish
after two weeks. GA LE G RO UP.
7. Cover and cool for three to five minutes.

8. Ask an adult to help you fill the six petri dishes halfway with the
gelatin medium. Cover each dish immediately.
9. Cool one hour before moving.
10. To collect microorganisms from the environment, gently wipe a
surface with a cotton swab. Here are some suggestions for samples:
doorknob, arm, inside of mouth, floor, used cup, leftover food, dirt.
Wipe five different surfacesone for each of five petri dishes.
11. Gently rub each used swab on the gelatin in a dish. Do not touch
more than one swab to a dish. You will not be able to see the
microorganisms on the cotton swab. Trust that something is there.
12. Mark each dish with the date and the source of the sample. Cover
each dish and seal it with tape.
13. For a control experiment, leave one petri dish untouched. Label it
control and seal it.
14. Keep the petri dishes together in a dark, warm area. Allow dishes
to sit one to three weeks.
15. After the petri dishes show fuzzy gray mounds or slimy blobs,
make a drawing of the microorganisms.
16. Do not open dishes or handle any microorganisms. Throw them
away after the experiment.
Summary of Results Because of the complexity and variety of micro-
organisms, you cannot identify specific species. However, you should

draw and describe your findings to share with others. Write a summary.
Did colonies of microorganisms develop in all of your petri dishes? Were
719
Microorganisms
remedy the problem.
they different in color and texture? Did any

growth appear in the control dish? Dont be
surprised if it did. Even the air contains microorganisms. Were you able to support your
hypothesis?
Change the Variables After you have determined

and recorded the amount, color, and texture of
growth from various sources, repeat the experiPossible cause: The conditions they need to
grow are not in place. If after two weeks no
ment and change the amount of light or the
growth is evident, try leaving the dishes in a
temperature or the humidity. Do some microwarmer environment.
organisms grow more or less than before? Do
they appear different from before? Remember,
if you change more than one variable at a time, you will not be able to tell
which variable had the most effect on growth.
Problem: The microorganisms are not growing.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Microorganisms are
everywhere. They are covering your body at this very moment, so you
do not have to look far to find them. An experiment with microorganisms
could include topics such as culturing or identifying their characteristics.
microorganism questions that interest you. As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher or another
knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some of the microorganisms or
procedures might be dangerous.
your question.
720
Microorganisms

Recording Data and Summarizing the Results The most important part
of the experiment is the information gathered from it. Scientists working

400 years ago made discoveries in science that still help us today. In the
fruit experiment, you cannot save the fruit to display or stop the decaying
process with refrigeration. The results need to be recorded in drawings,
photos, or notes. All these pieces of information you gathered then should
be summarized into a conclusion or result.
Related Experiments Microbes are simple organisms with simple needs,
such as air (in some cases not even air), water, warm temperatures, and
food. By putting microorganisms on a petri dish and adding a drop of
different chemical cleaners, you can find out what substances keep them
from growing. If it is safe, you may want to use that chemical when you
wash. Thats the idea behind antibacterial soaps.

American Museum of Natural History. The Microbe Size O Meter. Meet the
Microbes! http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/infection/01 mic/01d size
01.html (accessed on March 2, 2008). A look at the sizes of different
microorganisms relative to familiar objects.
Bacteria cam. Cells alive! http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/bactcell.htm
(accessed on March 2, 2008). Bacteria cell structure and images of real time
bacteria growing.
Dashefsky, H. Steven. Microbiology: 49 Science Fair Projects. Austin, TX: Tab
Books, 1994. Outlines science projects that are well suited for this topic.
Lang, S. Invisible Bugs and Other Creepy Creatures That Live With You. New
York: Sterling Publishers, 1992. Describes different microorganisms, their
functions, and purpose.
Penicillin: The true story? Timeline Science. http://www.timelinescience.org/
resource/students/pencilin/pencilin.htm (accessed on March 2, 2008).
A brief history of the many people who helped develop the antibiotic
penicillin.
721
Mixtures and Solutions
Water and sand will appear

stable and mixed when stirred,
but over time the sand will
settle out and some of the water
will become clear again.
ost of the substances we see around us are mixtures, combinations

of different elements or compounds. The components of some
mixturessuch as sandy water, which consists of grains of sand suspended in watercan easily be separated or will naturally settle. Others,
such as salty water, form more permanent mixtures. How can we separate
different kinds of mixtures into their component parts?
Mixtures that settleseparate out naturallyare called suspensions. Sandy water is a
good example of a suspension. Stirring will mix
the sand and the water, but over time, the denser
sand will fall to the bottom of the container, and
a clear layer of water will appear above it.
A mixture whose parts remain stable and
remain mixed over time is called a solution.
Solutions commonly consist of a solid solute
that is dissolved in a liquid solvent. The molecules of the solute are evenly dispersed and very
small. Salt water, lemon juice, and antifreeze are
all solutions. These mixtures will remain mixed
even when left standing for a long time.
A third type of mixture is a colloid, in which
relatively large molecules of one substance remain
mixed and stable due to electric charge repulsions.
This repulsion occurs because colloidal particles
contain an equal number of positive and negative
ions (charged atoms), but the negative ions form a
layer surrounding the particle. Thus, the particles
are electrically neutral but still tend to repel one
another to spread out evenly through the
723
Although colloidal particles are

electrically neutral, they possess
an outer layer of negative ions
and so repel one another. G AL E
GRO UP.
724
dispersing medium. Milk, gelatin, clay, and smoke

are all colloids that combine solids, liquids, and
gases in different ways.
How mixtures can be separated It is often
necessary to separate mixtures into their component parts. Separating a suspension can be fairly
simple. Suppose you lose a ring in a bucket of
sandy water. Once the denser sand and the ring
have settled to the bottom of the bucket, you can
carefully pour off the clear water into another
container. This process is known as decanting.
Next, you can pour the soupy mixture of sand,
water, and your ring into a strainer large enough
to let the sand and water pass through. This
process, known as filtration, will separate the
ring from the other components of the suspension. Another means of separating mixtures is
the centrifuge, which spins the mixture at high
speeds until the more-dense particles are forced outward by centrifugal
force and separate from the less-dense solvent.
Separating a solution is more difficult. For example, filtering salt out
of seawater is possible only with extremely high pressure and very precise
molecular filters. However, there are other ways to separate pure water
from seawater. Raising the temperature of the solution until the water
boils, capturing the steam and then cooling it until it condenses will yield
pure liquid water and solid solute. This process is called distillation.
Another process is called evaporation, which allows the vaporized water
to escape, yielding only the solute.
Colloids can also be separated into their component parts. When a
colloid is heated, the repelling force between the colloidal particles is no
longer great enough to keep the heated particles from bouncing into each
other and bonding together. They gradually form clumps and settled out of
the mixture. Causing colloidal particles to gather is called coagulation. It can
be seen clearly in milk, which forms clumps of fat, called curds, when heated.
Knowing how to separate mixtures into their component parts is
crucial in both science and everyday life. Removing spaghetti from a pot
of boiling water is not easy without filtration. Coagulation allows ionic or
electrostatic cleaners to remove dust and soot from the air we breathe.
A centrifuge is used to separate blood into its vital parts without
Distillation uses boiling and

condensing to separate a solute
from water. GAL E GR OU P.
damaging them. In the first experiment, you will identify various mixtures as suspension or solutions by applying different separation
techniques.
Although liquid colloids can often behave just like suspensions, there is
a simple method for distinguishing between them. A light beam passing
through a solution will not encounter any particles large enough to deflect
it, and thus will not be visible. Colloidal particles are not dissolved and can
be quite large compared to the particles in a suspension. A light beam
passing through a colloid will be visible as it is
dispersed by these particles. This phenomenon is
called the Tyndall effect. In the second project,
you will use the Tyndall effect to distinguish a
colloidal mixture from a solution.
A light beam passing through a

colloid will be visible, while one
passing through suspension will
not. This phenomenon is called
the Tyndall effect. P HOT O
EXPERIMENT 1
Suspensions and Solutions:
Can filtration and evaporation
determine whether mixtures are
suspensions or solutions?
attempt to separate the component parts of

725
WORDS TO KNOW
Centrifuge: A device that rapidly spins a solution so
that the heavier components will separate from
the lighter ones.
Coagulation: The clumping together of particles in
a mixture, often because the repelling force separating them is disrupted.
Colloid: A mixture containing particles suspended
in, but not dissolved in, a dispersing medium.
smaller ones that can slip through the filters

openings.
experiment.
Ion: An atom or group of atoms that carries an
electrical chargeeither positive or negative
as a result of losing or gaining one or more
electrons.

Mixtures: Combinations of different elements or

compounds.
Decanting: The process of separating a suspension

by waiting for its heavier components to settle
out and then pouring off the lighter ones.
Solute: The substance that is dissolved to make a

solution and exists in the least amount in a
solution, for example sugar in sugar water.
Distillation: The process of separating liquids from

solids or from other liquids with different boiling
points by a method of evaporation and condensation, so that each component in a mixture can
be collected separately in its pure form.
Solution: A mixture of two or more substances

that appears to be uniform throughout.
Electric charge repulsion: Repulsion of particles

caused by a layer of negative ions surrounding
each particle. The repulsion prevents coagulation
and promotes the even dispersion of such particles through a mixtures.
Solvent: The major component of a solution or the

liquid in which some other component is dissolved, for example water in sugar water.
Suspension: A temporary mixture of a solid in a
gas or liquid from which the solid will eventually
settle out.
Evaporation: The escape of liquid vapor into the air,

yielding only the solute.
Tyndall effect: The effect achieved when colloidal

particles reflect a beam of light, making it visible
when shined through such a mixture.
Filtration: The use of a screen or filter to separate

larger particles that cannot slip through from

an experiment.
several mixtures using two different methods. The result of each method
will determine the nature of the mixture. One mixture will consist of sand
in distilled water, and the other will be lemon juice in distilled water. Before
based on your knowledge of mixtures. This educated guess, or prediction, is
726


A solid mixed into a liquid may be separated by
filtration if the mixture is a suspension, such as sand
in water, or by evaporation if the mixture is a
solution, such as lemon juice in water.
component mixed with water, and the variable
you will measure is ability of a specific method to
separate the components. You expect that filtration will separate the sand, thus showing it is a
suspension, and evaporation will separate the
lemon juice, thus showing it is a solution.

the type of mixtures tested
the purity of the mixed components
size of the openings in the filter
the temperature of the mixture
are everything that might affect the ability of a
component to be separated from a mixture. If
effect on the separation.
You will also set up a control experiment of pure
water, with no substances mixed into it, to
which you will apply the same methods of separation for comparison.
involved and the care required when using a heat source.

Materials Needed
2 small saucepans, about 5 inches (12.5 centimeters) in diameter

heat source (stove or a Bunsen burner)
4 clear 1-quart (1-liter) wide-mouth bottles
6 lemons
3 cups distilled water
1 cup (225 grams) of sand
knife
tablespoon
funnel
3 conical paper coffee filters
large wooden cutting board
Approximate Budget Less than $5, assuming a Bunsen burner or a stove
is available.
727

This experiment involves heat and boiling liquid.
These steps should be performed with adult
supervision and with proper protection, including potholders. Do not substitute other mixtures
for those in this experiment without consulting
your teacher. Many substances can ignite or
give off toxic fumes when heated.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
728
Timetable The first stage of this experiment

requires at least 1 hour for set-up, filtration, and
partial evaporation by boiling. The second stage,
evaporation without boiling, may take several
hours or days, depending upon how much liquid
remains in the saucepans.
1. Carefully cut the lemons in half and

squeeze their juice into a bottle. Do not
remove any solid particles or seeds from
the juice. Add 1 cup of distilled water and set the bottle aside.
Pour 1 cup of distilled water into another bottle and stir in
3 tablespoons of sand.
In a third bottle, place 1 cup of distilled water. This will be your
control experiment.
Filter the lemon juice. Place a coffee filter inside the funnel, hold
the funnel over a bottle, and slowly pour the lemon juice into the
funnel. The liquid that passes through the filter should appear
uniform but will not be clear. Discard the used filter and clean the
funnel and bottle, rinsing them with distilled water.
Prepare a chart on which you will record your observations. Your
chart should look something like the illustration.
Stir each of the three samples, making sure to clean the spoon or stirrer
after each one. Note the appearance of each sample on your chart.
Allow the mixtures to settle for several minutes. In the next
column on your chart, note any change in appearance.
Line the funnel with another coffee filter and place it over the
opening of the fourth bottle. Pour the mixture of water and sand
into the funnel. Allow the liquid to filter into the bottle. Note any
change in appearance on your chart. (See illustration.)
Pour the lemon-juice mixture into a saucepan and place the
saucepan on the heat source. Do not leave this sample unattended.
Observe the sample as it evaporates. Do not allow the liquid to
evaporate completely!
When only a few tablespoons of the liquid remain, remove the
saucepan from the heat and place it carefully on the wooden cutting
board. (Remember to turn off the heat source when not using it and
to be cautious around the saucepan, which will cool slowly.)

11. Repeat step 9 with your control liquid (the distilled water sample)
in the second saucepan.
12. Place both saucepans in a safe place. Do not cover them. The
liquids must continue to evaporate for you to see any dissolved
solids. This final evaporation may take
hours or even days, depending on how
much liquid is left.
Step 8: Pour the mixture slowly

and carefully into the funnel, as
it may not drain quickly
through the coffee filter. GA LE
GRO UP .
13. Check the samples periodically. Once the

liquid in the lemon juice has completely
evaporated, note on your chart whether
any visible solids have been left behind on
the surface of the saucepan. Also monitor
your control experiment. It should leave
no significant solid residue in the pan. If
it does, then your results cannot prove
your hypothesis.
determine whether your hypothesis is true. If a
solid in a mixture is removed by your filtration
method, then it was in suspension, and not in
solution. If a solid is not removed by filtration
729
remedy the problem.
Problem: The sand and water sample will not
pass through the filter.
Possible cause: The sand is preventing the
water from passing through the funnel. Set the
apparatus aside and allow time for the water to
filter slowly through the sand and the filter. This
may take awhile.
but is removed by evaporation, then the solid was

in solution. Compare your results for the control, the sand mixture, and the lemon mixture.
Write a summary of your findings.
Change the Variables You can conduct similar
experiments by changing the variables. For

example, try different mixtures. Do not use
any solvent other than water. Compare your
results for mixtures using salt, flour, gelatin,
bouillon cubes, or effervescent antacid tablets.
You can also experiment with the effect of temperature. Some solids, such as sugar, will dissolve more easily when the water is hot than
when it is cool.
PROJECT 2
Colloids: Can colloids be distinguished
from suspension using the Tyndall effect?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will demonstrate how the Tyn-
dall effect can be used to show that a mixture that looks like a solution is
actually a colloid.
Materials Needed
flashlight
black construction paper
tape
5 pint (0.25 liter) heavy cream
lemon juice
12-ounce (0.33-liter) soda
1 quart (1 liter) distilled water
5 teaspoon measuring spoon
5 clear glass jars
Approximate Budget $10 to $15. (Most materials may be found in the
average household.)
730
Timetable Less than 1 hour.

1. Pour 1 cup of distilled water into each jar.

Add 0.5 teaspoon of heavy cream to the
first jar and stir vigorously. Clean the
spoon with distilled water.

Do not change the substances used in these
mixtures without first checking with your teacher.
2. Add 0.5 teaspoon of lemon juice, salt, and soda to the second,
third, and fourth jars respectively. Remember to stir each one and
to wash the spoon to avoid mixing the samples. The fifth jar, the
control, should contain only distilled water.
3. Curl a sheet of construction paper into a cone, leaving a 1-inch
(2.5-centimeter) diameter opening. Tape the cone to the flashlight
so it narrows the beam through the small opening.
4. Darken the room or an area of the room. (Total darkness is not
necessary or safe.) Set the control jar of distilled water on a flat,
clear surface. Shine the light through the jar from one side and
observe that the light does not illuminate the water itself.
5. Try shining the light through the milk mixture. If the path of the
beam is visible in the liquid, the mixture is a colloid. If the beam is
not visible, the mixture is a solution.
Step 7: Construct a shield to

block other illumination from
reaching the jar. GA LE GR OU P.
6. Repeat Step 5 with the other mixtures.

7. If you find it difficult to determine
when the light beam is being scattered,
construct a shield to block other illumination from reaching the jar. Curl a
sheet of construction paper into a tube.
Cut an opening at the front through
which you can observe, and a hole at
the side through which you can shine
the light beam. Place the tube over the
jar and repeat Steps 4 and 5 to see the
difference between a light beam when it
is scattered and when it is not scattered.
8. Create a chart to show the results of your
demonstration, noting which mixtures
are colloids and which are solutions.
731
Step 8: Data chart for Project 2.

GAL E GR OU P.
Summary of Results Remember that those who view your results may not
have seen the project demonstrations performed, so you must present the
information you have gathered in as clear a way as possble. Illustrations
can show viewers the steps involved in determining whether a mixture is a
solution or a colloid.

How to Select a Topic Related to this Concept The nature of mixtures
can provide topics for fascinating experiments and projects. Try measuring the changes that occur in the temperature at which water boils and
when salt is added to it. You might test other methods of purification.
Can you construct a simple centrifuge to separate suspensions? Can you
purify salt water by freezing as well as by boiling? Finding the answers to
these questions can become the basis for simple yet informative projects.
mixture questions that interest you. Remember to check with a knowledgeable person before experimenting with unfamiliar materials.
732

selected.
the experiments included here and in any experiments you develop, you can try to display your
data in more accurate and interesting ways. For
example, in the colloid project, you could redesign the demonstration to show the light-beam
test simultaneously for all of the jars.
you must present the information you have gathered in as clear a way as possible. Including
photographs or illustrations of the steps in the
experiment is a good way to show a viewer how
you got from your hypothesis to your
conclusion.
Related Projects The isolation of substances in
mixtures is an important and challenging part

of chemistry. Other methods besides those
described here can provide ideas for projects
and experiments. For example, mixtures of
two solids can be separated by using magnetism. Mixtures of two liquids that have different
boiling points can be separated using distillation. Investigate these methods in the books
listed in Further Readings, and try incorporating them into other projects.
This project is fairly simple, so not many
problems should arise. However, when doing
experiments involving mixtures, be aware
that a number of unseen variablessuch as
temperature and impurity of substances
can affect your results. When mixing
substances for a demonstration or experiment, you must keep the mixing containers
and utensils clean. Even tiny impurities in a
mixture can drastically alter your results. Any
experiment you perform must be carefully
designed to avoid letting unknown variations
change the outcome and lead you to an
incorrect conclusion.
project, some possible causes, and ways to
remedy the problem.
Problem: All of the mixtures appear to scatter
the light beam.
Possible causes:
1. Too much light is reaching the back, top,
or sides of the jar. Try isolating the jars by
constructing the light shield described in
step 7.
2. Your samples have become corrupted.
Prepare new samples, making sure to
clean the spoon between each
mixture.

Andrew Rader Studios. Mixture Basics. Raders Chem4kids.com http://
www.chem4kids.com/files/matter mixture.html (accessed on February 18,
2008). Information on the chemistry of mixtures.
733
BBC. Mixtures.Mixtures. Schools. Science: Chemistry. http://www.bbc.co.uk/

schools/ks3bitesize/science/chemistry/elements com mix 6.shtml (accessed
on February 18, 2008). Basic information on the chemistry of mixtures.
Gillett, Kate, ed. The Knowledge Factory. Brookfield, CT: Copper Beech
Books, 1996. Provides some fun and enlightening observations on
questions relevant to this topic, along with good ideas for projects and
demonstrations.
Kurtus, Ron. Mixtures. School for Champions. http://http://www.school for
champions.com/chemistry/mixtures.htm (accessed on February 18, 2008).
Basics of mixtures versus compounds.
entries relevant to mixtures and solutions.
734
Mountains
f you were to view Earth from up high, you would see a planet covered
with mountains. A mountain is an area that rises above its surrounding
area and has a peak. It is estimated that about one-fifth of the Earths land
contains mountains. There are even more mountains underwater. Mountains are an important source of our freshwater. They contain unique
animals, plants, and ecosystems where many peoples make their homes
and livelihood. Mountains also are a source of recreation and striking beauty.
Mountain stretches and peaks There is no defined height a landform needs to be before it is called a mountain. In general, a mountain is
taller than a hill. Mountains exist in ranges, a chain of mountains that are
next to one another. A mountain range can stretch for a few miles to
thousands of miles. The height of a mountain is typically measured by
how far it reaches above sea level.
The longest mountain range in the world is the Andes. This chain of
mountains in South America runs for approximately 4,500 miles (7,242
kilometers). The Rocky Mountains are North Americas longest mountain range. This series of mountains extends about 3,000 miles (4,828
kilometers), running from Alaska through Canada to New Mexico.
There is a point in Colorado where the Rockies reach over 14,440
feet (4,401 meters).
The Rockies are high, but the tallest mountains are located in Asia.
Mount Everest is the worlds tallest mountain. Located along Nepal and
Tibet, Mt. Everest has a peak that reaches more than 29,000 feet (8,839
meters). Thats over 5 miles (8 kilometers)!
Tip-top formation Mountains all take shape from chunks of rock.
The majority of mountains formed from the movement of Earths crust
(the outer layer of the Earth). Scientists have divided the crust into seven
large sections or plates that fit together like an eggshell. There are also
many smaller plates.
735
Mountains
Mount Everest is the worlds

tallest mountain. # AL IS ON
WRI GH T/C OR BI S.
The plates can shift, overlap, or move against each other in what is
called plate tectonics. The movement of the plates can push the crust
upward, forming a mountain.
How the plates move determines the shape of the mountain. For
example, fold mountains occur when plates push against each other. The
crust buckles or folds, much like wrinkles, as it lifts. As the folding
continues, the mountains continue to grow higher and can take on ridgelike shapes. A fault-block mountain forms along a fault (a crack in the
crust). The crust on one side of the fault moves apart from the crust on the
other side. One side of the crust is forced upwards in an incline position,
leaving one side of the mountain with a steep side and the other having a
sloping side.
The crust buckles or folds,

much like wrinkles, as it lifts.
NEL SO N.
736
Mountains
One side of the crust is forced

upwards in an incline position,
leaving one side of the
mountain with a steep side and
the other having a sloping side.
NE LS ON.
Mountains are continuously changing shape due to natural weathering and erosion. In general, the taller the mountain, the younger it is.
Rain, wind, and mountain rivers can erode (wear down) and move small
bits of rocks on the mountain. Waterfalls, which often occur in mountains, will erode rocks. Over time, a sharp peak can become rounded and
the mountain shape will change.
Life on a mountain Mountains ecosystems generally share some
climate rules. The higher you go up a mountain, the colder it becomes.
Air molecules near the surface are packed together. As warm air rises
above ground the air molecules begin to cool
down. The more the air rises, the colder it gets.
With more space for the air molecules to move
around, the air becomes less dense (fewer air
molecules in a certain area). Air higher in the
atmosphere is often referred to as thinner.
The cold air means mountain tops are cold.
Mountains can also capture a lot of precipitation. Precipitation that falls in the form of rain
on land will often be snow on the colder mountain top.
Mountains can also affect the environment
surrounding it. A large mountain can block the
wind and rain on one side. It can also cause large
shadows, which can lead to less plant and animal
life. Rain flowing down a mountain is the source
of freshwater rivers.
Mountains are home to a diverse range of
unique animals and plants. What lives on a mountain depends primarily upon where the mountain
is located. The relative warmth makes life more
MODIS image illustrating the

dramatic rainshadow effect of
the Andes Mountains in South
America on rainfall and
vegetation. At left is Chile,
which appears quite lush, while
Argentina (right) appears dry
and brown. # N ASA /C OR BIS .
737
Mountains
WORDS TO KNOW
Crust: The hard outer shell of Earth that floats upon
the softer, denser mantle.
Leeward: The side away from the wind or flow

direction.

Mantle: Thick dense layer of rock that underlies

Earths crust and overlies the core.
Erosion: The process by which topsoil is carried

away by water, wind, or ice action.
Fault mountain: A mountain that is formed when
Earths plates come together and cause rocks to
break and move upwards.
Mountain: A landform that stands well above its

surroundings; higher than a hill.
Precipitation: Any form of water that falls to
Earth, such as rain, snow, or sleet.
Rain shadow: Region on the side of the mountain
that receives less rainfall than the area windward
of the mountain.
Fold mountain: A mountain that is formed when

Earths plates come together and push rocks up
into folds.
Tectonic plates: Huge flat rocks that form Earths

crust.


an experiment.
plentiful at the bottom areas of the mountains. Some cultures live around or
near the lower areas of mountains. Mountains in warmer climates, such as
North America, are home to bears, lions, and cougars.
At higher altitudes, goats, sheep, and smaller animals live. Birds, such
as the eagle and condor, can also fly and live in high mountain areas.
In the following experiments, you will explore more about mountain
formation and about how mountains affect the surrounding climate.
EXPERIMENT 1
Mountain Plates: How does the movement of
Earths plates determine the formation of a
mountain?
Purpose/Hypothesis Some mountains are created by the movement of
tectonic plates. When these plates come together they can change the
make-up of Earths surface features. Several elements are involved in
affecting the features of a mountain, including the force with which the
plates come together, the makeup of the Earths rocky outer crust, and the
738
Mountains
angle the plates meet. Mountains are often

formed by folds or fault break movements. In a
fold mountain, the movement of two plates
forces rocks upwards into folds. Some rocks are
brittle and will not fold or bend. A fault mountain occurs from a break or fracture in the plates.
In this experiment you will create a simulation of plate movements and observe the flexibility of the terrain when plates collide in
different ways. Plates can collide at even heights,
uneven heights, and at angles. A strip of paper
will represent a relatively flexible outer crust. A
broom straw or spaghetti noodle will represent a
hard and brittle outer crust. Which type of crust
and movement will result in a fold versus a fault
(a break)?
To begin your experiment, use what you
know about mountains and plate movement to
make an educated guess about the formation of
mountains. This educated guess, or prediction, is
these things:

the terrain
the height of the plates
the thickness of the paper
the length of the paper
the force with which the plates move
are everything that might affect the movement of
the terrain. If you change more than one variable
at a time, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on the mountain formation.

There are no safety concerns in this experiment.


Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The plates which are even heights and
with the paper will create a fold when they
collide.
In this case, the variables you will change,
one at a time, are the type of crust and the angle
with which the plates come together. The variable you will measure is the shape of the
mountain that forms when the plates meet. If
Step 4: Slowly slide the books

toward each other.
NEL SO N.
739
Mountains
the paper forms a folded shape you will know

Materials Needed
6 or more hard bound books, 2 of which

are the same height
2 large paper clips
Strong tape, about 4 inches
Several pieces of broom straws (spaghetti noodles will also work)
1, 8 inch strip of paper, the weight of copy paper
Step 7: Repeat Steps 46,

using a piece of straw.
NE LS ON.

Summary of Results: Use

sketches to observe how plates
heights and movements affect
the formation of a mountain.
NE LS ON.
Soft crust
(paper)
Even plates
Uneven plates
1. Tape a paperclip to the center of each of the two books that are the
same width.
2. Lay the books flat on a table or desk about 7 inches (18 centimeters) apart. Have the sides with the paper clips face each other.
The books are now representing your plates.
3. Insert the ends of the paper strip into each of the paper clips.
4. Slowly slide the books toward each other. The strip of paper is an
area of Earths crust. Sketch a picture or make a note of what
happens to the crust when the plates move toward each other.
5. Stack the books so that one stack is higher than the other, keeping
the books with the paper clips on top. Repeat Steps 24.
6. Change the plates so that they are the same
height. Repeat Steps 24 again, this time
moving the plates at an angle as they come
Hard crust
(straw)
together.
7. Repeat Steps 46, using a broom handle
or spaghetti noodle as the crust on
these trials.
Angles plates
Summary of Results Use your sketches and obser-
vations to determine how plates heights and

740
Mountains
movements as well as crust makeup, affects the

formation of a mountain. Is a brittle crust more
likely to form a fold or a fault? Which existing
mountain ranges do your sketches represent? How
is the shape of a mountain affected when the plates
move towards each other at an angle? Write a paragraph showing your results.
Change the Variables You can change one of the
planned. Below are some problems that may
arise during this experiment, some possible
Problem: The paper does not form dips.
variables and repeat this experiment. You can

change the force with which the plates move and
observe how this affects the movement of the
crust? You can also alter the crust by adding gravel
or fabric between the plates.
Possible cause: If the paper only arches and

does not create valleys your paper may be too
thick. Try using a thinner paper and repeat the
experiment.
EXPERIMENT 2
Possible cause: The noodles you are using may

be too brittle. You can try steaming the noodles
for a minute, or pluck some straws from a
broom handle. Repeat the experiment.
Mountain Formations:
How does the height of the
mountain have an affect on
desert formation?
Problem: The noodle keeps breaking before the

plates move together.
Purpose/Hypothesis The formation of mountains can affect the surround-
ing climate and terrain (surface features) of the mountain area. Mountains
are often found near deserts, because mountains often obstruct the airflow
and ultimately rain in reaching the land bordering the leeward side of a
mountain. How the mountain affects the surrounding terrain depends
upon several factors, including the height of the mountain and the climate.
In this experiment you will be looking at how warm moist air and
mountain height affect the formation of a desert. Warm air, which
contains moisture, rises into the atmosphere. As it rises, it cools and the
moisture ultimately falls as a form of precipitation.
Rain clouds often lose most of their moisture before the clouds
completely cross the mountain range. In the case of tall mountain ranges,
the precipitation can fall on one side of the mountain. The other side or,
leeward side receives little to no rain, thus creating a dessert. This effect,
called rain shadow, can produce a desert behind the mountain.
In your experiment, you will create a flow of warm water to simulate
the warm air rising and crossing the mountain range. You can observe how
the warm air reacts in cool air, which is cool water placed in a dish with
741
Mountains

the width of the mountain
are everything that might affect the size of the
air that moves over the mountain. If you change
tell which variable had the most effect on
mountain formation.
Step 6: Slowly pour the half a

cup of hot water into the cup
placed in the corner.
mountains. You will then change the height of

the mountain. Does the height of the mountain
have an affect on how much of the warm air is
able to cross to the other side?
To begin your experiment use what you know
about mountains and deserts to make an educated
guess about mountain formation. This educated
guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:


through observation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether
your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this
experiment: The height of a mountain has the greatest effect on if a
desert is formed on the leeward side of the mountain.
In this case, the variable you will change is the height of the mountain, and the variable you will observe is the how great the mass of air is
that moves over the mountain. If the mass is less with the taller mountain,
IL LU STR AT ION BY T EM AH
N EL SON .
Materials Needed
9 13 glass baking dish

2 lbs of modeling clay
food coloring (red)
glass measuring cup
paper cups
yard stick
hot and cold water

Timetable Approximately 1 hour.
742
Mountains
1. Use the modeling clay to create a mounHow to Experiment Safely

tain range in the middle of the baking
Be sure to use a pot holder and a measuring cup
dish. Your first range should be approxiwith a handle for the warm water.
mately 1.5 inches (3.8 centimeters) wide
and reach half way up the baking dish.
Stretch the mountains to either side of
the glass dish.
2. Poke 10 holes in the sides of the cup near the bottom, no higher
than the depth of the baking dish.
3. Fill the baking dish with cold water to about a half-inch from
the top.
4. Add three drops of red food coloring to one-half cup of hot water.
5. Place the paper cup, with holes, in the corner of one side of
the dish.
6. Slowly pour the half a cup of hot water into the cup placed in the
corner. This is your warm air mass.
7. Observe if the water rises and crosses the mountain, or sinks and is
unable to cross the mountain. Record your observations on a
chart. Note about how much of the mass cross the mountain.
8. Empty the water from the baking dish.
9. Build a new mountain, this one should reach almost the top of the
dish. Leave enough space so that water could still flow over the
mountain, but not over flow the dish.
Steps 7 and 14: Observe if the
10. Fill the baking dish with cold water until the mountain range is
water rises and crosses the
covered.
mountain. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
11. Add three drops of red food coloring to
one-half cup hot water.
12. Place the paper cup, with holes, in the
corner of one side of the dish.
13. Slowly pour the one-half cup of cold
water into the cup placed in the corner.
This is your warm airflow.
14. Observe if the water rises and crosses the
mountain, or sinks and is unable to cross
the mountain. Record your observations
on the chart. Note about how much of
the mass crosses the mountain.
743
Mountains
Summary of Results Examine your data on the
Not all experiments work exactly as planned.
Sometimes, what seems like a mistake will
turn into a new learning experience. Below is a
problem that may arise during this experiment,
some possible causes, and some ways to
Problem: The cloud spreads out too much in the
water to see where it moves.
Possible cause: There may not be enough of a
difference in the water temperatures. Your
water may not have been hot or cold enough.
Try the experiment again, making the hot
water hotter and the cold water colder.
Problem: It is too hard to measure how much of
the cloud is moving.
Possible cause: There may be too much water
for your size dish. Try decreasing the amount
of water you use to make your cloud, using a
quarter of a cup, and try the experiment
again.
different between how the warm water crossed

over the low and high mountain range. Was your
hypothesis correct? Consider how warm air might
behave the same or different than the warm water.
You might want to draw a picture of the results of
your experiment and write a brief summary.

Build the mountain range out of rocks or
pebbles, for a jagged mountain that is not
as solid.
Build a mountain range with variation in
its heights.
Conduct the experiment in different

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept If
you have ever gone mountains climbing, hiking,

or skiing, or visited a mountain, you have most
likely come across some unique properties to
mountains. You may have questions and ideas for experiments based on
your experience. Did you come across any interesting animals or plants?
Was it a rocky or grassy mountain? Are there mountain ranges that you
are interested in, either locally or in other countries? If so, consider what
type of mountain it is, its features, and life.
teacher or school or community media specialist to gather information
on mountain questions that interest you.
744
Mountains
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Make drawings, graphs,
and charts to display your information for others. You might also draw
conclusions about your findings. Which type of mountain seems to be the
most common in your region? Why might that be?
Related Projects If you are interested in mountains and want to discover
more of their uses in your daily life, you might investigate how mountains
erode over time, or mountains change the terrain in other ways aside from
desert formation. You may want to conduct a research project on cultures
that depend on mountains and the mountain life they use. You could also
investigate extreme mountain climbing, how climbers prepare for the
thinner atmosphere and other challenges.

Cox, Shirley. Earth Science. Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Publications, Inc., 1992.
Chapters include how to choose geology projects.
GMB Services. RocksForKids. http://www.rocksforkids.com (accessed February
7, 2008). Information on rock formation, identification, and collection.
Knapp, Brian. Mountain. Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1992. Describes mountains
and their makeup. Some chapters include experiments.
The Mountain Institute. Learning about Mountains. http://www.mountain.org/
education/index.html (accessed on April 18, 2008). Comprehensive information
about mountains, including formation, life, and weather.
Parker, Steve. The Earth and How It Works. North Bellmore, NY: Marshall
Cavendish, 1993. Outlines a variety of projects and experiments that
examine Earths composition.
U.S. Geological Survey. Geologic Provinces of the United States: Rocky Mountains.
http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/rockymtn.html (accessed on April
15, 2008). Information on features and geology of the Rocky Mountains.
U.S. Geological Survey. Rocks and Minerals Site Contents. http://wrgis.wr.usgs.
gov/parks/rxmin/index.html (accessed February 7, 2008). Provides
information on rocks and minerals.
745
Nanotechnology
anotechnology is a relatively new field of science that makes more

headlines every year. It is a field that focuses on the smallthe
extremely small. In nanotechnology, people manipulate atoms and molecules to make new things. Those things can be materials or devices.
Throughout history, people have made new things from altering or
combining substances that already exist. But nanotechnology works the
opposite way. In nanotechnology, researchers develop a substance from
the small to the large by manipulating the basic building blocks of matter.
The result could be miniature materials or devices that have completely
unique properties.
Science of the small The basic building blocks of nanotechnologies
are atoms and molecules. All substances are made up of molecules. A drop
of water, for example, is made up of millions of water molecules. If you
were to keep dividing the drop into smaller droplets, you would end up
with one molecule. That one water molecule would have the same
properties as the drop of water.
Molecules are made of atoms held together by chemical bonds. The
water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom.
Diamonds are made up of a molecule of carbon atoms bonded together.
Salt is made of the sodium chloride molecule, which is one sodium atom
bonded to one chloride atom.
Atoms and molecules are so small that a new prefix was coined to
measure them: nano. The prefix nano comes from the Greek word for
dwarf. Nano represents one billionth and so one nanometer is onebillionth of a meter. Thats about the size of one strand of the width of
your hair split into about 50,000 pieces! Its also about the size of ten
hydrogen atoms. Things on the nanoscale are generally between 1 and
100 nanometers. Proteins in our bodies, viruses, and some particles in the
air are nanosized.
747
Nanotechnology
Seeing the small In order to work on

the nanoscale, researchers needed to be able to
see images of atoms and molecules. In 1981, the
development of a powerful microscope allowed
people to visualize the nanoscale on metals.
Called the scanning tunneling microscope
(STM), the microscope magnifies images of the
shapes of atoms on the metals surface. Microscopes soon followed that allowed researchers to
see images of atoms and molecules on other
materials.
A drop of water, for example, is

made up of millions of water
molecules. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Nanotechnology is not about simply making devices smaller. The field uses the fact that
nanosize materials can have different properties than their larger counterparts. Color, hardness, melting point, and conductivity are all some of the
properties that can change as the material become nanosized. One physical characteristic that can lead to these changes is the increased ratio of
the surface area to volume.
Surface area is all the area that is on the outsidesurfaceof the
material. Volume is the amount of three-dimensional space taken up by a
material. As a material shrinks, its surface area increases compared to its
volume, In the nanosize, this ratio can increase dramatically, which can
lead to different reactions. Gold nanoparticles, for example, can appear a
reddish color and turn liquid at room temperature.
dna
Things on the nanoscale are

generally between 1 and 100
nanometers. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
TE MA H NEL SO N.
748
10-9
red blood cell
10-8
10-7
dust mite
10-6
10-5
head of a pin
10-4
10-3
nanoscale
Nanotechnology
It is the arrangement of the atoms and molecules that gives materials its properties. Diamonds
and the lead of pencils (graphite) are both made of
up carbon molecules. In diamonds, the arrangement and bonds of the carbon atoms make it hard
and clear. Graphite is dark and relatively soft. If
researchers can pluck individual atoms and decide
how to arrange them, they can determine the
property of the material. One nanoscale material
that was discovered in 1991 is also made of pure
carbon. Carbon nanotubes are threads of carbon
and the arrangement of its carbon makes it light,
flexible, and stronger than steel.
A nano-world of technologies There are
high hopes that research in nanotechnology will
translate into many products and devices that will
help people. The technology will affect a wide
range of fields, including transportation, sports,
electronics, and medicine. Some of the current
and future possibilities of nanotechnology includes:
Medicine: Researchers are working to
develop nanorobots to help diagnose and
treat health problems. Medical nanorobots, also called nanobots, could someday be injected into a person
bloodstream. In theory, the nanobots would find and destroy
harmful substances, deliver medicines, and repair damage.
Sports: Nanotechnology has been incorporated in outdoor fabrics
to add insulation from the cold without adding bulk. In sports
equipment, nanotech metals in golf clubs make the clubs stronger
yet lighter, allowing for greater speed. Tennis balls coated with
nanoparticles protect the ball from air, allowing it to bounce far
longer than the typical tennis ball.
Materials Science: Nanotechnology has led to coatings that make
fabric stain proof and paper water resistant. A car bumper developed with nanotechnology is lighter yet a lot harder to dent than
conventional bumpers. And nanoparticles added to surfaces and
paints could someday make them resistant to bacteria or prevent
dirt from sticking.
Swiss physicist Dr. Heinrich

Rohrer, co-winner of the 1986
Nobel Prize in physics for his
invention of the scanning
tunneling microscope. AP
PHO TO.
749
Nanotechnology
Electronics: The field of nano-electronics is

working on miniaturizing and increasing
the power of computer parts. If researchers
could build wires or computer processing
chips out of molecules, it could dramatically
shrink the size of many electronics.
Graphite
Diamond
Diamonds and the lead of

pencils (graphite) are both
made of up carbon molecules.
The arrangement and bonds of
the carbon atoms cause the
differences. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Guarding the nano-future Much like other

new technologies, nanotechnology has raised concerns
and ethical questions. If devices become nanosize,
people would not be able to see them. There is some
concern these invisible devices could cause harm.
If nanobots are developed, researchers would want them to selfreplicate like the cells in our body. These nanobots could potentially do
many amazing things, such as pull trash apart into its microscopic
molecules. But one question is what happens if there is a problem.
What if nanorobots programmed to disassemble trash started taking
apart other items? And what if these nanorobots multiplied endlessly?
So far, nanobots are only theoretical and years in the future. The field
of nanotechnology promises many future benefits, and people are working to develop guidelines that will help us deal with potential problems.
EXPERIMENT 1
Nanosize: How can the physical size affect
a materials properties?
Purpose/Hypothesis As materials become smaller, the surface area to
volume ratio changes. Materials that are microscopic and nanosized have
a much higher surface area to volume ratio compared to the same material
you can see. Because you cannot see nano materials, in this experiment
you will measure how the surface area to volume ratio changes the
melting and freezing point of water. By freezing the water into large
and small ice cubes, you can measure the surface area to volume ratio of
each, and determine how long each size takes to melt and freeze.
For a cube, the surface area is the area of the six square. The area of
one square is the length the width, which are the same in a cube. The
surface area (S) of the cube is the area of one side multiplied by six. If the
length and width are represented by a, then S = 6 a a.
The volume (V) of a cube is a a a. For a cube, the ratio of surface
area to volume is then S/V, or 6/a (6:a).
750
Nanotechnology
WORDS TO KNOW
Bond: The force that holds two atoms together.
experiment.
experiment.
Nanobots: A nanoscale robot.

Nanometer: One-billionth of a meter.
Nanotechnology: Technology that involves
working and developing technologies on the
nanometer (atomic and molecular) scale.
Scanning tunneling microscope: A microscope that
can show images of surfaces at the atomic level
by scanning a probe over a surface.
Surface area: The total area of the outside of an object.
experiment.
Volume: The amount of space occupied by a threedimensional object.
Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of the
experiment based on your knowledge of surface area to volume ratio and
water. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:


hypothesis for this experiment: The cubes with
the smaller surface area to volume ratio will melt
and freeze faster.
be the surface area to volume ratio, and the variable you will measure will be the time it takes

the size of the ice cubes
the material of the ice tray
the material the ice melts on
the temperature of the freezer
the room temperature
are everything that might affect the melting and
freezing of the ice.
751
Nanotechnology
for the ice to freeze and melt. You expect a shorter

freezing and melting time for the smaller ice than
the larger ice cubes.
There are no safety issues in this experiment.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate (there is simple math involved).

Materials Needed
conventional, large ice cube trade

mini ice-cube tray (available at party
stores)
2 plates
freezer
clock with minute hand
toothpicks or other small pointy object
ruler with centimeters
Step 1: Pour water into at least
three of the cubes in both the
large and small ice cube trays.

Step 4: Place two large ice cubes

on one plate, and two mini ice
cubes on the second plate.
NE LS ON.
752
1. Pour water into at least three of the cubes in both the large and
small ice cube trays.
2. Place the trays in the freezer. Time for 30 minutes and poke each
with a toothpick. If one set of ice cubes are frozen, note the time
and leave them both in the freezer. Check back every five minutes
until both sets are frozen and note the time for each. If neither ice
cube tray is frozen solid, leave the trays in the freezer and check
back every five minutes.
3. When all the ice cubes are frozen solid,
remove them from the trays. On one of
the large and mini ice cubes, use the ruler
to measure the dimension for a side of
each. Round off the measurement and
note.
4. Place two large ice cubes on one plate,
and two mini ice cubes on the second
plate. Make sure the ice cubes are not
Nanotechnology
touching. Set the plates aside and wait at

least 30 minutes.
5. Continue checking on the cubes at regular
intervals. Note when the two small cubes
and the two large cubes have completely
melted.
Summary of Results Was your hypothesis cor-
This experiment is straightforward and you
should not have any major issues. The freezing
time may vary from the protocol depending
upon the temperature of the freezer and the
size of the cubes. The melting time will also vary
depending upon the size of the cubes.
rect? Did the mini cubes melt and freeze faster

than its larger counterpart? Rounding off the
measurements, you can calculate the surface
area and volume of the large cube and the small cube. How do the
different surface area to volume ratios relate to the melting and freezing
point?
Change the Variables If you want to vary this experiment, you can freeze
water and melt the cubes in extreme size differences. How would a pan of
water compare to an ice cube? You can also change the substance and look
at surface area to volume ratios in solid substances, such as salt or sugar.
EXPERIMENT 2
Nanosize Substances: How can the physical
size affect the rate of reaction?
Purpose/Hypothesis One reason that nanosize substances may behave
differently than the macrosize is due to the rate of reaction. Nanosize

substances have a larger surface area compared to its larger counterpart. In
this experiment, you will look at how increasing the surface area of a
substance can affect its rate of reaction. You can use an antacid tablet and
water. When antacid tablets react with water, the reaction produces
carbon dioxide. In an enclosed container the carbon dioxide gas will
push on the container and force its top into the air.
You can compare the rate of reaction between a whole antacid tablet and
two varying sizes of the crushed tablet. One tablet will be broken into chunks
and the other will be crushed, which will result in more surface area. Before
you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of the experiment
based on your knowledge of surface area to volume ratio and water. This
753
Nanotechnology

the size of the ice cubes
the brand of antacid tablet
the size of the antacid tablet
the amount of water
are everything that might affect the rate at
which the reaction occurs.


hypothesis for this experiment: The greater the
surface area, the faster the rate of reaction.
be the surface area, and the variable you will
measure will be the time it takes for the carbon
dioxide to pop the top.
Materials Needed
Step 4: Quickly, snap on the

top. IL LUS TR ATI ON BY T EM AH
NEL SO N.
6 antacid tablets
2 pieces of paper
spoon or any hard object
3 film canisters (35 mm film) with lids that
fit on the inside (as opposed to snap on the
outside of the canister); you could also use
1 canister and rinse it out after each use
watch with minute hand
helper
outside area or clear, inside area than can
get messy
1. Fill all three canisters half full with water

that is about room temperature. (If you
only have one canister, fill a cup with
754
Nanotechnology
water and allow it to get to room temperature before pouring it in the canister.)
2. Go to the area where you want to set the
canister down to time the reaction. As
soon as you place the tablet in the canister, have your helper begin timing.
3. Drop a whole antacid tablet in the canister. (Your helper should start timing
now.)

Step back quickly when you put the top on the
canister so that it does not hit you. This experiment can be messy. If possible, work outside or
in an area that is easy to clean.
4. Quickly, snap on the top and set the canister down with the top on
the bottom.
5. When the reaction occurs and the canister flies into the air, make a
note of the time.
6. Place the second tablet on a piece of paper. Use a hard object, such as
a book, to break the tablet into chunks. Carefully, drop the chunks
into the second canister. Start timing! Firmly, place the top on the
canister, flip it so the top is on the bottom and note the reaction time.
Repeat this step with a crushed tablet. You will need to fold the paper
and pour the crushed antacid into the container.
7. Repeat each of the trials. If one reaction time is far off from the
same tablet size, you may want to repeat the trial a third time until
you can get repeatable results.
Summary of Results Look at the reaction times for each of the three
tablets with different surface areas. How does the amount of surface area
relate to the reaction time?
Was your hypothesis correct? Write a summary of your results, including how this experiment relates to nanostructures and substances.
Step 6: Place the second tablet

on a piece of paper. Use a book
to break the tablet into chunks.
NEL SO N.

Change the temperature of the water.
Change the amount of water.
Use a different substance to measure the
rate of reaction, such as sugar and dissolving rates.
755
Nanotechnology

Below is a problem that you may have during
this experiment and a way to remedy the
problem.
Problem: The times for the two trials that were
the same surface area were not at all close.
Possible cause: You may have used different
water temperatures. Warmer water can
speed up a reaction. Try setting aside a large
container of water. Wait for the water to
come to room temperature and then use this
water for all your trials.
Nanotechnology is a wide and growing field that

may be incorporated in materials and technologies you use. Most likely, it could be in a car you
use, sunscreen, or even clothes you wear. You
may want to look up products that were developed with nanotechnology and see if the products are familiar or readily available.
with your science teacher to start gathering information on questions that interest you about
nanotechnology.
experiment, you need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise, you might not be sure what questions youre answering, what you
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Think of how you can
share your results with others. Charts, graphs, and diagrams of the
progress and results of the experiments are very helpful in informing
others about an experiment.
Related Projects To experiment in nanotechnology, you can find prod-
ucts that are made using nanotechnology and compare those products to
others. Some papers and clothing have a nanotech surface. Aside from
surface area to ratio, you can experiment with other properties that make
nanosize materials different than their larger counterparts.
756
Nanotechnology
There are also many research projects you can do in nanotechnology.

You can conduct a project on the major breakthroughs in the field or
focus on one breakthrough, such as microscopes. You can also investigate
the development and consequences of nanotechnology products in a
certain field, such as medicine or sports equipment. Ethical issues and
questions in the field of nanotechnology is another area of research.

Darling, David. Beyond 2000: Micromachines and Nanotechnology. Parsippany,
NJ: Dillon Press, 1995.
Johnson, Rebecca L. Nanotechnology. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2006.
Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley. Nanozone. http://
www.nanozone.org (accessed on May 17, 2008). Information, graphics,
activities and videos on nanoscience.
Northwestern University. History of Nano Timeline. Discover Nano http://
www.discovernano.northwestern.edu/whatis/History/# (accessed on May
17, 2008). Interactive timeline traces the history of nanotechnology from pre
eighteenth century to modern day.
Science Museum in London. Nanotechnology: small science, big deal. http://
www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/antenna/nano/index.asp (accessed on May 19,
2008). Information and an online game about nanotechnology from a science
exhibit.
The University of Wisconsin. What is a Nanotechnologist? Intro to
Nanotechnology http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/technologist/index.html
(accessed on May 17, 2008). Profiles of professionals in nanotechnology that
explains what they do.
757
Nutrition
he foods you eat affect whether you pay attention in class, how much
energy you have for sports, and even whether you feel happy or sad. In
fact, your meals and snacks affect how every cell in your body works. How
do we know? Nutrition is the science of how the body uses nutrients to
grow and function effectively. Nutrients are nourishing substances that the
body needs. For example, the heart needs certain nutrients to help it pump
blood. Our kidneys need nutrients to help rid our bodies of harmful
wastes. Not surprisingly, deficiencies in certain nutrients can cause disease.
Real men eat fruit Hardly anyone gets scurvy anymore, but this
disease was common a few centuries ago, especially among the first
explorers and the crews on their ships. No one knew what caused scurvy.
People with it felt weak. Their gums, noses, and mouths bled, and their
muscles ached. When the ship of French explorer Jacques Cartier became
icebound on the St. Lawrence River in Montreal in 1535, 25 men became
ill and died. Cartier was visited by local Native Americans. He mentioned
his feelings of weakness and the bleeding symptoms of his men. The
Native Americans went into the woods, brought back pine needles and
bark from a tree, and told Cartier to boil them in water. Cartier and his
men drank the tea and recovered.
We now know the pine needles contained vitamin C, a substance also
present in fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables were rarely eaten on
ships at that time. Storing them was a problem, and they were expensive
to buy.
In 1747, James Lind, a Scottish doctor, knew that many British
sailors were dying from scurvy, but he had read a report that fruits and
vegetables helped prevent the disease. The sailors recovered quickly when
Lind added citrus fruit juices to their diet, so Lind suggested this remedy
to the British navy. Still, it took several decades before this remedy was
taken seriously. Eventually, scurvy was all but eliminated.
759
Nutrition
Dr. James Lind suggested

eating citrus fruits to prevent
scurvy. BET TM ANN ARC HI VE.
Eating healthy foods helps

people stay healthy. K ELL Y A.
QU IN.
760
Eat right to stay healthy It was not until the

early 1900s that scientists began to understand
how nutrient deficiencies affect the body. The
body cannot make all the substances it needs, but
those missing substances are found in food.
Before we realized this, however, these substances were often removed from food.
In the early 1900s, many foods were being
processed. When rice processors removed the
bran layers from whole rice to make white rice,
they did not realize they were also removing a
substance that was necessary for the body to
function well. In regions where rice was the
main food, a deficiency in this substance was
causing a disease called beriberi. In 1911, Polish
researcher Casimir Funk isolated this substance
and discovered a type of chemical compound
called an amine. He linked it with the Latin
word vita, meaning life, and the new term
vitamin was created. The vitamin in bran was
named thiamine, a B vitamin that helps the body
obtain energy from carbohydrates.
As they learned more, scientists concluded that eating a variety of
foods that are not processed, such as meats, fish, and fresh fruits and
vegetables, helps our bodies stay healthy. And taking extra vitamins does
not hurt either.
The necessary nutrients Besides vitamins,
what are the other main substances your body
needs to work well? One is carbohydrates, which
give your body energy. They are present in
starches, including potatoes, rice, bread, peas,
and beans. They are also in milk and fruit, as
well as in fiber from grains and vegetables. Your
body uses carbohydrates to manufacture the zip
you need to win a race or hit a home run.
Fats are necessary, too. Fats that come from
olive oil, yogurt, nuts, and cheese help you grow
and make your skin smooth. Fats also cushion
body organs, keep your body warm, and help
Nutrition
you absorb vitamins. Extra fats are stored under

the skin and become another source of energy
when needed.
Minerals, another kind of essential nutrient,
help build bones and soft tissues. They act as
regulators, keeping your blood pressure stable
and your heart rate steady. They also keep your
bones and teeth tough and help you digest your
food. The six main minerals your body requires
are calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur. These minerals can
be found in dairy products, fruit, vegetables, and
meats. Other minerals, just as important but
needed in smaller quantities, are known as trace elements. Some of the
more important ones are iron, fluorine, iodine, and zinc.
Your body needs help making cells as you grow and replacing cells
that become worn out. Thats where proteins come in. Besides helping to
build new cells, proteins trigger and speed up reactions within your body.
Proteins also help form antibodies that ward off infections. Soybeans,
beef, fish, beans, eggs, peas, and whole wheat are sources of protein.
You might not think that water would be an important nutrient, but
it is. Nutrients can be carried to where they are needed only in watery
solutions.
Good nutrition is essential for good health. Eating a variety of fresh,
nonprocessed foods helps prevent diseases and sickness and gives you
energy to work, think, and play. The projects that follow will help you
analyze what you are actually eating on a day-to-day basis.
Peas and beans are good sources

of carbohydrates. GR AN T
HEI LM AN.
PROJECT 1
Energizing Foods: Which foods contain
carbohydrates and fats?
Purpose/Hypothesis This project will help you analyze a typical meal to
discover which foods provide the energy we need for our day-to-day
activities. You will test for fats and for starches. Fats supply energy
and are stored in the body for times when energy levels are low, such as
when you exercise or miss a meal. The starches in carbohydrates also
provide energy.
761
Nutrition
WORDS TO KNOW
Amine: An organic compound derived from
ammonia.
ture. As a nutrient, it helps build bones and soft

tissues and regulates body functions.
Amino acid: One of a group of organic compounds

that make up proteins.
Nutrient: A substance needed by an organism in

order for it to survive, grow, and develop.
Antibody: A protein produced by certain cells of the

body as an immune (disease-fighting) response
to a specific foreign antigen.
Nutrition: The study of the food nutrients an

organism needs in order to maintain well-being.
Antigen: A substance that causes the production of

an antibody when injected directly into the body.
Beriberi: A disease caused by a deficiency of thiamine and characterized by nerve and gastrointestinal disorders.
Carbohydrate: A compound consisting of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen found in plants and used
as a food by humans and other animals.
Organic: Containing carbon; also referring to

materials that are derived from living
organisms.
Protein: A complex chemical compound that
consists of many amino acids attached to each
other that are essential to the structure and
functioning of all living cells.
Scurvy: A disease caused by a deficiency of
vitamin C, which causes a weakening of connective tissue in bone and muscle.
Fat: A type of lipid, or chemical compound used as a

source of energy, to provide insulation and to
protect organs in an animal body.
Thiamine: A vitamin of the B complex that is

essential to normal metabolism and nerve
function.
Inorganic: Not containing carbon; not derived from

a living organism.
Trace element: A chemical element present in

minute quantities.
Metabolism: The process by which living organisms

convert food into energy and waste products.
Translucent: Permits the passage of light.
Mineral: An inorganic substance found in nature

with a definite chemical composition and struc-
Vitamin: A complex organic compound found naturally in plants and animals that the body needs in
small amounts for normal growth and activity.

Be careful not to get the iodine in your eyes. Ask
an adult to help you use the iodine.
762
Materials Needed
iodine with dropper

brown paper bags cut into 10 or more
4-inch (10-centimeter) squares
Nutrition
clear glass dinner plate

a typical meal (For example, a lunch consisting of a turkey and Swiss cheese sandwich with tomato, lettuce, and mayonnaise;
milk; potato chips. Or a dinner of hamburger, pasta salad, corn bread, milk, and
cake with icing)
Approximate Budget $2 for iodine; other sup-
plies from meals.

Timetable 1 hour; this project can be repeated
after each meal to determine eating trends.
Step 1: Create two 1 teaspoonsized samples of each food.

GAL E GR OU P.
1. Create two 1 teaspoon-sized samples of each food, such as two

samples of turkey, two of Swiss cheese, two of bread, and so on.
2. To test the foods for fat, rub a food sample on a square of brown
paper. Remove the food sample, and allow the paper to dry.
3. Hold the paper up to the light and notice if it is translucent (if you
can see light through it). Describe your observations on a data
chart. Make a plus sign under a Fats heading for those foods that
leave a translucent stain.
Steps 2 and 3: To test the foods

for fat, rub a food sample on a
square of brown paper. Remove
the food sample, and allow the
paper to dry. GA LE G RO UP.
763
Nutrition
Steps 4 and 5: Test food samples

for starch by dripping four to
five drops of iodine onto the
food. GAL E GR OU P.
the problem.
Problem: Apples or pears do not stain black with
iodine.
Possible cause: These fruits contain cellulose,
which is plant starch. Iodine turns black with
more soluble, digestible starches, such as
wheat, rice, and beans.
4. To test for starch, place a food sample on

the glass dinner plate. Drip four to five
drops of iodine onto the food. Allow
15 minutes for the iodine to penetrate.
5. On your data chart, make a plus sign
under a Starch heading for foods that
turn black from the iodine.
6. Repeat Steps 2 through 5 for each kind of
food. Place each sample in a different spot
on the paper and on the plate.
Summary of Results Analyze your results. Figure
out how many foods in your meal contain starch
and/or fat. Consider what this says about the
healthfulness of the meal and of your diet in
general.
PROJECT 2
Nutrition: Which foods contain proteins and
salts?
Purpose/Hypothesis This project will help you identify proteins and
salts, nutrients needed for cell repair and daily maintenance. Proteins,
present in every cell, are known as body builders. They help you grow and
764
Nutrition
replace cells. Salts are minerals that your body

uses to maintain water balance.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. This experiment
requires the purchase of two chemicals and the
supervision of an adult.

Ask an adult to help you with this project. Wear
goggles or other eye protection and protective
gloves when handling silver nitrate. Be careful
with the silver nitrate, as it stains the skin.
Materials Needed
silver nitrate (a salt-indicator solution,

which can be purchased from science supply catalogs)
Biuret solution (a protein-indicator solution, also available from
science supply catalogs)
glass test tubes or glass cups
test tube rack
food from one meal
water
goggles
rubber gloves
Approximate Budget $20 for the silver nitrate and Biuret solutions,
depending on the quantity. The silver nitrate can be purchased as a crystal

and dissolved in water.
Step 3: Place a food sample into

each test tube. G AL E GR OUP .
Timetable 1 hour.
1. Create -teaspoon-size samples of each

type of food from your meal.
2. Set test tubes in rack.
3. For the protein test, put a food sample
into a test tube and add 10 drops of
Biuret solution.
4. Wait 10 minutes. If the blue Biuret solution turns lavender, the sample contains
protein. Record the result on a data chart.
5. For the salt test, put a food sample into a
test tube and fill tube halfway with water.
Shake gently. Add 1020 drops of silver
nitrate solution.
765
Nutrition
remedy the problem.
Problem: None of my foods tested positive for
salt.
Possible cause: Insignificant amounts of salt
may be present. Make a test tube sample of salt
and water. Add silver nitrate to see if the solution turns white. If not, the silver nitrate may be
contaminated.
6. Watch to see if the clear silver nitrate

forms a milky white precipitation in the
water. If so, salt is present. Record your
results.
7. Repeat Steps 3 through 6 for each food
sample, recording all your results on the
data sheet.
Summary of Results After testing a typical meal,
analyze your results. How many samples contained protein or salt? Do you see any pattern?
Write a paragraph summarizing your findings.
PROJECT 3
Daily Nutrition: How
nutritious is my diet?
Purpose/Hypothesis This project will help you determine if you are
taking in the recommended nutrients and calories. A calorie is a unit of

energy. The amount of energy and nutrients your body needs depends
upon many factors, such as your age and if you are male or female. It also
depends upon how much energy you burn every day through sports or
simply moving around.
Steps 3 to 6: Testing food

samples for either protein or salt
content. GAL E GR OU P.
766
Nutrition
Although everyone is different, there are

general guidelines for the amount of nutrients
and total energy that people require. In this
project, you can find out if you are taking in a
There are no safely hazards in this project.
healthy amount of energy and nutrients by determining your intake.
The Nutrition Facts Label on food packages provides the calories
and amounts of nutrients in each serving of food. The labels state the
amount of nutrients both as a number and percentage of the Daily
Value. The government chose an average daily value: 2,000 calories a
day. If the percent Daily Value of carbohydrates lists 10%, that means
the food gives 10% of the carbohydrates generally needed for the day.
The percent Daily Values are calculated based on fat as 30% of total
calories and carbohydrates as 60% of calories (protein is the other 10%).
Some youths (and adults) will need more than that, and some will
need less.
In this project, you will measure the amount of energy, fats, and
carbohydrates you consume. For some foods, you may have to estimate
the amount you eat and nutrient information. If you eat lasagna, for
example, you will need to look up the nutritional information for each
serving for each ingredient and then add them together. You will also have to
determine if you had one or more servings, as it is listed on the Nutrition
Facts Label.
By measuring the nutrition information over the course of three to five
days, you can calculate the average to find out your typical nutrient intake.
Level of Difficulty Moderate to Difficult, because of the time and
precision involved.
Materials Needed
paper and pencil

Nutrition Facts Labels from foods eaten throughout days of project
measuring cup and spoons
Internet access (optional)
calculator (optional)

Timetable Approximately 30 minutes per day for three to five days.
767
Nutrition
Food Servings Fat Carbohydrates Calories
1. If you have access to the Internet, visit the

MyPyramid site listed below and write
down how many calories and nutrients
you should be consuming every day. If
you do not have Internet access, you can
ask a health professional or use the average of 2,000 calories.
2. Make a chart listing the food items and its
major nutrients. See the illustration for
an example.
TOTAL DAY 1:
Step 2: Make a chart listing the

food items and its major
nutrients. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Step 3: Make sure you write

down information from all
the foods you are eating.
NE LS ON.
3. For each food you eat, write in your chart

the calories, fats, and carbohydrates listed
on the Nutrition Facts Label. Make sure
you look at the serving size and judge
whether you are eating one serving. For
many foods, such as breakfast cereals, it is easy to eat more than
one serving size. You can use measuring cups to figure out how
much is in your bowl or on your plate. If you eat two serving sizes,
you will need to double the amount of calories and nutrients listed
on the label. Also, make sure you write down information from all
the foods you are eating, such as the milk and any fruit or sugar on
your cereal. For fast food items, restaurants often provide nutritional information (you may have to ask).
4. At the end of the day, look at your chart and think about any foods
you may have forgotten to list. If you did forget anything, such as
snacks, add them to your chart.
5. Continue to measure your nutrient
intake for three to five days.
6. When you have finished, add up the total
calories and nutrients for each day. Calculate the average of the fats, carbohydrates, and calories. You can do this by
adding up each item and dividing by
the number of days. For example, if you
ate 12,000 calories over five days, divide
the calories by five. That means you
768
Nutrition
consumed about 2,400 calories a day on

average.
7. Compare the calories and nutrients you ate
on average to your recommended intake.
Summary of Results How does your recom-
mended intake compare to what you actually consumed? Are they close? Look at your chart and see
if you are eating a healthful variety of food groups.
Are there are a lot of high sugar and fat food? Are
you eating more or less than the five or more
servings of fruits and vegetables recommended
each day? You can also continue this project by
measuring your consumption of proteins, specific
vitamins, and minerals throughout the day.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Nutrition Facts
Serving Size 1 packet (43g)

Servings Per Container 10
Amount per Serving
Calories
Calories from Fat
160
20
Total Fat
2g
Saturated Fat 0.5g
3%
2%
Trans Fat 0g
Cholesterol 0g
0%
Sodium 240mg
10%
Total Carbohydrate 33g
11%
Protein 4g
Vitamin A 20%
Calcium 10%
Vitamin C 0%
Iron 20%
Diet is such a vital part of a healthy lifestyle that

studying your eating habits is important. You
might decide to research the major nutrients and
learn more about how they can help improve your health.
or school or community media specialist to gather information on nutrition questions that interest you. As you consider possible experiments, be
sure to discuss them with a knowledgeable adult before trying them.
Step 6: Add up the total calories

and nutrients for each day.
Calculate the average of the
fats, carbohydrates, and
calories. IL LU STR AT ION BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
sure what question you are answering, what your are or should be
your question.
769
Nutrition
the problem.
Problem: It looks like I am not getting enough
calories even though I am never hungry.
Possible cause: You may have forgotten to list
several foods. It is extremely hard to remember
every food we eat in a day. Try taking your chart
with you as you go about your daily activities,
and jotting down the food item as soon as you
eat it. You can calculate the nutritional information at a later time, but that will help you
remember to include it.
Problem: It looks like I am not getting enough
nutrients even though I am never hungry.
Possible cause: You may have forgotten to list
several foods (see above) or you may actually
not be consuming enough nutrients. If most of
the foods you are eating are highly processed
and contain a lot of fats and oils, these foods
may be low in nutrients.

selected.
Its always important to write down data and

ideas you gather during an experiment. Keep a
journal or record book for this purpose. If you
keep notes and draw conclusions from your
experiments and projects, other scientists could
Related Projects Nutrition-related projects or
experiments can go in many different directions.
For example, you might identify the types and
quantity of nutrients you eat daily. You might
decide to start regulating your intake of the lesshealthful foods. As a start, all you need to do is read
the nutritional facts found on all food packages.
Eating for Health. Vol. 3. Chicago: World Book Inc.,

1993. Part of the Growing Up series, this
volume provides thorough, interesting
information about carbohydrates, vitamins, and
minerals as well as metabolism, eating disorders,
and processing.
Food Standards Agency. Vitamins and Minerals. eatwell. http://www.eatwell.
gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/ (accessed on
February 19, 2008). Information about vitamins, minerals, and where they
are found.
Kids Health. Food and Nutrition. http://www.kidshealth.org/kid/nutrition/
index.html#All About Food (accessed on February 19, 2008). Series of
easy to read articles on food and nutrients.
Levchuck, Caroline, and Michele Drohan. Healthy Living. Detroit: UXL, 2000.
Contains chapters on nutrition, eating disorders, and other health issues.
United States Department of Agriculture. MyPyramid Plan. http://www.mypyramid.
gov/mypyramid/index.aspx (accessed on February 19, 2008). Customized food
guide.
United States Department of Agriculture. MyPyramid for Kids. http://www.fns.
usda.gov/TN/kids pyramid.html (accessed on February 19, 2008). Nutritional
information, a food tracking worksheet, and games.
770
Oceans
f you were to look down at Earth from space you would see a planet that
was covered in blue. That is because oceans cover almost three-quarters
of the Earths surface and contain about 97% of the planets water supply.
Life on Earth began in the ocean almost three-and-a-half billion years ago
and life could not exist without a healthy ocean environment. Today, the
oceans are home to an incredible variety of creatures, from the largest
animal that ever lived, the blue whale, to microscopic organisms that can
live in boiling waters.
People depend on the oceans in many ways. Oceans have an important effect on weather patterns. They are essential for transportation, for
both economic and military purposes. Many people throughout the
world rely on the ocean for food and their livelihood. People also use
the oil and minerals that come from beneath the ocean floor.
The first voyage planned specifically to study the oceans was a British
expedition that set out in 1872. In the twentieth century, interest in the
oceans grew enormously. A new field evolved for oceanographers or people
who study the ocean. Technological development allowed oceanographers
to travel further and longer into the ocean depths. The discovery of
previously unknown species and minerals in the ocean sparked further
excitement and, today, the ocean is considered the last unexplored frontier.
A handful of seawater Earths oceans are all connected to one another.

Until the year 2000, there were four recognized oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic. In 2000 the International Hydrographic Organization, the organization responsible for setting the oceans boundaries,
recognized a new ocean, the Southern Ocean, encircling Antarctica.
The main chemicals in ocean water are sodium and chlorine combined as sodium chloride, better known as ordinary table salt. Ocean
waters also contain smaller amounts of many other chemicals. Salt, along
with the other substances, flows into oceans from smaller bodies of water.
771
Oceans
Salt is a mineral that is found in soil and

rocks. As river water flows, it picks up small
amounts of salts from the rocks and soil. The
S Chlorine
55.04%
rivers carry it into the ocean where it remains.
A
L
The salinity, or salt content, of ocean
30.61%
T Sodium
water varies across the oceans. Oceanographers
Sulfate
7.69%
report salinity in parts per thousand. On average, ocean salinity is thirty-five parts per thouMagnesium
3.69%
sand. That means there are 35 pounds of salt
for every 1,000 pounds of water, or 3.5% salt.
Calcium
1.16%
Changing properties On average, the
Potassium
1.1%
ocean extends about 2.3 miles (3.7 kilometers)
downwards from the surface. Seawater has
Remaining elements .71%
different properties depending on its depth,
(these include manganese, lead,
gold, silver, iron, and zinc)
from the surface to the ocean floor. As the
water deepens, its pressure increases. The
The main chemicals in ocean
water near the oceans surface has very little
water are sodium and chlorine
water pressing down on it and so the water pressure is low. On the bottom
combined as sodium chloride,
of the ocean, the weight of all the water above presses down and the water
better known as ordinary table
pressure is high. At the deepest point in the ocean, the pressure is more than
salt. GA LE GRO UP.
8 tons per square inch (1.1 metric tons per square centimeter)equal to
one person trying to support 50 jumbo jets.
Sunlight gives the surface water warmth. On average, sunlight
extends down to a depth of about 650 feet (250 meters). Water near
the ocean floor gets no sunlight and is cold and dark. Both temperature
and salinity affect the density of the water. Density is how much mass a
certain volume of water contains. Molecules in warm water have more
energy to move about. They spread farther apart, which results in less
mass in a certain volume and therefore less density. Molecules in cold
water have less energy and stay close together, resulting in a more mass in
a certain volume and greater density. Water that is heavier or denser than
the water around it sinks, while water that is less dense rises.
Differences in density cause seawater to form layers in a process called
stratification. A liquid will float on a liquid less dense than itself, such as
oil on water. The layers formed in ocean waters can be incredibly stable
and last for thousands of years.
Rising and falling Currents are large streams of water flowing
through the ocean. Currents occur in all bodies of salt water and can be
caused by wind, salinity, heat content, the characteristics of the oceans
Concentrations of seawater minerals
772
Oceans
bottom, and Earths rotation. Currents in the

top layer of the ocean are called surface currents
and these are mainly caused by steady winds.
Surface currents flow clockwise north of the
equator and counterclockwise (in the opposite
direction) south of the equator. The Gulf Stream
runs along the east coast of the United States and
is one of the strongest and warmest currents
known. In some places it may travel more than
60 miles (96.6 kilometers) in a day. The currents
carry the Suns heat from warmer regions to
cooler areas, bringing mild weather to places
that would otherwise be much cooler.
Increased
pressure
as water
deepens
Currents also flow up and down within the

water. These currents occur due to changes in
seawater temperature and density and are called
convection currents or density-driven currents. When warm surface water
loses some of its heat to the air, the surface water becomes cooler and denser
and starts to sink. This forces some of the water at lower levels to rise to form
an up-and-down current. Deep ocean currents are important to marine life.
Water at the ocean surface takes in oxygen from the air. Convection currents
carry the oxygen down to the animals and plants that live in the bottom
ocean regions. Minerals along the bottom of the floor are carried up to the
sunlight layer, where animals use them. This process of lower-level, nutrientrich waters rising upward to the oceans surface is called upwelling.
Seawater has different

properties depending on its
depth from the surface to the
ocean floor. As the water
deepens, its pressure increases.
GAL E GR OU P.
The waters in the ocean are constantly in motion. When wind blows
over the oceans surface, it tries to pick up some of the water and creates
waves. Waves are movements of water that rise and fall. The size of the
wave depends on the winds power. Gentle breezes form tiny ripples
along the surface; strong winds can create large waves. Even though it
looks like waves push the water forward, the water actually moves very
little. When a wave arrives it lifts the water particles up and forward. As
the wave passes, each particle falls and flows backwards underwater to
return to its starting point. That is why a bottle, or anything else, floating
in the ocean will remain in roughly the same place as the waves pass.
The highest point the waves reach is called the crest. The lowest point
is called the trough. The distance from one crest to the next is the
wavelength.
773
co
Oceans
rw
ole
Tides are periodic rises and falls of large

bodies of water. English mathematician and
physicist Isaac Newton (16421727) was the
first person to explain tides scientifically with
his understanding of gravity. Gravity is a force
of attraction between any two masses, such as the
Sun and Earth.
pushed
ater
lighter water
pushes to
surface
Tides are caused primarily by the gravitational pull of the Moon on Earth, and by the
rotation of Earth. The tug of gravity from the
Sun also affects the tides, but it has about half of
the Moons force. The gravitational attraction
causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of
the Moon. Another bulge occurs on the opposite
water
warms
side of the Earth due to the water being thrown
outward by the planets spin. These are high tides.
hot area
The areas between the tidal bulges experience low
tide. (For a more detailed explanation of tides see
Convection currents are caused
when waters of different
the Rotation and Orbits chapter.)
temperatures and densities
Sea life The oceans are filled with all types of amazing and bizarremeet. GA LE GRO UP.
looking creatures. Although the Suns light only reaches a small layer of the
seawater, the majority of animals and plants live in the top sunlight regions.
Microscopic organisms called plankton are the main food supply in the
ocean. They live at or near the surface of the water and many produce
oxygen, much of which escapes into the air for humans to breathe.
denser
water sinks
Wavelength
Crest
Trough
Even though it may appear as

though waves move the water
forward, water moves in a
circular motion. GAL E GR OU P.
774
Oceans
Tidal bulge
caused by the
gravitational pull
of the moon and
the sun
Tidal bulge
resulting from the force
of Earth's rotation
Tides are caused primarily by

the gravitational pull of the
Moon on Earth, and by the
rotation of Earth. GAL E
GR OU P.
In the lower ocean regions, deep-sea creatures have developed

unique adaptations to survive in the dim, high-pressure, cold waters.
Many deep-water fish are bioluminescent or they make their own light.
The anglerfish uses a lighted lure on the top of its head to attract
prey. The flashlight fish carries bioluminescent bacteria in pouches
under its eyes that it can flash on and off at will to capture prey or
find a mate. A shrimp heaves bioluminescent vomit onto an attacking
fish, perhaps to blind the attacker and allow the shrimp to escape.
Other deep-sea fish have expandable stomachs that can hold a fish
much larger than themselvesa useful talent with the lack of food on the
ocean floor. Fanglike teeth, hinged skulls, and large mouths are all traits
that help these fish catch food. Some creatures attach themselves to the
ocean floor, such as giant tube worms that can grow more than 10 feet
(3 meters) long. In the 1970s, researchers discovered these worms, along
with bacteria and giant clams, living in bubbling hot water with temperatures up to 650F (350C) spurting out from
beneath the ocean floor.
A giant squid netted from the

waters near Melbourne,
Australia, in February 2001.
Measuring 12 feet (4 meters)
long, it is estimated its feeding
tentacles would likely bring the
size to 36 feet (12 meters). A P/
WID E WO RL D
EXPERIMENT 1
Stratification: How does
the salinity in ocean water cause
it to form layers?
Purpose/Hypothesis Layers of seawater with
different densities can lead to stratification that

can last for centuries. Anyone who has gone into
775
Oceans
WORDS TO KNOW
Bioluminescence: The chemical phenomenon in
which an organism can produce its own light.
Convection current: Also called density-driven
current, a cycle of warm water rising and cooler
water sinking.
Crest: The highest point of a wave.
Currents: The horizontal and vertical circulation of
ocean waters.
Density: The mass of a substance compared to its
volume.
Gravity: Force of attraction between objects, the
strength of which depends on the mass of each
object and the distance between them.
Oceanographer: A person who studies the chemistry of the oceans, as well as their currents,
marine life, and the ocean floor.
Salinity: A measure of the amount of dissolved salt
in seawater.
Stratification: Layers according to density; applies
to fluids.
Tides: The cyclic rise and fall of seawater.
Trough: The lowest point of a wave. (Pronounced
trawf.)
Upwelling: The process by which lower-level,
nutrient-rich waters rise upward to the oceans
surface.
an experiment.
Wave: The rise and fall of the ocean water.
Wavelength: The distance between one peak of a
wave and the next corresponding peak.
the ocean and felt distinct layers of cold meeting the warm water has
experienced the effect of stratification. Temperature and salinity are the
two key factors determining density and, thus, ocean stratification. High
salinity makes the water denser than low salinity, and cold water is denser
than warm water. The denser the water relative to the water around it, the
lower that water sinks.
In this experiment you will examine how salinity affects stratification.
You will make two saltwater solutions of different salinity concentrations:
a 40 percent salinity solution and a 20% salinity solution. To visually
observe the different densities, you will dye the water blue and place an
object in the saltwater that is denser than fresh watera small potato.
You will then carefully place fresh water above the salt water and observe
what happens.
776
Oceans

your knowledge of density and stratification.
things:
the type of salt
the quantity of salt
the item placed in the water
are everything that might affect the stratificathrough further investigation. Your experiment
tion of the water. If you change more than one
stratification.
experiment: Water that is higher in salinity is
denser than water of lower salinity; the greater
the difference between the densities, the more
defined the stratification.
In this case, the variable you will change is the percentage of salt in the
water. The variable you will measure is the density of the water.
will change between the control experiment and your experiment. For
The tide is low along this
your control in this experiment you will use a jar of fresh water. At the end
Washington State beach.
of the experiment you can compare the control and the experimental
PHO TOG RA PH B Y CI NDY
results.
CLE ND ENO N.
Note: When making a solid/liquid solution,
it is standard to use weight/weight (grams/grams)
or weight/volume (grams/milliliters). With water,
1 gram of water equals 1 milliliter. In this experiment, teaspoons and tablespoons are used to
measure the solid.
Materials Needed
water
3 glass jars (mayonnaise jars work well)
777
Oceans

water.
container to hold water

salt
3 small red potatoes
measuring cup
measuring spoons
baster
blue or red food coloring
marking pen
masking tape
Timetable 15 minutes for the initial setup; about two hours waiting time.
Step 8: Dribble the water along

the inside of the jar so that it
does not mix up the solution.
GA LE G RO UP.
40% salt
778
1. Use the masking tape to label each glass jar: Control, 40%
salinity, and 20% salinity.
2. Pour 3 cups (700 milliliters) of hot water in each jar.
3. In the jar labeled 40% salinity, add 8 tablespoons of salt. Stir
vigorously.
4. In the jar labeled 20% salinity, add 4
tablespoons of salt. Stir vigorously.
5. Add several drops of food coloring to the
solution in each jar and stir.
6. Using one of the measuring spoons, carefully place a potato in each jar.
7. Allow the water to cool to room temperature. The jars should be about half full.
If necessary, pour out some of the water
at this point.
8. Fill up a container with plain water. Use
the baster to carefully add this water to
each jar until the jar is almost full. Dribble the water along the inside of the jar so
that it does not mix up the solution.
9. Set the jars aside for 15 minutes and
observe.
Oceans
Summary of Results Write down or draw the

results of the experiment. Was your hypothesis
correct? Was there a difference in the stratification between the higher salinity water and the
water of lower salinity? How does each compare
to the control experiment? What does this tell
you about the seawater where stratification
occurs that lasts for hundreds or thousands of
years? Name some reasons why stratification
might occur for a short period of time. In the
ocean both salinity and temperature affect density. As you write up your conclusions, hypothesize how changing the temperature of the salt
water would affect the results.
Problem: The water does not stratify and the
potato sinks.
Possible cause: Your tap water could have minerals in it, which would make it less dense. Try
conducting the experiment again with purified water.
Possible cause: You may not have thoroughly
mixed the salt into the water. Try the experiment again, making sure to mix until the
water is clear.
change the variables in several ways. You can

alter the temperature of the water, mimicking
the ocean conditions by using water of the same salinity and making the
bottom layer cold and the top layer warm. You could make the salt water
on the bottom warm and the fresh water cold. You can also use objects of
differing densities to observe the relative density of the water.
Modify the Experiment Bodies of water have varying levels of salinity.
You can modify this experiment by measuring how different salinity
levels affect ocean density. Collect several small, light objects, such as a
the potato you used, a rubber band, button, tiny pebble, plastic bottle
cap, small paperclip, or toothpick. If possible, collect two of each object.
Fill three jars with warm water. In one jar, make a supersaturated solution
of salt water. Stir in salt by the spoonful until the salt no longer dissolves
in the water.
Drop the items you have collected into the jar of plain water and stir.
Wait a few moments and then collect only the items that sank to the
bottom. If you have two of each item, leave them in the water jar. Now
drop these items into the jar of salt water. Collect only the items that float.
Use your third jar to measure how varying salinity levels affects
density and items in the sea. Rinse off the items that sank in fresh water
and floated in the supersaturated salt water. You should have at least two
different objects. (You may need to test several more small items around
779
Oceans

the water contents
the quantity of hot or cold water placed
in each jar
the quantity of the base water
of the water. If you change more than one
waters density.
the house until you find ones that sink in water

and float in the supersaturated salt water.) Place
the items in the third jar and wait for them to
sink. Mix into the water one tablespoon of salt at
a time, stirring well after each addition. At what
point does the salt water become denser than the
items? Make a chart of the different objects and
amount of salt you added until each item floats.
If you know the amount of water, you can determine the percentage of salt. Is it more or less than
the ocean?
EXPERIMENT 2
Currents: Water behavior
in density-driven currents
Purpose/Hypothesis One way that seawater
moves vertically is when a mass of water changes

densities. These convection or density-driven
currents occur at a slower rate than surface currents. Density-driven
currents occur when water becomes less dense and begins to rise, or
water becomes more dense and begins to sink. Either way, the moving
water pushes the water below or above it to take its place.
Density in ocean water is caused by both its salinity and temperature.
This experiment focuses on how temperature differences help form
density-driven currents. You will add liquids of different temperatures to
various temperatures of water, and observe the behavior of the water. Dyes
will allow you to observe the different temperature waters.
experiment based on your knowledge of density-driven currents. This
780
Oceans
possible hypothesis for this experiment: Colder

water is denser than warmer water and will sink,
while the relatively warmer water will rise.
the temperature of the water. The variable you
water. Either throw away the medicine or eyedropper or ask an adult to help you rinse out and
will measure is the movement of the water.
sterilize the dropper before putting it away.
variable will change between the control experiment and your experiment. For the control in this experiment, the temperature of the added
liquid will be the same as the water already in the control jar.
Materials Needed
water
3 glass jars
red and blue food coloring
2 cups for mixing
3 pieces of white paper or cardstock
tea strainer or tongs
eyedropper or medicine dropper
ice-cube tray or small plastic cup

Timetable 15 minutes for the experiment; about one hour waiting time.
1. Use the masking tape to label each jar: Control, Hot, and
Cold.
2. Add several drops of blue dye to enough water to make two small,
blue, ice cubes. Freeze.
3. When the blue water has frozen into ice, fill the Cold jar about
two-thirds full with ice-cold water.
4. Fill the Hot jar about two-thirds full with hot water. Cover the
jar to prevent the heat from escaping.
5. Fill the Control jar with room-temperature water.
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Oceans
Step 9: Use the tea strainer or

tongs to hold one of the blue ice
cubes and gently place it in the
middle of the hot water in the
Hot jar. GA LE GRO UP.
6. Fold the three pieces of paper or cardstock in half and place one in back of each
jar. This will help you observe the
experiment.
7. Let the water sit until completely still,
about a minute.
8. While the water is sitting, add a small
amount of red dye to about a quarter of
a cup of hot water in a separate mixing
cup.
9. Use the tea strainer or tongs to hold one
of the blue ice cubes and gently place it in
the middle of the Hot jar.
10. Use the eyedropper to release a small
amount of the red-colored hot water in
the middle of the cold water in the
Cold jar.
11. Note the results.
12. In the Control jar, which has room-temperature water, gently
place the second blue ice cube on the top of the water. Next, use
the dropper to place a small amount of the hot, red-colored water
deep in the water. Record the results.
13. For the control experiment, empty either the Cold jar or the
Hot jar and refill with room-temperature water (allow the
empty jar to return to room temperature before refilling). Use
the dropper to place a small amount of room-temperature blue
dye and room-temperature red dye in the water (rinse the dropper
after placing the first color). Record the results.
Summary of Results Examine the results of your experiment and draw the
movement of the water. Compare the results of the control to what you
observed in the Control jar. How does what you observed relate to
upwelling? In the ocean, both temperature and salinity affect the density
of water; thus, both have an effect on density-driven currents. From what
you have learned about seawater and density, write a paragraph on how
adding salt to the dyed waters would affect the results.
alter the content of the water by adding salt or other substances found in
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Oceans
the ocean. You can also alter where the dyed

water is placed in the jars. If a larger container
was used you can vary the temperature of part of
the water by using a heat lamp or heating the
water from underneath.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Problem: The dyed water mixes into the jars

water so quickly it is difficult to observe its
movements.

Concept The ocean is an immense subject with
Possible cause: You may have dropped or

placed too much of the cold and/or hot
water in the jar. Try the experiment again,
using a smaller blue ice cube and only one
large drop of the red water.
many possible projects that can branch from it.

You could examine the properties of oceans and
ocean life. You could also look at how oceans
impact peoples lives. With oceanographers
using incredible technological tools in their
work, the study of the oceans is another possible
topic to explore.
Check the Further Readings section and
talk with your science teacher to learn more
about oceans. You can also gather ideas from
following ocean explorers, who often show life
footage or descriptions of their expeditions on
the Internet. People who live near an ocean
could consider taking a field trip to collect
samples, look at sea life, or observe the ocean.
If you do take a field trip, make sure to discuss
your trip with an adult.
Problem: The results from the room-temperature water jar were the same as that of the
Cold jar or Hot jar.
Possible cause: The water in the jars may not
have enough temperature variation between
them. To make sure both the Control jar and
the room-temperature jar have room-temperature water, allow lukewarm water to sit
out for at least two to four hours. If you have
a thermometer, it should be approximately
7073 Fahrenheit (2123 Celsius). Make
sure the hot water is hot; 140149 Fahrenheit
(6065 Celsius).
783
Oceans

question.
charts and drawings such as the one you did for these experiments. They
Related Projects Many of the findings about oceans are relatively recent
and you can draw on this new information that oceanographers are
discovering. The ocean is filled with life, from bacteria to fish to plants.
You can explore the varied types of life and look at what lives in different
parts of the ocean. Bioluminescence is one of the many adaptations that
ocean creatures have developed. You can purchase bioluminescent organisms and observe their characteristics. Ocean plants differ from land
plants in several ways. You can purchase an ocean plant and examine its
characteristics. You could conduct a research project and study how the
oceans support life suitable to that particular environment.
You could also examine the physical properties of oceans. Waves and
tides are two basic properties of oceans. You can create a small body of
water in your bathtub or large container to examine the movements of
waves. Place an object on the wave to examine if waves carry an object.
Tides are dependent on geographic location and time of year. You can
gather data on the Internet or reference books to predict the high and low
tides of oceans around the world. Researching how scientists take the salt
out of the ocean is another possible project.

Berger, Gilda, and Melvin Berger. What Makes an Ocean Wave? New York:
Scholastic, 2001. Question and answer format about oceans and ocean
life.
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Oceans
Deep Ocean Creatures. Extreme Science. http://www.extremescience.com/

DeepestFish.htm (accessed on March 14, 2008.) Nice pictures and facts on
deep ocean creatures.
Fleisher, Paul. Our Oceans: Experiments and Activities in Marine Science.
Brookfield, CT: The Millbrook Press, 1995. Information on the physics and
chemistry of the ocean with basic experiment ideas.
Oceana. http://www.oceana.org (accessed on March 14, 2008). The Beneath
the Surface area has lots of ocean information, live pictures, and interactive
maps.
Ocean in Motion. Office of Naval Research. http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/
ocean/motion/tides1.htm (accessed on March 14, 2008). Brief explanation
and animation of the tides.
Pulley, Sayre, and April Pulley. Ocean. Brookfield, CT: The Millbrook Press,
1997. Description of the physical features, life, and use of the ocean.
Sea Dwellers. Secrets of the Ocean Realm. http://www.pbs.org/oceanrealm/
seadwellers/index.html (accessed on March 14, 2008) Pictures of life in the
ocean.
Water on the Move: The Ebbs and Flows of the Sea. Museum of Science. http://
www.mos.org/oceans/motion/tides.html (accessed on March 13, 2008).
From a museum ocean exhibit, includes real time tide data.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. Dive and Discover: Expeditions to the
Seafloor. http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu (accessed on March 14, 2008).
Follow ocean expeditions in this interactive web site.
785
Optics and Optical Illusions
o you ever wonder how your eyes allow you to see? The science of
light waves and how we see them is called optics. To understand
optics, you must first understand a little about light itself.
A prism separates the colors in

sunlight so we can see them.
What is light made of? Visible light is a series of electromagnetic

waves. These waves make up a small part of the electromagnetic
spectrum, which includes many kinds of energy waves. You may be
familiar with some of these, such as radio waves, microwaves, and
X rays. Visible light is made of waves that are about 0.000014 to
0.000027 inches (360 to 700 nanometers) long. A nanometer is onebillionth of a meter. In this range are all the colors we can see; each
color has a slightly different wavelength.
Light does all kinds of interesting things. It
can bounce off surfaces, particularly smooth
surfaces. This is called reflection. It can also
bend as it moves from one kind of material to
another, such as from air to water. (Thats why a
pencil sticking out of a glass of water looks bent.)
This is called refraction.
How do our eyes perceive light? The eye
has a lens that focuses light onto a light-sensitive
surface at the back of the eyeball, called the
retina. The retina then sends nerve impulses to
the brain, which the brain interprets as images.
The lens in your eye is made of membranes
and fluid, while the artificial lenses used in telescopes and cameras are glass or plastic. A lens
must be made of a transparent material so that it
can transmit a beam of light, forming an image.
787

the kind of lens being used
the focal length of the lens
What questions do you have about light and

how we see it? You will have an opportunity to
explore optics in the experiments that follow.
EXPERIMENT 1
Optics: What is the focal length
of a lens?

will identify the focal point of different lenses
and measure their focal lengths. When light rays
the distance from the object to lens
pass through a lens, they converge at a single
point, the focal point of the lens. The distance
are everything that might affect the point at
from the middle of the lens to the focal point is
which the light focuses. If you change more
called the focal length. Every lens has its own
which variable had the most effect on the focal
focal length.
length.
The focal length of a lens indicates where the
image will be focused and how powerful the lens
is. In general, a lens has two rounded surfaces
and its edges are fairly thin compared to its diameter. Focal length
depends on the curvature of these surfaces. A convex lens has surfaces
that curve outward, like a ball, while a concave lens has surfaces that curve
inward, like the inside of a bowl.
this experiment based on your knowledge of optics. This educated
The focal length of a lens
guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain
indicates where the image will
these things:
be focused and how powerful
the lens is. GA LE GRO UP.
the angle at which you hold the lens
relative to the light source

more convex the lens, the shorter the focal
length.
788
WORDS TO KNOW
Concave: Hollowed or rounded inward, like the
inside of a bowl.
Nanometer: A unit of length; this measurement is

equal to one-billionth of a meter.
Convex: Curved or rounded outward, like the

outside of a ball.
Optics: The study of the nature of light and its

properties.

waves (at the longest-wavelength end),
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma rays
(at the shortest-wavelength end).
Prism: A piece of transparent material with a

triangular cross-section. When light passes
through it, it causes different colors to bend
different amounts, thus separating them into a
rainbow of colors.
Electromagnetic waves: Waves of energy that are

part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Focal length: The distance of a focus from the
center of a lens or concave mirror.
Focal point: The point at which rays of light
converge or from which they diverge.
Reflection: The bouncing of light rays in a regular

pattern off the surface of an object.
Refraction: The bending of light rays as they pass
at an angle from one transparent or clear
medium into a second one of different
density.

experiment.
Retina: The light-sensitive part of the eyeball

that receives images and transmits visual
impulses through the optic nerve to the
brain.
Lens: A piece of transparent material with two curved

surfaces that bend rays of light passing through it.

experiment.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the kind of lens, and
the variable you will measure will be the focal length. You expect that
lenses which are more convex will produce shorter focal lengths.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because of the materials needed.
Materials Needed
3 or 4 different lenses, labeled for convexity and concavity (You might

borrow them from school or buy them at a science museum shop.)
large, white piece of paper or tagboard
small lamp
789
Approximate Budget $20 to purchase lenses.

Do not drop the lenses, and try not to touch the
lens surfaces with your fingers. Hands naturally
have a lot of oils on them, which will affect how
the lenses work.
Problem: You cannot see an image at all.
Possible cause: Your room is not dark enough
or your object is not bright enough. Try darkening the room more or choosing a brighter
light source.
Problem: The focal length measurements are all
alike.
Possible causes:
1. Your lenses are too similar. Check the
lens labels and make sure you have lenses
with different characteristics. Someone
at the store where you purchased them
should be able to help.
2. You are not looking closely enough at the
image to see where it is in focus. Sometimes the focus can be subtle. Look more
closely at your cards.
Timetable 2 hours.
1. Choose a room where you can dim the

lights and set up the experiment. Place
your lamp at least 3 feet (1 meter) away
from your first lens.
2. In the dim light, hold the white card on
the other side of the lens and look for the
image of your object (the lamp). If you
cannot see it, move the card closer to or
farther from the lens until you can find it.
Keep adjusting the distance of the card
until your image is focused.
3. Set up a data chart, and describe what you
see. How does the image look in comparison to the actual object? Write down any
differences you observe.
4. Measure and record the distance between
the lens and the card on which the
focused image appears. Be sure to note
which lens you were using.
5. Repeat the above steps with your other
lenses. Record your findings on your
chart.
chart. Which kind of lenses produced short focal

lengths? Which produced longer ones? Was your
hypothesis correct? Summarize what you have
found.
ment in several ways. For example, try varying

where you place the object on the other side of
the lens. Measure and record what you find. You can also try placing two
or more lenses next to each other and observe the effect on the image. Do
790
the lenses add their effects together or do they

cancel each other out? Does the image change
size or direction? Record what you find.
EXPERIMENT 2
Optical Illusions: Can the eye
be fooled?
Purpose/Hypothesis After the lenses in your eyes
focus light, your brain must make sense of the

images formed. This is not always easy. Optical
illusions occur when the brain is tricked into thinking things are not as they are. These illusions use
the way your brain processes optical information
to fool you into seeing things that are not there.
Examining how people react to optical illusions will help you understand how the eyes and
brain work. In this set of experiments, you will
explore how people perceive images. For each of
the images illustrated, write a hypothesis about
what people will see. For example, for the second
picture, you will ask ten people this question:
Which figure is larger? How do you think
people will answer?
your knowledge of how your brain perceives
images. This educated guess, or prediction, is
these things:
hypothesis for the first image in this experiment:

the image you are testing
the people you use as test subjects
the different ways the image can be seen
the lighting on the image
what you tell the test subject about the
image before he or she views
are everything that might affect how a person
perceives the image. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on the test subjects
perception.
Optical illusion #1.

G AL E GR OUP .
791
Eight out of ten people will see non-parallel

lines. Write a hypothesis for the other images.
be the person viewing the image, and the variable
you will measure will be how that person perceives the image. For the first image, you expect
that most, but not all, of the people will perceive
that the lines are not parallel.
Remember, the more people you test, the
more accurate your results will be. After you
complete these experiments, you will draw
some conclusions about how the mind perceives
visual images.
Level of Difficulty Difficult, because of the need
to gather test subjects.

Materials Needed
Optical illusion #2. G AL E
GRO UP.
images provided throughout Experiment 2

at least 10 people as test subjects
paper and pencil
a well-lighted room
Optical illusion #3. G AL E

GRO UP.
Timetable Depends on the subjects availability.

1. Find at least 10 people who are willing to

participate in your project. Explain the
task to them.
2. Photocopy the images illustrated throughout Experiment 2, enlarging them if possible. Make sure the copies are clear.
3. Prepare a question for each of the images.
4. List the images on a data sheet, number
them, and record the question you will ask
for each one. Make a column where you
792
will write each subjects answer. Make a

copy of the data sheet for each subject.
5. Conduct your interviews with one subject at a time. Carefully record their
answers on a data sheet.
Summary of Results Study your findings care-
fully. Did people have similar reactions to the

images, or were they varied? What conclusions,
if any, can you draw about the way the eyes and
the brain work together on perception? Were
any or all of your hypotheses correct?
ment in several ways. For example, locate other

optical illusions and test peoples reactions. How
does this add to what you learned about perception in the first set of
experiments? Does it change your ideas, or confirm them? Or you can try
testing a different set of people. Ask young children, older people, or
another group. Do their responses change? Can you draw any conclusions
about the way people perceive things as they get older?
Modify the Experiment You can make this experiment more difficult by
testing what reasons could influence people seeing illusions. In order to
do this, you will need to focus on only one of the images provided.
Think about some reasons why the brain may cause people to see an
illusion, and then form a hypothesis. For example, familiarity of a picture
may lead people to draw conclusions about an image that looks like the
familiar image. A person may need more time to
process certain images. If a test person were
warned beforehand that there is something odd
about an image, does the person still perceive the
illusion? If the test person were given 60 seconds
to study the image, instead of 10 seconds, what is
the result? What if a contrasting color were
placed behind the image?
After you come up with a series of possible
factors that may influence the perception of a
test person, write them down in a chart. Select
Optical illusion #4. GAL E

GRO UP .
Optical illusion #5. GA LE

GR OU P.
793

There are no hazards associated with this
experiment.
Experiments using people can be difficult. Here
are some problems that may arise during this
Problem: Subjects look at images for a long time
and say they can see it in many ways.
the one you hypothesize will play the largest role

in perception and start testing people. You will
need a lot of test subjects, because you will only
be able to test one hypothesis for each group of
ten people. For example, if you are testing how
looking at an image for a longer amount of time
will affect subjects perception, you will need to
show the image to ten subjects for a relatively
long amount of time. Compare those results
with the results from Experiment 1. Then, you
will need another set of ten subjects to test out
another hypothesis.

Concept If you are interested in optics, you
could further investigate kinds of lenses. You

could examine reflection and refraction with
mirrors or prisms, which bend light and separate
out the different wavelengths so you can see
different colors. You could study the effects of
Problem: It is difficult to draw conclusions from
polarizers, which line up different wavelengths of
the many different answers subjects gave.
light, creating interesting effects, like the polarPossible cause: Everyone perceives things a
izing filters used on cameras.
little differently. Study how your subjects
If you are interested in optical instruments,
responded, think about what you see, and try to
you can build your own camera or investigate telethink of reasons why people may see things
scopes, microscopes, and magnifying lenses. You
differently. Do you think it has to do with their
can explore illusions involving color, movement,
eyes? Their brains? Their past experience? You
and three-dimensional objects. Or you could
may decide that you cannot draw any conclusions from the data you collected. That often
explore the work of M.C. Escher, who drew pichappens in the field of science.
tures that confuse the mind.
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on optics questions that
interest you.
Possible cause: Explain clearly that you are
trying to explore the way perception works and
so you want their first reaction. Tell them not to
spend too much time analyzing what they see.
794
what question you are answering, what you are

or should be measuring, or what your findings
prove or disprove.
propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Your data should include charts, such as the ones

you did in these experiments, that are clearly
labeled and easy to read. You may also want to
include photos, graphs, or drawings of your
experimental set-up and results.
If you are preparing an exhibit for a science
fair, display any optical instruments you built or
copies of the illusions you worked with. If you have done a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research question was and
illustrate your findings.
The lens in a camera focuses

light from a subject you are
photographing onto the camera
film. U. S. GEO LO GIC AL
SUR VE Y.
Related Projects There are also other ways you can explore the topic of
optics, such as building models of optical instruments or studying their

history.
If you are interested in perception, you could explore the connections
between perception and art and research artists who have studied how the
mind perceives images. All of these ideas would lead to fascinating projects.

Ardley, Neil. Science Book of Light. Burlington, MA: Harcourt Brace, 1991.
Simple experiments demonstrating principles of light.
795
Armstrong, Tim. Make Moving Patterns: How to Make Optical Illusions of Your
Own. Jersey City, NJ: Parkwest Publications, 1993. Ideas for creating your
own series of optical illusions.
Davidson, Michael W., and The Florida State University. Science, Optics & You.
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/index.html (accessed on January 14,
2008).
Levine, Shar, Leslie Johnstone, and Jason Coons. The Optics Book: Fun
Experiments with Light, Vision & Color. New York: Sterling Publications,
1998. Informative book on light, vision, and optical instruments, with
experiments, explanations, and drawings.
Seckel, Al. Optical Illusions: The Science of Visual Perception. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 2006. Collection of optical illusions, with information on the science
of visual perception.
796
Osmosis and Diffusion
G
The smell of vanilla quickly
diffuses in all directions. K ELL Y
A . Q UIN .
as and liquid molecules are always in motion. They move randomly

in all directions and bounce around and into each other. As they
move, molecules have a tendency to spread out, moving from areas with
many molecules to areas with fewer molecules. This process of spreading
out is called diffusion.
You have probably noticed diffusion in your home. If you opened a
bottle of vanilla in your kitchen, for example, you probably could soon
smell the vanilla in all parts of the room. The vanilla spread through the
air from an area of high concentration of vanilla
molecules to areas of less concentration. They
diffused throughout the roomand perhaps
throughout the house.
Osmosis (pronounced oz-MO-sis) is a kind
of diffusion. Osmosis occurs when a substance
diffuses across a semipermeable membrane from
an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. A semipermeable membrane lets
some substances through but not others.
What are some examples of diffusion?
Diffusion takes place constantly in our bodies
and is vital to cell functioning. Cell walls are
selectively permeable, meaning that certain substances can pass through them, but others cannot. Diffusion allows certain materials to move
into and out of cell walls, from a higher concentration to a lower concentration.
For example, oxygen diffuses from the air
sacs in your lungs into your blood capillaries
because the concentration of oxygen is higher
in the air sacs and lower in the capillary blood.
797
Oxygen enters blood cells by

diffusing from areas of high
concentration to areas of low
concentration. PH OTO
Different kinds of membranes allow differing amounts of diffusion to occur. Think about
a helium balloon. It starts out full of helium and
floats upwards, but over a period of a day or two
it loses helium until it is no longer lighter than
air and cannot float any more. Why does this
happen? The balloon allows the helium atoms to
pass through it into the atmosphere. Helium
atoms slowly diffuse from an area of high concentration (inside the balloon) to an area of
lesser concentration (the great outdoors).
How does osmosis work? When materials
move into and out of a cell at equal rates, the cell
is said to be balanced, or in dynamic equilibrium. An isotonic solution has a concentration
of materials the same as that inside a cell. If a cell
is placed in an isotonic solution, molecules will
still move into and out of the cell, but the cell
will be in dynamic equilibrium. If a substance is
in lower concentration outside a cell than inside
the cell, the substance will leave the cell through
osmosis. Likewise, the substance will move into
the cell if the situation is reversed.
A hypotonic solution, where the concentration of substances is lower than that in the cell,
draws substances out of the cell. What do you think will happen if the cell
is in a hypertonic solution, where the concentration of materials in the
solution is higher than that inside the cell?
We see examples of osmosis and diffusion all around us. When you
add water to a wilted plant, for example, it soon stands up straight. You
have just seen osmosis in action! Do you have questions of your own
about osmosis? You will have an opportunity to explore osmosis and
diffusion in the following experiments.
EXPERIMENT 1
Measuring Membranes: Is a plastic bag a
semipermeable membrane?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will find out how a thin
plastic bag functions as a membrane. If it is semipermeable, it will allow

798
WORDS TO KNOW
Concentration: The amount of a substance
present in a given volume, such as the number
of molecules in a liter.
Hypotonic solution: A solution with a lower concentration of materials than a cell immersed in the
solution.

the experiment but is not affected by the variable that will be changed during the experiment.
Isotonic solutions: Two solutions that have the

same concentration of solute particles and
therefore the same osmotic pressure.
Diffusion: Random movement of molecules that

leads to a net movement of molecules from a
region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.

Dynamic equilibrium: A situation in which substances are moving into and out of cell walls at
an equal rate.
Hypertonic solution: A solution with a higher
concentration of materials than a cell immersed
in the solution.
experiment.

dissolved in liquids across a semipermeable
membrane from an area of its greater concentration to an area of its lesser concentration until
all substances involved reach a balance.
Semipermeable membrane: A thin barrier between
two solutions that permits only certain components
of the solutions, usually the solvent, to pass through.
experiment.
some kinds of molecules to pass through but not others. For example, the
plastic might allow small molecules to pass through, but not larger ones.
You will test two solutionsiodine and starch, each with a different size
moleculeto see what happens. Before you
begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your knowledge of osmosis. This educated guess, or
A helium balloon is a
semipermeable membrane.
PHO TO R ES EAR CH ERS IN C.

799

the kind of solution
the kind of membrane
the thickness of the membrane
the temperature of the solutions
the color of the solutions
the volume of the solution inside the bag
and in the measuring cup
are everything that might affect whether a solution passes through a membrane. If you change
passage of the solution through the membrane.
Step 3: Water baggie in the

measuring cup. GAL E GR OU P.

hypothesis for this experiment: Iodine will cross
through the plastic membrane, while starch will
not.
be the solutions. The variable you will measure
will be changes in the solutions in the bag and in
the measuring cup that holds the bag. You expect
the iodine solution to pass through the plastic
baggie, while the starch solution will not.
you isolate one variable. Only one variable will
set-up, and that is the solution in the plastic bag.
For the control, you will use a bag of water. For
your experiment, you will use a bag of starch
solution. You will put both bags into iodine
solutions in measuring cups.
After you allow the solutions time to diffuse
through the bag, you will observe the color and the
volume of water in both the plastic bags and the
measuring cups. A color change may occur
because when iodine comes into contact with
starch, the starch solution turns bluish-black. If
the starch solution in the bag turns bluish-black,
you will know that iodine solution in the measuring cup has crossed through the plastic membrane
and entered the bag. If the blue iodine solution in
the measuring cup turns black, you will know that
starch has crossed through the membrane into the
cup. If the solution in the bag turns black, but the
cup solution does not, you know your hypothesis
is correct: iodine crossed through the plastic membrane, but the starch did not.
800
Materials Needed
2 quart-size (1-liter size) measuring cups

a smaller measuring cup or graduated
cylinder
small sealable plastic bags
cornstarch
water
iodine with dropper
masking tape
measuring spoons and cups
goggles

Wash your hands before, during, and after the
experiment, so you do not transfer the starch or
iodine on your hands. Wear goggles so you do
not get the iodine in your eyes. Be careful with
all glassware.
Approximate Budget Less than $10. (Most of these materials should be

available in the average household.)
Timetable 2 days, leaving experiments overnight.
1. Prepare your solutions. Add 1 tablespoon (15 milliliters) of cornstarch for each cup of water to make the starch solution. Add 10
drops of iodine for each cup of water to make the iodine solution.
You will probably need a total of 10 to 12 cups of each solution.
2. For your control, fill one baggie with water. Seal it tightly to
prevent leakage. Place 2 to 3 cups iodine solution in one large
measuring cup. Record the exact amount of solution in the cup,
using the measuring lines on the side of the cup.
Steps 7 and 8: Control and

Experiment measuring cups.
GA LE G RO UP.
801
Experiments do not always work out as planned.
Even so, figuring out what went wrong can be a
learning experience. Here are some problems that
may arise during this experiment, some possible
Problem: The iodine solution changed color
right away.
Possible cause: Starch solution leaked out or
was on the outside of the bag. Seal your bag
tighter and wash the outside carefully.
Problem: There was no change in color.
Possible cause: Those plastic baggies are not
permeable to either solution. Try a thinner
baggie or a different brand.
Problem: There is no change in volume.
Possible cause: The solutions are not strong
enough. Try adding more cornstarch or iodine
to your solutions.
3. Fill another measuring cup with 2 cups

(500 milliliters) of plain water. Place the
water baggie in this cup and record how
much the water level rises. The difference
in the water level is the volume of the
water in your baggie.
4. Place the water baggie in the cup of iodine
solution you prepared. Label the cup control with masking tape and set it aside.
5. Fill another baggie with starch solution
and seal it. Measure and record its volume, as in Step 3. Carefully rinse the
outside of the bag with water to wash off
any starch solution.
6. Place 2 cups (500 milliliters) of iodine
solution in another large measuring cup.
Record the exact volume.
7. Lower the bag of starch solution into
the iodine solution. Label this cup
experiment.
8. Let the control and experimental cups sit
overnight.
9. The next day, check the solutions in the
bags and in the cups. What colors are
they? Measure and record the volume of
water in the cups and the bags.

802
chart. Did the color of the solutions change?

Remember that if the starch solution in the
bag turned black, iodine entered through the plastic membrane. If the iodine solution in the cup
turned black, starch must have leaked out of the
bag. If the volume of solution in the bag increased,
you know that molecules were entering the bag,
but few were leaving. Was your hypothesis correct?
What have you discovered? What happened in the
control cup?
Change the Variables You can change thevariables
and repeat this experiment. For example, try adding

more iodine and cornstarch to create stronger solutions. See how that affects the change in volume
and/or the rate of osmosis. (Or try using weaker
solutions.) You can also try using different varieties
of plastic bags or different materials altogether. See
which ones allow certain solutions through and how
quickly.
EXPERIMENT 2

type of solution in balloon
thickness of balloon
amount of water in the bucket and the
balloon
of water across the membrane. If you change
movement across the membrane.
Step 2: Funneling fresh water

into a balloon. GAL E GR OU P.
Changing Concentrations: Will a bag

of salt water draw in fresh water?
will see osmosis in action. You will place a
balloon filled with salt water into a bucket of
fresh water and watch what happens. Before
knowledge of osmosis. This educated guess, or

803

hypothesis for this experiment: A balloon filled
with salt water will expand when placed in fresh
water.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the kind of water you
put in the balloon and the variable you will measure will be how much
water enters the balloon as reflected by changes in the volume of the
balloon. You expect the balloon filled with salt water will absorb fresh
water and expand.
Only one variable will change between the control experiment and
the experimental balloon, and that is the kind of solution inside the
balloon. For the control, you will use fresh water. For your experimental
balloons, you will use two different concentrations of salt water. You will
measure how much water is in the balloons after they soak in fresh water.
If the experimental balloons gain water when they have salt water in them,
and the control balloon does not, then your hypothesis will be supported.
Materials Needed
salt
at least three thin balloons or sealable baggies
3 buckets or other large containers
Steps 2 to 5: Balloons in labeled

buckets. GAL E GR OU P.
804
funnel
measuring cup
measuring spoons
2 bowls
stirrer
Approximate Budget $3 for balloons.

Timetable 1 hour to set up the experiment; 1 day to view the results.
1. Measure 12 cups (6 pints or 2.8 liters) of water into each bucket.

2. Use the funnel to pour 1 cup (.5 liter) of fresh water into a
balloon. Tie the balloon tightly and place it in a bucket labeled
control.
3. Use the bowls to prepare two salt solutions with different concentrations. For Solution 1, add 3 teaspoons of salt to 2 cups of water.
For Solution 2, add 9 teaspoons of salt to another 2 cups of water.
Stir both solutions until the salt dissolves.
4. Use the funnel to pour one cup of Solution 1 into one balloon and
tie it tightly. Rinse the funnel. Then use the funnel to pour one
cup of Solution 2 into another balloon and tie it tightly.
5. Place each balloon into its own bucket, labeled Solution 1 and
Solution 2.
6. Leave all three buckets overnight.

805
Problem: No volume change occurred at all.
Possible causes:
1. You have used a very thick balloon that is
not permeable. Try a different kind of
balloon or baggie.
2. Your solutions were not well mixed. Try
adding more salt and stirring longer.
Problem: One or more of the balloons
exploded.
7. The next day, examine all three balloons.

Measure the change in volume by placing
each one in a large (1000-milliliter) measuring cup filled with 2 cups (500 milliliters) of water. Record how high the
water rises. The difference is the volume
in the balloon.
chart. Compare the change in volume for each
balloon to any change in your control. The more
volume the balloons gained, the greater amount
of osmosis occurred. What did you find? Was
your hypothesis correct? Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your findings.

can vary this experiment. For example, try other
salt concentrations. Add more salt or less. Or try
sugar or starch solutions and see what effect those
have on amount of osmosis that occurs. You can
also experiment with different membranes, such
as thicker or thinner balloons or baggies or balloons made of Mylar. See what kind of effect these have on osmosis.
Finally, you can see how long osmosis takes under the different conditions
you are testing.
Possible cause: The balloon membrane is very

thin and too much water entered. Try using
weaker salt solutions or not leaving the balloon
in the water for as long.
EXPERIMENT 3
Changing Sizes: What effect does molecule size have
on osmosis
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will see how molecules of
certain sizes can move through a membrane through osmosis. A semipermeable membrane allows smaller molecules, such as water, to move
through the membrane. Larger molecules, such as sugar, that are too large
to move through the membrane cannot pass. The membrane you will use
will be the membrane of an egg. The solutions you will use will be water
and corn syrup, which contains sugar.
You will first need to dissolve the shell to expose the membrane. The
acid in vinegar will dissolve the eggshell. Vinegar contains about 5 percent
806
acid. In order to speed up the experiment, you

can strengthen the concentration of the acid
by boiling off some of the water. Then you will
observe osmosis with the egg membrane in disVariables are anything that might affect the
tilled water and another egg membrane in corn
syrup.
the type of solution
the temperature of the solution
your knowledge of osmosis. This educated guess,
the type of egg
of the solution through the egg membrane. If
effect on the movement of the solution across
the membrane. In this experiment, you will
compare the two eggs against one another.
hypothesis for this experiment: The smaller the molecular size the more
readily the solution will move through the membrane and the more the
egg will weigh.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the size of the
molecules that surround the egg membrane. The variable you will measure will be the weight of the egg, both before and after the egg is immersed
in the water and corn syrup.
Materials Needed
corn syrup
white vinegar
2 glass containers, just large enough to fit
an egg
2 large slotted spoons
2 eggs
distilled water
pot
stove or hot plate

Have an adult help you simmer the vinegar, and
be careful when handling any hot solutions.
Wash your hands after handling the egg or
vinegar.
807
measuring cup
gram scale
Timetable 30 minutes to set up the experiment;
three to five days to complete.
Step 2: Pour the concentrated

vinegar over the egg.
NE LS ON.
Steps 4 and 9: Weigh the eggs

on a gram scale and note their
weight. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
1. Simmer 4 cups of vinegar on a hot pot or

stove until the vinegar boils down to 1
cup. Cool completely.
2. Place each egg in a small glass jar. Pour
enough of the concentrated vinegar over
each egg until the egg is completely covered. Set aside.
3. After two days, the shell should be dissolved completely. If its not,
set aside for another day. Using a slotted spoon, carefully scoop
out the egg. Rinse each egg under running water until it is clean.
4. Weigh the egg on a gram scale and note its weight.
5. Rinse and wipe dry the two glass jars. Label one jar Distilled Water.
Label the second jar Corn Syrup.
6. Place one shelled egg in each of the glass
jars.
7. In the jar labeled Distilled Water,
immerse the egg with distilled water. In
the jar labeled Corn Syrup, immerse
the egg with corn syrup. Set aside.
8. After one day, look at the eggs and note
the description.
9. Using a slotted spoon, carefully scoop out
each egg and weigh. Note the weight of
each egg.
Summary of Results Compare the appearance
and weight of the eggs. Did both the corn

syrup and distilled water move through the
membrane? How did the size of the molecules
in the water and corn syrup play a role in
808
osmosis? Was your hypothesis correct? Write a

paragraph summarizing and explaining your
findings.
can vary this experiment. For example, try other

sugary liquids, such as different types of maple
syrup or sugar water. You can also try various
types of eggs, to test if the membranes are different. You can change the temperature also, repeating the experiment in a cold or warn water bath.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Problem: The egg shell is not dissolving.
Possible causes: There may not be enough acid
in the vinegar or you did not wait long enough
for the eggshell to dissolve. Try immersing the
egg in vinegar again and waiting slightly longer.
Problem: The solution did not move into or out
of the membrane.
Possible cause: The membrane was too dirty
with the shell remains. Repeat the experiment,
rinsing off the egg thoroughly with warm water
until the egg is completely smooth to the touch.
If you are interested in osmosis and diffusion, you

might study their effects on living organisms or the
effects of different solutions on plants or on simple
one-celled organisms, such as a paramecium.
Are you interested in rates of diffusion? Try
timing how long different solutions take to diffuse throughout water.
Or create solutions using different-size molecules and higher and lower
concentrations. You might separate solutions and then watch what
diffuses through membranes.
osmosis questions that interest you.
Step 7: In the jar labeled

Distilled Water, immerse the
egg with distilled water. In the
jar labeled Corn Syrup,
immerse the egg with corn
syrup. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .

things through. Otherwise you might not be sure
what question you are answering, what you are
or should be measuring, or what your findings
prove or disprove.
distille d water
corn syrup

propose to do.
809
your question.
charts, such as the ones you did in these experiments. All charts should be
graphs, or drawings of your experimental set-up and results.
If you are preparing an exhibit for a science fair, display your results,
such as any experimental set-ups you built. If you have done a
nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research question
was and illustrate your findings.
ments, involving trials and charts of data to summarize your results. You
could also prepare a model that demonstrates a point you are interested in
with regard to osmosis or diffusion. Or you could investigate the effects of
osmosis in a certain environment. There are many options.

Gardner, Robert. Experimenting with Water. New York: Franklin Watts, 1993.
Fascinating experiments that explore the strange properties of water.
Vancleave, Janice Pratt. Janice Vancleaves Biology for Every Kid: One Hundred
One Easy Experiments That Really Work. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1989. Basic principles of biology of plants and animals through informative
text and experiments.
810
Oxidation-Reduction
o you know what rusting metal, photographic processes, battery

operation, and clothes bleaching have in common? They are all
examples of an important and common kind of chemical reaction called
an oxidation-reduction reaction. This kind of reaction involves the transfer of electrons, which are tiny particles in atoms. During oxidation, a
substances atoms lose electrons. During reduction, a substances atoms
gain electrons.
Rust destroys millions of dollars

in property every year. PH OTO
R ES EA RCH ER S IN C.
What actually happens during oxidation? To understand oxidation, it is important to understand how atoms work. All atoms have three
kinds of tiny particleselectrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons have
negative electrical charges, while protons have positive charges. Neutrons
are neutralneither positive nor negative. The sum of the electrical
charges in each atom are balanced, so atoms is electrically neutral.
The oxidation state of an atom is the sum of its positive and negative
charges, and the oxidation state of any atom is zero. Oxidation reactions
involve a change in the oxidation state of the atoms involved, caused by a
loss or gain of electrons.
During oxidation, an atom loses electrons
and becomes a positively charged ion. (An ion is
an atom or a group of atoms that carries an
electrical charge, either positive or negative.)
Metal atoms tend to undergo oxidation easily.
In an oxidation reaction, the metal loses one,
two, or three electrons and becomes positively
charged. The other substance, a nonmetal, gains
electrons, becoming a negatively charged ion.
The nonmetal is thus reduced. Remember that
oxidation cannot occur without a corresponding
reduction reaction.
811
Oxidation-Reduction
WORDS TO KNOW
Control Experiment: A set-up that is identical to the
Corrosion: An oxidation-reduction reaction in which a
metal is oxidized (reacted with oxygen) and oxygen
is reduced, usually in the presence of moisture.
Electron: A subatomic particle with a mass of about
one atomic mass unit and a single negative electrical charge that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
can be tested by observation and/or experiment
Ion: An atom or groups of atoms that carries an
electrical chargeeither positive or negativeas
a result of losing or gaining one or more electrons.
Neutron: A subatomic particle with a mass of about
one atomic mass unit and no electrical charge
that is found in the nucleus of an atom.
Oxidation: A chemical reaction in which

oxygen reacts with some other substance
and in which ions, atoms, or molecules lose
electrons.
Oxidation-reduction reaction: A chemical reaction in which one substance loses one or more
electrons and the other substance gains one or
more electrons.
Oxidation state: The sum of an atoms positive
and negative charges.
Oxidizing agent: A chemical substance that gives
up oxygen or takes on electrons from another
substance.
Proton: A subatomic particle with a mass of about
one atomic mass unit and a single positive
electrical charge that is found in the nucleus of
an atom.
Reduction: A process in which a chemical substance gives off oxygen or takes on electrons.
Variable: Something that may affect the results of
an experiment.
What are some examples of oxidation? One common example of

an oxidation reaction is the one that occurs between sodium, a soft
metal, and chlorine, a gas. When these elements exchange one electron,
a violent reaction occurs, and a new substance, sodium chloride, is
formed. We know it as the hard, white substance often found on the
kitchen table: salt.
Here is what happens: both sodium (Na) and chlorine gas (Cl2) are
electrically neutral. When they combine, sodium undergoes oxidation,
loses an electron, and becomes positively charged. Chlorine undergoes
reduction and becomes negatively charged. Because atoms do not like
to be charged, the sodium and the chlorine are attracted to their opposite
charges and combine to create salt.
812
Oxidation-Reduction
Oxidation reactions play an important role

in many processes of modern life; the results are
all around us. One of the most common places
you see the results of oxidation is in the process
of corrosion, particularly involving iron and
steel. Iron oxide flakes off in what we call rust.
An oxidizing agent is anything that causes
another substance to lose electrons. Bleaches are
one example. Bleaches remove electrons that are
activated by light to produce colors.
What kind of questions do you have about
oxidation-reduction? Youll have an opportunity
to explore oxidation in the following experiments
and think about designing your own experiments
on this important and far-reaching topic.
EXPERIMENT 1

the kind of solution being used
the cleanliness of the pennies prior to the
experiment
the time allowed for the pennies and nails
to soak in the solution
the color of the pennies and the nails
after they have soaked in the solution
In order to test your hypothesis, you can change
only one variable at a time. If you change more
than one, you will not be able to tell which
factor caused a change in the outcome of your
experiment.
Reduction: How will acid

affect dirty pennies?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will find out how an acid
leads to a reducing reaction, and you will explore the movement of atoms
during the reaction. Acids are important reducing agents, involved in
many common chemical reactions in our daily lives.
Pennies are coated with copper oxide (CuO), which forms when
copper combines with oxygen from the air. Pennies look dirty when they
are coated copper oxide. In this experiment, you will immerse pennies
into a mixture of vinegar or lemon juice and saltwhich dissolves copper
oxide. (Vinegar and lemon juice are weak acids; the salt helps the
reaction.) When you put the dirty pennies into the solution, the copper
oxide and copper will dissolve into the water. Some of the copper atoms
will leave their electrons behind and float in the water as positively
charged copper ions, missing two electrons. They have been reduced.
When you put steel nails into the same solution, the salt and vinegar
dissolve some of the iron from the nails. When the iron atoms leave, they
also leave electrons behind just as the copper did. Now you will have
positively charged iron ions floating around in the solution with the
positively charged copper ions. Since the nails will now have extra
electrons left on them from the iron atoms that dissolved into the
813
Oxidation-Reduction
solution, the nails are negatively charged. What

happens when there are positive and negative
charges near each other? They attract! What do
you think will happen to the copper ions as they
Wash your hands before and after handling the
get near the negatively charged nails?
dirty pennies and other materials. Wear goggles
and rubber gloves to avoid eye and skin contact
Do you have an educated guess about what
with the acid solutions. Be careful in handling
will happen to the pennies and the nails in the
the nails to avoid cuts or punctures.
acidic solution? That educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should
experiment: An acidic solution will cause the pennies to become clean
and copper to coat the nails.
Variables are anything that can be changed in an experiment. In this
case, the variable you will change will be the acid in your solution, and the
variable you will measure will be the color (a measure of cleanliness) of the
pennies and the color of the nails after they have soaked in the solution.
bowls, and that variable is the kind of solution you use to immerse the
pennies and nails. For the control, you will use plain water. For your
experimental bowls, you will use lemon juice and vinegar.
Steps 1 to 5: Bowl set-up with

pennies. GAL E GR OU P.
814
Oxidation-Reduction
Step 3: Data sheet for

You will record the color of the pennies and the nails both before and
after you immerse them in the solutions. If the pennies become cleaner and
brighter, and the nails become copper-colored, your hypothesis is supported.
Level of difficulty Moderate.
Materials Needed
45 equally dirty pennies

cup lemon juice
cup white vinegar
cup water
2 teaspoons salt
3 glass or ceramic bowls
6 clean steel nails (not galvanized nails)
paper towels
goggles
rubber gloves
Step 9: Place a nail in each

bowl. Lean a second nail
against the side of the bowl so
only about half of it is in the
solution. G AL E GR OUP .
Approximate Budget Up to $5. (Try to borrow
the goggles from your school.)

Timetable 2 hours.
1. Put water in one bowl, lemon juice in

another, and vinegar in a third. Label
815
Oxidation-Reduction
during the experiment, possible causes, and
2.
3.
Problem: The pennies did not change color in

any of the solutions.
4.
Possible causes:
1. Your pennies were not dirty enough. Find
dirtier pennies and repeat the
experiment.
2. Your solutions are not acidic enough.
Check the expiration dates on your bottles of vinegar and lemon juice, and
replace them, if necessary.
5.
6.
Problem: The nails did not pick up any copper

at all.
7.
Possible causes:
1. Make sure your nails are steel and clean.
Impurities can affect the oxidation
reaction.
2. You may not have left them in solution
long enough, or if the pennies did not
have much copper oxide on them, little
copper will be in solution. Run the
experiment again with dirtier pennies
and leave the nails for a longer time.
8.
9.
10.
11.
each bowl if you need help telling them

apart.
Add 1 teaspoon salt to the vinegar solution and to the lemon juice, and stir until
it dissolves.
Examine the color of the pennies carefully. Describe the color on your data
sheet, illustrated.
Place one penny in each bowl. Describe
what happens on your data sheet.
Place 14 more pennies in each bowl.
Watch what happens to them.
After five minutes, remove the pennies
from one bowl. Rinse them thoroughly
under running water and place them on a
paper towel to dry. Write the kind of
solution they were soaking in on the
paper towel.
Repeat Step 6 with the pennies from the
other two bowls.
Examine the nails carefully and describe
their color on your data sheet.
Place a nail in each bowl. Lean a second
nail against the side of the bowl so only
about half of it is in the solution.
After 10 minutes, examine the nails. Record
the colors on your data sheet.
Leave the nails for an hour and then
examine them again.
Summary of Results Study the results on your chart. What have you
discovered? What color changes took place? Why? Was your hypothesis correct? Write a paragraph to summarize and explain your
findings.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment. Here are some
possibilities:
Try different solutions to see how they affect the oxidation/reduction reaction, such as baking soda, bleach, or tomato juice. Or try
816
Oxidation-Reduction
diluting the solutions with water to vary

the ratio of water to acid. Be sure to record
how much of each you use. Again, be
careful in handling these liquids. Wear
goggles and gloves and work in a ventilated area, especially when using bleach.
Vary the time you leave the pennies and
nails in the solution. What happens?

in this experiment:
the amount of water in jars
the amount of air in each jar
the material used in water
EXPERIMENT 2
Oxidation and Rust: How
is rust produced?
Purpose/Hypothesis One of the most common
the type of steel wool

the type of candles
the time the candles burn after the steel
wool is removed
oxidation reactions is the production of rust,

only one variable at a time. If you change more than
one, you will not be able to tell which factor caused
otherwise known as corrosion. Iron readily coma change in the outcome of your experiment.
bines with water and oxygen to form rust.
In this experiment, you will explore the
process of iron oxidation, which produces rust.
You will see the result of the depletion of oxygen as this element is
removed from the air to combine with iron.
Do you have an educated guess about how water will affect a piece of
steel wool? What might happen to a candle burning in the same container
as the steel wool? That educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.


hypothesis for this experiment: Wet steel wool
will oxidize to form rust when left for several
days. This process removes oxygen from the air,
so a candle placed in the same space will burn for
a shorter amount of time.

Be careful handling glass jars to avoid breakage.
As with all fire, be extremely careful handling
matches. You are strongly urged to have an
adult help you light the candles. Have water or a
fire extinguisher close by in case of an accident.
817
Oxidation-Reduction
Step 1: Set-up of wet and

dry jars. GA LE GRO UP.
Steps 3 and 4: Dropping lit

candle into experimental jar.
GA LE GRO UP.

be whether the steel wool is exposed to water.
The variable you will measure will be the
amount of rust on the steel wool and the length
of time the candle burns.
change between the control and the experimental jar, and that is whether the steel wool is
exposed to moisture. For the control, you will
use dry steel wool. For your experimental jar,
you will use damp steel wool.
You will measure how much oxidation or rust occurs and how long
the candles burn. If the control shows no rust while your experimental jar
shows some, AND the candle burns for a shorter amount of time in the
experimental jar, your hypothesis is supported.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate; ask an adult
to help you light the candles.

Materials Needed
2 equal-sized pieces of steel wool (Do not

use scouring pads that contain soap.)
2 identical glass jars with metal lids
water
2 small birthday candles
matches
a small amount of modeling clay
stopwatch

GAL E GR OU P.
818
Oxidation-Reduction
Approximate Budget $5 to $7 if you need to

purchase steel wool, modeling clay and/or candles.
Timetable 3 days.
1. Wet one piece of steel wool and place it in

one of the jars. In the other jar, place a dry
piece of steel wool. Label each jar carefully.
2. Close both lids tightly and place the jars
in a cool, dark place for three days.
3. Have an adult light one of the candles.
4. Open the experimental jar and have the
adult drop in the candle. Quickly close
the jar again.
5. Use the stopwatch to time how long the
candle burns. Record the time on a chart
like the one illustrated.
6. Repeat Steps 3 to 5, having your adult
helper drop the other lighted candle in
the control jar.
7. After both candles have burned, remove
the steel wool from both jars and record
what you find.
during this experiment, possible causes, and
Problem: No rust showed on the either piece of
steel wool.
Possible causes:
1. You did not put enough water on the
experimental steel wool. Try wetting it
more, or putting a small amount of water
in the base of the jar before leaving it.
2. You did not leave the jars long enough. Try
leaving both jars for several more days.
Problem: The candles burned the same length
of time.
Possible cause: You let in too much outside air
when you opened the jars. Open and close the
jars as quickly as possible so little outside air will
have an opportunity to mix with the air in the jars.
Summary of Results Study your results, comparing the amounts of rust
on each piece of steel wool and the times the two candles burned. The
more rust you observe, the more oxidation occurred. The shorter time the
candles burned, the less oxygen was present in the jars, showing that more
oxidation occurred. What did you discover? Was your hypothesis supported? Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your results.
possibilities:
Try using other kinds of metal, such as screws and nails, tinfoil, painted
steel wool, or even different brands of steel wool, to see what oxidizes
more readily. See if you can isolate factors that cause more rust than
others, such as the amount of exposed surface area or the shape, size, or
color of the metal.
819
Oxidation-Reduction

See what happens when you leave the

experimental set-up for several more days.
How much more rust do you find? Can
you make any additional predictions about
the effect of oxidation on other objects?
the type of acid being used
EXPERIMENT 3
the cleanliness of the copper
Oxidation Reaction: Can

acid change the color of
copper?
exposure to the atmosphere

the concentration of acid being used
only one variable at a time. If you change more
than one, you will not be able to tell which
factor caused a change in the outcome of your
experiment.

will examine how an acid can form a bluegreen solid in an oxidation/reduction reaction
with copper. The acid you will use is vinegar,
which is about 5% acetic acid.
When acetic acid is added to copper (Cu),
the copper loses two electrons. The acetic acid
gains two electrons. The metal copper gets oxidized and the acetic acid
gets reduced. The result is copper acetate, which is a blue-green solid.
Copper acetate dissolves in acid but not in water.
You will use a sheet or coil of copper and add acetic acid. In order to
speed up the reaction, you will need to make the acid stronger than 5%.
The more acetic the vinegar, the faster the reaction occurs. You will use
two different concentrations of vinegar so that you can compare the
reaction speed. You can do this by carefully heating the vinegar and
boiling off some of the water. (The water boiling point is lower than
Steps 18: Label the three

jars appropriately, placing
the copper item in the jar and
filling with liquid.
control
25% acetic aci d
50% ac
etic acid

NEL SO N.
820
Oxidation-Reduction
the acetic acid boiling point, and so water will

boil of first.) The reaction also needs air and
time.
Make an educated guess about what will happen to the copper when it is bathed in acidic acid?
That educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:

Be extremely careful when heating the vinegar
and ask for an adult to help. Do not touch the
vinegar.


experiment: Acetic acid will cause the copper to turn blue-green.
Variables are anything that can be changed in an experiment. In this
case, the variable you will change will be the acid in your reaction, and the
variable you will measure will be the color (a measure of cleanliness) of the
copper and the solid that is formed from the reaction.
copper reaction. The variable you will change is the acid used to immerse
the copper. For the control, you will use distilled
water.
You will record the color of the copper
before the experiment and the solid that forms
on top of the copper.
Step 11: After approximately a

week, the surface of the copper
item will have changed.
NEL SO N.

Materials Needed
3 copper items that are the same, such as

wires or thin sheets (available at hardware
or craft stores)
white vinegar
hot pot or stove
3 wide mouth small jars, such as baby jars
potholder
821
Oxidation-Reduction
Problem: The copper did not change.
measuring cups
bowl
distilled water
plastic knife
wax paper or paper plate
Possible causes:
You did not allow enough time for the change
to occur, or the copper was not exposed to
enough air. Try placing the copper in a widermouth jar and letting it sit for more time.
Timetable 2 hours to set up the experiment; 2
days to a week to see results.

1. Label the three jars: control. 25% acetic

acid. 50% acetic acid..
Possible cause:
2. Place the copper item in each jar.
You may not have been using pure copper. Pur3. Pour 1 cup of vinegar into the pot and
chase more copper and ask if it is 100%copper
simmer until the vinegar boils down to
before trying the experiment again.
cup. You will probably have to pour it
into the measuring cup and back into the
pot until it is at cup. Remember to use
a potholder.
4. Using a potholder, pour the acetic acid into a bowl to cool.
5. Pour another 1 cup of vinegar into the pot and simmer.
6. When the vinegar boils to cup, allow it to cool.
Step 12: Using a plastic knife,
7. Pour enough of the cup of vinegar into the jar labeled 25%
gently scrape the blue-green solid
acetic acid. until the solution just covers the copper. Pour the
off the copper onto wax paper or
a paper plate. I LLU STR AT IO N
cup acetic acid solution into the jar labeled 50% acetic acid.
until it just covers the copper.
8. In the control jar, cover the copper with
distilled water.
9. Set the jars aside. Do not cover. The vinegar will evaporate over time.
10. After two days, examine all three jars. Note
any changes to the surface of the copper.
11. Every day continue to examine all three jars.
After approximately a week, if the surface of
the copper has changed, carefully pour the
acetic acid of each jar down the sink. Wait
Problem: The copper only darkened.
822
Oxidation-Reduction
another day until the solution has all

evaporated.
12. Using a plastic knife, gently scrape the
blue-green solid off the copper onto wax
paper or a paper plate. If you have a magnifying glass you can take a closer look at
the newly-formed solid.
Summary of Results Describe the blue-green
copper acetate that has formed. Study the results

on your chart. Compare the change in the copper
immersed in distilled water to the copper items in
the acetic acid. Did one reaction occur faster than
the other two? Did the copper turn blue-green or
did the copper change into another solid? Was
your hypothesis correct? Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your findings.
Change the Variables There are several ways
that you can vary this experiment. For example,
you can try other acetic acid concentrations. You
can test lower and higher concentrations (carefully and with adult help). You can also experiment with different metals or copper alloys. A
copper alloy is copper blended with other metals, such as bronze, zinc or
lead.
You can see rust on metal fences

all over the world. PE TER
ARN OL D IN C.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Oxidation-reduction
reactions take place all around you every day. Are you interested in
corrosion of metals? Try experimenting with different kinds of metals
to see which ones corrode faster and what happens to them when they
corrode. Or investigate bleaching action, involving electrons activated by
light. Another reaction involving light is that of photo-chromic glass,
which causes eyeglasses to darken in direct sunlight because of photooxidation.
Perhaps you are interested in how batteries work. Most of them
involve oxidation-reduction reactions with various compounds such
as ammonium chloride, silver oxide, mercury, or nickel/cadmium. If
823
Oxidation-Reduction
you experiment with batteries, use extreme

caution because they contain potentially toxic
compounds.
Oxidation-reduction reactions are involved
in photosynthesis, metabolism, nitrogen fixation,
fuel combustion, and many other things. The
possibilities for investigation are endless. Think
about your interests and check the Further Readings section. Talk with your teachers or librarians
about how you can get further information on
the topics that interest you.
Batteries work by an oxidation/
reduction reaction. PH OT O
plan carefully and think things through before you do it. Otherwise you
might not be sure what question you are answering, what you are or
should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
your question.
such as rusted metals or bleached fabrics clearly labeled as to what you did
with them. These materials will make your exhibit more interesting for
viewers. If you have done a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what
your research question was and illustrate your findings.
ments, involving trials and charts of data to summarize results. You could
also prepare a model that demonstrates the point that interest you with
824
Oxidation-Reduction
regard to oxidation-reduction and its effects in everyday life. Or you could

do a research project investigating how oxidation-reduction is involved in
acid rain or other environmental problems. You could explore the history of
scientists who have studied oxidation-reduction and the kinds of experiments that led them to discoveries. The possibilities are numerous.

Burns, George, and Nancy Woodman. Exploring the World of Chemistry.
Danbury, CT: Franklin Watts, 1995. Outlines several experiments in
oxidation.
Fitzgerald, Karen. The Story of Oxygen. Danbury, CT: Franklin Watts, 1996.
Explores the history, chemistry, and uses of oxygen.
Gutnik, Martin. Experiments that Explore Acid Rain. Millbrook Press, 1992.
Investigates how oxidation reactions affect acid rain, among other experiments.
Mebane, Robert, Thomas Rybolt, and Ronald Perkins. Adventures with
Molecules: Chemistry Experiments for Young People. Enslow Publishers, 1987.
Outlines more ways to explore oxidation reduction reactions.
825
Periodic Table
onsidered one of the most important chemistry reference tools, the

periodic table is a familiar sight around the world. The periodic table
is an arrangement of the elements by their properties. An element is a
substance in pure form, meaning that it cannot be broken down into any
other substance. The smallest particle of an element is an atom.
With one glance, the periodic table can provide a great deal of
information on both individual elements and groups of them. A person
familiar with the table can extract an elements relative mass, basic
properties, and how it compares with its neighbors without knowing
any facts about the element itself.
Elemental developments All matter on Earth is made up of elements.

There are only a finite number of natural elements, although others are
synthesized or manufactured by people. (As of 2008, there were 118
officially named elements.) The periodic table leaves spaces for unknown
elements still to be discovered.
The desire to categorize elements goes back to the fifth century
B . C . E . when ancient Greeks theorized that all matter falls under four
elements: Earth, air, fire, and water. In 1789 French chemist Antoine
Lavoisier (17431794) published the definition and first set of thirtythree chemical elements. Lavoisier grouped them into four categories
on the basis of their chemical properties: gases, nonmetals, metals,
and earths.
As more elements were discovered, many scientists worked on classifying them. The turning point came when Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleev (18341907) made up cards of each of the elements and
worked on arranging them in patterns. At that time there were sixty-three
known elements. He found that there were repeating or periodic relationships between the properties of the elements and their atomic weights. By
arranging the elements in order of increasing atomic weight, the
827
Periodic Table
Russian chemist Dmitri

Mendeleev created the basic
structure of the periodic table.
THE LI BRA RY OF C ONG RE SS.
828
properties of the elements were repeated periodically. The arrangement of elements in this manner was called the periodic table.
In 1869 Mendeleev published the first periodic table. In his table, rows (across) and columns (down) each shared certain properties.
Mendeleevs table even left placeholders for elements that had yet to be identified. Over the next
two decades, more elements were discovered,
including gallium, scandium, and germanium.
When these elements fit into the predicted
spaces, the table gained acceptance. Over the
next century the periodic table changed in several ways, yet its basic structure set down by
Mendeleev remained.
Blocks of data Each block in the periodic
table contains the name and properties of that
element. The letters are the abbreviation or
atomic symbol of the chemical element. Each
element has a one- or two-letter abbreviation as
its symbol, often taken from the Latin word for a
description, place, or name. For example, the atomic symbol for gold, Au,
comes from the first two letters of the Latin word aurum, meaning
shining dawn. Mercurys symbol, Hg, comes from the Latin hydragyrum,
meaning liquid silver, and leads symbol, Pb, comes from the Latin
plumbum, meaning heavy.
Above the symbol is the atomic number of the element. The atomic
number represents the number of protons, or positively charged particles,
in an atom of that element. The number of protons in an atom equals the
number of electrons, negatively charged particles, which move around the
center of the atom. The number and arrangement of protons and electrons in an atom determines the chemical behavior of the element.
The number below the symbol is the atomic mass, the average mass
of an element. Also known as atomic weight, atomic mass is given in
atomic mass units (amu). An atoms atomic mass is the weight of its
protons and neutrons. A neutron is a particle that has no charge and is
located in the center of the atom.
Across and down Each row of elements across the table is called a
period. Rows in the periodic table are read left to right. All of the elements
Periodic Table
in a period have the same number of shells. A

shell is the number of areas an atom needs to
hold its electrons. The first shell holds two electrons, the second shell holds up to eight, and the
atomic
6
third shell can hold up to eighteen electrons. The
number
maximum number of shells found around any
atom is seven. Thus, there are seven periods.
For example, carbon (C) atoms have six
electrons: two electrons in the first shell and the
remaining four are in the second shell. HydroCarbon
atomic
symbol
gen (H), which has one electron, needs only one
12.01
shell. Helium (He), which has two electrons, is
the only other element with one shell and the
two elements share a row by themselves. Calatomic mass
cium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) each have two
shells and, thus, are in the second row.
Each column of elements down the periodic
table is called a group or family. Elements in a
Each block in the periodic table
group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell. The group
provides information on a
at the left edge of the periodic table has one electron in its outer shell.
particular element. GA LE
Every element in the second column has two electrons in its outer shell,
GRO UP .
and so on. Groups are numbered from left to right. There are two sets of
groups: the A and B groups. The A groups run along the high columns of
the table and have similar properties. The B groups in the middle section
of the table are called transition elements. Transition elements have
common properties; they are hard, strong metals that conduct heat and
electricity well. These elements also have their electrons arranged in a
complex arrangement, which is lacking in the A group.
Periodic patterns Both periods and groups supply information on
the elements characteristics and behavior.
In a period, as the atomic mass increases from left to right the atomic
size decreases. (The more electrons there are, the more they are pulled
towards the center and the atom tightens.) Metals are on the left and
middle sections of the periods with the most active metal in the lower left
corner. Nonmetals are located on the right side. With the exception of
hydrogen, the first element in a period is a solid, and the last element in a
period is always a gas that does not react with other elements.
Elements that share the same number of electrons in their outer shell,
the groups, share many of the same behaviors. Examples of shared
829
Periodic Table
6 protons
(+)
electrons
(-)
shells
Carbon Atom
Electrons encircle the center of
the atom in shells. G AL E
GRO UP.
characteristics include their stability, boiling

point, and conductivity. For example, the elements on the far right of the table is called the
noble gases. Noble gases are colorless gases that
are all nonreactive because their outermost shell
is full. When the outermost shell is full the atom
is completely stable and does not react. The
groups on the far left also share many properties
with each other. With few electrons in their
outer shells, these metals are highly reactive and
react strongly with nonmetals.
Although the properties in groups are similar, they change as you move up or down the
column. For example, chemical activity generally increases as you go down a metal group and
decreases as you move down a nonmetal group.
EXPERIMENT 1
Metals versus Nonmetals: Which areas of the periodic
table have elements that conduct electricity?
Purpose/Hypothesis Conductivity is one of the properties that relates to
the position of the element in the periodic table. Conductivity relates to

the electron configuration in the elements atoms. Atoms are constantly
working to get a full count of atoms in their outer shell. They can do this
by losing or gaining electrons. A full count gives the atom stability and,
thus, it does not need to react with other atoms. Elements in the lownumber groups have atoms with one or few electrons in their outer shell.
This causes these atoms to lose electrons easily. Their electrons move
among all the atoms in the substance. Atoms in the highest groups have a
full or almost-full outer shell and usually gain electrons. Their electrons
do not move about freely.
The periodic table is composed of two main groups: metals and nonmetals. Metals are on the left and middle of the table; nonmetals make up
parts of groups IIIA to VIIIA. Almost all metals are solids (mercury, a
liquid, is the exception). Nonmetals can be solids, liquids, or gases.
In this experiment you will determine what areas of the periodic table
have elements that are electrical conductors. A conductor provides a path
that allows electricity to flow from a batterys positive terminal to its
830
.00794
57-70
Ra
radium
Fr
francium
88
barium
(223)
cesium
87
Ba
Cs
(226)
lawrencium
Lr
Actinides
(26 )
Db
105
tantalum
Ta
40.
(262
Th
thorium
Ac
actinium
232.038
cerium
90
(227)
lanthanum
89
58
Ce
38.9055
La
57
rutherfordium dubnium
Rf
hafnium
104
(262)
103
Hf
80.9479
niobium
78.49
73
92.90638
72
Nb
41
95.94
Tc
43
(98)
manganese
40.90765
Nd
60
44.24
bohrium
Bh
107
(264)
86.207
rhenium
Re
75
(23 )
92
238.0289
protactinium uranium
Pa
91
praseodymium neodymium
Pr
59
seaborgium
Sg
106
(263)
83.85
tungsten
74
molybdenum technetium
Mo
42
Mn
54.9305
VII B
25
VI B
5 .996
chromium
Cr
24
radon
Rn
86
(222)
0 .07
55.847
( 45)
(265)
90.2
(237)
neptunium
Np
93
promethi
m
promethium
Pm
61
hassium
Hs
108
osmium
Os
76
ruthenium
Ru
44
iron
Fe
26
02.90550
(268)
92.22
62
50.36
(244)
plutonium
Pu
94
samarium
Sm
06.42
58.69
ununnilium
Uun
110
(269)
95.08
platinum
Pt
78
palladium
Pd
46
nickel
Ni
10
63.546
IB
unununium
(272)
96.96654
07.8682
Uuu
111
gold
Au
79
silver
Ag
47
copper
Cu
29
11
63
5 .965
(243)
americium
Am
95
europium
Eu
64
57.25
curium
Cm
96
(247)
gadolinium
Gd
2.4
65.39
II B
12
(247)
berkelium
Bk
97
terbium
Tb
65
58.92534
ununbiium
Uub
112
(277)
200.59
ercury
mercury
Hg
80
cadmium
Cd
48
zinc
Zn
30
InnerTransition Metals
meitnerium
Mt
109
iridium
Ir
77
rhodium
Rh
45
cobalt
Co
27 58.93320 28
VIII B
Atomic weight
Transition Metals
Atomic number
Symbol
Name
50.94 5
VB
vanadium
23
zirconium
Zr
lutetium
*Lanthanides
89-102
*Lu
71
74.967
ytt
ium
yttrium
37.327
strontium
32.90543
56
55
rubidium
Sr
Rb
9 .224
titanium
40
88 90585
scandium
39
85.4678
calcium
37
38
Ti
47.88
potassium
Sc
22
IV B
0
III B
21 44.9559
Ca
87.62
40.078
20
magnesium
39.0983
sodium
19
Mg
24.3050
Na
11 22.989768 12
beryllium
9.0 2 82
II A
lithium
4
Be
6.94
Li
hydrogen
IA
MainGroup Elements
13 26.98
539
204.3833
62.50
(25 )
californium
Cf
98
dysprosium
Dy
66
thallium
Tl
81
indium
In
49
4.82
69.723
gallium
G
Ga
31
aluminum
Al
(289)
207.2
8.7 0
30.973762
einsteinium
Es
(257)
67.26
fermium
Fm
100
(252)
erbium
Er
68
bismuth
Bi
5.9994
VI A
16
35.4527
iodine
tellurium
(289)
No
102
(2 0)
73.04
(259)
ytterbium
Yb
70
astatine
At
mendelevium nobelium
Md
101
(258)
68.9342
thulium
Tm
69
ununhexium
Uuh
116
polonium
Po
85
26.90447
Te
(209)
27.60
53
79.904
bromin
bromine
Br
35
chlorine
Cl
17
fluorine
8.9984032
VII A
52
78.96
32.066
17
selenium
Se
34
sulfur
16
oxygen
83 208.98037 84
antimony
Sb
51
2 .75
74.92 59
arsenic
As
33
phosphorus
15
holmium
4.93032
64.93032
4.00674
VA
nitrogen
15
99
Ho
67
ununquadium
Uuq
114
lead
Pb
82
tin
Sn
50
germanium
Ge
32
72.6
28.0855
silicon
Si
14
carbon
2.0
IV A
0.8
III A
boron
14
13
MainGroup Elements
4.002602
(293)
(222)
3 .29
83.80
ununoctium
Uuo
118
radon
Rn
86
xenon
Xe
54
krypton
Kr
36
39.948
20. 797
argon
Ar
18
neon
Ne
10
helium
He
18
VIII A
Periodic Table
Period
In the periodic table, groups

and periods share certain
properties. G ALE GRO UP .
831
Periodic Table
WORDS TO KNOW
Alkali metals: The first group of elements in the
periodic table, these metals have a single electron
in the outermost shell.
protons and neutrons in its center, surrounded by
moving electrons.
Atomic mass: Also known as atomic weight, the
average mass of the atoms in an element; the
number that appears under the element symbol
in the periodic table.
Atomic number: The number of protons (or electrons) in an atom; the number that appears over
the element symbol in the periodic table.
Atomic symbol: The one- or two-letter abbreviation for a chemical element.
experiment, but is not affected by the variables
Electron: A subatomic particle with a mass of about
one atomic mass unit and a single electrical
charge that orbits the center of an atom.
the table. A family of chemical compounds share

similar structures and properties.
Group: A vertical column of the periodic table that
contains elements possessing similar chemical
characteristics.
experiment.
Neutron: A particle that has no electrical charge
and is found in the center of an atom.
Noble gases: Also known as inert or rare gases;
the elements argon, helium, krypton, neon,
radon, and xenon, which are nonreactive gases
and form few compounds with other elements.
Period: A horizontal row in the periodic table.
Periodic table: A chart organizing elements by
atomic number and chemical properties into
groups and periods.
Proton: A positively charged particle in the center
of an atom.
Element: A pure substance composed of just one

type of atom that cannot be broken down into
anything simpler by ordinary chemical means.
Shell: A region of space around the center of the

atom in which electrons are located.
Family: A group of elements in the same column of

the periodic table or in closely related columns of

an experiment.
negative terminal. You will test the electrical conductivity of several

elements by placing each one in the path of the electricity, and connecting
the path to a small light. If the light comes on, the flow of electricity is
passing through the element; if the light remains off, then the element did
not pass the flow of electricity. There are many elements you can test.
Options are provided in the materials section.
To begin this experiment make an educated guess, or prediction, of
what you think will occur based on your knowledge of the periodic
832
Periodic Table
table. This educated guess, or prediction, is

these things:


possible hypothesis for this experiment: Elements in the middle and left
of the periodic table will conduct electricity, and the light will come on;
elements on the right side of the table will not be good conductors, and
the light will not come on.
In this experiment the variable you will change will be the element; the
variable you measure will be whether electricity is conducted to the light.
will change between the control and the experimental trials. The control
experiment will test for a complete circuit. The positive and negative
wires will carry the electric current directly to the light bulb.
Gold is a transition metal. Will

it conduct electricity?
# CH ARL ES OR EA R/ COR BI S.

Materials Needed
periodic table
wire strippers (such as a knife)
pliers
scissors or wire cutters
2 1.5-volt batteries
battery holder, (wires should be attached to holder)
6 insulated alligator clips
insulated copper wire (about 2 feet or 61 centimeters)
small light bulb and light bulb socket, less than 3 volts
Elements: aluminum (foil, wire); silver (jewelry, silverware, wire);
gold (jewelry); zinc (penny made after 1982, which is made of
97.5% zinc, the remaining 2.5% is copper); copper (wire; penny
833
Periodic Table

the element
dated 1962 to 1982, which is 95% copper

and 5% zinc); carbon (lead in pencil, diamond on piece of jewelry); silicon (glass)
Approximate Budget $12$20.
Timetable 1 hour
the battery voltage

are everything that might affect whether electricity is conducted to the light. If you change
most effect on conducting the electricity.
1. Insert the two batteries in the battery

holder so the positive and negative ends
are opposite to one another.
2. Cut three pieces of wire, each 6 to 12
inches (15 to 30 centimeters) long.
3. Strip about 0.5 inch (1.3 centimeters) of
the insulation off both ends of each piece
of wire.
4. Insert each end of the wire through the
hole in the alligator clip and twist. There
should now be three pieces of wire with
Make sure there is no water nearby as water will
clips on each end.
carry the electricity. Be careful when cutting
wire. If the wire gets hot to the touch at any
5. Twist or press the light bulb into the base.
point, immediately disconnect the wire from the
6. Assemble the control experiment. With
battery. Make sure the wire is fully insulated.
one wire, attach one clip to the exposed
end of the battery wire and the clip on the
other side to the light socket. Repeat with
a second wire on the other side of the light socket. Note the results.
7. Remove one clip from the socket, and attach the third wires clip
in place of that clip.
8. Attach the clip of the free end of the third wire to one of the test
elements. Attach the free end of the second wire to the other end of
the element. When the path is complete, note whether the light
glows.
9. Repeat Step 8, replacing the element with each test element one at
a time. Note the results for each.
Summary of Results Create a chart of your results, writing down whether
each element was a conductor or nonconductor. Examine the results. What

elements conducted electricity and where are they located in the periodic
834
Periodic Table
table? Air is made up of gases, mostly oxygen and

nitrogen. Look at the periodic table and examine
why gases do not conduct electricity. Examine the
number of electrons in the elements you used.
Look up how many electrons are in their outer
shell. Write a brief summary of the experiment,
explaining why some elements would make better
conductors than others.
Change the Variables To change the variable in
this experiment, you can use a different voltage

battery. You can also use a light with a different
voltage.
EXPERIMENT 2
Soluble Families: How
does the solubility of an
element relate to where it
is located on the periodic
table?
Problem: The light bulb does not light as
expected.
Possible cause: The wire to the alligator clip
may not be securely fastened to the element, or the alligator clip may not be touching the exposed wire. Repeat the experiment,
scraping off enough plastic and checking that
the exposed wires connect with each other.
Problem: The control light does not light for any
element.
Possible cause: See possible cause above.
Also, the battery may be dead and have no
charge. Repeat the experiment with a fresh
battery.
Purpose/Hypothesis Groups are columns run-
ning down the periodic table. In this experiment you are determining an
elements solubility. Solubility is the ability of a substance to dissolve in a
liquid. For example, sugar dissolves in water and is therefore called
soluble in water. Chocolate chips mixed with water do not dissolve and
are called insoluble in water. Solubility is one of the properties that relates
to the location of the element in the periodic table.
In this experiment you will determine what
areas of the periodic table have the property of
being soluble in water. You will use substances
made from elements in the first two families of
the periodic table. The first group on the left,
Group 1A, is the Alkali Metals. Group 2A is
called Alkali Earth Metals. These elements will
form salts when a metal combines with a nonmetal. For example, sodium and chloride combine to make table salt. By mixing these salts
Step 8: Attach the clips to the

test element and note if the
current flows to the light. GA LE
GRO UP .
835
Periodic Table

the type of salt
the temperature of water
the quantity of salt
the size of the salt particles
are everything that might affect whether the
salts are soluble in water. If you change more
effect on solubility.
in water, you can then determine if either is

soluble.
guess, or prediction, of what you think will occur
based on your knowledge of the periodic table,
solubility, and groups. This educated guess, or


experiment: Salts made from elements in the
Alkali Metals will dissolve in water more readily than salts in the Alkali
Earth Metals.
In this experiment the variable you will change will be the type of
salt; the variable you measure will be the solubility of the salt.
Note: When making a solid-liquid solution (solid/liquid), it is standard to use weight/weight (grams/grams) or weight/volume (grams/milliliters). With water, 1 gram of water equals 1 milliliter. In this experiment,
teaspoons and tablespoons are used to measure the solid.

Materials Needed
washing soda (sodium carbonate: available at many supermarkets

in the detergent section)
potassium carbonate (available at chemical supply houses: an adult
must order this)
chalk (calcium carbonate; active ingredient in many antacids)
water
measuring spoons
metal spoon
836
Periodic Table
measuring cup
plastic gloves
three glasses
masking tape
marking pen

Be careful when working with potassium carbonate. Wear plastic gloves during this experiment. Do not ingest it or get it near your eyes.
Wash your hands thoroughly after the
experiment.
1. Pour 1 cup (about 0.25 liters or 250 milliliters) of room-temperature water into each glass. Label each glass with the name of one
of the salts.
2. Crush the calcium carbonate into a powder by wrapping a small
piece of chalk or tablet in plastic wrap and pressing down on it
with a spoon.
3. Measure out 1 teaspoon of the crushed calcium carbonate and stir
it thoroughly in the water in the glass labeled calcium carbonate
for at least one minute. You may need to stir for up to two
minutes.
4. Examine the bottom of the glass for any powder residue and note
the solubility.
5. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 for the other two salts using the other two
glasses of water.
rect? Why are the salts of Alkali Metals more

soluble than Alkali Earth Metals? Determine
the electron configuration of the three salts.
Write up a brief description of the experiment, analyzing your conclusion.
Step 3: Stir each of the salts in

the water to determine its
solubility. GA LE G RO UP.
Change the Variables It is difficult to find pure
elements as most are naturally found mixed

with other elements. To change the variable
in this experiment, you can try to change the
water temperature. You can hypothesize what
the combination of other salts would be
sodium
potassium
calc um
837
Periodic Table
and then conduct research to verify your

hypothesis.
Problem: The powder did not dissolve as
expected.
EXPERIMENT 3
Active Metals: What metals
give off electrons more readily
than others?
Possible cause: The salt particles may be too

large to dissolve. The particles should be a
fine powder. Try repeating the experiment,
crushing the chalk or tablets completely and
stirring thoroughly.
Purpose/Hypothesis Some metals are more active

than others, meaning they let go of their electrons
more easily than other metals. In general, the
activity of different elements relates to its position
in the periodic table. Elements that are larger are
Problem: The salt does not completely dissolve
generally more likely to lose their outer electrons
where it theoretically should dissolve.
than the smaller elements).
Possible cause: See possible cause above.
In this experiment you will determine which
The metallic element you used may not be
of two metals is more active: zinc or copper. In
pure. Make sure you are not using colored
chalk. You can also try purchasing real chalk
order to help the metals give off electrons, you will
or use another antacid tablet.
boil each in a salt and vinegar solution. Vinegar is a
weak acid that helps loosen the electrons, and salt
acts like a bridge for the electrons to move. The
metal that loses electrons more readily will get plated, meaning a thin layer
of metal will deposit on it. When the electrons move from one metal onto
the more active metal, it will cause a visual change. By trying this experiment
with both metals, you will be able to determine which metal is more active.
what you think will occur based on your knowledge of the periodic table,
metals, and groups. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:


possible hypothesis for this experiment: Zinc is more active than copper
and therefore will lose its electrons when placed in an acidic solution.
838
Periodic Table

change will be the type of metal. The variable
you measure will be the visual changes to the
metals.
Materials Needed
white vinegar
table salt
2 small glass bowls
small pan
measuring cup
measuring spoon
copper wire, small gage, approximately
20 feet (6 meters), tightly wound into
ball (copper wire for jewelry works well,
found at craft stores)
4 zinc washers (found at hardware stores)
steel wool
tongs or fork

the type of metal
the length of time the metal is boiled
the length of time the metal is placed in
acid solution
the purity of the metal tested
the amount of salt in the solution
are everything that might affect the activity of
metals in the solution. If you change more than
on the metals activity.

Timetable Approximately 2 hours
1. Pour 1 cup of white vinegar and one tablespoon of table salt into a
small pan.
2. Place the copper wire into the pan.
3. Boil the wire in the vinegar solution for 15 minutes.
4. While the vinegar solution is coming to a boil, clean the zinc
washer with steel wool until scratching is visible.
5. Place the zinc washer in a glass bowl.
6. Once the vinegar solution has boiled for 15 minutes, pour only the
solution into the glass bowl. Use a pair of tongs or fork to remove
the copper wire. Make sure the solution covers the washer.
7. Observe and record changes to the zinc washer at 15 minute
intervals for 45 minutes.
839
Periodic Table

Be careful when boiling the vinegar and salt
solution. Have an adult helper assist you with
this part of the experiment. Allow the metals to
cool before you touch them after they are taken
out of the boiling solution.
8. Repeat all the steps above, switching the

two metals. Replace the copper wire with
three zinc washers. Make sure to make a
new vinegar and salt solution. After boiling the zinc washers for 15 minutes, pour
only the solution into a glass bowl that
holds copper wire.
9. Observe and record changes to the copper
wire at 15 minute intervals.
Summary of Results Compare the appearance of the zinc washers and
Step 1: Gather your materials

(salt, vinegar, copper wire, and
zinc washer). I LLU STR AT IO N
copper wire that were in the glass bowls. Was your hypothesis correct?
Did the zinc accept more electrons and change color? How do the results
relate to their placement in the periodic table? Write a summary of the
experiment, explaining which of the metals was more active. You might
want to include pictures and notes from your observations.
Change the Variables To change the variable in this experiment, you can
use alkali earth metals such as magnesium and

calcium found in common antacid medications.
You can experiment with different metals and
changing the temperature of the vinegar and salt
solution.

SALT
V ineg a r
There are many ways to categorize and group the

elements in the periodic table. All matter is made
up of elements, yet it is difficult to find elements
in their pure form. When experimenting with
the properties of elements, look for the active
ingredient on major products.
with your science teacher to learn more about the
periodic table and the elements.

840
Periodic Table

experiment:
propose to do.
question at hand.
question.
Step 3: Boil the wire in the

vinegar solution for
15 minutes. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Step 6: Once the vinegar

solution has boiled for
15 minutes, pour only the
solution into the glass bowl
with the zinc washer.
IL LU STR AT ION BY T EMA H
NE LSO N.
Related Projects For projects related on the peri-
odic table, you can compare a variety of metals

with one another to determine their differences
and similarities. Some properties you can look at
are the metals relative softness, conductivity,
and how it is affected by oxygen. Because elements are difficult to come across in their pure
form, you can theorize on the properties of other
metals and then conduct research. Certain
groups of elements also react with bases, such
as baking soda. If you order elements from a lab
supply house, make sure you follow all the
841
Periodic Table
Problem: The metals did not change.
necessary safety precautions. Scientists are continuing to discover elements in the laboratory.
For a research project you could look at the
history of the periodic table and the story of
the discoveries.
Andrew Rader Studios. Elements. Raders

Chem4Kids.com. http://www. chem4kids.com/
files/elem intro.html (accessed on February 18,
2008). Detailed information about the periodic
table, elements, metals, and other subjects for
Possible cause: The copper wire may not have
intermediate and advanced students.
lost enough electrons. Make sure the vinegar
Baum, Rudy. The Periodic Table of the Elements.
solution is brought to a rolling boil for at least
Chemical & Engineering News. http://pubs.acs.org/
15 minutes. You may want to boil the copper
cen/80th/elements.html (accessed on February 18,
wire for 20 minutes.
2008).
Possible cause: The coppers electrons were
BBC. Mixtures. Chemical Symbols: The Periodic
not able to move onto the zinc washer.
Table. Schools. Science: Chemistry. http://www.
There may not have been enough salt in the
bbc.co.uk/schools/ks3bitesize/science/chemistry/
vinegar solution. Make sure you add 1
elements com mix 2.shtml (accessed on
tablespoon of salt and stir well.
February 18, 2008). Basic information on the
chemistry of mixtures.
Emsley, John. The Development of the Periodic Table. Chem.Soc: the ASCs
Chemical Science Network. http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/history.
html (accessed on February 18, 2008). The history of the development of the
periodic table.
Heiserman, David L. Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds. Blue
Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1992. A basic introduction to chemical
elements.
PeriodicTable.com http://periodictable.com/ (accessed on February 18, 2008).
Information about the periodic table suited to different audiences.
The Periodic Table of Comic Books. Department of Chemistry, University of
Kentucky. http://www.uky.edu/Projects/Chemcomics (accessed on February
18, 2008). An informative and amusing collection of information about
various chemical elements and their properties as found in the pages of comic
books.
Sacks, Oliver. Uncle Tungsten: Memories of a Chemical Boyhood. New York:
Vintage Books, 2002. Autobiography of Sacks tells of early chemistry
experiments and learning about the elements.
Possible cause: The wire may not have a high
enough copper content. Make sure you are
using real copper wire. You can also use a
piece of copper. Repeat the experiment.
842
Pesticides
pesticide is any substance that prevents, repels, or kills pests. The

definition of a pest is a relative one. A pest is an organism that is
unwanted by humans at a specific time or in a specific place. Pests can
range from cockroaches and mice, to fungi and plants. In modern day,
pesticides are an integral part of food production and household use.
The use of pesticides has a long history. There is evidence that ancient
Romans and Chinese, for example, used various minerals and plant
extracts as pesticides. Manufactured chemical pesticides began in the
1930s and dramatically increased after World War II (193945). The
widespread use of chemical pesticides led to an increased concern for how
pesticides were affecting the environment, animals, and people. Over the
years, pesticides have undergone much advancement, including the
development of natural substances and improvements on the traditional.
Pest control Pesticides are categorized according to what type of

pests they affect. Some common types of pesticides include insecticides
for insects, herbicides for weeds, fungicides for fungi, and rodenticides for
rodents.
A pesticide can be a natural or a chemically synthesized substance.
Chemical pesticides are toxic, meaning they contain poisons. Natural
pesticides do not use poisons to affect pests. Both types of pesticides have
positives and negatives. These pesticides control pests by physically,
chemically, or biologically disrupting a pests life cycle or behavior.
There are hundreds of different synthetic chemicals used in pesticides. How each pesticide works depends on its active ingredient(s). Some
pesticides have similar properties based on their chemical structure. There
are several groups of synthetic chemical pesticides that interrupt a pests
nerves from communicating with each other and from activating certain
muscles. Organophosphates, for example, are a group of long-lasting
pesticides that affect the central nervous system (brain) and peripheral
843
Pesticides
transmitting
nerve cell
nerve
signals
Organophosphates, one type of

synthetic pesticide, prevent the
nerves from signaling to the
muscles that control the pests
breathing, resulting in suffocation
and death. GAL E GR OU P.
cannot
receive
nerve cell
receiving
nerve cell
nervous system (nerves found outside of the brain or spinal cord). In one
pesticide, for example, the organophosphates prevent the nerves from
signaling to the muscles that control the pests breathing, resulting in
suffocation and death.
The possible health effects for humans associated with an excess of
chemical pesticide exposure include headaches, dizziness, muscle twitching, nausea, and damage to the central nervous system and kidneys.
Biopesticides are pesticides produced from substances found in
nature; these do not use poison to affect pests. There are three main
categories of biopesticides. One category includes those in which the
active ingredient occurs in nature. For example, pheromones are chemical
scents animals use to communicate, attract mates, and mark territory. If a
pheromone-based pesticide is released into the air at a time when insects
are looking for each other to mate, the insects will become confused. Less
mating and far fewer offspring will result. Other types of this biopesticide
include garlic, mint, and red peppers.
The active ingredient in another type of biopesticide is microorganisms or microbes, such as bacteria and fungi. Microbes produce substances that destroy a range of other microbes. For example, there are fungi
that control weeds, and other fungi that kill specific insects. The most
widely used microbial insecticide is the soil-dwelling bacterium Bacillus
844
Pesticides
bacteria DNA
flower DNA
flower DNA
with bacteria
gene spliced in
By splicing bacteria DNA into

the plants DNA, scientists can
create a genetically engineered
plant that destroys specific pests.
GA LE G RO UP.
thuringiensis, also known as Bt. When certain insects ingest the bacteria
during the larvae stage, the bacteria interfere with the insects digestion
and cause the insect to starve.
One of the fastest-growing categories of biopesticides includes pesticide products that are genetically engineered or modified. Developed in
the 1970s, genetic engineering is based on the understanding that genes
are responsible for a species characteristics. Genes are segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a molecule in every organisms cell that carries
genetic information for its development. Many organisms have genes that
are responsible for producing substances that kill or prevent the growth of
other organisms. This technique inserts the gene of one species into the
DNA of the same or another species. The genetically modified organism
then produces a desired trait. For example, scientists have taken the pestfighting gene out of the Bt bacteria and inserted it into a corn plants
genetic material. The Bt corn then manufactures the substance that
destroys the corn borer or another hungry insect.
The good, the bad, and the pesty Pesticides both directly and
indirectly hold many benefits for people. They increase agricultural yields
by eliminating pests and weeds, providing more food and income for
people around the world. They protect crops from disease that can
devastate food supplies. In the mid-1800s, for example, a fungus spread
quickly through Irelands potato crops, resulting in the starvation of more
than a million people and causing mass emigration. Shielding plants from
disease also lessens disease in plant-eating livestock and, ultimately, in
humans who would eat that plant or livestock. For the nonfarmer, the use
of pesticides has become commonplace. Insect repellents, flea and tick pet
845
Pesticides
A cotton farmer in India points

to genetically modified Bt
cotton infected with bollworms,
January 2003. Bt cotton has
failed to prevent bollworm
attacks, for which it was
designed. A P/W ID E WO RL D
846
collars, weed killers, and mildew cleaners are just

a few of the household products that contain
pesticides.
Yet because pesticides are designed to control
living organisms, some affect organisms they are
not targeted to control, called nontarget organisms. The result can harm humans, animals, and
the environment. The pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is the classic example
of how pesticides can cause unintended effects.
DDT was discovered to be an effective insecticide
in 1939 and within a few years it became one of
the most widely used pesticidal chemicals in the
United States. Farmers used it on their crops, and
the government used it to protect people against
disease-carrying insects, such as mosquitoes that
carried malaria.
For years scientists warned about the possible
harmful effects of DDT; then in 1962 Rachel
Carsons book Silent Spring was published. Her
book mapped out how DDT was harming wildlife, the environment, and people. In one scenario,
DDT sprayed on plants was eaten by small animals, which were then consumed by birds. The
pesticide harmed both the adult birds and their
eggs. The eggs shells were so thin they were often
crushed when the mother sat on them during
their incubation period. Eggs that were not
crushed often did not hatch. The book stimulated widespread public
concern, and in 1973 the chemical was banned in the United States (it is
still used in other countries).
A balancing act The danger of pesticides to humans and the environment depends upon the pesticide and its mechanism for pest control.
Some factors that determine a pesticides potential harm are its toxicity,
specificity in its targets, and how long it remains in the environment
before it breaks down or degrades.
Pesticides can enter nontarget plants, insects, and other organisms in
several ways. Pesticides do not always stay where they are put down. Wind
Pesticides
pesticide
particles
volatilization
leaching
runoff
Pesticides can spread through

the environment through
volatilization, runoff, and
leaching. GA LE G RO UP.
or rain can carry the pesticide into bodies of water. There, it can affect sea life
and contaminate water. It can move through or leach into the soil. Leaching is
the movement of dissolved chemicals with water downward through the soil.
Water not absorbed into the soil also causes pesticides to travel. When this
water moves over a sloping surface it is called runoff; the runoff picks up and
carries the pesticides. Leaching and runoff cause pesticides to travel into
unintended locations, sometimes winding up in groundwater, lakes, oceans,
or neighboring areas. In a process called volatilization, some pesticides convert
into a gas and move in the air. These pesticides can travel long distances before
they settle down into waters or on land.
One of the most important factors that affects the risk of pesticide
leaching is the amount of time it takes for the pesticide to degrade.
Pesticides degrade into substances that are usually less toxic. Pesticides
can attach to soil particles and remain in effect long after the manufacturers intended. The longer a pesticide lasts, the greater the chance it will
accumulate in an unintended area or nontarget organism. DDT was an
example of a long-lasting pesticide.
The advantage of biopesticides is that they have a low danger level
(toxicity) to organisms they are not targeted for and to humans. Low
toxicity means less risk to water supplies and life. Many of these
biopesticides also degrade relatively rapidly.
The drawback to biopesticides is that they are not as powerful as
conventional chemical pesticides. Because these pesticides degrade
847
Pesticides
A swarm of locusts surrounds a

Filipino farmer. A locust
infestation of rice and sugar farms
in Tarlac, Philippines, in 1994
caused major crop and financial
losses for farmers. # RE UTE RS
NEW ME DI A/C OR BI S.
quickly, they have only a short time period where they can be used. In
addition, certain microbial pesticides can become inactive if exposed to
extreme environmental conditions, such as too much heat or dryness.
Some environmental and citizens groups are also concerned about genetically modified organisms. They say that these plants may produce
unintended consequences to people, the environment, and animals.
The U.S. federal government evaluates and regulates pesticide use.
Regulations on pesticides applied to foods have especially strict safety
standards. Pesticides are labeled as to their level of toxicity. Washing and
cooking foods are ways that people can reduce pesticide residue.
EXPERIMENT 1
Natural versus Synthetic: How do different
types of pesticides compare against a pest?
Purpose/Hypothesis Many plants produce substances that prevent or
harm pests. Some of these substances kill their insect predators and others
repel them. For example, a plant can emit an odor that prevents pests
from approaching. Yet while biopesticides are generally safer to the
environment and carry fewer risks to people, chemicals remain the
848
Pesticides
WORDS TO KNOW
Biopesticide: Pesticide produced from substances
found in nature.
Pesticide: Substance used to reduce the abundance

of pests.

Runoff: Water not absorbed by the soil; moves

downward and picks up particles along the way.
Degrade: Break down.
Synthesized: Prepared by humans in a laboratory;

not a naturally occurring process.

molecules in cells that carries genetic information for an organisms development.
Synthetic: A substance that is synthesized, or manufactured, in a laboratory; not naturally

occurring.

Toxic: Poisonous.
Leaching: The movement of dissolved chemicals

with water that is percolating, or oozing,
downward through the soil.

experiment.
Pest: Any living thing that is unwanted by humans or

causes injury and disease to crops and other growth.
Volatilization: The process by which a liquid

changes (volatilizes) to a gas.
pesticide of choice for the vast majority of professionals. Because pesticides are so important to society, people are continuously searching for
the most effective substance that will cause the least harm.
In this experiment you will examine how biopesticides compare to a
synthetic pesticide. The two natural pesticides are a spray made from chili
peppers and one made from garlic. These are commonly used among
gardeners as repellents. With chili, it is the hot chilies that make the most
effective repellent. Garlics strong odor can also act as a repellent. With
the synthetic insecticides, look for one that works against general pests,
such as aphids, caterpillars, beetles. Evidence of these pests can be seen in
the holes they bore or bits of leaves that they have munched. Aphids will
leave a sticky residue on the leaves.
Once you have made a spray of the natural substances, you can apply
all the pesticides to the same type of plant and set outside. To measure the
effectiveness of each pesticide you can examine the plants general health,
count holes in the leaves and pests on the plant, and feel the leaves.
849
Pesticides

the type of plant
the pests in the environment
the type of pesticide
the climate

your knowledge of synthetic pesticides and biopesticides. This educated guess, or prediction, is
these things:


pests that are attracted to the plant. If you
change more than one variable at the same time,
most effect on the pesticides effectiveness.

experiment: The synthetic pesticide product
will better prevent pests from harming the plants
than the biopesticides.
In this case, the variable you will change is the type of pesticide
sprayed on the plant. The variable you will measure is the amount of
damage to the plant caused by pests.
will change between the control and your experiment. For your control
in this experiment you will not apply any pesticide to a plant. At the end
of the experiment you can compare the control plant to the experimental plants.

Materials Needed
4 small plants of the same type, preferably broad leafed (coleus

works well)
1 hot chili pepper (haban~eros work well)
1 garlic bulb (five cloves) or crushed garlic
spray bottle
chemical pesticide (available from hardware store, drugstore, or
greenhouse)
850
Pesticides
outside area
water
2 bowls
marking pen
chopping knife
cheesecloth
funnel
rubber gloves
several nice days

Have an adult present for this experiment. Be
careful when working with hot water and chili
peppers. The peppers seeds and juices can
burn, so wear rubber gloves and avoid touching
your face; never directly ingest the peppers or
touch your eyes. Make sure you apply the
chemical pesticide outside and follow the
directions and warnings carefully. Wear a longsleeved shirt and long pants when applying and
wash your hands afterwards.
Timetable 45 minutes setup; overnight waiting;
10 minutes every three days for about two weeks.

1. Label the plant containers: Pepper, Garlic, Chemical, and

Control.
2. Prepare the chili pepper spray: Chop one chili and place the pieces
in a bowl. Boil 1 cup (about 240 milliliters) of water and pour over
the chopped peppers. Set aside overnight.
3. The next day, prepare the garlic spray: Finely chop about five
cloves of garlic and add 1 cup (about 240 milliliters) of hot water.
Set aside for two hours until cool.
4. When the solutions are ready, use the cheesecloth to strain out the
garlic and the peppers. Use the funnel to pour one of the solutions
into the spray bottle.
5. In an open area outside, spray the first
solution on the plant labeled for that
pesticide. After each application, set the
plant in a distant area to keep each pesticide isolated from the other plants. Make
sure to wash out the spray bottle thoroughly between the pepper and garlic
spray (save each solution in a covered
and labeled container). Repeat with the
other two solutions. Do not spray anything on the control.
garlic
Materials needed to compare

different pesticides in
chemical
pepper
control
851
Pesticides
Problem: The natural sprays did not stick to the
plant leaves.
Possible cause: The mixtures adhere to the
leaves of some plants more than others. Try
adding a drop of nondetergent dishwashing
soap and mixing well, then reapply.
Problem: None of the plants had much evidence of pests.
Possible cause: This experiment works best
when there are many insects around, often
during the spring and summer months. Try to
set your plants down in a wooded area or one
that has a large quantity of plants and then
continue your observations.
6. Set the four plants outside in the same

general area, leaving enough room
between the plants so they do not touch
one another.
7. Every three days for the next 15 days
observe the plants and note any pests or
effects of pests. Reapply the sprays if it
rains. If you reapply, again make sure to
isolate each plant when you spray.
rect? Look at your data and determine how the

pesticides compared to one another. Was there
one type of pest that was on one plant more than
another? Some types of insects, such as aphids,
gather on the underside of leaves. Note the relative amount of any different type of pests on each
plant. How did the control plant compare to the
experimental plants?
change the variables in several ways:

change the type of plant
use the same pesticide and set the plants down in different environments, such as near lush plant growth or in an open space
apply different types of synthetic pesticides
make up and apply different natural pesticides, such as pesticides
made from onions, soaps, neem oil, and molasses.
use the same pesticide and see how close you need to apply it to the
plant for it to be effective.
EXPERIMENT 2
Moving through Water: How can pesticides
affect nontarget plant life?
Purpose/Hypothesis Leaching and runoff can cause pesticides to move
away from their target location. When pesticides mix with rain or irrigation water, they can seep into the soil and travel to another area where they
can affect the plant, animals, and environment. In this experiment, you
852
Pesticides
will examine the effects of pesticides on new

growth. You will plant a lettuce seed and nurture
it with water that has insecticide in it. Planting
three sets of seeds, you will add two varying
amounts of insecticide to the water and compare
them to lettuce grown in unaltered water.
your knowledge of leaching, runoff, and pesticides. This educated guess, or prediction, is your
things:


the type of plant
the environment
the amount of pesticide
the type of pesticide
are anything that might affect the growth of the
plant. If you change more than one variable at
variable had the most effect on the plants
health.

measurable. It must be something you can test through further investigation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis
is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Water
with the greatest amount of pesticide will result in stunted or no plant
growth.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of insecticide
in the water. The variable you will measure is the plant health.
will change between the control and your experiment. For the control in
this experiment you will give the lettuce plant plain water. At the end of
the experiment, you can compare the results from the control experiment
with the experimental plants.
Materials Needed
15 lettuce seeds
peat pots, with moist to dry soil (available at garden stores)
water
liquid synthetic insecticide
853
Pesticides

Have an adult present for this experiment. Be
careful when working with the pesticide.
Measure the pesticide outside or in a sink.
Follow the warnings carefully and wash your
hands afterwards. Make sure you throw away
the disposable cups and spoons that come into
contact with the pesticide. Keep younger children away from the cups containing the pesticide mixtures.
marking pen
masking tape
ruler
area with light
paper towels
plastic wrap
two rubber bands
plastic teaspoon
measuring cup
three disposable plastic cups

Timetable 20 minutes setup; about 5five minutes
daily for eight to 12 days (longer if desired).

Step 9: Note the number of

sprouts in each pot and measure
the height of the plants. G ALE
G RO UP.
high
854
low
1. Label the disposable cups: Low Pesticide, High Pesticide, and

Control. Label each peat pot Low, High, and Control. The
dirt should be dry to moist.
2. In the Low Pesticide cup, use the plastic spoon to place 2 teaspoons (about 10 milliliters) of the pesticide in the cup.
3. In the High Pesticide cup, use the plastic spoon to place 5
teaspoons (about 25 milliliters) of the pesticide in the cup.
4. Measure and pour 0.5 cup (about 125 milliliters) of water into
each of the cups. The Control cup should have plain water. Use
plastic spoons to stir the High and Low cups, making sure to
throw the spoons away when you have
finished.
5. In each peat pot, plant five lettuce seeds
per the instructions on the package.
6. Working over a sink or paper towels,
pour the High pesticide water into the
peat pot labeled High. Pour enough
water to saturate the lettuce seeds.
Water will start to drip out the bottom
control
when you have poured enough.
7. Repeat with the Low water, and the Control water. Set the plants on a plastic
Pesticides
container or holder to catch the water

dripping out the bottom.
8. To seal in the water, tightly cover the
disposable cups (not the peat pots) with
plastic wrap and wrap a rubber band
around the plastic. Place the water cups
aside near the plants and make sure labeling is clearly visible.
9. After the seeds sprout (about five days),
start daily observations of the plants.
Count how many sprouts there are in
each pot and measure the height. Make
your measurements at the same time
every day.
10. When the seeds need more water, use the
water from its designated cup until the
water is gone. (You may need to restir.)
Summary of Results Examine the height and
Problem: None of the plants grew.
Possible cause: Make sure you are following
instructions as to the amount of light and
warmth the seeds need. You may also have
bought defective seeds. Try the experiment
again with a new packet, making sure to
follow the instructions.
Problem: There was not much difference
between the two groups of seeds watered
with the pesticides.
Possible cause: All the pesticide water may not
have soaked into the plants. Make sure you
stir the water thoroughly before applying it to
the seeds, and repeat the experiment.
number of sprouts from each peat pot. Average

the heights of each group and graph the results. Is
there a difference between the experimental trials
and the control? Are there any other physical characteristics that are
different among the groups of lettuce sprouts? Write up a brief summary
of the experiment.
Change the Variables You can change the variables in this experiment in
several ways:
Change the brand of insecticide; try to find one with different
main ingredients than the one you used
Alter the type of pesticide, to a herbicide or fungicide
Compare different types of plants, such as peas, tomatoes, and a
flower

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Pesticides are a contin-
uously evolving groups of products, which have a significant impact on

society. Organic food products are not treated with chemical-based
855
Pesticides
pesticides. You can compare organic fruits and vegetables to chemically

treated foods. You can also look at the impact pesticides have had on food
production throughout the world.
When experimenting with pesticides, always make sure to work in an
open area and take proper safety precautions. Check the Further Readings
section and talk with your science teacher to learn more about pesticides. You
could also speak with a professional at a local greenhouse or nursery, or
any knowledgeable gardener.
question.
Related Projects With so many pesticide options, there are many possible
project ideas. You can explore the biology of how pesticides work on
insects. Choose one or two groups of chemical pesticides, then compare
the effect of these to the substances that plants produce to ward off insects.
How do herbicides affect plants? The amount of time pesticides remain in
856
Pesticides
the soil and on plants is another area of study. An experiment can look at
how often a pesticide needs to be reapplied for effectiveness.
You can also conduct a project that looks at how different pesticides
move through the soil. Determining if a pesticide is on soil or in water is
usually determined through chemical analysis. One home technique to
find out where pesticides are would be to compare the test samples against
a standard. Measure the standard by setting a pesticide-sprayed plant
outside for a certain length of time and noting the results. You can then
spray the water with possible pesticide in it and compare the results to the
standard.
For a research project, you can explore the use of pesticides on food
products, how pesticides have changed over the years, and the precautions
that are taken on the foods. How do organic products compare in size and
yield? Compare the United States to other countries use of pesticides.

About Pesticides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/
pesticides/about (accessed on February 3, 2008). Provides answers to
frequently asked questions about pesticides.
50 Ways Farmers Can Protect Their Groundwater: 24. Determine the
Soil Pesticide Interaction Rating. University of Illinois Extension: College of
Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences. http://www.thisland.
uiuc.edu/50ways/50ways 24.html (accessed on February 3, 2008). This site
is intended primarily for farmers, but offers good explanations of how
pesticides get into soil and their effects.
Nancarrow, Loren, and Janet Hogan Taylor. Dead Snails Leave No Trails.
Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1996. Natural pest control information and
recipes.
Pesticides As Water Pollutants. Food and Agriculture Organization. http://www.
fao.org/docrep/W2598E/w2598e07.htm#historical%20development%20of
%20pesticides (accessed on February 3, 2008). Information on how pesticides
can pollute groundwater.
857
pH
he numerical measurement of acids and bases in a solution is called pH

(the abbreviation for potential hydrogen). Acids and bases are groups of
chemicals. When dissolved in water, all acids release hydrogen atoms with a
positive electric charge (H+). These atoms are known as hydrogen ions.
The term pH means the strength of the hydrogen ions. The p is derived
from the Danish word potenz meaning strength; H is the symbol for
hydrogen. When dissolved in water, bases produce negatively charged
hydroxide ions (OH). When mixed together in the right proportions,
acids and bases neutralize each other and form a water and a salt.
In 1909, Danish scientist Soren Peter Lauritz Sorensen, whose wife
Margarethe Hoyrup Sorensen assisted him in much of his work, developed the concept of pH for determining hydrogen ion concentration.
Blue litmus paper turns pink

in the presence of the acid in
this lemon. P HO TO
Scaling it down The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Very acidic

substances are at the lower end of the scale, with 0.0 being the most acidic,
and very basic substances are at the upper end of the scale, with 14.0 being
the most basic. A pH of 7.0 indicates a substance that is neutralneither
acidic nor basic.
Theyre everywhere Acids and bases are
present in our daily lives more than we realize.
We could not digest food without the diluted
hydrochloric acid in our stomachs. Eight special
amino acids in the protein foods we eat are necessary for good health. Acetic acid is found in
vinegar. Sulfuric acid is used in dyes, drugs, explosives, car batteries, and fertilizer. Among the most
commonly known bases are ammonia and
sodium hydroxide, which is used to make soap.
Are you blue? No, Im acid Measuring pH is
important to chemists, biologists, bacteriologists,
859
pH
A digital pH meter measures

pH. PHO TO R ES EAR CH ER S
I NC.
860
and agriculture experts as well as others in science,

medicine, and industry. Your life depends on the
right pH of your body fluids, including your
blood and digestive juices. Determining soil pH
can help a farmer grow better crops because some
plants thrive in acidic soils, while others grow
better in alkaline (basic) soils. Lime is spread on
fields to neutralize soil that is too acidic. The
hydrangea plant actually communicates the type
of soil it grows in by the color of its flowers. If the
soil is alkaline, this plant blooms red. If the soil is
acid, it blooms blue.
Quick! Get the litmus paper But what if
you are not a hydrangea plant? How do you
determine the pH of a solution? By using an
indicator. Indicators are pigments that change
color when they come into contact with acidic or
basic solutions. Litmus paper is an indicator. By
dipping litmus paper into liquids and watching
the change in color, chemists can tell whether a
liquid is an acid or a base.
To determine the pH of a solution, scientists
also use a machine called a digital pH meter,
which has an electric probe connected to it. The
probe is dipped into a solution and measures its pH. A large dial on the
meter shows the pH reading. To calculate the total amount of acid or base
in a solution, the chemist uses a process called titration. Titration is a
method of analyzing the makeup of a solution by adding known amounts
of a standard solution until a reaction occurs, such as a color change.
It all falls down Remember the lime the farmer spread on the acidic
field? Sometimes lime is added to a lake or stream that has become too acidic
because of acid rain. Acid rain, an environmental problem that became much
worse beginning in the 1950s, is rain, snow, or sleet made unnaturally acidic
by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. The emissions, which mix
with air masses, come from the smokestacks of electric power plants that
burn coal or from companies that burn high sulfur oil for fuel. Rainfall with a
pH of 4, which occurs in the worst acid rain areas, is about one-tenth as
acidic as vinegar. Acid rain damages trees and crops and even corrodes stone
buildings and statues. Fish are not able to reproduce when their habitat
pH
becomes too acidic. Some larger aquatic plants

cannot tolerate the acid and die.
Strong acids can damage metals and human
skin. Some weaker acids are used as drugs,
including aspirin. Strong bases, such as lye, can
blind a person. Baking soda, which is used in
baking, toothpaste, and as a cleaner, is a weak
base. Measuring a substances pH can give you
valuable information about its structure and
makeup.
EXPERIMENT 1
Kitchen Chemistry: What is the pH
of household chemicals?
Purpose/Hypothesis The pH scale is used by
chemists to determine the ratio of acids to

bases present in a solution. The scale ranges
from 0 to 14 and indicates whether the solution
is more acidic or more basic.
In this experiment you will use an universal
indicator to determine the pH of several common household chemicals, including vinegar,
baking soda, lemon juice, water, and ammonia. Universal indicators,
which change color in the presence of acids and bases over a broad range
of the pH scale, exist in nature and are found in a few plants. Red
A scientist tests rain samples for

acidity. PET ER A RN OLD INC .
The pH scale ranges from 0 to

14 and indicates whether the
solution is more acidic or more
basic (alkaline). GA LE G RO UP.
861
pH
WORDS TO KNOW
Acid: A substance that when dissolved in water is
capable of reacting with a base to form salts and
Ion: An atom or group of atoms that carry an electrical chargeeither positive or negativeas a
result of losing or gaining one or more electrons.
Acid rain: A form of precipitation that is significantly

more acidic than neutral water, often as the result
of industrial processes and pollution.
Neutralization: A chemical reaction in which the

mixing of an acidic solution with a basic (alkaline) solution results in a solution that has the
properties of neither an acid nor a base.
Base: A substance that when dissolved in water is

can be tested by observation and/or
experiment.
Indicator: Pigments that change color when
they come into contact with acidic or basic
solutions.
pH: (The abbreviation for potential hydrogen.) A

measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution
referring to the concentration of hydrogen ions
present in a liter of a given fluid.
Titration: A procedure in which an acid and a base
are slowly mixed to achieve a neutral substance.
an experiment.
cabbage, grape juice, radish skin, and violet flowers all contain a pigment or coloring that changes in the presence of different chemicals.
The red cabbage juice used in this experiment is extracted during
the boiling process. This solution is chemically neutral (pH 7), but when
added to another substance, the color changes to indicate whether the
substance contains a high concentration of an acid or a base. If the
substance is an acid, the red cabbage solution will turn pink. If the
substance is neutral, the solution will remain purple. If the substance is
basic, the solution will become blue, green, or yellow. Yellow indicates a
strong base, which may burn your skin on contact.
this experiment based on your knowledge of pH. This educated
these things:
862

pH

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Vinegar and lemon juice are acids, baking
soda and ammonia are bases, and water is neutral.
substance being tested, and the variable you will
measure is the color of the indicator solution. You
expect the indicator solution to show that vinegar
and lemon juice are acids, baking soda and
ammonia are bases, and water is neutral.
Level of Difficulty Difficult, because of the care
required in using a heat source and in handling

ammonia and other chemicals.
Materials Needed
red cabbage indicator solution (boil six to

eight cabbage leaves in 1 cup of water for
five minutes, retain only the colored solution and allow to cool)

the substance being tested
the age or freshness of the substance
the concentration of the acidic or basic
components of the substance
the presence and amount of any contaminants in the substance
the age or freshness of the pH indicator
the experimenters ability to distinguish
colors
are everything that might affect the pH of the
substance and the resulting color of the indicator solution. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on the pH or color.
Materials for Experiment 1.

GA LE G RO UP.
863
pH

Adult supervision is necessary for this experiment. Treat each chemical as if it were dangerous, and do not inhale the odors, especially
from the ammonia. Do not eat or drink while
conducting this experiment. Wear goggles to
prevent eye injury. Wash your hands immediately if they come in contact with any of the
chemicals. Consult your science teacher before
you substitute any chemicals for the ones listed
in this experiment.
household chemicals: vinegar, baking soda,

lemon juice, water, ammonia, white or clear
detergent, etc.
cups (3.5-ounce clear plastic) or test tubes
(glass or plastic)
measuring spoons
goggles
paper towels (for cleanup)
Approximate Budget $2 for the red cabbage,
which is necessary for this experiment.

Timetable 1 hour.
Be aware of contamination. Always make sure
the utensils and cups are clean. Use only fresh
chemicals that have not spoiled. If you are not
getting the desired results, place a scoop of
baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) into a cup
that has been washed, rinsed, and dried. Make
sure you use a clean spoon. Pour in some indicator solution and stir. The resulting color
should be blue, indicating a base.
1. Place a small amount (approximately

teaspoon) of one chemical into the cup.
Wash the measuring spoon.
2. Place an equal amount of indicator solution (red cabbage water) in the same cup.
Again, wash the measuring spoon.
3. Record the resulting color change of the
indicator solution.
4. Determine the chemical property of the
substanceacid, base, or neutral.
5. In clean cups, repeat this procedure for
each of the other chemicals.
Summary of Results Record your results in a
journal or notebook. Go back to your hypothesis

and determine whether your original guesses were correct. Write a paragraph summarizing your findings.
Here is a general rule of thumb for acids and bases:
Acids are corrosive but lose their acidity when combined with
bases.
Bases feel slippery when they come in contact with the skin; they
lose their alkalinity when mixed with acids. (But do not test bases
by touching them; they can burn your skin.)
Salts are formed when acids and bases react.
864
pH
ment in several ways. Try comparing different

brand-name items or testing items that have
spoiled. For instance, milk when fresh is base
but when spoiled is an acid.

for this experiment:
Modify the Experiment One reason this experiment is difficult is that you need to boil cabbage
to make a universal indicator. You can simplify
this experiment by purchasing a pH indicator.
Also called litmus paper, pH indicator strips are
commonly sold at drug stores and places that sell
science supplies. Litmus papers are available in
different sensitivity. Commonly available litmus
papers will turn either blue or red, depending up
if the solution is a base or acid.
the acid or base being tested
If you want to explore pH more, you can

compare the results of the litmus paper to your
universal indicator. How close are the two
indicators?
the experimenters ability to distinguish

colors
EXPERIMENT 2
Chemical Titration: What is
required to change a substance
from an acid or a base into a neutral
solution?
the age or freshness of the acid and base

the concentration of the acidic or basic
components (many acids are diluted in
water)
the presence and amount of any contaminants in the acid and base
the amount of acid added to the base,
and vice versa
the age or freshness of the pH indicator

are everything that might affect the pH of the
substance and the resulting color of the indicator solution. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on the pH or color.
Purpose/Hypothesis After you understand how to use indicators, you can
begin testing and manipulating chemicals. Here is a general description of

how acids and bases mix and the results. Acids produce a H+ particle
called a hydrogen ion. Bases produce an OHparticle called a hydroxide
ion. These H+ and OHions can join to form H2O or water, a neutral
substance. The leftover substance is a salt.
The chemical formula for a
typical acid-base reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide. GAL E GR OU P.
865
pH

Adult supervision is necessary for this experiment. Treat each chemical as if it were dangerous. Do not eat or drink while conducting this
experiment. Wear goggles to prevent eye
injury. Wash your hands immediately if they
come in contact with any of the chemicals.
Consult your science teacher before you substitute any chemicals for the ones listed in this
experiment.
When acids and bases react to form a salt, the
reaction can be violent. Gases, flames, heat, and
other forms of energy can be released. In other
words, use caution!
The chemical formula for a typical acid-base

reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide is illustrated. The resulting products
of this reaction are neutral sodium chloride (salt)
and water.
When an acid and a base combine to form a
neutral solution, the procedure is called a titration reaction.
your knowledge of pH. This educated guess, or

hypothesis for this experiment: A basic substance can be neutralized by
the addition of an acid, and vice versa.

GAL E GR OU P.
866
pH
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of acid being
added to the base (or base to acid), and the variable you will measure is the
color of the indicator solution. You expect the indicator solution to show
a color indicating the basic pH changes to a neutral pH with the addition
of an acid, and vice versa.
Level of Difficulty Difficult, because of the care required in using a heat
source and in handling chemicals.

Materials Needed
red cabbage indicator solution (refer to Experiment 1 for

instructions)
vinegar
baking soda
stomach antacids (such as Tums)
baking powder
clear plastic cups
measuring spoons
goggles
Step 4: Slowly pour vinegar

into the cup and watch the
violent acid-base reaction.
GAL E GR OU P.

Timetable 1 hour.
1. In a cup place 1 teaspoon of baking soda.

2. In the same cup place an equal amount
of indicator solution, and then stir.
3. Note the color of the solution.
4. In the same cup slowly pour some vinegar. Watch the violent acid-base reaction, and stop when the solution turns
purple.
5. If you add too much vinegar, the solution may turn pink. Slowly sprinkle
more baking soda into the cup until the
purple color reappears.
867
pH
Summary of Results When the baking soda (a base) was added to the
indicator, the color changed from purple to blue indicating the presence
of OHions (a base) with a pH of greater than 7. When the vinegar (an
acid) was added, the H+ ions reacted with the OHions and produced
water (a purple neutral solution, with a pH of 7). The gas CO2 was
produced during the reaction. When an acid and a base are joined
equally, the resulting solution is neutral. You have caused a titration
reaction. Summarize the results of your experiment in writing.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways. Try
adding substances such as antacids to vinegar and indicator solutions.

Test the pH of baking powder, which is an acid and a base in a powdered
mixture.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Here is your chance to
create a fun experiment about a topic that interests you. Chemistry is a
great topic to experiment in because it is part of your everyday life.
Everything from the detergent that washes your clothes to the vinegar
in salad dressing is made up of chemicals, and so are you! Find an area of
chemistry that interests you and start to investigate it. Cleaners, cosmetics, medicine, and food are some areas that you may want to examine.
information on pH questions that interest you. As you consider possible
knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some chemicals can be
dangerous.
sure of what question you are answering, what you are or should be
measuring, or what your findings may prove or disprove.
868
pH

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Keep a journal and record
your notes and measurements in it. Your experiment can then be utilized
by others to answer their questions about your topic.
Related Projects After you have chosen a topic to examine, develop an
experiment to go with it. For example, you might want to investigate the
power of detergents or cleaners. Since grass stains on jeans are common,
your experiment could be to determine what detergent works best to
remove them.

Adams, Richard, and Robert Gardner. Ideas for Science Projects. New York:
Franklin Watts, 1996. Well organized science projects for middle grade
students.
Andrew Rader Studios. Acids and Bases are Everywhere. Raders
Chem4kids.com. http://www.chem4kids.com/files/react acidbase.html
(accessed on March 13, 2008). Information on the chemistry of mixtures.
Newmark, Ann. Eyewitness Science: Chemistry. London: Dorling Kindersley,
1993. Great visual examples and interesting facts that include pH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. What is pH? Acid Rain. http://
www.epa.gov/acidrain/measure/ph.html (accessed on March 13, 2008). Brief
explanation of the pH scale.
869
Photosynthesis
T
Jan Ingenhousz discovered that
sunlight stimulates
photosynthesis in plants.
CO RB IS- BE TTM AN N.
o get our food, we go to the supermarket, pick vegetables or fruit from

our gardens, or cast a rod in our favorite fishing hole. A plant,
however, makes its own food using sunlight as its major energy source
in a process called photosynthesis. In fact, the term photosynthesis means
putting together by light.
Shining the light on vegetables In the eighteenth century, Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch physician and plant physiologist, proved that sunlight
was essential to the life activities of green plants.
In 1779, he published experiments showing that
plants have two respiratory cycles. At night,
plants absorb oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide,
just as animals do, but during the day the cycle is
reversed. Another eighteenth-century scientist,
Englishman Joseph Priestley, made similar discoveries about plant respiration; but it was
Ingenhousz who proved through his vegetable
experiments that it was only in the presence of
light that plants absorbed carbon dioxide and
gave off oxygen. This was a major discovery
because until then most people thought the soil
was the only source of a plants nutrients.
How it works Think of a plants leaf as a
solar panel. Just like the flat glass panels you see
on rooftops, a leafs flat surface makes it an
efficient sunlight absorber. Within each leaf cell
are up to a hundred disc-shaped chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts have a green pigment called chlorophyll, which traps light.
871
Photosynthesis
This underwater plant forms

oxygen bubbles on the surfaces
of its leaves as a result of
photosynthesis. PH OT O
872
We know that sunlight is actually a spectrum of many colors that have different wavelengths. The pigments in plants absorb different
wavelengths of the sunlight spectrum. Chlorophyll is not the only pigment in plants, but it is
the most plentiful pigment. It reflects the green
part of the spectrum, which makes plants look
green to the human eye, but absorbs other parts
of the spectrum. Other pigments, such as carotene and xanthophyll reflect yellow-orange and
yellow spectrum colors. These pigments act as a
support team to chlorophyll.
Sunlight supplies the energy. Chlorophyll
turns the switch that powers a plants chemical
reactions. Those reactions include taking carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, plus water and
inorganic chemicals from the soil, and converting
them into oxygen and glucose. Glucose is needed
in every part of the plant. Cellulose, the tough,
fibrous part of the plant, is formed from glucose.
Starch, another glucose by-product, is stored
within the roots, leaves, or stems of plants. Pores
on the underside of the leaf let gases in and out.
Tubes called xylem carry water throughout the
plant; tubes called phloem distribute the food.
Light intensity, temperature, and water supply are some of the key
factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. In rain forests, plants grow in
abundance,because the weather there is rainy and warm, and the Suns
rays are more intense.
Need oxygen? Get a plant The carbon dioxide given off by animals is
consumed by plants. Plants on land and in the sea replace the oxygen
taken in by animals. That is why there is so much concern for preserving
forests, green spaces, and oceans. Besides being animal habitats, they are
oxygen producers. Without plants, we would all die.
Interestingly, most of Earths photosynthesis does not take place on
land. Over 75% of photosynthesis processes on Earth actually takes place
in our oceans. Chlorophyll is the vital link in photosynthesis in marine
plants as well. But these underwater organisms have larger concentrations
of other pigments than their plant cousins on land. Because little light
Photosynthesis
penetrates below a depth of 330 feet (100

meters), photosynthesis takes place in the
upper part of the ocean called the euphotic
zone. Plants that live in this zone are called
phytoplankton.
During photosynthesis, plants consume carbon dioxide produced by animals and replace
oxygen consumed by animals. Unlocking the
keys of this balanced activity through experiments will help you appreciate the hidden benefits of our national parks, nature preserves, and
oceans. Plants are not green things that just sit
there, but vital, living organisms that help us stay healthy.
EXPERIMENT 1
Phytoplankton are underwater

plants that utilize
photosynthesis to produce
oxygen. P ETE R A RNO LD I NC .
Photosynthesis: How does light affect

plant growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis This experiment deals with the concept of photo-
synthesis and how different wavelengths of light affect plant growth.

Plants contain different pigments, including chlorophyll, carotene, and
xanthophyll, so they can respond to different wavelengths. In this
experiment, three different colors of light will be used to grow plants.
The three colors will represent different wavelengths of light: red
long; yellowmedium; and violet or blueshort. A fourth plant will
be grown under a white light, which contains all wavelengths. The
amount of growth for each plant will demonstrate which color light
promotes the most plant growth.
To begin your experiment, use what you know about photosynthesis
to make an educated guess about light color and plant growth. This
873
Photosynthesis
WORDS TO KNOW
Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment in plants.
photosynthesis for the conversion of carbon
Euphotic zone: The upper part of the ocean where
sunlight penetrates, supporting plant life, such as
phytoplankton.
Glucose: A simple sugar broken down in cells to
produce energy.
or experiment.
Phloem: Plant tissue consisting of elongated cells
that transport carbohydrates and other nutrients.
and water to carbohydrates, releasing oxygen as

a by-product.
Physiologist: A scientist who studies the functions
and processes of living organisms.
Phytoplankton: Microscopic aquatic plants that
live suspended in the water.
Pigment: A substance that displays a color
because of the wavelengths of light it reflects.
oxygen to an animals body. It also describes a
series of chemical reactions that take place
inside cells. In plants, at night or in the dark, the
process is the same as in animals. In light, plants
absorb carbon dioxide to use in photosynthesis,
and give off oxygen.
Xanthophyll: Yellow pigment in plants.
Xylem: Plant tissue of elongated, thick-walled
cells that transport water and mineral nutrients.
an experiment.
possible hypothesis for this experiment: Plants grown under white light
will grow the most because white light contains all the wavelengths that
plants can use in photosynthesis and most closely duplicates natural
sunlight.
In this case, the variable you will change is the color, or wavelength,
of light, and the variable you will measure is the amount of plant growth
over a period of several weeks. If the plants under the white light grow
more than those under the colored lights, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, since the plants in this experiment may
require daily attention for a few weeks.

874
Photosynthesis
Materials Needed
scissors
4 lamps (desk lamps with reflectors are best)
4 cardboard boxes, 18 inches (46 centimeters) square
4 light bulbs (25-watt), in white, red,
yellow, and violet or blue
4 pots filled with soil
4080 bean or corn seeds (These seeds
sprout and grow rapidly, so results can be
seen in two weeks. Use the same type of
seeds in all pots.)
Approximate Budget $3 or each light bulb and
$3 for bean and corn seeds.

Timetable Approximately 4 weeks, during which
15 minutes of daily attention is required, plus 1

hour to set things up.

the types of plants chosen
the color of light
the intensity of light
the amount of water provided to each
plant
the type of soil
the plants. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on plant growth.
1. Plant 10 to 20 seedlings in each pot. Water generously and allow the

water to drain.
The spectrum and wavelength

of different colors. GAL E
GR OU P.
875
Photosynthesis
2. Cut a hole into the top of your boxes. The

hole should be 2 inches (5 centimeters)
smaller in diameter than the diameter of
the lamp. Try to place the hole in the center
Use caution when handling hot lamps. Be sure
of the box top. Cut a door in the side of
the lamps and light bulbs are not touching the
boxes or plants. Turn off the lights and move
each box so that the door can be closed
the lamps aside before watering the plants to
during the day to block outside light.
avoid a possible electrical shock.
3. Locate the boxes side-by-side on a table
away from windows in a warm, but not
hot, room. Place a lamp with a different
color light bulb over each box. Label each
box as illustrated.
4. Place a plant inside each box under the light.
5. Plug in the lamps and turn them on.
6. After the seeds sprout, open each door
every day and record the height of each
plant on your results chart.
7. Leave the lights on each day for approximately eight to 12 hours. Turn them on
in the morning, and shut them off at
night. Remember to keep the doors in
the boxes closed.
GA LE GRO UP.
8. Sprinkle water over the soil every other day. Never allow the soil to
completely dry out. Remember to turn the lights off and move the
lamps aside before watering the plants to avoid a possible electrical
shock. Replace the lamps when you are finished.
Steps 3 and 4: Place a lamp

with a different color light bulb
over each box. Label each box as
illustrated. Place a plant inside
each box under the light. GA LE
GR OU P.
876
Photosynthesis
9. After two to four weeks, study your

charted results and summarize them.
Summary of Results After the experiment is fin-
ished, collect the final data and organize it into

usable statistics and charts. Graph the plant heights
for a visual comparison of plant growth. Determine
which wavelength/color affects growth the most.
Reflect on your hypothesis. Which color/wavelength of light was most beneficial for plant growth?
Change the Variables Different plant species
contain varying amounts of pigments. Instead
of varying the color of light, you could vary the
plant being testedeither by growing different
seeds or by using different small house plants.
You could also test the effect of varying the
intensity of light, which is what you can do in
Experiment #2.
Here is a problem you may encounter, some
possible causes, and ways to fix the problem.
Problem: All the plants are starting to wilt, turn
yellow, or fall over.
Possible causes:
1. The plants may be in shock from being
removed from their normal environment.
Grow the plants outside the box, indoors,
for one week before starting the experiment again.
2. The lamps are too close to the plants,
causing them to wilt from the heat. Raise
the lamp a few inches and try again.
EXPERIMENT 2
Light Intensity: How does the intensity of
light affect plant growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis This experiment deals with the amount of light
required for photosynthesis and growth. In this experiment, three wattages of light bulbs40 watt, 25 watt, and 5 wattwill be used to
determine how the different amounts of light intensity affect plant
growth. A fourth plant will have no light bulb. In general, the more
light present, the better a plant responds in its growth and vigor. However, light can also scorch or burn a plant if it is too intense.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about photosynthesis
to make an educated guess about how light intensity will affect plant
growth. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:

877
Photosynthesis

the types of plants chosen
the intensity of light
the amount of water provided to each plant
the type of soil
the plants. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on plant growth.
Plants can be categorized into those having a
low, medium, or high preference for light. For
this experiment, an ivy was chosen because it
has a medium light preference.

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: A 25-watt light bulb will promote the
most plant growth because its intensity is neither
too dim nor too bright.
the intensity of the light, and the variable you
will measure is the amount of plant growth over
a period of several weeks. If the plant under the
25-watt light bulb grows the most, you will
know your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Moderate because of the dura-
tion of the experiment. (It takes approximately

four weeks to cause a noticeable result.)
Materials Needed
scissors
3 lamps (desk lamps with reflectors are best)
4 cardboard boxes, 18 inches (46 centimeters) square
3 light bulbs: one 40-watt, one 25-watt, one 5-watt
4 potted ivy plants
Step 2: Cut a door into each

box. Door should be 10 inches
wide on all sides; only three
sides are cut with the fourth side
acting as a hinge. GA LE
GR OU P.
878
Photosynthesis
Approximate Budget $20 for light bulbs and
plants.
Timetable 4 weeks, including 5 minutes a day
for watering and recording growth, plus one

hour for set up.

Use caution when handling hot lamps. Be sure
the lamps and light bulbs are not touching the
boxes or plants. Do not use bulbs with an
intensity greater than 40 watts to avoid the
possibility of fire. Turn off the lights and move
the lamps aside before watering the plants to
avoid a possible electrical shock.
1. Cut a hole into the top of three boxes.

The hole should be 2 inches (5 centimeters) smaller in diameter than the
diameter of the lamp. Try to place the
hole in the center of the box top. Do not cut a hole in the top of the
fourth box.
2. Cut a door into each box, following the diagram illustrated.
3. Place a lamp with a light bulb over each box with a hole in it. Label
each box.
4. Place a potted plant inside each of the four boxes.
5. Record the health of each plant. Measure its approximate size.
6. Plug in lamps and turn them on.
7. Keep the lights on for eight to 12 hours daily. Keep the doors
closed to block outside light.
8. Water the plants every other day. Remember to turn off the lights
and move the lamps aside before watering the plants to avoid a
possible electrical shock.
9. Check on the plants daily. Record any changes in health, such as
loss of leaves, plants turning brown, or plants growing toward
light. Mark the headings Week 1, 2, 3,
and 4, and record the changes in each
plant.
10. After 4 weeks, the plant with no light will
probably be dead and the experiment will
be concluded.
Steps 3 and 4: Place a lamp

with a light bulb over each box
with a hole in it and label each
box. Place a potted plant inside
each of the four boxes. GA LE
GRO UP .
Summary of Results After the experiment is completed, collect your data and display it for others to
view. Make drawings of plants to demonstrate the
effects of light intensity. Reflect on your hypothesis and draw some conclusions. What was the
879
Photosynthesis
Step 9: Each week record the

changes in each plant.
Illustration shows the likely
outcome after four weeks. GA LE
GR OU P.
best wattage or light intensity for the plants? If your hypothesis was that the
25-watt light would be best, and it turned out that the 40-watt light was
actually the best, you werent wrongyou just got a different result than
predicted. You still learned something from the experiment.
Change the Variables Just as in Experiment #1, one way to change the
variables is to change the plants being tested. Go to a plant nursery

and find a type of plant that likes a low intensity light. Repeat the
experiment to see which wattage bulb produces the best growth with the
new plant.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Photosynthesis is essential
for a plants survival and growth. Air, water, light, nutrients, and temperature are crucial elements that play a part in photosynthesis. You can
select from the elements needed for photosynthesis to conduct an experiment. For example: temperature affects the function of the pigments
responsible for photosynthesis. You can experiment to determine at what
temperature photosynthesis stops in trees, that is, when they go into
dormancy.
880
Photosynthesis

with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on photosynthesis questions that interest
you. As you consider possible experiments, be
sure to discuss them with your science teacher or
another knowledgeable adult before trying them.
Some of them might be dangerous.
Steps in the Scientific Method Here is your
Here is a problem you may encounter, a possible cause, and a way to solve the problem.
Problem: All the plants lost their leaves.
Possible cause: The plants are in shock. Grow
them outside the box inside the house for a
week or two before starting the experiment.
chance to answer questions or discover new

facts. Design an experiment about a topic that
interests you. To do this, you must follow some guidelines to help you
stick to your goal and get useful information.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Experimenting is a means
by which we discover the answers to our questions. It is important to

record all the changes in the experiment as well as conclusions drawn
from it. Others may use your experiment to answer questions or solve
related problems regarding your topic.
Related Projects If you decide to test temperature and its effects, you may
want to choose a plant that drops its leaves, known as deciduous, and
monitor the temperature outside. In this sample experiment, all you have
to do is choose a plant species, such as white oak, and monitor the average
temperature when it drops its leaves.

Bonnet, Robert L., and G. Daniel Keen. Botany: 49 Science Fair Projects. Blue
Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1989. Features seven projects on
photosynthesis in Chapter 3.
881
Photosynthesis
Groleau, Rick. Illuminating Photosynthesis. Nova Online. http://www.pbs.

org/wgbh/nova/methuselah/photosynthesis.html# (accessed on March 1,
2008). Interactive animations on photosynthesis.
Lammert, John M. Plants: How to Do A Successful Project. Vero Beach, FL:
Rourke Publications, Inc., 1992. Includes a chapter on photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis: How Life Keeps Going. FT Exploring. http://www.ftexploring.
com/photosyn/photosynth.html (accessed on March 2, 2008). Comprehensive
information on photosynthesis and energy.
882
Plant Anatomy
lants come in all shapes and sizes, from floating water plants about the
size of a pencil dot to trees towering hundreds of feet high. Travel to
anywhere on Earth and you will spot some type of plant, even in the
extreme cold and hot environments. All animals, from bugs to people,
depend upon plants to live. They supply oxygen and food, both directly
and indirectly.
There are an estimated 500,000 different types of plants with a wide
variety of features. But in general, plants share a similar anatomy (structure).
Roots are how most plants

absorb water and nutrients.
IL LU STR AT ION BY T EM AH
NE LS ON.
At the root of it The root of a plant is an organ that plays many roles.
In general, most plant roots lie underground. They anchor the plant,
keeping it from being tossed into the air on gusty days. Roots are how
most plants absorb water and nutrients. Nutrients in the soil dissolve in
water. The root hairs, hundreds of fine hairs on the root, absorb the water
through a process called osmosis. Osmosis is the
movement of water from an area where there is a
high concentration of water to an area of low
water concentration through a cell membrane.
The membrane encircles the cell and allows only
some substances to pass into the cell.
Roots also take in oxygen. Although plants
produce oxygen, they also need some oxygen to
live in a process called respiration. Soil contains
pockets of oxygen. In some plants, roots lie near
the ground where there is a richer supply of
oxygen. Trees that live in or near the mud,
where there is little oxygen, sometimes have
roots above ground to gather oxygen.
Plants that have their roots in the air are
called epiphytes. Epiphytes often live on another
883
Plant Anatomy
Cacti store water in its stem

and use it little by little in order
to survive the dry conditions of
the desert. F IE LD M ARK
PUB LI CAT IO NS.
884
plant, collecting water and nutrients from the

runoff or rain. Epiphytes that live in humid
environments can take in the water and nutrients
from the air.
Some epiphytes have adapted to slow their
growth when there is little water. Other plants
have shallow roots that thread out extensively so
they can quickly suck up water close to the
surface.
Holding it all together Stems pick up where
the root meets the ground, holding the plant up
and supporting its structure. The larger the plant,
the thicker the stem. Larger plants can also have
multiple stems, with shoots branching off from
one another. Stems can be soft and flexible,
allowing the plant to bend. Other plants, such
as trees, have stems that are hard and woody.
Water and nutrients absorbed from the roots
move through the stem and up the plant through
tube-like structures. The tubes that carry the water
are called xylem. The xylem is made of dead cells
and has thick walls. The tubes that carry the food
are called phloem. The phloem is made of living
cells and have thin walls.
Stems can also store water and food. Many cacti, for example, store
water in its stem and use it little by little. In some plants, stems act as
reproductive shoots. Potatoes grow from the underground parts of a
stem, acting as food storage and reproductive organs.
Making food and oxygen The point at which the leaf joins the stem
is called the node. The water and nutrients move from the root into the
veins of the leaves. The substances move from the larger leaf veins to
smaller offshoots in the leaf.
Leaves are where the plant produces its food in a process called
photosynthesis. To make its food or energy, plants need water, carbon
dioxide (a gas in the air), and energy from the sun. The same compound
in plants that supplies its green color, chlorophyll, is also responsible for
collecting the suns energy.
The products of photosynthesis results in sugars and oxygen. The
sugars are what the plant uses for food and the oxygen is released into the
Plant Anatomy
air. In photosynthesis, plants take in more carbon dioxide and release more oxygen than the
amount of oxygen they need in respiration. That
means plants end up producing more oxygen
than they consume.
releases
oxygen
sunlight
carbon
dioxide
A leaf s surface has microscopic openings

called stomata, named after the Greek word for
mouth. The stomata open and close regularly to
exchange gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. The plant will also lose its water in the form
of water vapor when the stomata are open. In
plants, this loss of water is called transpiration.
For most plants transpiration occurs primarily on the leaves. Water can
also escape from leaves in the form of liquid. When a plant takes in too
much water, the water can escape through pores in the leaves.
All shapes and sizes The structure and type of leaf depends upon
the plants environment. Cacti are found in deserts, which are extremely
dry. Leaves of a cactus are few and small to keep it from losing
water. Shaped like sharp needles, the leaves also keep hungry or thirsty
animals away.
To make its food or energy,

plants need water, carbon
dioxide (a gas in the air), and
energy from the sun.
NEL SO N.
Where a leaf sits on the stem helps determine how much sunlight it
will get. In some plants the leaves spiral up a stem and in others they sit on
opposite sides of the stem. Another leaf arrangement, called the whorl, is
when several leaves shoot out from the same point.
Because capturing the suns energy is essential for a plants survival,
plants living in low sunlight areas have made several adaptations. These
can be plants that live low to the ground or deep inside a lush forest. In
some plants, the stalks of the lower leaves reach longer than the ones
above it. This is one reason why there are many
cone-shaped plants, such as pine trees. Some
leaves on upper parts have holes or notches that
allow the sunlight to shine through. Leaves can
arrange themselves into mosaics, such as an ivycovered wall or leaves growing around trees. In
these leaf patterns the arrangement allows each
leaf to be exposed to the sun. There are other
plants that have adapted to the shade by growwhorled
ing wide, large leaves.
Where a leaf sits on the stem

helps determine how much
sunlight it will get.
NEL SO N.
alternate
opposite
885
Plant Anatomy
WORDS TO KNOW
Anatomy: The study of the structure of living things.
photosynthesis.
Osmosis: The movement of fluids and substances dissolved in liquids across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of greater
concentration to an area of lesser concentration until all substances involved reach a
balance.
and water into carbohydrates, releasing oxygen

as a by-product.
Phloem: The plant tissue that carries dissolved
nutrients through the plant.
Respiration: The process of an organism using
oxygen for its life processes.
Root hairs: Fine, hair-like extensions from the
plants root.
Transpiration: Evaporation of water in the form of
water vapor from the stomata on the surfaces
of leaves and stems of plants.
an experiment.
nutrients. (Pronounced ZY-lem.)
EXPERIMENT 1
Plant Hormones: What is the affect of
hormones on root and stem growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis Gibberellic acid is a group of growth hormones that are
produced naturally in plants. Gibberellic acid plays a role in how plants

develop and grow. In this experiment, you will test the affect of giving plants
Gibberellic acid at different points of its life cycle to evaluate how the hormone
affects the root and stem growth. You will apply Gibberellic acid during the
seed stage for one experimental set-up and shortly after the plant has sprouted
for the second set-up. By measuring the stem length and comparing root
growth, you will be able to see how the hormone has affected development.
Because Gibberellic acid is dissolved is in a water solution, this experiment will also help you observe how plants take in essential nutrients
through water.
886
Plant Anatomy

your knowledge of plant growth and hormones.


environmental temperature
time given for experiment
type of plant
how the growth hormone is applied

soil nutrient content
everything that might affect the growth of the
plant. If you change more than one variable at the
same time, you will not be able to tell which variexperiment: Plants that receive hormones at the
able impacted the plants root and stem growth.
youngest stage, as a seed, will show more stem
and root growth than the other plants.
the stage in the growth cycle that Gibberellic acid is given to the plant.
The variable you will measure is the plant stem and root growth.
will change between the control and the experimental plants, and that is
the Gibberellic acid. For the control, you will not apply any Gibberellic
acid to the plant. At the end of the experiment you will compare this
group of plants to the others.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, due to the time involved.
Materials Needed
1 packages of seeds: radishes, peas, and geraniums work well

1 peat pellet or similar type starter pot, with a cover (available at
gardening stores); or 3 small pots with potting soil
Gibberellic acid (available at some gardening stores or science
supply stores)
fingernail polish remover (with acetone)
2 plastic bottles
distilled water
887
Plant Anatomy
ruler
2 stirring spoons
measuring cup
Wash your hands and clean up your work area
after you have planted the seeds.

Timetable 20 minutes preparation time; five
minutes daily for approximately six weeks.

1. Mark one pot Group 1; the second pot Group 2; and the
third pot Control.
Step 2: Add two to four drops of

fingernail polish to each bottle
and swirl until the Gibberellic
acid is dissolved. I LL UST RA T IO N BY T EM AH NE LS ON.
2. Tear two small pieces of wax paper and place a large pinch of
Gibberellic acid (GA) on each sheet. Try to have the same amount
of GA on each sheet. If you have a sensitive gram scale you can
weigh the sheets to make sure they are equal. Pour one pinch of
GA in one bottle and the second pinch of GA in the second bottle.
Add two to four drops of fingernail polish
to each bottle and swirl until the Gibberellic acid is dissolved.
3. Add a cup of distilled water to the first
bottle and mix with a spoon. This is the
GA solution you will use to water Group 1.
4. Add a cup of distilled water to the second
bottle and set aside. This is the GA solution you will use to water Group 2.
5. Plant the seeds as directed. You should
plant at least two seeds in each Group and
in the Control group.
6. Water Group 1 as directed using the
mixed GA solution. Water Group 2 and
the Control seeds with plain water.
7. Cover (if you have one) and set aside in a
warm environment. Continue watering
the seeds as needed. Use the GA solution
for Group 1 until all the water is used and
then use only water.
888
Plant Anatomy
8. When the seeds germinate, use a ruler to

measure the growth. You may want to
sketch the growth.
contro
l
group 2
ou
gr
9. When Group 2 has grown approximately

0.79 in (2 centimeters), mix the second
bottle of GA solution with a spoon and
begin watering these young plants with
the GA water. Continue watering Group
2 with its GA solution until the solution is
gone and then switch back to plain water.
10. Check on the plants every day and water
when needed. After approximately five to
six weeks measure stem and root growth.
11. To measure stem growth: Use a ruler to
compare the height of each stem and make
a note.
12. To measure root growth: Carefully, lift the Group 1 plants out of
the pots and immerse in a container of warm water. Allow the
plants to soak for 15 minutes and gently rub the soil off the roots.
Set these plants aside and mark them as Group 1. Repeat this same
process for the Group 2 and Control plants.
Step 9: Mix the second bottle of

GA solution with a spoon and
begin watering these plants
with the GA water. I LLU ST RATIO N BY TEM AH N EL SON .
13. Use a ruler to measure the longest roots for each of the plants. You
may want to draw the root growth.
14. When you have finished with your analysis and experiment, you
can replant the plants and continue growing them.
Summary of Results If you had two plants grow
Step 13: Use a ruler to measure

the longest roots for each of the
plants. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
in each group, average the stem height for the

group. Look at how the two experimental plants
compare to the Control plants. If you have made
sketches or drawings during the experiment,
compare how each of the groups compares to
the control during the experiment. You may
want to create a graph to record the germination
and height of each group. Did the seeds given
Gibberellic acid show more or less growth than
the young plants? If you want to continue following the plants growth, you can measure
889
Plant Anatomy
Problem: All the plants grew about the same
and at the same rate.
Possible cause: The Gibberellic acid may not
have been dissolved in the water. Gibberellic
acid does not dissolve in water but it does
dissolve in acetone (fingernail polish
remover) or alcohol. Make sure the nail polish
remover you used contains acetone. If it does
not, you can use several drops of rubbing
alcohol and mix it thoroughly with the GA.
Problem: None of the seeds sprouted.
Possible cause: There can be several reasons why
your plants did not grow. Check to make sure
you are using nutrient-rich soil and make sure
you did not over water them. You may want to
ask the advice of a friend or adult who grows
plants. If none of the seeds germinated the seeds
may all have been unhealthy. Purchase another
bag of seeds and repeat the experiment.
flowering and leaf growth. You may need to

transfer the young plants to a larger pot.
Change the Variables One variable you can
change is the type of plant. Not all plants respond

the same way to Gibberellic acid. Choose plants
that flower, for example, and measure how the
growth hormone affects flowering? You could also
change the concentration of Gibberellic acid,
using both more and less concentrated GA solutions. Another variable you could change is how
the growth hormone is applied. In this experiment you added it to the soil. What would happen if you sprayed the water on the leaves?
EXPERIMENT 2
Water Uptake: How do
different plants differ in
their water needs?
Purpose/Hypothesis The amount of water plants
need to live depends upon the type of plant.

Different plants take in different amount of water
at various times. Some plants need a constant
supply of water and cannot survive in extremely
dry soil. Other plants take in their water in spurts,
drying out before they need more water.
In this experiment, you will be measuring how different plants take in
water through its roots. You will use a form of potometer, which can
measure the rate of water uptake. The main reason for water uptake by a
plant is transpiration. You will test young plants with different size leaves:
One has broader, larger leaves relative to the other plant, which has small
little leaves. When testing different plants, you will need to try and keep the
plants as similar as possible, in both size and leaves.
To begin this experiment, use what you know about plant anatomy
to make an educated guess about how the different plants will take up
water. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
890
Plant Anatomy

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The plant with the broadest and largest
leaves will take up the most water.
the type of plant, and the variable you will measure is the amount of water taken up by the plant,
during the day and night, over several days.
Level of Difficulty Moderate to Difficult. (This
experiment takes patience and an attention to

detail.)
Materials Needed

the type of plant
the amount of plant used
the amount of sun or temperature
the amount of time before water uptake
is measured
the humidity
the amount of wind
are everything that might affect the water uptake
of the plants. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
most affected the plants need for water.
2 clamps (available at hardware stores)

pothos seeds (also called devils ivy; you
can try other plants with large, broad leaves)
sweat pea seeds (you can also try other plants with small leaves)
1, 10-section peat pellet or similar type starter pot with a cover
(available at gardening stores); you can replace this with 2 to 3
cups of potting soil and an egg carton
ring stand (available at science supplies stores; a vertical wooden
paper towel holder also works well.)
plastic tubing with a 1/4-inch diameter opening, about 3 feet
(available at hardware stores)
scissors
1 ml. plastic pipette, 1/4-inch diameter (available from science
supply stores)
Vaseline (petroleum jelly)
plastic wrap
small bowl
knife or scissors
toothpicks
copper wire, chopsticks, or other thin long item
891
Plant Anatomy

Be careful when cutting the tubing with the
scissors. Have an adult help you cut the plastic
pipette with a knife or scissors
Timetable Approximately two hours working
time; total time three to four weeks. Note: this

experiment asks for measurements in 12-hour
increments. Try to begin the experiment in the
morning or evening.
Step 9: Carefully set the plants

roots into the tube. I LL UST RA T IO N BY T EM AH NE LS ON.
892
1. Follow the direction for the peat pellet or add soil to the sections in
the egg carton and plant several seeds of both plants.
2. Continue caring for the plant according to the instructions until at
least one of each type of plant is approximately 2 to 3 inches (58
centimeters) tall. (The second experimental plant will have three
more days to grow so it can be a slightly smaller than the first
experimental plant.)
3. Fill a small bowl with warm water. Gently, lift the section of soil
holding one of the plants and set it in the bowl. Use your fingers to
carefully remove the dirt, making sure not to harm the roots.
4. Attach both clamps to the ring stand, one
towards the top and one in the middle.
5. Cut the plastic pipette about half an inch
from the bottom to widen it. You made
need to have an adult use a knife.
6. Place the pipette into the plastic tube. It
should fit snugly and not move around.
7. Attach the pipette to the middle clamp
and the plastic tube to the top clamp. The
plastic tube should go to about the top of
the ring stand. Cut off any extra tubing.
8. Fill the tube with water until water moves
up to the 1ml. mark on the pipette.
9. Carefully set the plants roots into the
tube. You may need a toothpick or other
small object to poke down the roots.
10. To seal the plant from the air, tape plastic
wrap around the opening between the
roots and tube. Spread petroleum jelly
Plant Anatomy
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
on any openings between the plant and

the plastic wrap.
Make sure the water mark is at the 1 ml.
mark and there are no bubbles. You may
need to add more water if any spilled. Use
a long, thin utensil or wire to poke in the
water and pop any bubbles.
Set a small plastic cup or deep bottle cap
on the end of the open end of the
pipette.
Note the time and water level on a chart.
In 12-hour increments, note the water
level over the next two to three days.
Repeat Steps 814 for the second type of
plant. Try to match the number of leaves
and height of the first plant.
Summary of Results Graph the water uptake for each of the plants,
broken into the 12-hour periods of day and night. Did the plant with
the larger leaf need more water? Was there a pattern to when either plant
took in water? Summarize your results in writing.
Change the Variables There are many ways you
can vary this experiment. Once you have the

setup for the potometer, you can examine how
environmental conditions affect water uptake
and loss. You can use a fan for wind, or test
humidity. How does the amount of indoor light
or Sun affect different plants?
Step 10: Tape plastic wrap

around the opening between
the roots and tube. I LL UST RA TIO N BY TEM AH N EL SON .
Step 14: In 12 hour increments,

note the water level over the
next 2 to 3 days. IL LUS TR ATIO N BY TEM AH N EL SON .
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept There are many aspects of plant anat-
omy you can further explore, either as a project

or as an experiment. Look around at what plants
are growing in your local area. Consider how
plants growing near streets and human activity
differ from the plants growing in more remote
893
Plant Anatomy
Problem:The water was almost used up.
Possible cause: The seal that locked the plant
stem into the tube may not have been tight,
which would have allowed water to evaporate
into the air. Try the experiment again, making
sure to use enough plastic wrap and Vaseline.
Problem:The two tests were extremely
different.
Possible cause: There may have been bubbles
in the liquids. Bubbles are air that take the place
of the water. Repeat the experiment, looking
carefully for bubbles as you fill the tubing and
making sure to pop all bubbles.
areas. As you observe the different types of

plants, examine the properties of the leaves and
stems.
Check the Further Readings section for this
topic, and talk with a teacher or gardener to help
you formulate a topic. You might want to visit
a local greenhouse (nursery) to see a wide variety
of plants.

sure what question youre answering, what you

propose to do.
question at hand.
your question.
Related Projects Plant anatomy is a broad topic. You can take advantage
of the many species of plants to conduct an experiment that highlights

894
Plant Anatomy
one aspect of the anatomy. You could compare the characteristics and
behavior of a desert plant, such as a cactus, with a water plant. You could
study the adaptations of the leaves and roots of different plant species.
You could also investigate in more detail how water transpires from leaves
by examining a plant under a microscope.
Another related project could focus on how water allows a plant to
acquire its essential nutrients. Plants will usually get their nutrients from
the soil, once the nutrients dissolve in water and are pulled into the plant.
Some plants do not need soil to get their nutrients. Hydroponics is the
technique of growing plants in water that contains dissolved nutrients.
A hydroponics experiment could vary the nutrients in the water or
the plants.

Andrew Rader Studios. Plant Basics. Raders Biology4kids.com. http://www.
biology4kids.com/files/plants main.html (accessed on April 9, 2008).
Information on plant biology and structures.
Black, David, and Anthony Huxley. Plants. New York: Facts on File, 1985.
Readable scientific introduction to plants.
Bruce, Anne. Water movement through a plant. Microscopy UK. http://www.
microscopy uk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt.html (accessed on April 9,
2008). Explains how water moves through plants; includes informative
pictures.
Missouri Botanical Garden. Biology of Plants. http://www.mbgnet.net/bioplants
(accessed on April 9, 2008). Basic information about plant biology and life.
PlantingScience. http://www.plantingscience.org (accessed on April 9, 2008).
Examples of student research projects, images, and resources to collect plant
information.
Suzuki, David and Kathy Vanderlinden. Eco-Fun. Vancouver: BC: Greystone
Books, 2001. Project and experiments related to plants and the environment.
Taylor, Barbara. Inside Guides: Incredible Plants. New York: DK Publishing,
1997. Large illustrations and clear information on the parts of a plant.
895
Plants and Water
P
Water enters a plant through
the plants root hairs. The root
hairs absorb the water through a
process called osmosis.
CO PY RI GHT # KEL LY
A. QUI N.
lants are a diverse group of organisms that include over 250,000

species. They live in a range of environmental conditions, from
mountaintops to the ocean floor. They can claim the worlds largest
organism, a redwood tree that can stretch to a height of 364 feet (110
meters), and the worlds oldest organism, the 4,700-year-old bristlecone
pine tree.
Without plants, life on Earth as it is now could not exist. Plants make
their own food by photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of the
Sun to make sugar and oxygen. Humans and
other organisms use the oxygen released by photosynthesis to survive. Plants are also used for
food, shelter, and protection by organisms in
every known environment.
Plants depend on water for several essential
functions. Water is needed for photosynthesis
and to help transport nutrients through a plants
system. Most growing plants contain about 90%
water. This water maintains the plants internal
temperature and provides it structure. Without
water or with too much water, a plant dies. How
plants take in water and what they do with it is
essential for their survival.
Rooting water flow Water enters a plant
through the plants root hairs, hundreds of fine
hairs that extend out from the root. These hairs
suck in the water that lies between the soil particles. Most of the nutrients that a plant needs are
dissolved in this water. The root hairs absorb the
water through a process called osmosis. Osmosis
897
Plants and Water
Osmosis is the movement of water

through the cell membrane from an
area of high water concentration
to an area of low water
concentration. GA LE GRO UP.
cell
membrane
898
is the movement of water from an area where there is a high concentration

of water to an area of low water concentration through the cell membrane, the layer that encircles and holds the parts of a cell together. The
cells membrane is semipermeable, meaning it allows some things to pass
through the membrane and prevents others from passing.
Once inside the root hair, the plant uses osmosis to move the water into
the xylem (pronounced ZY-lem). The xylem are long tubes or vessels made
up of bundles of dead cells with tough cell walls. Xylem vessels transport
water to all parts of the plant, from the root to the leaves. Water in the xylem
is mainly drawn upwards through osmosis because there is a continual need
for water in the outer leaves of a plant. Water in leaves is constantly
evaporating or turning into water vapor. Water vapor is water in its gas
state. The low concentration of water in the leaves pulls the water upwards.
In plants, this loss of water is called transpiration. For most plants
transpiration occurs primarily on the leaves. A leafs surface has tiny pores
called stomata that open and close regularly to exchange gases, such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide. When stomata are open, the plant loses water
or transpires.
Like evaporation, transpiration occurs more rapidly in hot, dry weather.
In most plants there are more stomata located on the underside of the leaves.
This ensures the plant will not lose too much water since it is transpiring on
the side facing away from the sun. Some plants
have tiny hairs that protect them from transpiring
too much. Other plants are protected from excess
less water
inside than
water loss by a waxy film covering the outer layer
outside
of the leaves. Desert plants have thorns in place of
leaves to avoid losing too much water.
Standing up straight Aside from providing
a plants basic food and water requirements,
water maintains a plant cells structure and
water
molecules
shape. The visible sign that a plant has taken in
enough water is when it stands up straight and
shows no sign of limpness.
less water
In a plant cell the membrane is surrounded by a
outside than
rigid
cell wall. Inside the cell wall in the center of the
inside
plant cell there is a large, liquid compartment called
a vacuole (pronounced VAK-yoo-ole). Vacuoles
transport and store nutrients, waste products, and
other molecules. A vacuole is also the area in the cell
Plants and Water
where water collects. When water enters the

vacuole, it causes pressure to build inside the cell.
The pressure of the vacuole pushing outwards on
transpires
the cells is called turgor pressure. The strong cell
through leaves
walls keep the buildup of water from bursting the
cell, which results in increased pressure.
Turgor pressure of all the neighboring cells
is what allows a plant to stand upright. If a plant
does not have enough water in its cells there is
water absorbed
nothing pressing against the cell walls. This phethrough root hairs
moves up
nomenon causes plasmolysis, meaning when a
through xylem
cell has lost its water, and wilting results. Plasmolysis frequently occurs in plants left in hot
sunny windows and not given enough water. As
long as the cells are still living the turgor pressure
can be increased. Watering the plant will cause
The plant uses osmosis to move
the cells to take in water and the vacuoles again press against the wall to
the water into the xylem. Xylem
straighten the plant.
vessels transport water to all
Turgor pressure also impacts transpiration as it affects whether the
parts of the plant, from the
roots to the leaves. GA LE
stomata (singular: stoma) open. A stoma is surrounded by two guard cells.
GRO UP .
When water enters these surrounding cells, the turgor pressure causes them to
swell and creates an opening between them, which is the stoma. When the
turgor pressure decreases, the cells relax and the stomata close.
Adapting to dry environments In places where water is a rare
resource, such as deserts, plants have had to adapt to survive in the dry,
hot environment. These plants usually have special methods of storing
Turgor pressure is what allows
and conserving water. The desert cacti, for example, have few or no leaves,
a plant to stand upright. GA LE
GRO UP .
which reduces transpiration. Some desert plants
have deep roots to pull up water deep in the
sand. Other plants have shallow roots that thread
out extensively so they can quickly suck up water
turgor pressure
vacuole
close to the surface.
Desert plants can store water in their stems,
cell
leaves, or thick roots. For example, the old man
wall
cactus has a layer of hair that helps it to store
water. This hair can also keep it from losing
not enough water
increased water
water by lessening the drying effects of the wind.
causes the cell
causes vacuole to push
to
deflate
against
cell wall
Some desert plants are dormant, not active,
during dry periods, and then spring to life when
899
Plants and Water
it rains. To avoid the heat of the Sun, many

plants move into action during the night hours.
For example, the Sonoran Deserts saguaro only
opens its white flowers at night.
Some desert plants have adapted by having
smaller or no leaves. On others leaves will have a
thick covering that is coated with a waxy substance
to reduce water loss. Hair on the leaves of plants
helps to reduce the evaporation of moisture from
the surface of leaves by reflecting sunlight.
A wilting plant is a sure sign of

plasmolysis, meaning the plant
is in need of water.
CO PY RI GHT # KE LLY
A . QU IN.
EXPERIMENT 1
Water Flow: How do varying
solutions of water affect the amount of water a plant
takes in and its turgor pressure?
Purpose/Hypothesis To maintain a stable environment, plants move

water in and out of their cells until the concentration of water molecules
is equal on both sides of the cell membrane. Osmosis causes the water to
flow from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. As the plant cells takes in more water, the turgor pressure increases;
when the plant cells take in less water, the turgor pressure decreases.
Changing the concentration of the particles, or solutes, dissolved in
water will change the amount of water present. Adding salt to water, for
example, makes the water have a high concentration of solutes, which is
Turgor pressure causes guard
called a hypertonic solution. A low-solute concentration is called a
cells to open the stoma, causing
hypotonic solution. In osmosis, cells will try to equalize the concentration
transpiration to occur. G AL E
of the solute molecules. A cell placed in a hypoGRO UP.
tonic solution will draw water into its cells to
equalize the solute molecules. A cell in a hypertonic solution will move water out of the cell to
make the solutes more equal.
In this experiment, you will examine the
movement of water in a plant. This experiment
will investigate how varying concentrations of
guard
cell
stoma
salt water affect the amount of water that enters
or leaves a plants cells. You will place a flower in
water molecule
three colored-water solutions, two of which contain different concentrations of salt. You will
900
Plants and Water
WORDS TO KNOW
Cell membrane: The layer that surrounds the cell,
but is inside the cell wall, allowing some molecules to enter and keeping others out of the cell.
Cell wall: A tough outer covering over the cell
membrane of bacteria and plant cells.
Dormant: A state of inactivity in an organism.
experiment.
dissolved in liquids across a semi-permeable
membrane from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration until all
substances involved reach a balance.
Photosynthesis: Chemical process by which
plants containing chlorophyll use sunlight to
manufacture their own food by converting
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates,
releasing oxygen as a by-product.
Plasmolysis: Occurs in walled cells in which cytoplasm, the semifluid substance inside a cell,
shrivels and the membrane pulls away from the
cell wall when the vacuole loses water.
Root hairs: Fine, hairlike extensions from the plants
root.
Transpiration: Evaporation of water in the form of
water vapor from the stomata on the surfaces of
leaves and stems of plants.
Turgor pressure: The force that is exerted on a
plants cell wall by the water within the cell.
Vacuole: An enclosed, space-filling sac within plant
cells containing mostly water and providing
structural support for the cell.
experiment.
nutrients. (Pronounced ZY-lem.)
measure the movement of water in three ways: observing the plants

turgor pressure, observing the water movement in the plant, and weighing the flowers before and after they are placed in the water.
experiment based on your knowledge of plant cells and turgor pressure. This

901
Plants and Water

experiment: Water with a low concentration of
salt will flow into a plants cells and cause an
the amount of salt
increase in turgor pressure and weight; water
the type of plant
with a high concentration of salt will flow out
the water
of a plants cells and cause a decrease in turgor
time of experiment
pressure and weight.
environmental conditions
amount of salt in the water. The variable you will
measure is how much water the plant has drawn into
water the plant draws in or out of its cells. If you
its cells.
able to tell which variable impacted the water
you
isolate each variable and measure the changes
uptake.
plants, and that is the amount of salt. For the control, you will place the
flower in plain water. At the end of the experiment you will compare this
plant with each of the others.
Note: When making a solid-liquid solution (solid/liquid), it is standard to use weight/weight (grams/grams) or weight/volume (grams/milliliters). With water, 1 gram of water equals 1 milliliter. In this experiment,
Step 9: Leave the flowers
undisturbed eight to twelve
hours. GAL E GR OU P.

Materials Needed
902
4 clear plastic cups

3 white carnation flowers
blue food coloring, concentrated
salt
measuring spoons
scale
sharp knife or plant shears
marking pen
Plants and Water

Timetable 45 minutes for setup and followup; 8
to 12 hours waiting.

Handle the knife or scissors carefully when
cutting the stems.
1. Make a 40% weight/weight (gram/gram)

solution of salt water. One gram of water equals 1 milliliter of
water. Add 7 tablespoons (96 grams) of salt to 1 cup (240 milliliters or 240 grams) of warm water. If you have a gram scale you
can measure 40 grams of salt and add that with 100 grams of warm
water. Add the salt slowly and stir after each addition. The salt
should be completely dissolved in the water. Label the cup 40%.
2. To make a 20% solution of salt water, add 3.5 tablespoons (46
grams) of salt to 1 cup (240 milliliters or 240 grams) of warm water.
If you have a gram scale you can measure 20 grams of salt and add
that to 100 grams of water. Label the cup 20%.
3. Allow the water to cool to room temperature.
4. Fill up a cup with plain water. Label the cup Control.
5. Stir several drops of blue dye into each cup for a strong blue color.
6. Carefully cut each carnations stem under cool running water.
7. Dry off the stems and weigh each flower.
8. Place one carnation in each of the cups of water.
9. Leave the flowers undisturbed 8 to 12
hours.
10. In a chart, describe the turgor pressure of
each flower relative to the 20 percent salt
Flowers
concentration. Weigh each flower and
40%
20%
control
note in the chart. Examine the blue
starting
waters movement and note whether the
weight
water has entered each flower.
final
weight
Summary of Results Examine the chart. Has the
water entered some flower or flowers more than

others? If the blue water is not visible in the
white flower of the carnation, you may want to
carefully cut the bottom part of the stem to see
if the water has entered the flower. Observe the
stems bottom of each flower and the petals of
amount of
turgor
pressure
color
903
Plants and Water

the carnations. Look at the before and after

weights of each flower. How do the test flowers
compare to the control flowers? In any flower
that took up the water, describe how the water
entered the petals. Write a paragraph describing
your results and explanations of what occurred.
Problem: The water did not go move at all or

barely moved into any of the carnations.
Possible cause: You may have started out with

a flower that was dead. Purchase another
flower and repeat the experiment.
Possible cause: You may have crushed the stem
when you cut it. Try the experiment again,
making sure to cut the stem under cool
water. Cutting under water prevents the
flowers from taking in air instead of water.
Problem: The flower was heavier and the turgor
pressure increased but water did not go
appear to enter the plant.
Possible cause: The water may have moved
into the plant but you were not able to see it
because the color was not strong enough.
Make sure you are using a nonsweetened
concentrated dye. Blue ink works well also.
Repeat the experiment, making sure the
water is a rich blue color.
ment several ways:

Change the type of flower or plant you use.
Celery stalks, with leaves, and white-colored flowers with large stems work well.
Alter the solute you put in the water to
another substance, such as sugar.
Decrease or increase the amount of time
the plant is sitting in the solution.
Change the environmental conditions of
the plant by placing one flower under a
heat lamp or out in the sun, and another
in a cool, dark place.
EXPERIMENT 2
Transpiration: How do different
environmental conditions affect
plants rates of transpiration?
Purpose/Hypothesis All plants transpire. The
rate of transpiration depends on a plants physical properties and its

environmental conditions. As transpiration occurs mainly on the leaf, a
general rule is that plants with larger leaves will transpire more than plants
with smaller leaves.
In this experiment, you will examine the environmental factors that
affect a plants transpiration rate. Using the same type and size plants, you
will vary the amount of heat and wind each plant receives. You will place
one plant in a warm environment, a second plant in a windy environment, and a third plant in a cool, calm environment.
experiment based on your knowledge of plants and transpiration. This
904
Plants and Water



environmental conditions, temperature

and wind
time given for experiment
type of plant
leaf size
leaf shape
experiment: Plants that receive more heat and
soil content
wind will transpire at a greater rate than plants in
a cool, calm environment.
water that the plant transpires. If you change
environment of the plant. The variable you will
measure is the amount of water the plant transpires.
will not be able to tell which variable impacted
the plants rate of transpiration.
plants, and that is the change to its environment. For the control, you will
place the plant in a standard indoor environment. At the end of the
experiment you will compare this plant with each of the others.
Materials Needed
four potted plants with large leaves; make sure the leaves are not
waxy or hairy: geraniums, caladiums, coleus, and philodendrons
work well
four plastic sandwich bags
wire ties
small fan
four small dry sponges
scale
905
Plants and Water
Timetable 1 hour preparation time; 24 hours
waiting.

This experiment poses no safety hazards. For
the plants health, when you have completed
the experiment remove the plastic sandwich
bags and care for the plant as directed.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1. Assign each plant a number. On each

plant, place a sandwich bag over a group
of three to four leaves. Choose leaves that
are of equal dimensions.
Fasten each bag securely on the stem with a wire tie.
Place one plant in the direct sunlight or under a heat lamp. Place
one plant in a dark, covered area. Place the third plant in front of
the fan and turn the fan on low. Leave the control plant indoors
and set it aside.
After 24 hours note the results of any water in the bags.
Weigh a dry sponge and record the weight.
Carefully, soak up all the water in the bag with the sponge.
Reweigh the sponge and record the weight.
Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for every plant, using a new sponge each time.
Summary of Results Create a data table to record your observations.
Subtract the weight of the dry sponge from the final weight of the wet
control
Step 3: Place each plant in a

different environmental
condition. GAL E GR OU P.
906
Plants and Water
sponge to calculate the weight of the water each

plant transpired. Was your hypothesis correct?
For additional information, you could determine the area of each of the leaves and calculate
the rate of transpiration for the entire plant.
Hypothesize what adaptations outside plants
could make to transpire less, compared to the
characteristics of indoor plants.
Change the Variables There are several ways that
you can change this experiment. One variable you

can change is the type of plant. Choose another
plant with a broader leaf. With a larger bag, you
can also conduct the transpiration experiment on
trees. You can lengthen the amount of time the
plants transpire. You can also alter the environmental conditions, such as producing a humid
environment or a dry environment.
Problem: Some of the bags did not contain
moisture.
Possible cause: The bags may not have been
sealed tightly and the water vapor escaped.
You can try to seal the bag with a rubber
band or fasten the tie tightly. Repeat the
experiment, checking that there are no leaks
or holes in the bag.
Problem: It looked like there was water in the
bags, but it weighed nothing.
Possible cause: Your scale may not be sensitive
enough to register the weight. If possible,
borrow a more sensitive scale from your
school and repeat the experiment. You could
also note the results visually.
You come into contact with plants every day

through your diet and environment. Observe the plants that are around
you as you prepare to design an experiment. You could also visit a
greenhouse and examine the different species of plants available.
teacher to learn more about plants and water. You could also talk with
a botanist in your area or a professional who works with plants.
907
Plants and Water

selected.
Your data should include charts and graphs such

as the one you did for these experiments. They
should be clearly labeled and easy to read. You
may also want to include photographs and drawings of your experimental setup and results,
which will help other people visualize the steps
in the experiment.
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may
want to display your results, such as any experimental setup you designed. If you have completed a nonexperimental project, explain clearly
what your research question was and illustrate
your findings.
Desert plants, such as the organ
pipe cactus, have developed
special methods of storing and
conserving water to survive in
the dry, hot environment.
F IEL D M ARK PUB LI CAT IO NS.
Related Projects You can take advantage of the
many species of plants to conduct an experiment

with plants and water. For example, you could compare the characteristics and behavior of a desert plant, such as a cactus, with a water plant.
How does transpiration differ in the two species of plants? You could
study the adaptations related to transpiration in a variety of plant species.
Covering one side of a leaf with petroleum jelly will allow you to
determine where transpiration occurs in a plants leaves. You could also
investigate in more detail how water flows into a plant by examining
parts of a plants stem, leaves, roots, and cells under a powerful
microscope.
Another related project could focus on how water allows a plant to
acquire its essential nutrients. Plants will usually get their nutrients from
the soil, once the nutrients dissolve in water and are pulled into the plant.
Some plants do not need soil to get their nutrients. Hydroponics is the
technique of growing plants in water that contains dissolved nutrients. A
hydroponics experiment could vary the nutrients in the water or the plants.
908
Plants and Water

Andrew Rader Studios. Plant Basics. Raders Biology4kids.com. http://www.
biology4kids.com/files/plants main.html (accessed on February 8, 2008).
Information on plant biology and structures.
Black, David, and Anthony Huxley. Plants. New York: Facts on File, 1985.
Readable scientific introduction to plants.
Bruce, Anne. Water movement through a plant. Microscopy UK. http://www.
microscopy uk.org.uk/mag/artmar00/watermvt.html (accessed on February
12, 2008). Explains how water moves through plants; includes informative
pictures.
Cell Expansion and Differentiation. Ohio State University: Horticulture and
Crop Science in Virtual Perspective. http://www.hcs.ohio state.edu/hcs300/
cell3.htm (accessed on February 12, 2008). Illustrations on turgor pressure
and the cell wall.
Missouri Botanical Garden. Biology of Plants. http://www.mbgnet.net/bioplants
(accessed on February 6, 2008). Basic information about plant biology and
life.
United States Department of Agriculture. Plants Database. http://plants.usda.
gov/ (accessed on February 6, 2008). Provides a list of plants in every state,
along with images of many plants.
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Celebrating Wildflowers.
http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/index.shtml (accessed on February 16,
2008). Variety of information on a wide range of plants.
909
Polymers
olymers are everywhere, both inside us and around us. The word
comes from the Greek words poly, meaning many, and meros,
meaning parts. A polymer is a material composed of long string of
repeating molecular units. They can contain a chain of hundreds to
thousands of these units, in the shape of a single straight chain or multiple
branching chains. The type and number of the repeating units, along with
how the polymer connects to other polymers, determine the physical
properties of that polymer.
Polymers are valuable in both nature and industry because they can
have great strength and durability, yet be lightweight. There are both
natural and synthetic, or manmade, polymers. Proteins, silk, and starches
are polymers found in nature. Understanding how polymers function in
the natural world has led not only to advancements in biology, but also to
the development of synthetic polymers that have revolutionized numerous products and fields. Space science depends on synthetic polymers for
their space vehicles and equipment. In medicine polymers are used in
heart valves, artificial skin, and organ replacements. Plastic bags, nylon,
rugs, and fabrics are examples of synthetic polymers that people commonly use.
Chain properties One of the first polymers created was due to the
popular sport of billiards in the late 1800s. At that time, billiard balls were
made of ivory, a material in short supply even then. An American
inventor won a contest to find a material to replace the ivory. He took
the basic structural material that makes up plant cell walls and treated it
with chemicals. The result was the polymer celluloida shiny, hard
material that could be molded when hot. This type of plastic became
commonly used in X-ray film and motion picture film. In the early 1900s
the first synthetic polymer from a nonnatural substance was developed.
That was soon followed by the first synthetic fiber, rayon. Companies
911
Polymers
Silly Putty is a synthetic rubber

polymer. A P/W ID E WO RL D
Monomers string together like

beads on a string to form a
polymer. GA LE GRO UP.
912
began to get involved in developing polymers,

and the study of polymers began in earnest.
Polymers start off from tiny units called
monomers. To make a polymer, monomers are
strung together like beads to form a long polymer chain. A polymer can be made up of billions
or trillions of monomers. The chemical reaction
that makes polymers from monomers is called
polymerization.
Each bead on the chain is the basic unit. In
many cases, the chain links on a polymer are
made up of only carbon atoms. The carbon-carbon bond is a strong
one and this gives these polymers strength. In other cases, the chain units
are made of nitrogen, oxygen, and/or silicon.
Many classes of polymers are made of just carbon and hydrogen. In
these polymers, carbon makes up the basic links in the chain, and hydrogen atoms are bonded along the carbon backbone. For example, the
common plastic polyethylene, which is found in grocery bags, juice
containers, and bottles, is one such polymer. Composed of the monomer
ethylene, polyethylene is composed of a chain of carbon atoms bonded
together, with each carbon atom attached to two hydrogen atoms.
What kind is it? Because there are so many
different kinds of polymers, there are also many
different ways to classify them, depending on
their properties. There are some polymers that
Monomers
are flexible and others are that are hard. Elastomers are polymers that have an elastic or rubbery
behavior. They can be stretched or bent, but
spring back to their original shape. Other polymers, such as a fishing line, are hard and difficult
to stretch. Some polymers can be heated and
reheated repeatedly. Others will undergo a permanent chemical change if they are heated,
which will alter their properties.
One way polymers are differentiated is
according to their mechanical properties, such
as tensile strength. A polymers tensile strength is
the force needed to stretch a material until it
breaks. Elongation is another mechanical
Polymers
property. A polymers elongation is the percentage increase in length that occurs before it breaks
under tension.
Physical properties of polymers are another
way to group them. The chain length of a polymer plays a major role in the polymers physical
properties and behavior. One factor that affects
tensile strength is the chain length or the molecular weight. As a general rule, polymers with a
higher molecular weight produce stiffer, stronger, and denser materials. The greater the molecular weight, the higher the tensile strength.
Polyethylene
How the chains are arranged also affects the physical properties of a
polymer. The chains in a polymer can tangle up with each other, like a
plate of spaghetti. This makes many polymers incredibly durable. The
chains can be either linear (straight), branched, or cross-linked.
Many polymers are made of

hydrogen atoms bonded along a
carbon backbone. GAL E
GRO UP .
Getting rid of polymers The positive qualities in polymerstheir

durability, strength, and lightnessbring with them the challenge of how
to get rid of many of these products. Enormous quantities of disposable,
synthetic polymers are produced every year in the United States alone.
Plastic wrap, food containers,

and bags are synthetic polymers
commonly used in the average
household. C OP YRI GH T #
KE LL Y A. QUI N.
913
Polymers
The production of these materials is causing

concerns for the environment.
Many of the products are plastics and are
linear
not biodegradable, meaning that they do not
break down naturally and quickly into the raw
materials of nature. Plastic soda can rings, for
example, can take an estimated 400 years to
break down!
Recycling these plastics will help reduce the
branched
amount of garbage in the environment. When
plastics are recycled they are reprocessed and
made into new products. Yet different methods
are used to recycle different materials, and there
can be multiple polymers in a persons garbage.
Most plastics and bottles are made from six
polymers. The plastics industry has developed a
cross-linked
chart to distinguish the six polymers from each
other: A specific number is written in a threeThe arrangement of a polymer
arrow triangle that is imprinted on most plastic products. Polymers
chain has an impact on its
physical properties, such as density, are also used to separate the different
physical properties. G AL E
types. People are encouraged to recycle and separate their plastic containGRO UP.
ers. In the meantime, researchers are working to develop polymers with
improved biodegradability.
EXPERIMENT 1
Polymer Strength: What are the tensile
properties of certain polymers that make
them more durable than others?
Purpose/Hypothesis Tensile strength is one key test that researchers
conduct on polymers. A polymers tensile strength depends on what

molecules make up the polymer, as well as the orientation of the polymers. Polymers align themselves as long chains. These chains are aligned
parallel to each other and tangle together in many synthetic polymers.
When pulled lengthwise, these chains can stretch a great distance before
breaking. However, widthwise it is only the entanglements that hold the
polymers together. In this direction the polymer will break much more
easily. Companies make many synthetic polymers by manufacturing the
long chains of polymers parallel to each other along the length of the
914
Polymers
product. This results in a strong bond lengthwise, from top to bottom, and a weak bond
widthwise, from left to right.
In this experiment you will test in what
direction the orientation of the polymer is strongest: lengthwise or widthwise. The polymer you
will use will be any plastic bag. Most plastic bags
are made of the polymer polyethylene. To test a
polymers tensile strength, one end of the polymer is held stationary while a force is applied to
the other end until the sample breaks. Before the
sample breaks it elongates, or lengthens.
Tensile testing is usually done on samples
shaped like a dogbone. The size of the sample
can vary, but the shape is important. Almost all
the elongation will occur in the narrow section of
the dogbone. Elongation occurs in the thinnest
section because it is the weakest.
You will test plastic samples in both directions by taping one end of the samples to a
stationary object and attaching a weight to the
opposite end. You will increase the weight incrementally, measuring the
plastics elongation after each addition of the weight, until the plastic
breaks. Samples should always break in the thinnest section, the middle of
the dogbone. For increased accuracy, you will conduct three trials for
both the lengthwise and widthwise direction.
what you think will occur based on your knowledge of polymer strength
and orientation. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis.
A mound of plastic products

awaits reprocessing at a Des
Moines, Iowa, recycling
facility. AP /WI DE W OR LD


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The plastic bag cut in the
915
Polymers
WORDS TO KNOW
Biodegradable: Capable of being decomposed by
biological agents.
group.
Elastomers: Any of various polymers having
rubbery properties.
Elongation: The percentage increase in length
that occurs before a material breaks under
tension.
experiment.

the type of plastic bag (polymer) used
the amount of weight
Monomer: A small molecule that can be combined

with itself many times over to make a large
molecule, the polymer.
Polymerization: The bonding of two or more
monomers to form a polymer.
laboratory or chemical plant, but is generally
Tensile strength: The force needed to stretch a
material until it breaks.
an experiment.
lengthwise direction will support far more

weight than the sample cut widthwise.
change will be the orientation of the polymer
chains, and the variable you will measure will
be the amount of weight the polymer can hold
before it breaks.
the direction the polymer is cut

the size of the cut polymer
the shape of the cut polymer
everything that might affect the amount of
weight the polymer can hold. If you change
tell which variable impacted the polymers
strength.
916
Materials Needed
bar to hold the clothes hanger or plastic

sample (clothing rod works well).
sturdy clothes hanger with a stiff, straight
section across the bottom (wood or very
stiff metal)
2 plastic garbage bags (white or light color)
scissors
Polymers
wide duct tape

a 2-liter empty plastic bottle
string
Be careful when using the scissors.
wastebasket or bucket to catch plastic
bottle
water
funnel
measuring cup
piece of 8.5-inch by 11-inch (216-millimeter by 280-millimeter)
paper
marking pen
Step 1: The dogbone template.
GA LE G RO UP.

Timetable 1 hour.
1. Trace the template of the dogbone (refer

to the illustration) on the paper and cut
out the paper.
2. To determine the lengthwise direction of
the bag, stretch the bag gently in each
direction and determine which way has
the least pull. This is the lengthwise direction. It is not always the top-to-bottom
direction of the bag. Mark the top and
the bottom with the marking pen.
3. Lay the plastic bag in the lengthwise, topto-bottom, direction and place the paper
template over the bag. Cut out the plastic
bag, making sure the cuts are smooth.
4. Repeat Step 3 two more times so that you
have three dogbone-shaped pieces of
plastic. Mark each piece with an L for
lengthwise.
5. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 in the crosswise
direction. Mark each piece with a C
for crosswise.
measuring
area
917
Polymers
6. On each of your samples draw a line

across the beginning and end of the
mid-section of the bone. This will be
the area you will measure.
Measuring
area
7. Attach one end of a plastic sample to the

hanger with duct tape, wrapping the tape
firmly around the hanger.
8. Attach another piece of duct tape to the
bottom of the plastic. In the center of this
bottom piece of duct tape make a small
hole. Put a string around the neck of the
2-liter bottle and attach the other end of
the string through the hole. Tie with a
double knot.
Steps 7 and 8: Setup for

9. Measure the length between the top and

bottom marks on the bag and write it
down.
10. Place the wastebasket or bucket on the floor directly under the
bottle. Carefully pour cup of water (60 milliliters) into the
bottle using a funnel. Measure the length between the top and
bottom marks on the bag again and write it down.
11. Continue adding cup (60 milliliters) of water, measuring the
stretch or elongation of the sample after every water addition until
the sample breaks. Note your results.
12. Repeat Steps 7 through 11 for each of the remaining five sample
bags.
Summary of Results Average the three trials of elongation for both the
lengthwise and crosswise polymer orientations. Construct a chart where

Column 1 is the weight of the water, Column 2 is the length of the
sample, and Column 3 is the percent elongation. The percent elongation
is the length of the end sample minus the original length of the sample
divided by the original length of sample. Multiply that number times 100
to get the percent. Percent elongation = [(finished sample lengthoriginal
sample length) divided by original sample length] 100.
Plot a graph of the results with the amount of water on the y-axis and
the percent elongation on the x-axis. Did the samples break at different
weights? Clearly label your graph. Did the samples break at different
918
Polymers
weights? Did the lengthwise or crosswise sample

break first? Write a brief explanation of your
results.
ment in several ways. Try using different types of

plastic, such as a food wrapper compared to a
thick plastic garbage bag. You could experiment
with cutting the bag in the diagonal direction.
Cut out different sizes of the dogbone, using the
same direction and plastic. Does this impact the
plastics elongation?
EXPERIMENT 2
Polymer Slime: How will
adding more of a polymer
change the properties of a
polymer slime?
Purpose/Hypothesis The objective of this
Problem: The plastics break at the top or
bottom.
Possible cause: There could be a slight tear or
cut in the plastic. If it breaks anywhere but
the middle you will need to repeat the
experiment.
Problem: The widthwise-labeled dogbone was
stronger.
Possible cause: You may have mislabeled the
plastics when you first stretched the bag to
determine the lengthwise direction. Repeat
the experiment, making sure to pull gently on
the bag to determine which direction pulls
the least amount.
Problem: The elongation for the three trials
varied greatly.
experiment is to create a cross-linked polymer

Possible cause: You may have changed more
and observe the physical properties of adding
than one variable. Make sure you used the
increased polymer chains. Guar gum is used as
same sturdy hanger for each trial. Was one a
a thickening agent in foods. The guar contains a
thin metal hanger that bent? Could you have
polymer called polysaccharide. Polysaccharide is
mismeasured the water or spilled some as you
a large molecule composed of carbon, oxygen,
were pouring? Repeat the experiment, makand hydrogen atoms joined together in long
ing sure all the variables are equal.
chains, which makes it long and flexible. Because
it is a linear polymer that is not cross-linked, guar
gum pours like a thick solution.
In order to form a slime the linear polysaccharide must be crosslinked to form a three-dimensional network. This creates stronger bonds
between the separate chains. Borax has sodium borate as the active
ingredient. Sodium borate is the cross-linking agent, meaning that it
creates the interconnecting bonds between the carbon and oxygen
atoms that link the linear polymer chains together.
In this experiment you will determine how the amount of a polymer
alters the properties of a mixture. You will make three different polymer
slimes with varying amounts of polysaccharide. The borax will cross-link
919
Polymers

the amount of borax used
the amount of guar gum
the amount of water used
the temperature of the mixture
any added food coloring
are everything that might affect the properties
of the slime. If you change more than one variable at the same time, you will not be able to
slimes physical properties.
the polysaccharides. After you have made the

three different slimes, you will conduct tests to
compare the firmness and elasticity of the slimes.
your knowledge of polymers and their properties.


experiment: Increasing the amount of polymer
in the slime will give the polymer greater firmness and elasticity.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of polymer
you add to your slime. The variables you will measure are the slimes
firmness and elasticity.
When making a solid-liquid solution (solid/liquid), it is standard to
use weight/weight (grams/grams) or weight/volume (grams/milliliters).
With water, 1 gram of water equals 1 milliliter. In this experiment,

Materials Needed
920
borax (found in supermarkets in the laundry section)

guar gum (a thickener agent; found in health food stores)
water
four stirring rods or spoons
measuring spoons
scale or measuring cup
resealable bags
food coloring (optional)
Polymers
four clear mixing bowls [to see if the

materials dissolved]
marking pen
masking tape
latex gloves

Borax is a weak bleaching agent. Avoid contact
with your eyes and face. Use latex gloves when
handling the slime as a precaution. Do not
ingest any of the slimes. Wash all the bowls,
spoons, and other utensils afterwards.
1. Pour one-half of a cup (120 milliliters or 120 grams) of water into

a bowl.
2. Add 1 teaspoon of borax (sodium borate) to the water and stir
until completely dissolved. The solution should be clear.
3. Label the solution Borax.
4. Measure out one-third of a cup (80 milliliters or 80 grams) of
water into a second bowl or measuring cup.
5. Add teaspoon of guar gum to the solution while stirring.
Continue stirring until completely dissolved. The guar gum will
suspend in the liquid so this solution will not be clear.
6. Label the solution on the tape: teaspoon Guar gum.
7. If you want to make colored slime, add a specific amount of the
desired color to the solution. You will need to add this exact color
and amount to each of the mixtures.
3/4 t guar gum
1/4 t g
uar
1/2 t guar gum

gum
Step 10: When finished making

the three slimes, lay each on the
counter; one at a time,
determine its firmness by
measuring its diameter. GA LE
GR OU P.
921
Polymers
8. Add 1 teaspoon of the borax solution to

the guar gum solution. Stir for one
minute and then let sit for at least two
minutes.
9. Repeat the previous steps to make two
more mixtures, replacing the teaspoon
guar gum with 12 teaspoon and 34 teaspoon
Problem: The slime is not a uniform consistency.
guar gum respectively. Label the two mixPossible causes: The borax is not dissolved well.
tures accordingly.
When mixing the borax make sure to stir
continuously until the mixture is clear. Mix
10. When finished making the three slimes,
the guar gum continuously.
lay each on the counter; one at a time,
Problem: The slime is too firm or loose.
determine its firmness by measuring its
Possible causes: You may have mixed up the
diameter. Note your results in a chart.
stirring spoons between the borax and guar
11. Hold each in your hand and describe the
gum. Make sure to use separate spoons or
slimes firmness, using the guar gum
rinse thoroughly between measurements.
as the standard of comparison.
12. Hold one of the slimes to an edge and let
it hang down. Time one minute; determine its elasticity by measuring its length, or if it breaks apart.
Note your results. Repeat for two other slimes.
Summary of Results Examine the chart of your data and observations.

GA LE GRO UP.
Which amount of guar gum made the polymer the most firm? How
do the physical properties of the slimes with the lowest and highest
amount of guar gum compare with each other? What does measuring
the diameter show? What can you conclude about the slime if it
had a longer stretch than the others? What if it broke during the
stretch? If you want to display the results of your slime experiment,
the slime can be stored in a resealable bag.
You can demonstrate the slimes firmness by
having people feel it and experiment with it
themselves.
Firmness
Diameter
1/4 tsp. guar

1/2 tsp. guar
3/4 tsp. guar
922
Description
Elasticity
Length
Breaks
Apart
Change the Variables There are many ways to
vary this experiment. Here are some suggestions:

Keep the amount of guar gum equal and
vary the amount of borax.
Keep the amount of guar gum and borax
equal and vary the amount of water used.
Polymers
Does using more or less water give the

slime added bounce?
Place the slime in different temperature
environments after you have made three
mixtures that use the same measurements. Put one in the refrigerator, one
at room temperature, and one in a hotwater bath.

Be careful when you are cutting the plastic into
small pieces. Ask an adult to help cut containers
that are tough. Work carefully around the
boiling water. Have an adult help you remove
the plastics from the boiling water.
PROJECT 3
Polymer Properties: How are the properties
of hard plastics different?
Purpose/Hypothesis The plastic containers that hold liquids, foods, and
numerous other everyday items are all polymers. There are many different
types of plastics. One way to identify plastics is by the numbers code on
the bottom of containers. The numerical code is for recycling. Because
plastics have different properties, including melting points, they are
sorted according to type. The recycling codes divide plastics into seven
types.
Some of the plastics can keep their shape after being heated and some
cannot. Plastics that are polypropylenes (PP), for example, contain crystals
that prevent the polymers from softening in boiling water. These crystals
are hard and rigid. Density is another property that is different among the
plastic types. Plastics denser (heavier) than water will sink; plastics lighter
than water will float. Alcohol is less dense than water.
In this project, you will test the properties of at least four types of
plastics to better understand the different properties of polymers. You can
examine if the plastics retain their shape and color after being boiled in
water. You can also measure the relative density of the plastics. By testing
the density of plastics in both water and alcohol, you will be able to
identify how plastics that appear similar have unique properties.
Materials Needed
at least 4 plastic containers with different recycling numbers,

include at least one numbered 1 or 2 and at least one numbered
6 or 7
923
Polymers
Step 1: Make a chart.

NEL SO N.
Step 2: Cut four of the same

shapes out of each plastic
container. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
rubbing alcohol (70%)

vinegar
scissors
pot
hot plate or stove
4 plastic spoons
paper towels
tongs
4 small glasses
Approximate Budget $5, assuming you can use household containers that
are going to be recycled.

Timetable about 1 hour.
1. Make a chart similar to the illustration.

2. Decide on four different shapes, such as a
triangle or diamond. Each shape should
be about the size of your thumb. Cut four
of the same shapes out of each plastic
container. The different shapes will help
you identify the plastics from one
another.
3. Note the shape of each plastic.
924
Polymers
4. Test the flexibility of each plastic by placing a plastic between your

thumb and finger. Try to bend the plastic and write down the
results in your chart.
Reaction to heat
1. Boil a pot of hot water. Reduce to a simmer and place one of each
plastic type in the pot.
2. Allow the plastics to simmer for about five minutes.
3. Use the tongs to remove the plastics and place them on a paper
towel. Note any changes in shape on the chart, such as curled
edges.
4. Wait a few seconds for the plastics to cool and then try to bend
each of the shapes again. Write down if the boiled plastic bends
easier or harder than its corresponding plastic.
Density
1. Pour rubbing alcohol into a cup until it is about half-full. Place
one of the unused plastic shapes into the liquid. Use a plastic
spoon to gently press the plastic to the bottom. Remove the spoon
and see if the plastic rises. Note the results on your chart.
2. Repeat this step for each of the three other types of plastics.
3. Fill another cup with water. Repeat the same steps for each of the
four plastics, using new pieces of plastic. Note the results on your
chart.
Summary of Results Take a look at your chart. How do the four types of
plastics differ? Look at what each type of plastic container was used for
and its properties. Can you draw conclusions about what types of plastics
are used for long-term storage or heating. Consider how the properties of the plastic play a role
in what it contains. You can also test the other
types of plastic and compare your results.
Step 4: Test the flexibility of

each plastic by placing a plastic
between your thumb and
finger. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Design Your Own

Experiment
Concept Polymers are everywhere. They are in
your kitchen, clothes, and many disposable

products that you purchase. You could examine
925
Polymers
the problem.
Problem: All the plastics sank in both water and
alcohol.
Possible cause: You may have pressed down on
the plastic too hard, causing the pieces to stick
to the bottom. Repeat the density tests, pressing down each plastic slowly until it nears the
bottom of the cup, and then remove the spoon.
It is also possible you selected plastics that were
denser than both alcohol and water. You can try
the experiment again, using a different type of
plastic.
Problem: The results were different when a test
was repeated.
Possible cause: You have mixed up the plastics!
Make sure the shapes are unique enough that
you can identify each shape easily, and write
down the corresponding plastic type as soon as
you cut out the shape.
how polymers have changed over history or how

they impact peoples lives.
polymers. Because polymers are so diverse, there
are many different types of polymer chemists.
Ask family, teachers, and friends if they know a
polymer chemist you can talk with.

experiment:
propose to do.
question at hand.

926
Polymers
Related Projects You can use the many different physical and mechanical
properties of polymers for further experiments and projects. For example,
you could investigate the biodegradability of plastics by composting a
number of materials. You could first compare the biodegradability of the
six different types of polymers. You probably have several different types
of plastic products (as determined by the number in the three-arrow
triangle printed on a product) in your house already. You could then
compare the breakdown of a specific plastic and determine how it relates
to both other plastics and nonpolymer materials, such as an organic
material like a food item or dead insect.
You could compare synthetic polymers properties to synthetic nonpolymer materials, such as aluminum foil or specific fabrics. To determine the specific polymer in the product you can look at the ingredients
listed on the packaging or call the toll-free number. You could also look at
polymers in a specific industry, such as the medical or space field, and
explore how polymers have impacted the industry, everyday life, and
products related to that field.

American Chemistry Council. plastics 101. http://www.americanchemistry.com/s
plastics/sec learning.asp?CID=1571&DID=5957 (accessed on February 26,
2008). This industry page has loads of basic information and news on plastics.
The Chemical Heritage Foundation. What Do those Triangles Mean? Faces in
the Molecular Science: Faces in Polymer. http://www.chemheritage.org/
EducationalServices/faces/poly/readings/rec.htm (accessed on February 26,
2008). Descriptions of the recycling codes on plastic containers.
Energy Information Administration. Recycling Plastics. Energy Kids Page.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/saving/recycling/solidwaste/
plastics.html (accessed on February 27, 2008). Information on how plastics
are produced, labeled, and recycled.
MacroGalleria. http://pslc.ws/macrogcss/maindir.html (accessed on
February 26, 2008). Detailed site on all aspects of polymers, from studying
them to everyday applications.
927
Potential and Kinetic Energy
nergy is involved in nearly everything we do. It is defined as the ability

to do work, to set an object in motion. There are several different
kinds of energy. Kinetic energy is the energy an object has when it is in
motion. Vibration, forward motion, turning, and spinning are all examples of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass
of an object. If two objects move at the same speed, and one has twice the
mass of the other, the object with twice the mass will have twice the
kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy an object has because of its position; it
is energy waiting to be released. For example, a weight suspended above
the ground has potential energy because it can be set in motion by gravity.
Compressed or extended springs also have potential energy.
The position of the boulder atop

the cliff gives it potential
energy. CO RB IS .
Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of atoms vibrating within

matter. The faster the atoms move, the hotter the object becomes.
Electrical energy is the kinetic energy resulting from the motion of
electrons within any object that conducts electricity. Chemical energy is
the potential energy stored in molecules. Thermal, electrical, and chemical energy are all forms
of kinetic or potential energy.
What laws control energy? One of the most
fundamental laws of physics is that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed
from one form into another. For example, if a
suspended weight falls, its potential energy
becomes kinetic energy. When a car burns fuel,
the fuels chemical energy is transformed into
thermal energy, which in turn, is transformed
into kinetic energy by the engine to make the car
move.
929
WORDS TO KNOW
Chemical energy: Potential energy stored in
molecules.
Kinetic energy: The energy of an object or system

due to its motion.

Mass: Measure of the total amount of matter in

an object.
Electrical energy: Kinetic energy resulting from the

motion of electrons within any object that conducts electricity.
Energy: The ability to cause an action or to perform
work.
As one ball hits another, it

transfers some of its kinetic
energy to that ball. PH OT O
Potential energy: The energy of an object or

system due to its position.
Thermal energy: Kinetic energy caused by the
movement of molecules due to temperature.
an experiment.
Work: The result of a force moving a mass a
given distance. The greater the mass or the
greater the distance, the greater the work
involved.
Energy can also be transferred from one object to another. Think

about a game of pool. When a moving ball hits a still one, the moving ball
stops and the still one begins to move. The majority of the first balls
kinetic energy has been transferred to the second ball, while a small
amount has been converted to thermal energy by the collision. If you
could measure the temperature on the surface of each ball, you would find
there was a slight rise in temperature at the point of contact. The total
amount of energy involvedkinetic and thermalremains the same. No energy was created
or destroyed by the collision.
Who wrote these laws? The person who
laid the groundwork for the study of energy was
English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton (16421727). Newton developed the laws of
motion, which describe how objects are acted
upon by forces. Newtons ideas formed the
basis for much of physics, in fact. He studied at
Cambridge University, where he excelled in
930
mathematics and developed the field of calculus

while he was still a student. Newton later became
a professor at Cambridge, where he built the first
reflecting telescope and studied optics.
He published his most important work in
1687, the Principia Mathematica. This book
describes Newtons three laws of motion and
the law of gravitation, which are a major part of
the foundation of modern science. Newton also
had an interesting life. He became Master of
Mint in England, where he supervised the making of money, and later became the first scientist
to be knighted.
What questions do you have about energy?
In the following experiments, you will have a
chance to explore the topics of potential and
kinetic energy. You will learn more about how
these forms of energy affect us and everything we
do.

the mass of the ball
the material it is made of
the surface on which it bounces
the height from which it is dropped
the force with which it is dropped
the height to which it bounces back
are everything that might affect the rebound
height of the ball. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the rebound
height.
EXPERIMENT 1
Measuring Energy: How does
the height of an object affect
its potential energy?

In selecting your bouncing location, choose a
place where you will not knock over or break
anything.
drop a rubber ball and measure its rebound

height. When you pick up the ball and raise it to
a certain height, your body is performing work, and the ball is gaining
potential energy as a result. When you release the ball, this potential energy
changes to kinetic energy as the force of gravity causes the ball to gain speed.
When the ball hits the ground, its kinetic energy changes back to potential
energy as the ball comes to a stop and is compressed by the impact. A split
second later, the potential energy of this compression propels the ball back
into the air, giving it kinetic energy again. Finally, as the ball reaches the
maximum height of its rebound, its kinetic energy is converted back into
potential energy, as measured by its height above the ground.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about potential and
kinetic energy to make an educated guess about the relation between the
931
balls initial drop height and its rebound height.

things:
Steps 1 and 2: Measure 3 feet

up a wall and mark; tape the
measuring tape to the wall with
the zero end at the floor.
GA LE GRO UP.
Step 3: Hold the ball slightly

away from the wall at the
3-foot height and simply
drop it. GA LE GRO UP.


hypothesis for this experiment: The higher the height from which the
ball falls, the greater its potential energy and the higher it will bounce.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the height from
which you drop the ball. The variable you will measure will be the height
it reaches when it bounces back. If the height of the balls rebound
increases as you increase the drop height, you will know your hypothesis
is correct.
bounce, and that is the height from which you drop the ball. For the
control, you will drop the ball from 3 feet (about 1 meter) high. For the
experiment, you will change the height for each drop.
You will measure the height to which the ball bounces back each
time. If the ball dropped from higher distances bounces back to higher
heights, your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed
rubber ball
flat wood or concrete floor on which to
bounce the ball
paper and pencils
masking tape
measuring tape, about 6 feet (2 meters)
long
932
Recording chart for Experiment 1.

GA LE G RO UP.
Approximate Budget $3 for a rubber ball.

1. With your measuring tape, measure up a wall 3 feet (about 1

meter) from the floor and mark this level with a piece of masking
tape. This will be your control height.
2. Tape your measuring tape to the wall with the zero end at the
floor. You will use it to measure the heights of the bouncing ball.
3. Hold the ball slightly away from the wall at the 3-foot height and
simply drop it. Do not use any force, as it will affect your results.
Watch closely and use the measuring tape to determine how high
the ball bounced. Repeat the drop several times and average the
bounce heights. Record the height from which you dropped it and
the average height to which it bounced.
4. Now drop the same ball several times from at least 12 inches (30
centimeters) higher or lower than the control level. Record its
bounce heights, taking an average for each dropping height.
5. Repeat this procedure for at least five different heights, recording
each height and averaging each bounce height.
933
Problem: It is difficult to accurately measure the
bounce height.
Possible causes:
You are measuring the bounce against a
wall that is too close to the color of the
ball. Try bouncing with a ball that is significantly darker or lighter than the wall
you are measuring against.
Your measuring tape is difficult to read. Try
marking off heights with chalk or masking
tape so that they are easier to read.
Problem: The ball bounces so high you cannot
see where the bounce ends.
Possible causes:
The ball you are using is too rubbery. Try
using a slightly less bouncy ball.
You are exerting force when you drop the
ball. Do not push down when you drop
the ball. Simply let it fall from your hand.
chart. Did the drop height affect how high the

ball bounced back? Was your hypothesis correct?
Did the ball rebound as high as the drop height?
If not, why not? Be sure to summarize what you
discovered.
ment in several ways. For example, instead of

changing the height, change the weight (mass) of
the ball. Use a rubber ball that is much heavier
and one that is much lighter, all dropped from
the same height. (Change only one variable at a
time.) Weigh each ball before you drop it. Use
the ball from this experiment as your control.
Record each bounce height again. What do you
find?
You can also try using different kinds of
balls, such as tennis balls or golf balls. How
are they affected? What do you think makes
the difference?
EXPERIMENT 2
Using Energy: Build a roller coaster
Purpose/Hypothesis Potential energy, provided
by the force of gravity pulling on an object, is

converted into kinetic energy as an object falls
from a height. The amount of potential energy an object has is revealed by
the speed with which it moves once released.
You can calculate potential energy using the formula PE = mgh,
where m is mass, g is the acceleration of gravity 32.2 feet/second2 (9.8
meters/second2), and h is the height of the object in feet (meters). You can
calculate kinetic energy using the formula KE=(0.5)mv2, where m is
mass, and v is the velocity of the object in feet/second (meters/second).
The speed with which the object moves and the height to which it returns
also indicate how much potential energy is being converted into kinetic
energy and back to potential energy. You can explore this idea by watching a roller coaster.
934
In this experiment, you will build your own

roller coaster and roll a marble on it to demonstrate potential and kinetic energy. Do you have
an idea about how a marble will behave on a
homemade roller coaster? Where will it move the
fastest? Will it have enough energy from rolling
down one hill to roll up the next hill?
To begin the experiment, use what you
know about potential and kinetic energy to
make an educated guess about how the marble
will behave. This educated guess, or prediction,
these things:

Variables are anything that might affect the results
of an experiment. Here are the main variables in
this experiment:
the height of the first hill and the second hill
the amount of friction between the track
and the marble
the amount of force or push you apply
to the marble when you release it
In other words, the variables are anything that
might affect the height the marble will reach on
the second hill. If you change more than one
had the most effect on the results.

measurable. It must be something you can test through observation. Your
experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The higher the first
hill of the roller coaster, the higher the marble will climb on the second
hill.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the height of the first
hill, and the variable you will measure will be the height the marble climbs
on the second hill. If the marble climbs higher on the second hill when the
height of the first hill is raised, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Only one variable will change between the control and experimental
set-up, and that is the height at which the marble
starts to roll. For the control, you will start your
marble from a hill at 2 feet (0.6 meters) above
ground. For your experiments, you will vary the
heights of the first hill. You will measure the
heights that the marble climbs on the second
hill to compare the amount of kinetic energy
produced by the potential energy of the initial
drop.
A roller coaster has both potential

and kinetic energy. COR BI S.

935
Materials Needed

Choose your experiment location carefully to
avoid the marble rolling into places where it
cannot be retrieved. Do not release the marble
from very high heights, as it could jump off the
roller coaster track and hit someone.
2 pieces of garden hose or other flexible

tubing, each approximately 6 feet
(1.8 meters) long
1 large marble
books, bricks, or wooden blocks
masking tape
chair
tape measure or ruler
Approximate Budget $20 if you need to buy a garden hose or other
tubing.
1. To make the roller coaster track, lay the two pieces of garden hose
or tubing side by side on a flat surface and tape them together
across the upper side, so the tape does not show on the lower side.
Place tape about every 6 inches (15 centimeters). Flip the taped
hose or tubing over so the untaped side is up. The two pieces of
hose should form a channel in which the marble can roll. (You can
also form the roller coaster from a single uncut length of hose by
making a sharp u-bend in the middle and taping the two halves
together.)
Step 1: How to assemble roller

coaster track. GAL E GR OU P.
936
Steps 2 and 3: How to create the

roller coaster. G ALE GRO UP .
2. Place one end of the hose track on a chair 24 inches (60 centimeters)
off the ground. Let the other end fall to the ground.
3. Let the hose track follow the ground for a short distance and then
place two to three bricks under the other end, creating a second
hill.
4. Record the height of both hills on a data sheet (see illustration).
You have created your roller coaster.
5. To make the heights easier to read, attach a tape measure or ruler
vertically on the bricks that form the second hill. Be sure to put the
zero end on the floor.

937
Problem: The marble jumped over the second
hill.
Possible causes:
Your second hill is not high enough. Use
more blocks or bricks to make it higher.
The height of the hill does not matter as
long as you record the height the ball
reaches accurately.
Your first hill is too high. Lower it until
you can release the marble and it stays on
the second hill.
Problem: The marble does not stay on the hose
track.
Possible cause: The marble is too large or too
small for the hose. Try using a different size
marble that fits well into the track.
6. Place the marble at the top of the first hill

and release it. Do not push it, but simply
let it go. Sight across your tape measure or
ruler to determine the height the marble
reaches on the second hill. You might ask a
friend to help you note the highest height
before the marble begins to roll back again.
7. Repeat this procedure several times and
record the average height the marble
reaches on the second hill.
8. Now raise the height of the first hill by
adding a book or block on the chair.
Record the new height of the first hill.
9. Release the marble from the higher first
hill several times, taking an average of the
heights it reaches on the second hill.
Record the average height.
10. Repeat the procedure, raising and lowering the height of the first hill. Be sure to
record each hill height and the height the
marble reaches on the second hill.
chart. Compare the heights of the first hills and

the heights the marble reached on the second hill. Did higher initial heights
give your marble more potential energy, which created more kinetic energy
to climb the second hill? Was your hypothesis correct? If you want to
calculate the potential energy, use the formula described and record the
number for each of your hill heights.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment several ways. For
example, remember that potential energy depends partially on the weight

of the object. Try using a heavier or lighter marble. What is the effect? You
can also try making the second hill steeper or more gradual. What is the
effect? How high does the marble rise? Make your first hill higher and
create a number of smaller hills with your hose. Can you build up enough
potential energy to get your marble over more than one hill? What conditions will allow the marble to do that?
938

kinetic energy, you could explore the energy in vibrations, in rotational

movement, or in objects moving in straight lines or up and down. Or you
could investigate the use of kinetic energy in heat or electricity.
If you are interested in potential energy, you could study the effects of
springs. How does the size or flexibility of the spring affect its potential
energy? How much weight can a spring move? You could study the swing
of a pendulum (using a backyard swing) as its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and back again.
information on potential and kinetic energy questions that interest you.
As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your
science teacher or other knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some
might be dangerous.
plan carefully and think things through before you do it. Otherwise you
might not be sure what question you are answering, what you are or
should be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
your question.
graphs, or drawings of your experimental setup and results. If you have
done a nonexperimental project, explain clearly what your research
question was and illustrate your findings.
939
Related Projects Besides completing experiments, you could prepare a

model that demonstrates a point you are interested in with regard to
kinetic and potential energy. Or you could investigate the uses of energy
in industry, cooking, music, medicine, or dancing. You could explore the
history of the study of energy, going all the way back to Newton and
Galileo, or you could look at the future of energy, exploring nuclear and
fusion energy. There are numerous possibilities.

Bennet, Bob, Dan Keen, Alex Pang, and Frances Zweifel. Science Fair Projects:
Energy. New York: Sterling Publications, 1998. Simple activities and ideas
about science fair projects related to energy and using simple materials.
Doherty, Paul, and Don Rathjen. The Cool Hot Rod and Other Electrifying
Experiments on Energy and Matter. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
Collection of twenty two experiments on all aspects of energy, with drawings,
photos, and sidebars.
Leary, Catherine, and Michael Anthony DiSpezio. Awesome Experiments in Force
& Motion. New York: Sterling Publications, 1998. Provides exciting ideas for
kinetic energy projects.
National Energy Education Development Project. Scientific Forms of Energy.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/science/formsofenergy.html
(accessed February 3, 2008).
Nova. Newtons Dark Secrets. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/legacy.
html (accessed February 3, 2008).
940
Renewable Energy
enewable energy is energy from sources that are unlimited or replenish in a relatively short amount of time. Long before electricity,
renewable energy sources powered peoples daily needs. People captured
the Suns rays for warmth, burned wood to cook, and used wind to pump
water. In the modern day, scientists have developed many systems to
harness and transform the energy from renewable sources into energy that
people can use.
Heating it up Renewable energy has become a major issue in the

modern day. The main energy sources we use today come from fossil
fuels. The three main fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels
are non-renewable. It took hundreds of thousands of years for fossil fuels
to form. They are called fossil fuels because they formed from the fossils
of plants and animals hundreds of millions years ago.
Fossil fuels all contain carbon. Burning these fuels releases the
carbon, which combines with the oxygen in air to form carbon dioxide.
Fossil fuels are used to power cars, planes, and produce electricity.
Every year the worldwide demand for energy grows and more fossil
fuels are burned.
The greenhouse effect occurs when gases such as carbon dioxide trap
heat moving away from Earth. The trapped heat warms Earths surface,
leading to warmer temperatures and a shifting climate. By replacing fossil
fuels with renewable energy, we can greatly reduce the emissions of
greenhouse gasses.
In order for a renewable energy to replace the use of fossil fuels in
modern day, the energy needs to be transformed into a form of energy
that people use. That energy usually takes the form of electrical energy
electricity. Availability, cost, and the ability to capture the energy source
are all issues in transforming renewable energy into usable energy.
941
Renewable Energy
Rotor blade
Gearbox &
generator
Tower
Underground
electrical connections
Wind turbines capture the

winds energy. I LLU STR AT IO N
Where renewables come from There are

many sources of renewable energy. The sources
most commonly used are:
Wind energy: Wind can be a powerful
force. Wind is the result of radiation from
the Sun that heats the atmosphere
unevenly. The first windmills were developed thousands of years ago. The windmills were used to grind grain and pump
water. By the turn of the twentieth century,
people had developed small systems that
generate electricity from the movement of
wind. Wind turbines or blades capture the
winds energy. The turbines are placed
high in the air and are spread apart, like a
pinwheel. The wind turns the blades,
which causes an electric generator to spin.
The generator produces electricity. Groups
of wind machines that produce electricity
are called wind farms.
Solar energy: Each day, the Sun provides

Earth with vast amounts of energy. We use
solar energy every day. Plants need the Suns energy to live, and
animals and people eat plants. The sun is used for warmth and heat.
Researchers have developed several ways to capture the Suns energy.
To read more about solar energy see the Solar Energy chapter.
Biomass: Biomass is renewable organic matter, such as trees. Plants
are considered renewable because new plants can grow relatively
quickly (compared to the formation of fossil fuels). When a tree is
burned the energy inside the plant transforms into heat energy.
People have long used wood to heat their homes. In modern day,
wood is the largest biomass energy resource. To transform the plant
materials are transformed into electricity by first burning them. The
heat produced boils water, which produces steam. The steam turns
turbines, which cause a generator to spin and the generator produces
electricity. Many other sources of biomass are also used as renewable
sources. Crops such as corn can produce oils. The oils can be used to
fuel vehicles. Even the fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass
942
Renewable Energy
Glen Canyon Dam harnesses

the energy from the water and
converts it into electricity.
# ATLANTIDE PHOTOTRAVEL/
CORBIS.
energy source. Methane gas, produced from animal manure, is

another potential source of biomass. Biomass can produce about
the same amount of carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, but because plants
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere regrowing plants can
offset the carbon dioxide produced.
Hydropower: Moving water can contain a lot of stored energy. When
that energy is put to use, it is called hydropower. In the United States,
hydropower is the most commonly used renewable energy source.
Electricity is producedhydroelectricityby the force of falling
water. Dams collect and move the water to create a large amount of
force. The water turns the blades of a turbine, which spin a generator
and produces electricity.
More renewables Another source of renewable energy that is available
but not yet as commonly used is the energy deep inside Earth. This is called
geothermal energy. Earths core (center) is continuously generating heat.
Thousands of feet below ground Earths temperature is hot enough to boil
water. Capturing this energy as steam spins a turbine, which in turn powers an
electric generator.
In the experiments that follow, you will investigate two types of
renewable energy sources: wind energy and hydropower. For experiments
related to solar energy, see the Solar Energy chapter. As you conduct the
943
Renewable Energy
WORDS TO KNOW
Biomass: Organic materials that are used to
produce usable energy.
Efficiency: The amount of power output divided by
the amount of power input. It is a measure of
how well a device converts one form of power
into another.
Fuel cells: A device that uses hydrogen as the fuel to
produce electricity and heat with water as a
byproduct.
Generator: A device that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy,
other gases in the atmosphere that trap heat

radiated from Earths surface.
Hydropower: Energy produced from capturing
moving water.
experiment.
Solar energy: Any form of electromagnetic
radiation that is emitted by the Sun.
Geothermal energy: Energy from deep within Earth.
Turbine: A spinning device used to transform

mechanical power from energy into electrical
energy.
Greenhouse effect: The warming of Earths atmosphere due to water vapor, carbon dioxide, and

an experiment.

the amount of wind
the size of the boat
the distance the boat travels
experiments, consider what questions about

renewable energy you would like to explore
further.
EXPERIMENT 1
Capturing Wind Energy:
How does the material affect
the amount of wind energy
harnessed?
the size of the sail

the length of the mast
the material the sail is made from
speed of the boat. If you change more than
one variable at a time, you will not be able
to determine which variable had the most
effect on the amount of wind energy.
944
Purpose/Hypothesis People have used wind as
an energy source for thousands of years. In order

for wind to supply energy, the wind must be
collected. One way to collect wind would be
from a sail, such as on a boat. The sail creates a
resistance for the wind and thus, powers the boat
forward.
In this experiment you will be testing different types of materials on sailboats to determine
Renewable Energy
how the material affect the amount of wind

energy harnessed. You will be looking at how
materials create a resistance with wind. The
wind pushes on the material (the sail) and its
Have an adult use the saw to cut the wood.
energy moves the boat forward. The materials
Have an adult help you use the drill.
you will use are netting, flexible plastic, and
broadcloth, which is a thick, sturdy fabric. During the experiment, you should also consider
how materials need to withstand the force of the wind and not tear due
to the resistance.
To begin the experiment, use what you have learned about solar
energy to make a guess about how the material will affect the wind energy
it captures. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A


hypothesis for this experiment: The boat with the sail made out of
broadcloth will capture the most wind energy and so move the boat the
fastest.
In this case, the variable you will change is the material the sail is
made of and the variable you will measure is the speed with which the
boat moves. If the wind moves the boat with the cloth the fastest, your
Step 1: Draw the base of the

boat on wood. I LL UST RA TIO N

Materials Needed
pine wood, 6 3 1 inches (15 8

2.5 centimeters)
2, one-quarter inch (0.64 centimeters)
dowels, both 16 inches (40 centimeters)
long
construction paper
945
Renewable Energy
netting (also called tulle), 12 inch by 12

inch (30 30 centimeters) piece (available at fabric stores)
broadcloth, 12 inch by 12 inch piece
(available at fabric stores)
plastic bag, 12 inch by 12 inch piece
11, 3-inch (8-centimeter) zip ties
drill with one-quarter inch bit (the bit
should be the diameter of the dowels)
hot glue gun and glue sticks
electric fan with at least two speeds
stop watch or watch with second hand
small saw
a still, wind-less day (if you are conducting the experiment outside)
water area, at least 6 feet (1.8 meters) in
length (a bathtub works well)
3 inches

Step 5: Attach the cross bar
centered on the mast and
crisscross two zip ties to secure
the cross bar to the mast.
Timetable About 40 minutes for setup; 30

minutes to complete and record results.
NE LS ON.
Step 9: Place the boat in a body

of water. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
946
1. Draw the base of the boat on wood. (See illustration).

2. Have an adult cut out the boat base with a saw.
3. Drill a small and shallow hole in the center of the boat. Do not
drill all the way through the wood. This hole is for inserting the mast.
4. Use hot glue to insert and hold the one
piece of doweling in the hole. This is the
boats mast.
5. After the glue has dried, attach the cross
bar centered on the mast about 3 inches
(7.6 centimeters) from the bottom of
where the mast and boat meet. Crisscross
two zip ties to secure the cross bar to the
mast. Trim the cross bar to leave 6 inches
(15 centimeters) on each side of the mast.
Renewable Energy
6. Make a pattern for a sail out of construction paper, using a 12-inch (30-centimeter) triangle.
7. Use the pattern to cut a sail out of each of
the three types of material: the netting,
broadcloth, and plastic.
8. Attach one of the sails to the boat using
zip ties on all three corners (at the mast
and cross bar ends).
9. Place the boat in a body of water. If you are
using a bathtub place the boat on one end. If
you are using a natural body of water, mark a
place where you are setting the boat and note
a spot about 6 feet (1.8 meters) away.
10. Aim the fan at the boat and turn it on the
low speed. If the boat does not move
across the water with the low speed, turn
the fan on the higher speed.
11. Use the stopwatch to time how long it
takes for the boat to cross the body of
water (or reach a set mark if the boat is
on a long stream or other natural body of
water). Record the time. Repeat the test
for two more trials.
12. Repeat Steps 810, attaching the two
remaining sails of different materials
each time.
Problem: The mast keeps falling down.
Possible causes:
1. The hole may be too large or too shallow.
The dowel should fit snugly in the hole. If it
is loose, try using a smaller drill bit. If the
dowel fits snugly, try drilling the hole slightly
deeper into the wood, without drilling
through the wood. Repeat the tests.
Problem: The boat tips over in the water.
Possible cause:
1. The sails may be too large for the boat. Try
making the sails 2 inches (5 centimeters)
smaller and repeat.
Possible cause: The wind from the fan may be
too strong.
1. If you are conducting the experiment
outside, make sure it is not a windy day.
Use the lowest setting on the fan and
move the fan farther away from the boat.
Summary of Results After you average the three
trials for each of the materials, analyze your data to determine if the type
of material affected the amount of wind that the sail collected. Was there
one material that gathered more wind energy than others? Is it possible to
gather too much wind? Consider if some materials might be better for
certain strengths of wind. Write a paragraph summarizing your results.
You may want to include pictures or drawings.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment by changing the shape
of the sail to determine if certain shapes capture greater amounts of wind.

How does a square shape capture wind energy, for example? You can test
947
Renewable Energy

different sizes as well as shapes. You can also try

varying the wind speed to explore how the material can withstand greater amounts of wind
energy. In order to increase accuracy of results,
complete three time trials of each sail type and
average the results?
the amount of pressure

the number of spoons
the size of the spoons
the size of the water wheel
the construction of the water wheel
the distance of the water wheel from the
water energy source
EXPERIMENT 2
Hydropower: How does
water pressure affect
water energy?
Purpose/Hypothesis Water is a source of energy
that has existed for thousands of years. Ancient

cultures used water to move ships and grind
grain. In the modern day, hydropower is a
major source of electricity. An important aspect
of hydropower is the pressure caused by the
movement and also, the weight of the water.
The more stored water in a set area, the more
water there is to push downwards. The downward pressure of the water can create a lot of force. In hydropower, the
moving water is harnessed and used to produce usable energy.
In this experiment you will look at how the pressure of stored water affects
the amount of energy the water produces. The water will exit onto a water
wheel. You can measure how the force of moving
water affects the amount of energy harnessed by
counting the revolutions of a water wheel.
To begin your experiment, use what you
know about hydropower and renewable energy
to make an educated guess about water pressure
and energy. This educated guess, or prediction,
these things:

of the water wheel. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on the water
energy.
Steps 1: 3 and 4: Insert spoons

about an 1 to 1.5 inches apart.
In the same slot, insert the straw
or stirrer. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
948

Renewable Energy
A hypothesis should be brief, specific,

and measurable. It must be something you
can test through observation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether your
Have an adult assistant you in using the knife.
hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible
hypothesis for this experiment: An increase
in stored water increases the energy harnessed
in water, which will make the wheel spin faster.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of stored
water. If the water wheel makes more revolutions with the greater amount
of water you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed
2 gallon or larger container (an extra large liquid laundry detergent

container works well)
5 or more gallons of water
swim noodle with a hollow center
6 plastic spoons
utility knife
stop watch or clock with second hand
12 inch piece of dowel
pitcher
permanent marker
colored straw or coffee stirrer
2 to 3 helpers
Step 2:6 Pull the plug and pour

water into the container at a
steady rate to maintain the
water at the 1 gallon mark.
NEL SO N.
2 gallons

Step-By-Step Instructions 1.) Create the water
wheel
1. Have an adult cut off a 2 inch (5 centimeters) section of the swim noodle. This
will be the center of your water wheel.
2. Break off the handles of the spoons.
949
Renewable Energy
3. Make a slit in the noodle and insert a spoon. Continue around the
circle, placing spoons about an 1 to 1.5 inches (2.53.8 centimeters) apart. Five to six spoons should fit around the circle. All
spoons should be facing the same way.
4. In the same slot as one of the spoons, insert the straw or stirrer.
2.) Force of water energy
1. Mark three lines on the container at 1, 1.5, and 2 gallons.
2. Poke a hole in the side of the container with a pencil, 1 inches
(2.5 centimeters) up from the base; it should be on the narrowest
side. Place a pencil in the hole to plug the hole until you are ready
to start the trials.
3. Slide the water wheel on the dowel.
4. Hold the dowel and wheel below the container and out approximately 6 inches (15 centimeters). You will need to allow some
water to come out of the hole to determine the best point to hold
the wheel. The best point is where the water wheel moves free and
consistently. Once this is determined, tape the wheel in place so it
is consistent for all trials.
5. Fill the container to the 1 gallon mark.
1 gallon
# of
rotations
1.5 gallons
2 gallons
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Step 2:8 Record the results.
NEL SO N.
950
Renewable Energy
6. Have a helper ready with a pitcher of

water. Once the plug is pulled, the
helper will need to pour water into
the container at a steady rate to mainIn any experiment, problems can occur. Sometain the water at the 1 gallon mark.
times, experiments that do not work perfectly
can turn out to be helpful. Here is one problem
This will keep the water pressure
you may encounter, some possible causes, and
steady.
ways to fix the problem.
7. Pull the plug on the water and time for
Problem: The wheel is not moving freely.
one minute.
8. Use the colored straw or stirrer to count
Possible cause: The spoons may be facing the
the number of revolutions the wheel
wrong way. Turn the spoons so they are facing
the opposite way If the wheel is still not moving
makes in one minute with one gallon of
freely, you may want to purchase a pinwheel
water. Record the results.
and try the experiment again.
9. Conduct two more trials at this level of
water and note the revolutions for each
trial.
10. Repeat Steps 69, filling the container first to the 1.5 gallon mark
and then to 2 gallons. For each amount of water, conduct three
trials and note the results.
Summary of Results After the experiment is finished, average the number
of revolutions for each amount of water. Analyze your data table to

determine the affect of water pressure on energy. Does more pressure
result in more harnessed energy?
Change the Variables You can change several variables in this experi-
ment. Try moving a toy boat or another object rather than the water
wheel. You can also change the shape or size of the water wheel. Does
temperature affect the water energy?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Consider all the different
types of renewable energy. Think about what aspect of renewable energy

you are interested in, such as ways to use this energy or how a certain
renewable is generated into electricity. You might want to investigate
whether pollution is changing the effects of renewable energy on our
world. You may want to look around where you live or go to school to see
if any homes, schools, or businesses use renewable energy sources.
951
Renewable Energy
teacher or community media specialist to start gathering information
on renewable energy questions that interest you.
need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise you might not
be sure which question you are answering, what you are or should be
measuring, and what your findings prove or disprove.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Every good experiment
should be documented so that other people can understand the procedures and results. Make diagrams, charts, and graphs of any information
that is useful. You might also want to include small scale models related to
your renewable energy experiment or project. Your experiment, whether
it proves or disproves your hypothesis, is information that others can
learn from.
Related Projects Renewable energy sources are all around us. What
types of renewable energy have you used or would you like to use?
You can design and build small generators, powered by a renewable
energy source. You can also conduct a project in energy efficiency in
your home or school. Can you shift any part of the energy system into a
renewable energy source? Compare carbon emissions both before and
after the change. How does cost play a role in selecting renewable energy
sources?

Asimov, Issac. The Sun and Its Secrets. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens
Publishing, 1994. Discusses the Suns origins, content, and historical facts.
952
Renewable Energy
Energy Information Administration. Renewable Energy. Energy Kids Page.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/renewable.html
(accessed July 24, 2008). Answers to basic questions about renewable energy
types and sources.
The Energy Story. Energy Quest. http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter17.
html (accessed on April 13, 2008). Information and projects related to renewable
energy.
Renewable. Energy. Energy Kids Page. http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/
energyfacts/sources/renewable/renewable.html (accessed on April 13, 2008).
Basic information on different forms.
Solar Energy Animation. Ocean Motion. http://oceanmotion.org/html/
resources/solar.htm (accessed on March 18, 2008). Information demonstrates
how the intensity of the energy from the sun varies with location and time.
Suzuki, David and Kathy Vanderlinden. Eco-Fun. Vancouver: BC: Greystone
Books, 2001. Project and experiments related to the environment.
U.S. Department of Energy. Kids Saving Energy. http://www.eere.energy.gov/
kids/ (accessed on April 13, 2008). Information on renewable energy sources
and energy saving tips.
953
Rivers
he Carson begins in California, rushing northward from the headwaters

on Sonora Peak in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, then rambling through
gorges and alpine meadows. After leaving California, its next destination is
the desert plain of Nevada. The Carson is a river, a main course of water into
which many smaller bodies of water flow. The longest river in North
America is the Mississippi. At 2,280 miles (3670 kilometers), its the tenth
longest on Earth. The Nile River, the world champion in length, winds
4,145 miles (6670 kilometers) from the equator to the Mediterranean Sea.
The Niagara River and its falls

have carved out a 100-foot
(30-meter) deep plunge pool.
First things first The source of a rivers waters, in fact, all the waters
of the world, is the hydrologic cycle, which circulates and distributes the
fresh water on Earth. To examine this cycle, we might begin with the sea.
The Sun warms the ocean water, causing some of the surface water to
evaporate and rise into the air as water vapor. Upon meeting cooler air
above, this water vapor condenses and forms rain droplets, or it freezes
into ice crystals. The droplets or crystals eventually fall again as precipitation: rain, snow, or hail. Some precipitation falls back into the sea, while
some falls on land where it sinks into the ground,
or runs into rivers, lakes, ponds, and streams.
French scientist Claude Perrault was one of
the first to describe the hydrologic or water
cycle. In 1674, he measured the precipitation
that fell into the upper Seine Rivers basin and
compared it with the estimated amount of water
flowing into the Seine from streams and smaller
rivers. The precipitation added about six times
as much water as the streams. This was a significant discovery because previously scientists had
thought that all rivers were fed by underground
springs.
955
Rivers
Mapping out the journey Rivers begin in

mountains as several streams. These streams are
formed from runoff consisting of rain, melted
snow, sleet, and hail, as well as underground
water that rises to the surface. Smaller streams
gather into larger streams until they form a river.
The river makes its home in a channel, a shallow
trench carved into the ground from the pressure,
volume, and movement of the water.
The journey of a river is rarely straight.
Wide, shallow rivers with pebbly islands in the
middle are called braided rivers. The islands split
the river into many streams, which then come
together again, just like braided hair. Lowland
rivers that twist and turn before flowing to the
sea are called meandering rivers. The term originated from the Latin word maeander. For example, the Menderes River in Turkey is famous for
its windy course. Scotlands Deveron River
meanders 26 miles (42 kilometers) back and
forth across the land, but its actual straight-line
length is only 6.5 miles (10.5 kilometers).
The Nile River plays an

important part in the
hydrologic cycle. PE TER
AR NO LD I NC.
The power of water Where does a rivers

energy come from? The elevation of the land
triggers its push, even in areas where the slope is
gentle. The speed and volume of a river descending a steep slope can
reshape Earths surface, picking up soil and rocky debris and then dropping it when the water slows down and loses some of its energy. Rivers
have gouged out canyons, built mud and stone landforms, and sculpted
solid rock into pillars and arches.
An example of how powerful a rivers force can be is the Niagra River,
which runs through Canada and the United States. As it courses downslope
on its 35-mile (56-kilometer) trail, the water pounds everything along its
way. The cliff that creates its falls is a ridge made of dolomite, a very tough
limestone. The river has worn down the ridges overlying rock, creating a
lower area that focuses the fall of the water.
In the following two experiments, you will explore ways that water
changes the shape of our environment. The experiments will help you
956
Rivers
WORDS TO KNOW
Braided rivers: Wide, shallow rivers with multiple
channels and pebbly islands in the middle.
precipitation and back to the atmosphere

through evaporation and transpiration.
Channel: A shallow trench carved into the ground

by the pressure and movement of a river.


experiment.
Meandering river: A lowland river that twists and

turns along its route to the sea.
Deposition: Dropping of sediments that occurs

when a river loses its energy of motion.
River: A main course of water into which many

other smaller bodies of water flow.
Glacier: A large mass of ice formed from snow

that has packed together and which moves
slowly down a slope under its own weight.
Sediment: Sand, silt, clay, rock, gravel, mud, or

other matter that has been transported by
flowing water.
Hydrologic cycle: Continual movement of water

from the atmosphere to Earths surface through

experiment.
Moraine: Mass of boulders, stones, and other rock

debris carried along and deposited by a glacier.
appreciate how rivers and streams have influenced the shape of your own
community.
EXPERIMENT 1
Weathering Erosion in Glaciers: How does a river
make a trench?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment you will investigate the effects that
glaciers, rivers of ice, have on the landscape, such as forming trenches and
moraines, arc-shaped ridges of rocky debris. Before you begin, make an
educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your
knowledge of glaciers. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:

957
Rivers

size of the ice flow
size of pieces of sediment
temperature surrounding ice flow
duration of the experiment
are everything that might affect the sediment
erosion. If you change more than one variable,
the most effect on erosion.

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Ice flow causes sediment erosion.
presence of an ice flow, and the variable you will
measure is the movement of soil in the ice flows
path. You expect the ice flow to cause erosion.
As a control experiment, you will set up one
tray of sand with no ice flow in it. That way, you can
determine whether the sand moves even with no ice
flow. If the sand moves under the ice flow, but not in
the control tray, your hypothesis will be supported.
Materials Needed
Step 1: Screening over the

bucket. GA LE GRO UP.
10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) play sand for sandboxes

24-inch (60-centimeter) square of window screening
two 8 24-inch (20 61-centimeter) plastic trays (Liners for
window boxes are ideal.)
water
freezer
ruler
bucket
Timetable 30 minutes to set up; 5 minutes a day
to add water over a 30-day period.

1. Place the screening over the bucket and

sift the sand by pouring it through the
screen. Save any sand that remains on
the screen. Discard any sand that goes
through the screen.
958
Rivers
2. Pour the sand that remained on the

screen into both plastic trays.
3. Using the side of the ruler, smooth the
surface of the sand in the trays and measure the depth of the sand. Make sure the
sand is the same depth in both trays.
4. Using your finger, make a well in the
sand at one end of both plastic trays.
5. Place the trays inside the freezer and prop
up the ends with the well about 1 inch
(2.5 centimeters).
6. Pour 0.25 cup (60 milliliters) of water into the well of one tray (the
experimental tray) and close the door. The control tray will have
no waterand thus no ice. Add another 0.25 cup (60 milliliters)
of water to the experimental tray daily for 30 days.
Step 5: Place the trays inside the

freezer and prop up the ends
with the well about 1 inch.
GAL E GR OU P.
7. After 30 days, record the length of the ice flow that formed in the
experimental tray.
8. Carefully remove both trays from the freezer.
9. Allow the ice flow to melt six to 12 hours.
10. Diagram the pattern the ice caused in the sand; describe the sand
pattern in the control tray.
11. Measure the depth of the sand in the trench and at the end of the
ice flow in the experimental tray. Measure the sand depth at both
ends of the control tray. Record your findings.
Steps 10 and 11: Tray showing

pattern left by ice flow. GA LE
GR OU P.
959
Rivers
remedy the problem.
Problem: After 10 days, there is no ice accumulation near the well in the experimental tray.
All the water flows quickly through the sand to
the bottom of the tray.
Summary of Results Organize your data on a chart

that shows the sand levels in both trays at the beginning and the end of the experiment. Compare your
end results. Did the ice flow move sediment? Did
erosion take place in the control tray? Write a paragraph summarizing what you found.
1. The angle is too steep. Lower both trays

to a very gentle slope.
ables in this experiment by using different soils.

You might try top soil or a more rocky soil. Also,
you can change the angle of the slope and see
how the depth of the trench is affected. Gravity
plays a large role in soil movement. The steeper
the slope, the greater the pull of gravity.
2. The sand is too coarse. Try a finer mesh

screen and use smaller grains of sand.
EXPERIMENT 2
Possible causes:
Stream Flow: Does the

stream meander?
the kind of soil being used (size and
composition)
the flowrate of water used
the slope of the landscape
the duration of the water flow
are everything that might affect the stream
pattern. If you change more than one variable,
the most effect on the pattern.

Handle the bricks carefully to prevent injury.
960
Purpose/Hypothesis Rivers and streams can
carve patterns into Earths surface. This experiment will simulate the force that water can have
in an environment. Will a water travel in a
straight path down a slope? Before you begin,
stream patterns. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: A gentle flow of water across a downward
sloping landscape will create a meandering stream
Rivers
path, while a more forceful flow will create a

straighter path.
the velocity of the water flow, and the variable
you will measure is the resulting stream pattern. You expect the stream to meander for low
flows and be straighter for higher flows.
Materials Needed
flat outdoor area

hose and water supply
24-inch (61-centimeter) long shallow
pan, such as a plant tray
5 pounds (2.2 kilograms) sand for a sandbox
5 pounds (2.2 kilograms) gravel
2 bricks or wooden blocks for support
Steps 1 to 3: Set-up of sand and

gravel tray. G ALE GRO UP .
Approximate Budget $8 for sand and gravel.

1. Pour equal amounts of gravel and sand into the tray and mix well.
Make the surface level and smooth from one end to the other.
2. Lift one end approximately 6 inches (15 centimeters) high and
place a brick underneath. Place the other brick in front of the
lower end to keep it from sliding.
3. Place the end of the hose at the high end
of the box.
4. Turn the hose on for two minutes, allowing a very soft flow of water to run over
the sand.
5. After two minutes, turn off the water and
diagram the pattern of water.
6. Turn the water on again for two more
minutes; then turn it off and diagram the
pattern again.
Step 5: Diagram the pattern of

water flow after 2 minutes.
G AL E GR OUP .
Step 6: Diagram the pattern of

water flow after 4 minutes.
GA LE G RO UP.
961
Rivers
remedy the problem.
Problem: The sand or gravel did not move or
show a pattern in the first two minutes.
Possible cause: Not enough water was applied.
Allow the water to flow longer, until a stream
bank begins to form.
7. Smooth the surface of the sand and gravel

and repeat Steps 4 through 6 with a
higher water flow rate.
Summary of Results Study your diagrams and
the tray of sand. Which size particle of sand or
gravel moved the most? As the stream flowed
longer, how were the patterns affected? Did
your stream begin to meander at the lower flowrate and go straighter at the higher flowrate?
Write a paragraph summarizing your results
and explaining them.
experiment with the angle of the slope or the size of the particles in the
streambed.
EXPERIMENT 3
River Flow: How does the steepness and rate of water
flow affect river erosion?
Purpose/Hypothesis Rivers are found in many elevations and they flow
at varying rates. Water racing down a steep incline will erode materials in
a different way than water slowly moving down a shallow incline. The
rate at which the water flows also plays a role in erosion.
In this experiment, you will make a mini-river and place sediment on the
bottom of it. By varying the rivers steepness and water rate, one at a time, you
can measure how each factor affects erosion.
experiment based on your knowledge of rivers and erosion. This educated
things:
962
Rivers
for this experiment: The steepest river with the

highest rate of water flow will cause the most
erosion, while the shallowest river with the lowest
water rate will cause the least erosion.
In this case, the variables you will change is
the river steepness and water rate, one at a time,
and the variable you will measure is the remaining sediment.
Level of Diffculty Moderate.
Materials Needed
24 cups of dirt
2 strips of wood, between 6 to 8 feet long
(12 inches or 24 inches)
measuring cup
container that holds 4 cups
protractor
2 funnels, with one spout width about
50% wider than the other (you could make a
and taping a plastic, such as a pastry sheet)
tape measure
Duct tape
plastic tarp, shower curtain, or garbage bags
marker
2 to 4 helpers
an outside area

elevation of the river
width of the river source
amount of water
type of sediment
placement of sediment
amount of sediment
are everything that might affect the sediment
erosion. If you change more than one variable,
the most effect on erosion.
funnel by rolling
Step 1: Tape one side of the

plastic to one strip of wood.
NE LS ON.

Timetable about 1 hour and 30 minutes.
To Make the River:

1. Tape one side of the plastic to one strip of
wood. See illustration.
2. Tape the second side of the plastic to the
other strip of wood.
963
Rivers
3. Roll the wood over the plastic several

times, if needed. This will create your
river. You will be able to adjust the width
of the river by rolling the plastic in or out.
This experiment poses no safety hazards but it
4.
Have two people on each side hold the
can get messy.
boards firmly. Your river bed should be at
least 10 inches wide. It should have a little
slack in it. Make sure you maintain the same width throughout
each test.
5. Mark a pour point at the top of the river. This will be the point
where the water flow will begin for each trial.
6. Use tape or a marker to mark off a two to three foot section of the
river about 3 feet from the bottom. This will be where you will
spread the sediment each trial.
To test for erosion:
7. Lift the top of the river to 18 inches and hold it tight. Use the
protractor to measure the angle of elevation at the end of the river
(where the river meets the ground).
8. Spread out 4 cups of dirt or sand between the marked points.
9. Pour 4 cups of water into a container.
sediment
Steps 10 and 11: Using the

narrow funnel, pour the
container of water into the
funnel at the pour point down
the river. Observe the erosion
pattern. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
18
TE MA H NEL SO N.
964
Rivers
10. Using the narrow funnel, pour the container of water into the funnel at the pour
Smallest
incline
point down the river.
River
angle
11. Observe the erosion pattern. You may
N row
Nar
w Wide
Funnel Funnel
want to sketch the pattern.
12. Use your measuring cup to measure the
Angle
amount of dirt left in the river. Try to
Height
measure all the remaining sediment.
13. Record your results on a table similar to
Length
the illustration.
a constant
14. Starting with a clean river, lift the top of
Initial
the river to 24 inches. Repeat Steps 27,
sediment
using fresh dirt. Note the angle of elevaFinal
sediment
tion with the protractor.
15. Lift the top of the river to 36 inches (91
centimeters), and repeat Steps 27. Again,
use fresh dirt and measure the angle of
elevation.
16. Repeat the test at the three incline heights, using the wider funnel,
thus increasing the rate of water flow. Match the angle of elevation
for each incline.
Medium
incline
angle
Greatest
incline
angle
Narrow Wide Narrow Wide

Funnel Funnel Funnel Funnel
Mark the results in a chart.

NEL SO N.
Summary of Results Analyze your data to determine how the incline angle
affects the erosion process. How would erosion differ in a mountain river
versus a plains river? Does the steepness changes in a river disturb the water
flow and thus, change the water path at different points? Does the angle of
the river or the amount of water flow have more of an impact on erosion?
Change the Variables There are several ways you can change the variables
in this experiment. You can add natural debris to the sediment, such as
leaves or twigs. Determine if natural debris positively or negatively
impacts erosion. You can also add small pebbles and stones. The length
of the river may also plays a factor in river erosion. Try changing the
length to a shorter and longer river.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Rivers of water have
carved Earths landscape, whether flowing in streams and rivers or creeping

slowly as glaciers. You can try other experiments relating to rivers, involving
topics such as water velocity and turbidity (amount of mud in the water) or
965
Rivers
remedy the problem.
Problem: Water is leaking from the river.
Possible cause: The plastic is not taped well
enough. Be sure to tape the back of the
bags (or other material) with Duct tape so
that there are no holes.
Problem: All the dirt keeps washing away.
Possible cause: If all dirt is washing off the river,
decrease your heights of elevation and try the
experiment again.
Problem: The river keeps moving during the
trials.
Possible cause: If it is too difficult to hold the
river width tight, try using a detached playground slide or piece of guttering for the sides
of the river. You could also build a smaller
river.
a rivers rates of erosion, deposition, and weathering. You might also investigate underground
rivers or cave-forming rivers.
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on river questions that interest you.

propose to do.
question at hand.

Recording Data and Summarizing the Results It is important that your
data be kept organized in graphs or charts. When you finish your

experiment, you must summarize the data and record your results.
Reflect on the original question you wanted to answer. Write a paragraph explaining what happened and why so others can learn from your
research.
Related Projects To develop an experiment on this topic, think about a
question that you want answered. Where does the water flow the fastest?
What is the largest size rock that can be carried by a river? Where does the
water come from and go to? Investigate ways to measure and analyze
rivers in order to answer your questions.
966
Rivers
The Maruia River on South

Island, New Zealand, is a
meandering river. COR BI SBE TTM AN N.

BBC. Rivers and Water Management. Schools. Science: Geography. http://
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/riverswater/
riverprocessesrev2.shtml (accessed on March 15, 2008). Basic information on
river erosions.
Knapp, Brian. River. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational Corp., 1993. Offers
facts about rivers, including how they work and rivers of the world. Includes
simple experiments.
Pringle, Lawrence. Rivers and Lakes. New York: Time Life Books, 1985.
Explains how rivers change the landscape and how their energy is harnessed.
Good chapter about organisms and wildlife that depend on rivers for their
survival.
U.S. Geological Survey. Earths Water. Water Science for Schools. http://ga.
water.usgs.gov/edu/mearth.html (accessed on March 12, 2008). Information
and illustrations about the properties of water.
967
Rocks and Minerals
ccording to archaeologists (scientists who study the past remains of

human activities), the Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages were named
for the main minerals that were being used in tools during those time
periods, which spanned 10,000 B . C . E . to 2,000 B . C . E . Minerals are
natural, nonliving solidstiny particles arranged in definite patterns.
Rocks are solid mixtures of minerals. If you look at a rock with a
magnifying lens, you can often see the distinct grains of several different
minerals.
Earth is a living machine At the end of the eighteenth century,

James Hutton (17261797), a Scottish doctor, met once a week in
Edinburgh to talk with other visionary men about new ideas. The
Industrial Revolution was just beginning, and the men he met included
James Watt, inventor of the steam engine, and Joseph Black, the chemist
who discovered carbon dioxide. Hutton was interested in the rock and
soil of his homeland and discussed his theories with this group.
Certain cliffs overlooking the North Sea, called Siccar Point, particularly fascinated Hutton. The upper part of the cliffs is red sandstone in
horizontal layers, while the lower half is a dark rock tilted almost vertically. He knew the cliffs did not just magically appear in this form. After
years of study, Hutton concluded that Earth was like a living machine,
driven by heat within. He theorized that over thousands of centuries, the
heated material within Earths core erupted and formed deposits on the
ocean bottom. Over time, these deposits rose to form new land. Then
rains eroded them, sending some of the soil and rock particles back into
the oceans. It was part of a continual cycle of creation and destruction.
In 1788, Hutton presented his ideas to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
He was not entirely correct, but his theory was accepted at the time
and represented the beginning of modern geology, the science of rocks,
volcanoes, earthquakes, and the history of Earth.
969
Rocks and Minerals
James Hutton (right) founded

modern geology by studying
rocks such as those at Siccar
Point in Scotland. LI BR ARY O F
C ONG RE SS.
Shake, rattle, and roll Earths very hot,

solid inner core is the machine that Hutton
envisioned. Earths inner core is surrounded by
an outer core, a hot layer of liquid metal. After
that comes a layer called the mantle, which produces the liquid rock of volcanoes. Earths crust
is the top layer, the one on which we live.
Huge, moving blocks of rock called plates
make up Earths crust. Their fit is similar to
the pieces of a cracked eggshell. The boundaries where the pieces meet are called seismic
belts. Cracks along these belts allow heat from
the upper mantle to escape. Within seismic belts, movement, heat, and
eruptions combine to form various minerals, each kind with a specific
crystal form. Some valuable minerals are located by mining near
seismic belts.
Classifying this old rock Rocks vary enormously because of the way
they are formed. Geologists, scientists who study rocks, classify them into
three categories: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Igneous
(pronounced IG-knee-us) rocks are formed when rock material cools
from a hot, liquid state called magma. Magma is a thick substance like
melted glass. When it reaches Earths surface, usually through volcanic
eruptions, it is called lava.
The molten lava from this

Hawaiian volcano is a form of
rock that shot up from the
depths of Earths mantle.
970
Rocks and Minerals
Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles

that have broken away from other rocks and have
been washed down and deposited on the bottoms of lakes or oceans. These particles may
become mixed with fragments of dead plants or
seashells. Over millions of years, these deposits
may get buried under other rocks and soil. The
pressure of tons of earth above the particles packs
them together in layers and hardens them into
rock.
Metamorphic (pronounced meta-MORE-fic)
rocks are formed from sedimentary and igneous
rock that become deeply buried in Earth. They are
not formed from melting. Instead, the combination of intense heat and pressure changes them
into different minerals. Metamorphic, in fact,
means changed in shape.
When you think about it, Earth really is a
living machine that forms the rocks and minerals that serve as the foundation of our daily
lives. In the two projects that follow, you will
examine rocks and minerals closely to learn
more about them.
PROJECT 1
Mountains may include rocks

of many types. P HOT O
Mineral Testing: What kind of mineral is it?

Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will determine the character-
istics of mineral samples, such as hardness, luster, and color. Each mineral
has specific characteristics, or properties, that distinguish it from other
minerals and can help you identify it.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/difficult.
Materials Needed
white ceramic tile

hammer
magnifying lens
971
Rocks and Minerals
WORDS TO KNOW
Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to split along
certain planes.
Crust: The hard, outer shell of Earth that floats upon
the softer, denser mantle.
Fracture: A minerals tendency to break into curved,
rough, or jagged surfaces.
Geology: The study of the origin, history and
structure of Earth.
Igneous rock: Rock formed from the cooling and
hardening of magma.
Inner core: Very dense, solid center of Earth.
Metamorphic rock: Rock formed by transformation of pre-existing rock through changes in

temperature and pressure.
Mineral: An inorganic substance found in nature
with a definite chemical composition and
structure. Most have a crystal form.
Outer core: A liquid core that surrounds Earths
solid inner core; made mostly of iron.
Plates: Large regions of Earths surface, composed
of the crust and uppermost mantle, which move
about, forming many of Earths major geologic
surface features.
Lava: Molten rock that occurs at the

surface of Earth, usually through volcanic
eruptions.
Sedimentary rock: Rock formed from the compressed and solidified layers of organic or inorganic matter.
Luster: A glow of reflected light; a sheen.
Seismic belt: Boundaries where Earths plates meet.
Mantle: Thick, dense layer of rock that underlies

Streak: The color of the dust left when a mineral is

rubbed across a rough surface.
glass plate or cup (used, since you will be scratching it as part of the
experiment)
penny
4 samples of unpolished minerals (gathered outdoors or purchased
at a store; avoid polished samples because they lose some of their
natural properties)
4 index cards
goggles
Approximate Budget Less than $10 for a tile, minerals, and a mag-
nifying lens.
972
Rocks and Minerals

1. Prepare an index card, as illustrated, to
record data for each of your samples.
Wear goggles at all times when testing miner2. Number each sample and write the same
als. Mineral fragments and dust can irritate your
number on an index card.
eyes.
3. Determine and record the color or colors
of each sample.
4. Check the streak. The streak of a mineral
is the color of the dust left when the mineral is rubbed across a
rough surface. Using the underside of the ceramic tile, firmly rub
the mineral across the tile. Record the color of any residue left on
the tile.
5. Examine the luster or shine of the mineral. If the mineral is shiny
gold, silver, or grey, it is considered metallic. If it is not shiny, it is
considered nonmetallic. Describe the luster of each mineral (metallic or nonmetallic) on its card.
6. Determine how each mineral breaks apart when struck. Cleavage is a
minerals tendency to break in along smooth, flat planes. Fracture is a
Step 1: Index card set-up. GA LE
minerals tendency to break into curved, rough, or jagged surfaces.
GRO UP.
973
Rocks and Minerals
Step 4: Using the underside of

the ceramic tile, firmly rub the
mineral across the tile. G AL E
GRO UP.
Wearing your goggles, strike the mineral

with a hammer and break it. Using the
magnifying lens, observe how many flat
surfaces exist on the broken pieces. Draw
your findings on the data card.
7. Check each minerals hardness, using the
Mohs Hardness Scale. The scale ranges
from 1 (softest mineral, such as talc) to 10
(hardest mineral, such as a diamond). To
determine the hardness of each mineral,
see what it scratches. For instance, if the mineral scratches glass, it
registers a 5.55.6 on the Mohs Hardness Scale; if it scratches a
penny, but does not scratch glass, it registers 3.55.5 on the Scale;
if it scratches a fingernail, but does not scratch a penny or glass, it
registers 2.53.5 on the Scale; if it does not scratch a fingernail,
penny, or glass, it registers 1.02.5 on the Scale.
8. Some minerals have special properties, such as being magnetic or
dissolving in water. Some have a different smell, taste funny, react
with acid, or glow under ultraviolet light. If you notice any special
properties for each mineral, record them on its card.
Summary of Results Compare your results. What colors were your
samples? Did the color of the streaks surprise you because they were
different from the mineral? Could you tell if the samples were metallic or
nonmetallic? How did the samples compare in hardness? If you wish, use
a mineral identification guide and the properties you identified to
Step 6: Determine how each

mineral breaks apart when
struck. Wear your goggles! GA LE
GR OU P.
974
Rocks and Minerals
determine the name of each sample. Set up a

display of your samples and their data cards.
PROJECT 2

Wear goggles at all times and use the hammer
outside, away from others.
Rock Classification: Is it
igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic?
Purpose/Hypothesis This project will give you the basic knowledge
needed to classify igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Materials Needed
hammer
12 rock samples of different colors, sizes, and textures
flat, hard surfaceold table or board
egg carton
permanent marking pen
goggles
magnifying lens
Step 1: Carefully crack each

rock sample with the hammer
to expose a fresh surface. GA LE
GRO UP .
Approximate Budget $0. If possible, gather rock
samples outdoors and borrow a hammer and

goggles. Other materials should be available in
the average household.
Timetable 1 hour.
1. Using the hammer outside on the table or

board, carefully crack each rock sample to
expose a fresh surface.
2. Place a sample of each rock into the egg
carton wells.
3. Use the marking pen to label each sample
with a number from 1 to 12.
4. Construct a data sheet to log all observations (see illustration).
975
Rocks and Minerals
Step 5: Examples of igneous,

metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. GAL E GR OU P.
5. Using a magnifying lens, examine each rock. Look for characteristics such as:
a. Igneous rocks (formed from cooled, liquid rock): Contain large
or small crystals; appears glassy with seashell pattern when
cracked.
b. Metamorphic rocks (derived from pre-existing rock that was
changed by heat and pressure): Layers that appear wavy.
c. Sedimentary rocks (formed from pre-existing rock fragments or
seashells or dead plants or animals): Include fossilspreserved
Data sheet for Project 2. GA LE

GR OU P.
976
Rocks and Minerals
plant or animal remains; contains pebbles, sand, silt, or clay particles; contains
carbon or coal; contains layers.
Summary of Results Examine your data sheet.
Based on the visible properties, place each rock in

one of the three categories. Remember, you must
see some evidence to justify your conclusion. For
example, sample 3 in the illustration, fossilized
limestone, has sand grains as well as small sea
shell fragments, so it must be sedimentary rock.
Problem: You cannot see any visible characteristics in some of the samples.
Possible cause: Some samples may be too
small. A larger sample may be needed. For
example, layers in metamorphic rock may be
hard to see in a small sample.
Modify the Project To further your understandProblem: A sample seems to possess properties
ing of rocks and make this project more challengof two groups, such as metamorphic layers and
ing, you can experiment with how rocks break
sand grains.
down. We know that wind, rain, rivers and rock
Possible cause: Since metamorphic rock is
slides can change the shapes of rocks. Rocks are
derived from other types of rocks, a sample may
also broken apart by repeated freezing and thawpossess properties from other categories.
ing. As the water in a rock freezes it expands,
producing cracks in the rock. Over time these
cracks will push the minerals apart and the rock
will separate Into pieces. What type of rock is more likely to crack due to
freezing and thawing?
In Project 2, you classified rocks into three categories, igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic. Using what you know about the characteristics of each type of rock, make a prediction about which type is more
As the water in a rock freezes it
likely to break apart after freezing and thawing. Place your igneous,
expands, producing cracks in
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in separate plastic containers.
the rock. I LLU ST RAT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Cover the rocks with water and place all the
containers in the freezer. When the water has
frozen remove container from the freezer and
allow the water to melt. Look closely at the
rocks do you see any cracks? Repeat this process
of freezing and thawing four to six times.
Was your hypothesis right? Which type of
rock has changed the most? Record your data
and consider what would happen if you soaked
the rocks overnight in the water before freezing.
Would this make a difference in your results and
977
Rocks and Minerals
if so why? Consider that some rocks may absorb more water than others
and therefore may have a higher water content upon freezing.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Rocks and minerals are
present in your daily life, from the rocks in the cement of our sidewalks to
the minerals in bath powder. Choose a type of rock or mineral to study.
Minerals used in household cleaning and rocks used in industry are just
two leads you can investigate.
teacher or school or community media specialist to gather information
on rock and mineral questions that interest you. As you consider possible
experiments, be sure to discuss them with a knowledgeable adult before
trying them.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Make drawings, graphs,
and charts to display your information for others. You might also draw
conclusions about your findings. Which minerals seem to be the most
common in your region? Why might that be?
Related Projects If you are interested in rocks and minerals and want to
discover more of their uses in your daily life, you might investigate how
rocks are used to prevent erosion or what consistency is the best for
plaster, whose main ingredient is minerals. The possibilities are almost
as endless as our supply of rocks and minerals.
978
Rocks and Minerals

Barrow, Lloyd H. Adventures with Rocks and Minerals. Hillside, NJ: Enslow
Publishing, 1991. Describes geological experiments. Chapters include what
causes minerals to break and what freezing does to rocks.
Cox, Shirley. Earth Science. Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Publications, Inc., 1992.
Chapters include how to choose geology projects.
GMB Services. RocksForKids. http://www.rocksforkids.com/ (accessed February 7,
2008). Information on rock formation, identification, and collection.
Parker, Steve. The Earth and How It Works. North Bellmore, NY: Marshall
Cavendish, 1993. Outlines a variety of projects and experiments that
examine Earths composition.
U.S. Geological Survey. Rocks and Minerals Site Contents. http://wrgis.wr.usgs.
gov/parks/rxmin/index.html (accessed February 7, 2008). Provides
information on rocks and minerals.
979
Rotation and Orbits
arth, like all the planets in our solar system, is in constant motion. All
of the planets revolve or orbit around the Sun. An orbit is when one
object in the universe goes round another one without touching it. For
Earth, it takes about 365 days to complete one orbit around the Sun.
Without Earths rotation and orbit, the world would be a far different
place. The rotation gives Earth its night and day. That allows the many
life forms on Earth to remain at a comfortable temperature, warming
during the sunlight hours and cooling down at the night. It affects the
direction of wind and the oceans daily tides. The orbit and tilt of rotation
also give Earth its four seasons.
All the planets in the solar system also rotate, or spin, as they orbit the
Sun. On average, Earth rotates once every 24 hoursor more precisely, 23
hours, 56 minutes, 4.091 seconds. The complete rotation of an object with
respect to the stars is called a sidereal (pronounced sy-DEER-ee-awl) day.
Renaissance rules Todays knowledge of planets rotations and orbits
evolved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in what is known
as the Renaissance age. Scientists at that time were building telescopes and
were able to observe how celestial objects behaved in detail for the first
time. In 1543 Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (14731543)
published his theory that Earth spins on its axis once daily and revolves
around the sun annually. The widespread belief at that time was that the
Sun and other planets revolved around Earth. Copernicus theory caused
great controversy and most people did not accept it.
Some scientists did believe Copernicus however, including German
astronomer Johannes Kepler (15711630). In the early 1600s Kepler
worked out three laws that applied to planetary motion. One of the laws
stated that Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical path. With this knowledge,
astronomers could predict the movement of other planets through observations and mathematical calculations.
981
Rotation and Orbits
Each planet revolves as it orbits

the Sun. GA LE GRO UP.
All of the planets in the solar

system revolve, or orbit, around
the Sun; the planets also rotate,
or spin, as they orbit the Sun.
GA LE GRO UP.
*Earth time
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
982
Around and around There are many orbits

in the solar system. Planets and other objects
orbit around the Sun. Moons orbit around
their planets. The main reason why objects
orbit around another object is due to gravity.
Gravity is the force pulling all matter together.
In the seventeenth century, English scientist
Isaac Newton (16421727) realized the revolutionary idea of gravity when he was just twentythree years old. Newton explained that the force
of gravitation makes every pair of bodies attract
and applies to all objects in the universe. This gravitational force relates to
why objects fall to Earth as well as the motion of the moon and the planets
in orbit. (For further information on gravity, see the Force chapter.)
The pull of gravity is stronger from heavier objects, and so lighter
objects orbit the heavier one. The Sun is the heaviest object in the solar
system. It is about a thousand times heavier than the largest planet,
Jupiter, and more than 300,000 times heavier than Earth. The gravity
of the Sun keeps Earth and all the planets in their orbits. The gravity of
Earth pulls our Moon into its orbit around Earth.
Why we spin All the planets in the solar system rotate on their axis. A
planets axis is an imaginary line drawn through its
Period of Period of
center from the North to South Pole. The Earths
revolution* rotation
axis is tilted at a 23.45 angle from vertical. Other
88 days 59 days
planets rotate at different angles. Except for Venus
and Uranus, all planets rotate in the same direc225 days 243 days
tion that they orbit the Sunfrom west to east.
365 days 24 hours
Earths continuous rotation began as the
687 days 25 hours
planet was formed, an estimated 4.6 billion
years ago. The solar system formed from clouds
12 years 10 hours
of dust and gases that were spinning around the
Sun. When these materials collapsed together
29 years 10 hours
they formed a larger and larger object that eventually formed a planet. Since these materials
84 years 18 hours
were already spinning, they began to spin faster
as they collapsed inwards. This phenomenon is
165 years 18 hours
similar to an ice skater spinning. When the ice
skater brings his or her arms closer to the body,
248 years 6.4 days
he or she will spin faster.
Rotation and Orbits
Astronomers theorize that a large object collided with the newly formed planet, setting
Northern hemisphere
experiences summer
Earth spinning at a faster rate. The collision
also may have tilted Earths axis to its 23.45
angle. The seasons are caused by this angle of
rotation. Since the axis is tilted, different parts of
the planet are oriented towards the Sun at different times of the year. For example when Earth is
equator
at a certain place in its orbit, the northern hemisphere (the half of the planet north of the equator, including the United States) is tilted toward
the Sun. During this portion of Earths orbit, the northern hemisphere
experiences the summer season. Six months later Earth is on the opposite
side of the Sun. The northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun and
experiences the winter season.
The Earth spins continuously because there is no force in space to
make it stop. One of the laws of motion states that a force is required to
slow or stop a moving object. For example, when you roll a ball along the
ground it will eventually stop due to the friction with the ground and the
force of the air pushing against the ball. For Earth rotating on its axis,
there is no force to counteract the rotation. That means it does not require
any energy to keep it rotating.
Rotations moving effects Earths daily tides
are caused both by gravity and our planets spinning movements. Both the Sun and Moon produce a gravitational pull on Earth. Yet because
the Moon is closer to Earth than the Sun, it has
about double the gravitational force as that of the
Sun, which means it has about double the influence on the tides.
caused by
centrifugal
force
As the Moon revolves around Earth, the
earth and Moon are revolving together, like
one unit, around a common point located
within Earth. This point is called the center of
gravity or the center of mass. At this center of
gravity, the gravitational forces of Earth and the
Moon pull out on each other equally. As the two
objects rotate as one system, everything in and
on Earth experiences centrifugal force. (While
Northern hemisphere
experiences winter
Sun
The tilt of the Earth on its axis,

and its rotation, causes the four
seasons. GA LE G RO UP.
Centrifugal force is caused by an

objects tendency to keep moving
in a straight line. This outwardpull effect occurs in all rotating
objects. GAL E GR OU P.
center of
gravity
caused by
gravitational
pull
Moon
983
Rotation and Orbits
Leaves fall from the trees in

autumn as a prelude to the
coming winter season. FI EL D
M ARK PUB LI CAT IO NS.
984
centrifugal force actually acts on all matter, only

the water is free to move about.)
Centrifugal force is actually not a force, but
the absence of a force. A force is a push or pull.
Centrifugal force is caused by an objects tendency to keep moving in a straight line. This
outward-pull effect occurs in all rotating objects.
For example, when a car turns sharply the passenger will seem to be pushed to the outside of the
curve. The centrifugal force that the rider is experiencing is not due to an actual push: The passengers body is trying to keep moving forward in
the same direction. Centrifugal force causes
Earths water to be pulled away from the center
of the spin.
On the side of Earth closest to the Moon,
the Moons gravity is strong enough to overcome
the centrifugal force. The total or net gravitational force is in the direction of the Moon and
causes a bulge or tide that is pulled towards the
Moon. (For further information on tides, see the
Ocean chapter.)
On the side of Earth opposite the Moon, the
Moons gravity is not strong enough to overcome the centrifugal force.
The net gravitational force is away from Earth, causing a second bulge or
tide to occur on the opposite side of the Moon. At any one time there are
two bulges of water of roughly equal size, one towards and one away from
the Moon. Low tides are created in areas about halfway between these two
high-tide bulges when the water withdraws.
Curving around Another effect caused by Earths rotation causes
large moving bodies on or above Earths surface to curve instead of
moving in a straight path. Called the Coriolis force, this bending movement is named after French mathematician Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis. In
1835, he explained mathematically that this phenomenon is due to the
objects course relative to the rotation of Earth.
The direction the object will curve depends on whether it is located
north or south of the equator. In the northern hemisphere an object will
turn to the right of its direction of movement; in the southern hemisphere, to the left. At the equator moving objects do not turn at all.
Rotation and Orbits
The circumference or distance around Earth

at the equator is larger than it is at the poles.
Since the whole Earth rotates once every 24
hours, the surface of the earth at the equator
moves faster than it does at the poles. People
living at the equator might not feel it, but they
are rotating at a rate of about 1,000 miles per
the length of the pendulums cord
hour (1,609 kilometers per hour). As the equator
the amount of time the pendulum swings
moves more quickly to the east than other points
wind
on Earth, objects traveling away from the equaIn other words, the variables in this experiment
tor are deflected to the east.
are everything that might affect the pendulums
The Coriolis force is a relatively weak one for
swing. If you change more than one variable at
most objects and is not noticeable. In large
objects that move over a length of time, the
variable had the most effect on the pendulums
swing.
Coriolis force can have a significant effect. For
example, winds naturally move in ways that
equalizes their warmth. Warm winds located at
the equator move towards cold air at the poles; cold air at the poles moves
toward the equator. The Coriolis force causes these winds to follow a
curved path as they move.
EXPERIMENT 1
The rotation of the Earth causes

the Coriolis force. G ALE GR OU P.
Foucault Pendulum: How can a

pendulum demonstrate the rotation
of Earth?
Purpose/Hypothesis In 1851, French physicist
Jean-Bernard-Leon Foucault (18191868) proved

that Earth rotates on its axis through a demonstration with a pendulum. A pendulum consists of a
free-swinging cord set at a fixed point with a weight
hanging from it. A pendulum swings at a constant
rate and direction if there is no force moving
against it.
Foucault hung a pendulum from a high ceiling
and noted that the path of the pendulums swing
slowing changed its direction of swing. Since there
was no force acting on the pendulum, he concluded that Earth had to be rotating beneath it.
Northern
Hemisphere
Equator
Southern
Hemisphere
985
Rotation and Orbits
In this experiment you will make a simple

Foucault pendulum. When a pendulum is moving freely in air, the air resistance causes the
pendulum to slow down and eventually stop. A
heavy weight and tall pendulum will reduce the
effect of friction. (Foucaults original pendulum
consisted of a 62-pound (28-kilogram) iron ball
suspended on a 220-foot (67-meter) steel wire.)
You will use a bag of sand as the pendulums
weight, and then note how the sand moves as it
trickles from the bag. To observe results from the
pendulum it should swing for at least 30 to 60
minutes. After that time, note the apparent change
in the direction in which the pendulum is swinging.
on your knowledge of Earths rotation. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
The first picture of Earth and

Moon in a single frame, taken
September 18, 1977, by
Voyager 1. TH E NA TIO NA L
AE RON AU TIC S AN D SP AC E
ADM IN IS TRA TI ON.


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The lines of sand falling from
the Foucault pendulum will shift slightly over time as Earth is continuously rotating.
In this experiment, the variable you will change is time. The variable
you will measure will be the appearance of the pendulums swing.
Level of Difficulty Moderate to Difficult (because of the difficulty in
keeping the swing straight).
Materials Needed
13 feet (4 meters) of nylon cord or strong string

cloth or canvas sack
986
Rotation and Orbits
WORDS TO KNOW
Axis: An imaginary straight line around which an
object, like a planet, spins or turns. Earths axis is
a line that goes through the North and South
Poles.
Centrifugal force: The apparent force pushing a
rotating body away from the center of rotation.
Circumference: The distance around a circle.
Coriolis force: A force that makes a moving object
appear to travel in a curved path over the
surface of a spinning body.
Gravity: Force of attraction between objects, the

strength of which depends on the mass of each
object and the distance between them.
Orbit: The path followed by a body (such as a
planet) in its travel around another body (such as
the Sun).
Rotate: To turn around on an axis or center.
Sidereal day: The system of time to measure a day
based on the motion of the stars.
experiment.
ladder at least 12 to 15 feet (3.5 to 4.5 meters) high, high swing

set, or other tall stable outdoor structure
fine, dry sand (available at hardware stores or greenhouses)
calm, nonwindy day
large garbage bag
watch or timer
tape
sharp nail
chair
1. Fill the sack with sand. Make sure there are no leaks in the bag by
holding it over a clean surface and moving it gently.
2. Tie the open end of the sack together with the cord or string, and
stand on a chair to hang the bag from the top of the ladder or other
stand. You may need an adults help with this.
987
Rotation and Orbits
3. Use the nail to punch a small hole in the

bottom of the sand bag. The hole should
be slightly larger than the tip of a pen, to
allow the sand to fall out slowly. Hold the
Make sure the pendulum stand you are using is
bag up to make sure that sand drops out
securely attached to the ground and will not tip
over. Be careful when handling the sharp nail.
at a visible rate. When it is flowing propAlso, be careful when you are attaching the
erly, seal the hole with a piece of tape.
string to the tall structure. Ask an adult to either
4. Lay out the garbage bag on the ground
help you balance or attach the string for you.
under and around the pendulum.
5. Make sure the bag of sand hangs straight
down and is not tilted. If it is, adjust
either the sack or the cord.
6. Keep the cord tight and pull the bag straight back about 4 feet (1.2
meters) high. Remove the tape and carefully set the pendulum in
motion. Make sure you swing in a straight line and do not have an
elliptical swing.
7. Over the next 45 to 60 minutes, carefully give the cord an extra
swing when it slows down. Try to keep the pendulum swinging for
60 minutes. Make sure you simply push the swing in the direction
Step 6: Carefully release the
it is moving and do not shift the cord at all. This experiment may
sack so that the pendulum
take more than one attempt.
moves in a straight line.
GA LE GRO UP.
988
Summary of Results Draw the pattern of the

sand. Explain the results, including how the
Coriolis force influences the direction of the
sand lines. For example, a Foucault pendulum
set in motion in the northern hemisphere traces
out a line that is always shifted toward the right.
How many degrees the pendulum shifts
depends on where it is geographically located or
its latitude. Latitude identifies the north-to-south
position of a point on Earth The equator is 0
latitude; the north and south poles are each 90
latitude. At the equator the pendulum would not
shift at all. At either of the poles the pendulums
swing would complete a circle in about 24 hours.
You can figure out the rate of rotation where you
live by finding your latitude and figuring out the
following equation through longhand or a
Rotation and Orbits
calculator. Mathematically, the pendulums rate of

shift is equal to the rate of rotation of Earth multiplied by the sine of the number of degrees of
latitude: n = 360 degrees x sine (latitude), where
n equals the number of degrees of rotation. The
sine of latitude represents the angular distance of a
place from the equator.
Change the Variables By increasing the time you
keep the pendulum swinging, the more the sand

lines will shift and the better you will be able to
observe Earths rotation. You can attempt to find an
even taller structure from which to hang your pendulum. Keeping the pendulum swinging manually
is challenging because of any inadvertent shifting of
the swings direction. One way to increase the swing
time of a Foucault pendulum is to build a mechanical device that automatically pushes the cord back
and forth. There are several such designs available.
See the Further Readings section, talk to your
teacher, or research the topic independently.
Problem: The bag is moving in a circular, elliptical path.
Possible cause: You may not have pushed the
bag in a straight line for the first push or any
subsequent pushes. Try practicing a straightline push with the tape on the bag, and then
Problem: There was no shift in the lines of sand.
Possible cause: You may have set the cord
slightly off-kilter during one of your pushes,
or the pendulum may not have swung long
enough. Try practicing a straight-line push
with the tape on the bag, and then repeat the
experiment, making sure to keep the pendulum swinging for at least 60 minutes.
EXPERIMENT 2
Spinning Effects: How does the speed of a rotating object
affect the way centrifugal force can overcome gravity?
Purpose/Hypothesis The term centrifugal force comes from the Latin
meaning center-fleeing or away from the center, which explains the
outward movement of an object experiencing centrifugal force. Centrifugal force can overcome the effects of gravity. One of the factors that
affect centrifugal force depends on the speed of rotation or an objects
velocity. The greater the speed of the object, the greater the force.
In this experiment you will observe centrifugal force occurring with
different velocities, and see how each overcomes the effects of gravity. You
will measure the outward pull of water in a small container that is revolving.
The faster you spin the container, the higher its velocity. You will spin the
container at two different speeds, each for the same length of time.
experiment based on your knowledge of centrifugal force and gravity.
989
Rotation and Orbits

length of string

things:
speed of rotation

mass of spinning object
are everything that might affect the way the
water moves. If you change more than one
experiment: At higher speeds, the water will be
pushed further outwards.
tell which variable had the most effect on cenIn this case, the variable you will change is
trifugal force.
the velocity of a spinning object. The variable
you will measure is the distance the water was
pushed outwards.
Step 5: Swing the container
overhead. GA LE GRO UP.
will change between the control and the experimental trials. Your control
experiment will use no centrifugal force and,
thus, will only have the effects of gravity. At the
end of the experiment you can compare your
observations from the control with the experimental trials.
shape of container

Materials Needed
990
5 feet (1.5 meters) of string

shallow Styrofoam or thin plastic cup
single hole puncher
clear area outside
tape measure
small cloth rag
water
partner
Rotation and Orbits


Be careful that your partner or anyone else is
not too close when you are swinging the cup.
You may get wet so wear the appropriate
clothes.
1. Punch two holes on opposite sides of the

plastic cup and thread the string through
the holes.
2. Punch holes all around the sides of the
container.
3. Stand in an open area outside and use an object to mark where you
are standing.
4. Wet the rag with water until it is dripping wet, and place it in the
cup. This is the control. Wait a few seconds and note your
observations of what happens to the water.
5. Wet the rag again and replace it the container. Slowly swing the
container in an arc until you get a slow circular motion over your
head.
6. Have your partner time you and count the number of complete
revolutions you make in 10 seconds.
7. Increase the speed of the revolutions and again count the number
of revolutions you make in 10 seconds.
8. Find the mid-point of where the water landed in the circle for the
first set of revolutions. Measure from that
point to the mark where you were
standing.
9. Repeat the measurement at the midpoint
of where the water landed for the first
higher-speed revolutions.
Summary of Results Construct a chart with your
results and graph the data. Examine how the

outward force of the water changes with the
velocity of the spinning object. How does gravity
affect the control experiment? The experimental
setups? What does the velocity of the revolving
container illustrate about the speed of rotation
and planets?
remedy the problem.

Problem: The water stopped coming out of the
container before the revolutions stopped.
Possible cause: The rag may not have been wet
enough. Try pouring a little water in the
container to a point below where the holes
start. Dump the rag in water, place it in the
container, and repeat the experiment.
991
Rotation and Orbits
Change the Variables To change the variables in this experiment you
can alter the weight of the revolving object. Fill up a container with
different amounts of water and weigh each object before you start
spinning. You can also change the spinning object to a solid material, such as a marble or a rock. Another variable that you can change
is the length of the string.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The movements of
celestial objects have fascinated people long before there were any
astronomical gadgets. For projects related to rotation and orbits,
you can think about how the movements of the Sun and Moon
have an effect on Earth. You can also visit a local planetarium to
view how objects in our solar system move. Check the Further
Readings section and talk with your science teacher to learn more
about rotations and orbits of celestial objects. Remember that if
you conduct a project where you observe celestial objects, never
look directly at the Sun to avoid damage to your eyes.
Steps in the Scientific Method To conduct an original experiment,
you need to plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise,

you might not be sure what question you are answering, what you
At any one time there are two

bulges of water (or high tide) of
roughly equal size, one towards
and one away from the Moon.
Low tides are created in areas
about halfway between these
two high-tide bulges. Here,
boats docked near the shore
are beached during low tide.
# NI K W HEE LE R/C OR BI S.
992
Rotation and Orbits
are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or

disprove.
question.
charts and drawings such as the one you did for the experiments in this
chapter. They should be clearly labeled and easy to read. You may also
want to include photographs and drawings of the experimental setup,
models of any celestial setup, and the results, which will help other people
visualize the experiment.
Related Projects There are multiple projects related to the orbits and
rotations of celestial bodies. You can focus on the Moons orbit through
the sky, recording its phases throughout a month and its effect on Earth.
There are certain celestial bodies that are held together by mutual gravitational attraction, such as the Earth and the Moon. You can examine other
planet-moon systems, determine the point at which the bodies orbit
around, and map out the orbit of each body. Another factor relating to
orbits is the relationship between the time it takes a planet to complete
one orbit and its distance from the Sun. You can explore how mass and
distance affect a celestial bodys orbit.
Another project could be to focus on the basic shapes of planetary
orbits. Each planet has its own unique orbital path; some are close to
circular and others are far more elliptical. You can map out the paths of
the orbits on paper or construct a model. To further explore tides, you
could examine how the Sun impacts tides and map the high and low tides
in your area. Ocean tides are not exactly twelve hours apart. Another
993
Rotation and Orbits
possible project is to explore what causes the time between tides, look up
tidal information in a certain area, and then predict the high and low tides
for the next month. Scientists have found that a planets rotation affects
its shape. You can explore this principle on Earth and other celestial
bodies. For a research project, you can look at the many people and
discoveries that led to the understanding that Earth orbits and rotates
around the Sun.

Arnett, Bill. The Eight Planets. http://www.nineplanets.org (accessed on
February 16, 2008). Overview of the history, mythology, and science of the
planets, moons and other objects in our solar system.
Coriolis Force. Department of Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign. http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/fw/
crls.rxml (accessed on February 16, 2008). Brief explanation of the Coriolis
force with a video.
Curious about Astronomy. http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/index.php (accessed
on February 17, 2008). Clear answers to many astronomy questions and the
chance to ask questions.
Groleau, Rick. What Causes the Tides? PBS: Nova. http://www.pbs.org/
wgbh/nova/venice/tide nf.html (accessed on February 17, 2008). PBSs
Nova site illustrates the centrifugal force that causes tides.
NASA Observatorium. http://observe.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/space/centrifugal/
centrifugal index.html (accessed on February 16, 2008). Detailed
explanation of centrifugal force.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Space Place. http://
spaceplace.jpl.nasa.gov/en/kids/ (accessed on February 16, 2008). Answers to
space related questions, activities, and clear space science explanations.
Scagell, Robin. Space Explained: A Beginners Guide to the Universe. New York:
Henry Holt & Company, 1996. Look at how the universe was created;
includes lots of illustrations.
Simon, Seymour. Our Solar System. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1992.
Simple description of the origins, characteristics, and future of the solar
system, with lots of illustrations.
994
Salinity
hat gives ocean water its salty taste? The answer lies in its salinity,
the total salt content of the water. Saline (salty) substances are
present in all water, even rain water, but sodium and chlorine are the two
most abundant saline substances dissolved in ocean water.
Get out the yardstick In 1872, the H.M.S. Challenger began its
worldwide ocean expedition from Portsmouth, England. On board were
240 sailors and scientists, including four naturalists and their support
team. Originally built as a warship, the ship was converted into a floating
scientific lab by the British government to study the biology of the sea, as
well as the chemical and physical properties of the water. Between 1872
and 1876, the ship sailed 68,890 miles (110,908 kilometers) and made
492 stops. Nearly 5,000 new species, including giant worms and deep-sea
shrimp almost as big as lobsters, were brought on board and identified.
In 1872, the crew of the H.M.S.

Challenger were the first to
measure ocean salinity. NO RTH
WI ND P IC TUR E AR CH IVE .
Samples of seawater were also collected and analyzed for their chemical composition. The main substances present included bicarbonates and
sulfates, as well as salts such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium,
and chloride. Sodium and chloride were the most abundant. While the
samples showed that different salinity measurements existed, the average
salinity of all the samples was about 3.5%, or
35 pounds (kilograms) of salt per 1,000 pounds
(kilograms) of seawater. Scientists today still use
this average salinity figure, and the Challengers
salinity samples are still the only worldwide set
of analyzed seawater. In fact, this voyage helped
launch modern oceanography. John Murray,
one of naturalists onboard, later supervised the
publication of 50 volumes of Challenger Reports
based on the expeditions discoveries.
995
Salinity
WORDS TO KNOW
Buoyancy: The upward force exerted on an object
placed in a liquid.
Calibration: To standardize or adjust a measuring
instrument so its measurements are correct.
volume.
Density ball: A ball with the fixed standard of 1.0
gram per milliliter, which is the exact density of
pure water.
Nansen bottles: Self-closing containers with

thermometers that draw in water at different
depths.
Oceanography: The study of the chemistry of the
oceans, as well as their currents, marine life, and
the ocean bed.
Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of pure water.
Hydrometer: An instrument that determines the

specific gravity of a liquid.
Standard: A base for comparison.


an experiment.
The Red Sea has a salinity

level of 27 percent. P ETE R
A RN OLD INC .
Where did the salt come from? Millions of years ago, one ocean
covered Earth. This vast ocean was just barely salty. Over time, land
formed, and rain washed salt and minerals from the land into the ocean.
Salt also came from rocks and sediments on the ocean floor, and from
undersea volcanic activity that literally erupted salts into the water. All
these accumulated salts made ocean water heavier, that is, gave it a greater
density than fresh water.
The discoveries made on the Challenger gave
us an average salinity for oceans, but this number
can vary quite a bit. For example, the Baltic Sea
near Sweden has a salinity content of 1%; while
the Red Sea near Egypt has a salinity content of
27%. Salinity increases through evaporation,
which begins as the surface water of the ocean
is warmed by the Sun. The heated water
becomes water vapor and rises into the atmosphere, leaving the salt behind.
Generally, waters in climates with strong sunlight and high temperatures, such as the region
996
Salinity
around the Red Sea, tend to have a higher salinity

level because the surface water there evaporates at
a faster rate. In the Baltic Sea region, rain, fresh
water from adjoining rivers, and melting ice keep
the salinity level low. The colder weather there
also reduces the evaporation rate.
Getting the evidence Two instruments used
to analyze ocean water are hydrometers, which
measure seawater density, and Nansen bottles.
Nansen bottles are more sophisticated versions of
those collection bottles used on the H.M.S. Challenger. The bottles are self-closing containers with
thermometers; they can draw in water at different
depths. Through their use, scientists have learned
that the sea has different layers of water with
specific salinity levels and temperatures.
In the two experiments that follow, you will
learn more about salinity by measuring it in
different ways.

the amount of water in the sample
the amount of salt in the water
the accuracy of the hydrometer
measurements
are everything that might affect the specific
gravity of the water. If you change more than
one variable at a time, you will not be able to
on the specific gravity.
EXPERIMENT 1
Making a Hydrometer: How can salinity
be measured?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will create a scientific
instrument called a hydrometer. A hydrometer is used to measure the

specific gravity of water, comparing the density of one water sample to
that of pure water. Pure water has a density of 1.000 grams/milliliter. If
any salts or chemicals are added, they will dissolve and their added mass
will increase the density of the water. This will increase the specific
gravity. The greater the specific gravity, the greater the salinity.
A hydrometer works on the Archimedes Principle of buoyancy, which
states that a liquid exerts an upward buoyant force on an object equal to
the amount of liquid displaced by the object. Thus if an object floats
partially submerged in water, the downward weight of the object must be
counterbalanced by the upward buoyant force, which is equal to the weight
of the water displaced. Otherwise, the object would sink to the bottom.
If you add salt to the water, the downward weight of the object will
displace less water because the water is now denserthat is, it has more
997
Salinity
mass for a given volume. As a result, the object

will float higher in the water, with less of it
submerged. If you place measurement graduations along the surface of the object where the
water touches, you have created a hydrometer.
The hydrometer measurements can then be
equated to the specific gravity, and in turn to
the amount of salt in the water, or salinity.
learned about salinity to make a guess about what
will happen to the specific gravity of water when
salt is added. This educated guess is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
Steps 1 and 2: Making a
hydrometer. GA LE G RO UP.

measurable. It must be something you can test through observation. Your
experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The more salt in the
water, the higher its specific gravity.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of salt in the
water, and the variable you will measure is the waters specific gravity. If the
specific gravity increases with an increase in salt, your hypothesis is correct.

GAL E GR OU P.
998
Salinity
Level of Difficulty Moderate/difficult because
accurate measurements and adjustments are

required.
Materials Needed

Be sure to handle glass carefully.
one 1-quart (1-liter) graduated cylinder

filled with distilled water at room temperature
one 5-inch (12.7-centimeter) test tube
one 6-inch (15.2-centimeter) glass rod
1 rubber test tube stopper with a single hole that fits the glass rod
2 tablespoons (30 milliliters) sand
1 to 3 cups (250 to 750 milliliters) table salt
small amount of petroleum jelly
fine tip permanent marker
measuring spoons
stirring rod
Steps 3 to 8: Hydrometer in
graduated cylinder of distilled
water with different water
levels marked. GA LE GRO UP.
Approximate Budget $0 to $10. Ideally, you can

borrow most of the materials from school. Ask
your science teacher for help.
1. Place a small dab of petroleum jelly on

the end of the glass rod. Push the glass
rod through the stopper until it reaches
the bottom of the stopper.
2. Place a pinch or two of sand into the test
tube and place the stopper into it. You
have made a hydrometer.
3. Place the test tube hydrometer into the
graduated cylinder of distilled water.
4. Add or remove some of the sand from the
test tube until the hydrometer floats vertically in the water with approximately
1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of the glass rod
above the water.
999
Salinity
5. Use the marker to write 1.000 on the glass

rod at the level of the surface of the water.
remedy the problem.
Problem: The test tube does not float vertically
in the water.
Possible cause: There is not enough weight in
the bottom of the tube to keep it upright.
Use more sand or substitute a denser material instead of sand, such as small roller
bearings.
6. Remove the hydrometer from the water and

stir in 3 tablespoons of salt. This is equivalent to about 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of
salt. Stir until all of the salt is dissolved.
7. Place the hydrometer in the water and mark
the new water level. It should be lower on
the rod because the water is denser and the
hydrometer is now floating slightly higher.
The increased water density, compared to
the density of pure water, means the salty
water has a higher specific gravity.
8. Add another 3 tablespoons of salt and

mark the water level again. The hydrometer should float even higher in the water as the density (and
specific gravity) of the water increases.
Summary of Results Study the marks on your hydrometer. Do they
support your hypothesis? Did the specific gravity increase each time you
added more salt to the water? What does this tell you about the salinity of
the water? Write a paragraph describing and explaining your results.
Change the Variables You can change the variables in this experiment in
several ways. For example, you can chill the water by placing it in a
refrigerator to determine the effect of water temperature on salinity. You
could also use a different kind of saltfor example, potassium chloride
instead of sodium chloride.
EXPERIMENT 2
Density Ball: How to make a standard for
measuring density
Purpose/Hypothesis This experiment is designed to create a standard.
A standard is an object or instrument that has a fixed value. In this

experiment, you will create a standard for measuring the density of a
solution, called a density ball. A density ball has the fixed standard of
1.0 gram/milliliter, which is the exact density of pure water. You will then
1000
Salinity
determine if your standard can accurately indicate if a water samples density is greater than or
equal to pure water.
This experiment is similar to Experiment
Be sure to handle glass safely.
#1, except here you will determine density by
watching whether the density ball standard is
suspended or floats.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about the density of
pure water to make an educated guess about how a density ball will work.


hypothesis for this experiment: By creating a standard for the density
of pure water, you will be able to determine whether a solution has a
density greater than or equal to 1.0 gram/milliliter.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of salt in the
water, and the variable you will measure is how your density ball reacts to
changes in density. If your density ball accurately predicts whether a water
sample is greater than or equal to the density of pure water, you will know
What are the Variables? Variables are anything

GAL E GR OU P.
that might affect the results of an experiment.

Here are the main variables in this experiment:
the amount of water in the sample

the amount of salt in the water
the behavior of the density ball
In other words, the variables in this experiment are everything that might affect the density
reading indicated by the density ball. If you
1001
Salinity
able to determine which variable had the most

effect on the density reading.
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because delicate
adjustments are required for this experiment.
Materials Needed
one 1-quart (1-liter) graduated cylinder

filled with distilled water at room
temperature
one 5-inch (12.7-centimeter) test tube
1 rubber test tube stopper without a hole
2 tablespoons (30 milliliters) sand
1 to 2 cups (250 to 500 milliliters) salt
measuring spoons
stirring rod
Step 4: Test tube freely
suspended in water. G AL E
GRO UP.
Approximate Budget $0 to $10. See if you can
borrow the lab materials from your science teacher. You probably have salt
and perhaps sand at home.
Step 4: What to do if test tube

sinks to bottom or floats to
surface. GA LE GRO UP.
1002
1. Place a pinch or two of sand in the test tube.

2. Place the stopper in the opening of the test tube securely. This is
your density ball.
3. Place the test tube into the graduated
cylinder of distilled water.
4. Wait 15 to 20 seconds and note where the
test tube is positioned. If it is suspended
freely in the water without floating to the
surface or sinking to the bottom, it has
the same density as water at room temperature: 1.0 gram/milliliter. If the test
tube sinks to the bottom, remove some
sand and try again. If it floats to the surface, add some sand.
Salinity
5. Remove the test tube and stir 3 tablespoonsabout 3.5 ounces (100grams)
of salt into the water.
6. Place the test tube back into the water and
note its position. (It should float now
because the added salt makes the water
denser than the ball.)
Summary of Results Did your density ball indi-
cate the density of the water and support your

hypothesis? Write a paragraph explaining what
you have learned during this experiment. How
did your density ball behave in different solutions?
What does this tell you about the solutions?
Problem: The test tube sinks and rests on the
bottom.
Possible cause: The test tube is too heavy.
Remove a pinch of sand from it and try again.
Problem: The test tube floats at the surface.
Possible cause: The test tube is not heavy
enough. Add a pinch more sand and try again.
ables and conduct other similar experiments. For

example, try your 1.0 grams/milliliter standard density ball in another
liquid, such as corn oil or vinegar, to determine if those liquids are more
or less dense than pure water. How is the density of these liquids affected
if you add salt?

salinity or its effects, there are many fascinating experiments you can
explore. For example, how is salt used in the human body? Why does salt
cause metal corrosion? How do marine animals adapt to their environment? These are all possible questions you can explore.
salinity questions that interest you. As you consider possible experiments,
be sure to discuss them with your science teacher or another knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some of the materials or procedures might
be dangerous.
1003
Salinity

your question.
charts that are labeled and easy to read. You may also want to include photos,
graphs, and drawings of your set-up and results. When working with salinity,
you may be able to set up your experiment as a demonstration model. Do not
forget to share what you have learned about salinity.
Related Projects You might do an experiment on how salinity affects
plants. Another possibility is to find the corrosion rate on metals exposed

to salts. You may also want to explore the use of salts in chemistry and
manufacturing. Be sure to talk with your teacher before starting a project.

Deep Ocean Creatures. Extreme Science. http://www.extremescience.com/
DeepestFish.htm (accessed on March 14, 2008.) Nice pictures and facts on
deep ocean creatures.
Lambert, David. The Kingfisher Young Peoples Book of Oceans. New York:
Kingfisher, 1997. Includes nine ocean topics with related subjects. Describes
how the oceans formed and the composition of seawater.
Ocean Water: Salinity. Office of Naval Research. http://http://www.onr.navy.
mil/Focus/ocean/water/salinity1.htm (accessed on March 14, 2008). Brief
explanation and animation of the tides.
Rothaus, Don P. Oceans. Chanhassen, MN: The Childs World Inc., 1997.
Describes the characteristics of the worlds oceans including the chemistry of
seawater.
1004
Scientific Method
hen you encounter a problem, how do you solve it? Do you

consider what you already know about the problem, think of a
possible answer, and then see if your answer is correct? If so, you are using
the scientific method. The scientific method is a way of carefully collecting evidence about a question or problem, using that evidence to form a
possible answer, and then testing the answer to see if it is accurate.
You can use this method as a tool for solving problems in science class
and in many other areas of your life. For example, it could help you figure out
why your pencils keep disappearing, how to wrap your sandwich so it does
not dry out by lunchtime, or why your dog no longer likes his favorite food.
What are the steps in the scientific method? The scientific method
has six steps, described below. They will help you solve all kinds of
problems, in and out of school.
Step 1: State a problem or ask a question.
Step 2: Gather background information.
Step 3: Form a hypothesis.
Step 4: Design and perform an experiment.
Step 5: Draw a conclusion.
Step 6: Report the results.
Step 1: State a problem or ask a question. To begin using the scientific

method, think about the world around you. You may see something that
makes you curious, such your sandwich drying out by lunchtime on some
days but not on others. You might see an unexplained light in the sky. You
might hear a statement that you are not sure is true. For example, a friend
might tell you that wearing glasses makes your eyes become weaker.
Put your curiosity into the form of a problem or question, such as
these:
Why does my sandwich dry out some days but not others?
What is that light in the sky?
1005
Scientific Method
Does wearing glasses make your eyes

weaker?
You do not have to be a scientist

to use the scientific method.
Step 2: Gather background information. Read

more about the problem or question. Observe it
closely.
Step 3: Form a hypothesis. Now use what you
know about the situation to think of a possible
answer for your question. This answer, or guess,
is your hypothesis. A hypothesis is an idea in the
form of a statement that can be tested by observations and/or experiment. You will use what
you already know about the situation to form a hypothesis. Here are
possible hypotheses to answer the questions above:
Plastic bags that seal keep more moisture in bread than waxed
paper or plastic bags without seals do.
That light in the sky is an airplane.
Wearing glasses does not make your eyes become weaker.
All of these hypothesis are testable: You can make observations, do
research, or set up experiments to determine whether each hypothesis is
correct. Here are some examples of hypotheses that are vague and
untestable:
Sandwiches taste better when you seal them in plastic bags. How
can you measure taste better?
The light in the sky might be a reflection or something. How can
you measure might be or something?
Wearing glasses might make your eyes weaker, if you wear them
long enough. How long is long enough?
The ancient Greeks often hypothesized about the causes of natural
events. However, they assumed they could figure out the correct explanations just by thinking about the situation long enough. They usually did
not experiment to find out whether their explanations were accurate.
Aristotle, a famous Greek philosopher, developed theories that led to
many discoveries, but his theories were based mostly on reasoning, not
experimentation. For example, he hypothesized that the flies that he
found on rotting fruit just appeared out of the air. He did not experiment
to find out whether his hypothesis was true.
Step 4: Design and perform an experiment. In this step, you go beyond
the ancient Greeks: you prove or disprove your hypothesis. You might be
1006
Scientific Method
Hypotheses: Is the light in the

sky just an airplaneor
something else? PHO TO
able to establish whether your hypothesis is accurate by research, such as

checking the local airport to see if an airplane flew over your house at a
certain time last night. Or you might gather expert opinions about how
wearing glasses affects peoples eyesight. For the sandwich problem, the
best approach is an experiment.
An experiment is a controlled observation. The experimenter carefully changes one condition at a time, such as the type of sandwich
wrapping, and observes what happens. In most experiments, a control
experiment is set up with the same conditions as the actual experiment.
The conditions remain the same in the control experiment but are
changed in the actual experiment, one condition at a time. If something
happens only in the actual experiment and not in the control, it is clear
that it was caused by changing a condition in the actual experiment. The
control experiment for our sandwiches might be leaving a slice of bread
unwrapped to see what happens to it and comparing it to those in various
wrappings.
Conditions that change during an experiment and affect the results
are called variables. The variables in our sample experiment include the
type of bread, how fresh it is, the size of the piece of bread being wrapped,
any fillings used with the bread, the length of time the bread is wrapped,
the temperature of the wrapped bread during the experiment, and the
type of sandwich wrapping. Only one variable is changed at a time during
1007
Scientific Method
Is your sandwich still fresh at

lunchtime? K ELL Y A . QU IN.
1008
the experiment. The variable being changed is

called the independent variable, which in our
experiment is the type of sandwich wrapping.
What might happen if we change two variables at a time, such as wrapping wheat bread with
waxed paper and putting rye bread in a sealed
plastic bag? If the rye bread is fresher than the
wheat bread at the end of the experiment, we
cannot be sure which variable is the causethe
type of bread or the type of wrapping.
The condition that changes during an
experiment is called the dependent variable. In
our example, the dependent variable is the amount of moisture in the
bread. Results of experiments must be measurable, so we need a way to
measure this moisture. We decide to weigh each slice of bread before and
after the experiment. The difference in the weight would be the amount
of moisture that evaporated.
Experiments must also be repeatable. We must write down our
procedure and follow it carefully, so that someone else could carry out
the same procedure and see if the same results occur.
Step 5: Draw a conclusion. The next step in the scientific method is to
graph or chart our results, analyze them, and determine whether our
hypothesis was correct. For some experiments, we might have quite a bit
of data to analyze. For our sample experiment, we compare the loss in
weight of each bread slice after the wrapping is removed. What is our
conclusion? Did our results support our hypothesis?
Even if the results did not support our hypothesis, we have learned
something just by asking the question and doing the experiment. Often
there is no right answer when we use the scientific method. Instead, we
simply gather more information about the problem, which is valuable in
itself.
Step 6: Report the results. Reporting our results allows other scientists
to build on our workand to repeat our experiment to see if they get the
same results. Without the sharing of results, little scientific progress
would be made. Scientists publish their findings in scientific journals as
a way of sharing what they have learned.
In the two experiments that follow, you will use information you
gather to identify mystery powders, and you will use the scientific
Scientific Method
WORDS TO KNOW
Control experiment: A set-up that is identical
to the experiment but is not affected by
the variable that affects the experimental
group.
Dependent variable: The variable in an
experiment whose value depends on the
value of another variable in the
experiment.
Experiment: A controlled observation.
Hypothesis: An idea phrased in the form of a statement

that can be tested by observation and/or experiment.
Independent variable: The variable in an experiment
that determines the final result of the experiment.
Scientific method: Collecting evidence and arriving at
a conclusion under carefully controlled conditions.
an experiment.
method to prove or disprove Aristotles hypothesis that fruit flies appear

out of thin air.
EXPERIMENT 1
Using the Scientific Method: What are the
mystery powders?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will begin with three mys-
tery powders and ask yourself, What are these powders? Then you will
gather information from a chart that shows how three kinds of powder
react when mixed with water, iodine, and vinegar. Next, you will
hypothesize the identity of each mystery powder. Then you will test
how each powder reacts with water, iodine, and vinegar. You will compare your results with the chart and draw a conclusion about the identity
of each powder. Then you will know whether your hypothesis was
correct.
1009
Scientific Method
Materials Needed

the purity of the sample of each powder
the amount of water, iodine, and vinegar
that is added to each powder
the accuracy of your observations
are everything that might affect how each
powder reacts to the water, iodine, and vinegar.
3 ounces (85 grams) of baking soda in its

original container
3 ounces (85 grams) of cornstarch in its
original container
3 ounces (85 grams) of flour in its original
container
6 small labels
6 small dishes
3 spoons
water
iodine (the kind used to prevent
infections)
vinegar
eye dropper
black paper
magnifying lens
goggles or other eye protection
Approximate Budget Up to $10; most materials available in the average
household.
1. Turn three of the small dishes upside down and attach a label to
each bottom that says baking soda, cornstarch, or flour.
2. Turn the three dishes right side up.
3. Put about 3 ounces (85 g) of the powder on the label (baking soda,
cornstarch, or flour) into each dish. Make sure the amounts are
equal. After the dishes are filled, you should no longer be able to
read the labels on the bottom.
4. Move the dishes around until you no longer know which powder
is which. (You might ask another person to do this while you wait
in another room.)
5. Add a label to the side of each dish that says A, B, or C.
6. Gather information by studying Table 1 (see illustration). Notice
how each powder looks or feels and how it reacts with water,
iodine, and vinegar. Iodine will turn a powder black if the powder
1010
Scientific Method
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
contains starch. Vinegar, an acid, will

make a powder bubble or fizz if the powHow to Experiment Safely
der is a base. The acid and base react with
each other to produce carbon dioxide.
Wear goggles to prevent the iodine, vinegar, or
Create a table similar to the one illusany of the powders from getting in your eyes.
Never taste substances you are using in an
trated above. You will fill in the table as
experiment.
you test each powder.
Pour a small amount of Powder A on the
black paper, and carefully observe it with the magnifying lens.
Repeat with Powders B and C. Do you notice any slight variations
in color or any other differences? Add your observations to Table 2.
Feel each powder, rinsing your hands after touching each one.
Record your observations on Table 2.
Based on your observations, make a hypothesis about the identities
of Powders A, B, and C. Remember that a hypothesis is a clear,
testable statement of your educated guess about the identity of the
unknown powders. Here is a possible hypothesis: Powder A is
baking soda. Powder B is flour. Powder C is cornstarch.
Fill an empty dish with about 2 ounces (60 ml) of water. Add
about 12 ounce (14 grams) of Powder A and stir with a spoon.
Notice whether the powder dissolves in the water and the water
Step 6: Table 1, Characteristics

of Three Powders G AL E
GR OU P.
1011
Scientific Method
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
remains clear, or whether the powder does not dissolve and the
water becomes cloudy. Record your observations in Table 2.
Throw away the powder sample you just tested. Rinse and dry the
spoon and small dish. Use the same spoon and dish each time you
test Powder A.
Repeat Steps 11 and 12 with Powder B and Powder C, using the
other two dishes. Record your observations.
Place about 12 ounce (14 grams) of Powder A into its empty dish.
Use the eye dropper to add 1 to 2 drops of iodine to Powder A.
Observe what happens and record the results in your table. If
Powder A contains starch, the iodine will turn it black or purple.
Repeat Steps 14 and 15 with Powder B and Powder C. When you
are finished, rinse out the eye dropper. Record what you observed
in Table 2.
Repeat Steps 14 and 15 with each of the powders, adding 12
drops of vinegar this time. Add your observations to Table 2. If the
powder is a base, the acidic vinegar will mix with it and form
fizzling carbon dioxide gas.
Summary of Results Compare the results in Table 2 with the character-
istics in Table 1. Can you use your test results to establish the identity of
Step 7: Create a Chart of

Reactions for Experiment 1.
GAL E GR OU P.
1012
Scientific Method
each powder? Then pick up each dish of powder

and read the label on the bottom. Were you
correct? Write a paragraph summarizing your
findings and explaining whether they support
your hypothesis.
ment in these ways:
Below is a common problem that may arise
during this experiment, a possible cause, and a
way to remedy the problem.
Problem: All of the powders reacted the same in
the tests.
Use other powders, such as salt, granuPossible cause: Your samples might have
lated sugar, or powdered sugar.
become contaminated if the spoon, dish, and
eye dropper were not cleaned before each test.
Set up the experiment for someone else,
This contamination will affect your test results.
perhaps a younger student, and see if he
Try the experiment again, being careful to keep
or she can identify a mystery powder you
your equipment clean.
have selected.
With an adults help, place a sample of
baking soda, cornstarch, and flour, separately, on a square of aluminum foil and heat the sample with a
candle. Notice which powders melt and which turn black. Use this
information to help identify mystery powders.
Step 15: Add 1 to 2 drops of
iodine to Powder A. G AL E
Mix each powder with a little water and
GR OU P.
test it with red and blue litmus (pH)
paper. If the powder is acidic, blue litmus
paper will turn red. If the powder is basic,
red litmus paper will turn blue. If the
paper does not change color, the powder
is neutral. This test provides one more
characteristic to help identify the powders.
EXPERIMENT 2
Using the Scientific Method: Do
fruit flies appear out of thin air?
will test Aristotles assumption that fruit flies

are created spontaneouslyfrom nothing. You
will determine whether the flies are present in all
air and can appear anywhere or whether they are
attracted from other places by rotting fruit.
1013
Scientific Method

the ripeness of the banana slices (this
variable will be controlled by taking all
the slices from the same banana)
the temperature of the air around both
sets of banana slices (flies are more active
in warm temperatures)
whether the container with the experimental slices is tightly sealed
the opportunity for flies to be attracted to
the fruit (in a sealed, air-conditioned
room, flies are unlikely to be near enough
to be attracted to the bananas)
The independent variable, the one you will
change, is whether the bananas are in a sealed
container or exposed to the air around them.
The dependent variable, the one you will
measure, is the presence or absence of fruit flies.
First, form a hypothesis about the outcome

of this experiment based on your understanding
of fruit flies and bananas, the fruit you will use in
this experiment.
Here is a possible hypothesis for this experiment,
one that Aristotle thought was true: Fruit flies
will appear on bananas even if they are kept in a
covered container.
In your experiment, you will place several
slices of a ripe banana in a covered container. As a
control experiment, you will leave several other
slices of the same banana exposed to the air. If
flies appear on both the covered and the exposed
banana slices, you will know that your hypothesis is correct.

Materials Needed
1 very ripe banana, unpeeled, with no obvious rotten spots

clear container that can be completely sealed
small, shallow bowl
table knife
magnifying lens
water for cleaning the banana
a warm, shaded area outside (or a warm area inside that is near a
window or door)
Approximate Budget $0 to $5; materials should be available in the
average household.
1014
Scientific Method
Timetable 15 minutes to set up; five minutes to
record observations each day for a week to 10

days.
Ask permission before beginning this experiment, as it is likely to attract flies. Handle the
table knife with caution.
1. Gently rinse the unpeeled banana to clean

off any fly eggs that might already be on it.
2. Peel the banana, and use the table knife to
cut it into about ten slices.
3. Put half of the slices in the clear container
and seal it tightly.
4. Put the rest of the slices in the uncovered,
shallow dish.
5. Place the sealed container and the shallow
dish in a warm, shady spot, outside if
possible.
6. Starting the next day, use the magnifying
lens to check for fruit flies. Record your
observations in Table 3 each day for seven
to 10 days, or until flies appear.
Summary of Results Study the data on your table and decide whether
your hypothesis was correct. Did flies appear in the sealed container?
Did they appear on the slices in the shallow dish? Write a paragraph
summarizing your findings and explaining whether they support
your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was not supported, what did
you learn?
Steps 3 and 4: Place some slices

in a covered container, and
more in an uncovered
container. GA LE GRO UP.
Step 6: Observe containers for

the presence of fruit flies. GAL E
GRO UP.

Use a different kind of fruit or try raw
meat, such as hamburger.
Put both containers in a warmer or a
cooler place to see how that affects the
results of the experiment.
Put a banana that has obvious rotten areas
on it inside a sealed container to see if flies
appear from eggs already on the banana.
1015
Scientific Method
Modify the Experiment You can often change
Problem: Flies appeared on the slices in the
sealed container.
Possible cause: The banana must have already
contained fly eggs. Try the experiment again,
choosing a banana that is not so ripe and rinsing
it thoroughly before you start.
Problem: No flies appeared anywhere.
Possible cause: The area around your experiment is just too clean! Try placing both containers outside, if the weather is warm, or
inside in a place that is well traveled. Both
containers must be exposed to the same
environment.
the level of difficulty of an experiment by adding

to or simplifying it. Sometimes, this involves
altering your hypothesis. Whenever you modify
an experiment, make sure that you still isolate
only one variable at a time.
You could add another part to this experiment, for example, by testing the theory of spontaneous generation among different items. Are there
certain items that attract organisms more than
others? It may help you understand why the theory
of spontaneous generation was believed for so
long. Test a series of items, preferably outside in
a warm environment. You can test food items,
such as an apple or soda, along with other items,
such as a plastic cup. Make sure each item is clean.
For each item, your control will be the same clean
item sealed in a clear container.
Make a note of your results in a chart,

noting the food item and any organisms that
appear. You could also try to isolate what part
of the item attracted the organisms. For example, if ants began
hovering around a cookie, you can isolate the different items in the
cookie (sugar, flour, milk) and see which of the items attracts the ants
again.
Table 3 for Experiment 2. GA LE

GR OU P.
1016
Scientific Method

questions using the scientific method. What has always intrigued you?
For example, you could use this method to see which brand of a product
gets the best results, which studying techniques help you or others learn
more, or how long microwave popcorn should cook in order to pop all
the kernels and burn none.
information on questions that interest you. As you consider possible
knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some materials or procedures
are dangerous to use.
sure which question you are answering, what you are or should be
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In your unknown powder
and fruit fly experiments, your raw data might include tables, drawings,
or photographs of the changes you observed. If you display your experiment, make clear the question you are trying to answer, the variable you
changed, the variable you measured, the results, and your conclusions.
Explain what materials you used, how long each step took, and other
basic information.
Related Projects You can undertake a variety of projects related to the
scientific method. For example, you might find out how much sunlight a
day produces the fastest growing seedlings, which kind of software is the
1017
Scientific Method
easiest to learn how to use, or how to speed up the life cycle of a fruit fly.
Many, many of the questions that occur to you can be answered using the
scientific method!

Gardner, Robert. Science Projects about Chemistry. Hillside, NJ: Enslow
Publishers, 1994. Describes many science projects, including separating and
identifying substances and detecting unknown solids.
VanCleave, Janice. A+ Projects in Chemistry. New York: Wiley, 1993. Outlines
many experiments and includes information about the scientific method.
1018
Seashells
hells are familiar sights in nature. In general, a shell is a hard protective

covering that encloses a variety of animals and fruits. Eggshells protect
unborn birds. Plants produce seeds that have coverings to keep their fruit
and seeds safe. Coconuts and peanuts are example of shelled foods. Insects
have an exoskeleton, a hard outer covering, which protects their bodies.
Seashells are the shells, or protective coverings, of marine animals.
Shells from the sea come in all sizes, shapes, and colors and house a variety
of animals. To understand seashells, we need to look at the animals that
made them.
Who has shells? Animals such as birds, fish, reptiles, and mammals
have internal skeletons or backbones that provide structure and support
to protect the animal. There are also animals that have a hard outer
covering or shell to protect their soft bodies from predators. Snails, crabs,
and lobsters are animals with an outer shell. These animals are called
invertebrates and they have an exoskeleton (or external skeleton), like
many insects. Most invertebrates do not have an internal skeleton or
backbone. Exceptions to this include tortoises and turtles, who have both
an internal skeleton (backbone) and an outer shell.
The largest group of shelled creatures is the mollusks. Mollusk means
soft-bodied. There are approximately 75,000 species of mollusks,
which include the snail, oyster, and octopus. These animals have evolved
over time to live in many different environments. The snail, for example,
is a mollusk that lives in the ocean, freshwaters, and on land. (Slugs are
similar to snails except they do not carry a shell.) Most mollusks have
shells with the exception of the octopus, squid, and slug.
Mollusks can be grouped into many categories depending upon the
characteristics of the animal. Some of the more common categories are
the gastropod and bivalve. Gastropod comes from the Greek words
foot and stomach. Snails are gastropods and in their spiral shaped
1019
Seashells
One type of mollusk is the

invasive zebra mussels, a
bivalve mussel. AP PHO TO/
U. S. D EPA RT ME NT O F
AG RI CUL TU RE.
Some of the more common

categories of mollusks are the
gastropod and bivalve.
NE LS ON.
Gastropods
1020
shell they use their foot (the fleshy part of their

body that protrudes from the shell) to propel
themselves forward. Bivalve uses the prefix bi,
which means two, because bivalve organisms
have a two-part shell. The two shells in a bivalve
connect to cover the animal. Common bivalves
are the clam, oyster, and scallop shells.
Another group of animals that have a hard
shell-like outer covering is the crustaceans. Crustaceans are invertebrates. They have a segmented
body with a hard exoskeleton. Some common
crustaceans are crabs, lobsters, crayfish, and
shrimp.
How shells are made The shells of gastropods and bivalves are made
of calcium carbonate. Mollusks take in calcium that they find in their
environment from food and the water they live in to create their shell.
When baby mollusks hatch from their eggs, they have a tiny shell that
grows with them. They use a part of their body called the mantle (soft
tissue that is located between the shell and its inner organs) to continually
produce layers of calcium carbonate crystals to their shell. Adding
calcium carbonate enlarges and strengthens the shell.
Each species of mollusk forms a shell with a unique shape and color.
However, within a particular species there are differences in shells due to
the environment, food, and climate. For example, color differences
among shells can be due to the diet of the animal that lives inside it and
the water quality of its environment.
The shells of crustaceans are made out of a
substance called chitin. When lobsters, crabs,
and other crustaceans hatch from eggs, they are
born with a hard layer of skin that serves as an
exoskeleton. A chitin exoskeleton is strong yet
flexible, allowing the animals to move their legs
and claws. Crustacean shells are segmented to
cover the entire body but also allow for moveBivalve
ment, much like a suit of armor. As the crustacean grows, it sheds the old skin and grows a new
one. This shedding process is called molting. An
adult lobster will molt his skin yearly. During
this molting time a crustacean is vulnerable to
Seashells
WORDS TO KNOW
Bivalve: Bivalves are characterized by shells that are
divided into two parts or valves that completely
enclose the mollusk like the clam or scallop.

Internal skeleton: An animal that has a backbone.
Calcium carbonate: A substance that is secreted

by a mollusk to create the shell it lives in.
Chitin: Substance that makes up the exoskeleton
of crustaceans.
Camouflage: Markings or coloring that help hide
an animal by making it blend into the surrounding environment..
Crustacean: A type of arthropod characterized by
hard and thick skin, and having shells that are
jointed. This group includes the lobster, crab,
and crayfish.
Exoskeleton: A hard outer covering on animals,
which provide protection and structure.
Gastropod: The largest group of mollusks; characterized by a single shell that is often coiled in a
spiral. Snails are gastropods.
Invertebrate: An animal that lacks a backbone or

internal skeleton.
Mantle: Soft tissue that is located between the shell
and an animals inner organs. The mantle produces the calcium carbonate substance that
create the shell of the animal.
Mollusk: An invertebrate animal usually enclosed in
a shell, the largest group of shelled animals.
Molting: A process by which an animal sheds its
skin or shell.
Shell: A hard outer covering that protects an animal
that lives inside.
experiment.
predators as its outer shell is not yet hardened. In order to protect itself,
the crustacean will often hide until its shell is hard.
Shells for survival Shells provide many ways that help the soft
bodied animals inside them survive. The hard exterior shell is an obvious
protection from a predator but the shape of the shell is also useful to the
mollusk. Some shell shapes are designed to make it easy to burrow into
the sand to hide. There are bivalves with deep ridges in the shell that helps
the shell anchor itself to the bottom of their environment. Other shells
grow long spiny spikes that collect seaweed and help to hide the animal.
Shells are often used as camouflage. They often blend into their
environment appearing the same color as sand or rocks. The cowry
shell is a brightly colored shiny shell whose animal is also brightly colored
but with a different pattern. When threatened by a predator the animal
will retreat into its shell, thus confusing the predator.
1021
Seashells

the type of shell
the force with which the wood is
dropped
the height of the wood block
water the plant draws in or out of its cells. If you
able to tell which variable affected the shell
breaking.
Shells are vital to the existence of the animals

that live inside them. In the experiment and
project to follow, you will test the strength of
two different shells and classify various seashells.
The activities will highlight the characteristics
unique to shells, and help you think of your
own experiments relating to seashells.
EXPERIMENT 1
Shell Strength: Which
shell is stronger: a clam
shell or lobster shell?
Purpose/Hypothesis A strong shell offers an
animal protection from other animals and the

environment. Clam shells and lobster shells are
composed of two different types of materials. A
type of shell. The variable you will measure is
clam shell is primarily made of calcium carbowhich shell breaks first.
nate. A lobster shell is made of chitin, a type of
carbohydrate, along with protein. A clam shell is
formed over time by the mollusk that lives inside
it and the lobster shell is repeatedly replaced as the lobster grows. The
A lobster is a crustacean. #
BRO WN IE H AR RI S/C OR BI S.
clam shell is hard and rigid and can become thick. The lobster shell is a
segmented hard skin-like covering with some
flexibility at the joints. Given the properties of
these two shells, what shell do you think is
stronger?
In this experiment, you will test the strength
of both shells by dropping a weight onto the
shells from various heights. The weight will be
a block of wood, and you will create a pulley
system to repeatedly and evenly drop the wood.
The shell that remains intact the longest from
the weight dropping is the stronger shell.
your knowledge of shells and material strength.
1022
Seashells

things:


Have an adult help you nail together the pieces
of the pulley system. If you need to cook a
lobster, have an adult help with the cooking and
meat extraction.

through further investigation. Your experiment will prove or disprove
whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for
this experiment: The wooden block will cause the clam shell to break
first as it is more rigid than the lobster shell.
Level of Difficulty Moderate/difficult (due to the materials and building
the pulley system).

Materials Needed
lobster shell tail, fresh with lobster meat extracted (available from
fish markets, who may give you the tail shell for free) When
purchasing lobster try to have the store steam it. If this is not
possible then you will need an adult to help you steam or boil the
lobster and remove the meat prior to the experiment.
clam shell, approximately 23 inches (57.5 centimeters) in width
(use found shells or available from online stores)
4 pieces of wood, about 28 inches (71 centimeters) long, 2 inches
(5 centimeters) wide, and 1 inch (2.54 centimeters) in depth
1 piece of wood, 18 inches long, 1 inch
wide, and 1 inch in depth
block of wood, about 7 inches (18 centimeters) long, 3 inches (7.5 centimeters)
wide, and 1 inch in depth
1-inch pulley (available at hardware
stores)
string, about 6 feet (1.8 meters)
1 screw hook
marker
1 foot (0.3 meters) of thin wire
2 nails
Building the pulley.

NE LS ON.
1023
Seashells
hammer
pliers (to cut and secure wire)
Gastropod
Bivalve
Size
Other
Approximate Budget $2030 (use found shells
and scrap wood if possible).
Color
Weight
Step-by-Step Instructions 1.) Building the
Geography
pulley:
Use the chart to track your
findings. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Step 2:1: Mark a line on the
string at the point you want to
stop. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
6.
1. Use the four long pieces of wood (28 x 2 x 1)

to build two pieces shaped like the letter A. For each wood A.
shape, cross the ends of two pieces of wood over each other and
secure them together with a nail.
Take the length of wood measuring 18 x 1 x 1 and place it across
the two A. frames at the top. Secure both ends of this piece of
wood onto the A. frames using wire and pliers. You should
now have a frame that will stand by itself on a table.
Attach the pulley to the middle of the frame at the top with
another piece of wire.
Take the block of wood and attach the screw hook in the middle of
the width of the block. The block should hang down lengthwise.
Take the string and pull it through the top of the pulley. On one
end tie a knot with a loop in it.
Attach the block with the screw hook onto this loop. You should
now have a block of wood attached to a string that runs through
the pulley.
T EM AH NE LS ON.
2.) Testing for strength:

1. Place a clam shell directly under the block
of wood. Pull the string against the edge
of your work table to raise the block of
wood about a third of the way up from
the bottom of the pulley. Mark a line on
the string at the point you want to stop.
The exact height does not matter as you
have the mark so that it is repeatable.
2. Release the string to let the wood drop.
Note the results.
1024
Seashells
3. Repeat this step with the lobster shell,

pulling the string to the same mark to
drop it from the same height.
4. If neither shell is broken, place the clam
Here are some of the problems that may arise
shell under the block of wood again. Pull
and ways to remedy the problems.
the string against the edge of your work
table to raises the block of wood about
Problem:The clam shell did not break.
two thirds of the way up from the bottom
Possible cause: The clam shell could be too large
of the pulley. Mark a line on the string.
and thick, try a smaller shell. The height of the
5. Release the string to let the wood drop.
block when dropped was too low, try a higher
Note the results.
height. Change the position of the shell, make
6. Repeat this step with the lobster shell,
sure that it is directly under the wooden block.
pulling the string to the same mark to
Problem:The lobster shell breaks too easily.
drop it from the same height.
Possible cause:The lobster was too dry. Use the
7. If neither shell is broken, drop the block
lobster shell within 24 hours of when the meat is
from a higher point on both shells.
removed.
Repeat the same process of dropping the
wood block, pulling the string against the
edge of the table to raise the block of
wood about two thirds of the way up.
8. If the shells are still intact, raise the block to the top of the pulley.
Continue dropping the block, counting each drop, until each shell
breaks. Note the number of times it took to break.
Summary of Results What were your results? Was your hypothesis
correct? Consider how the strength of a shell can help an animal survive.
Do you think there could be a negative side to having a strong shell? Write
a paragraph of your findings. You may want to
chart your results.
Step 2:2 Release the string to let

the wood drop. ILL US TRA TI ON
PROJECT 2
Classifying Seashells
gather found and/or purchased seashells and

classify them given what you already know
about seashells. When scientists classify a group
of animals, rocks, or in this case seashells, they
are looking for similarities in the animals that
1025
Seashells
live in the shell or in the shell itself. Classification is important because it

means that there is a universal system for identifying or naming something. You will group the shells into categories: gastropod, bivalve,
crustacean, and echinoderms. You will then classify each of the groups
into its characteristics. If you come across a shell that is difficult to classify,
conduct some research about the shell and determine where it belongs.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderate
Materials Needed
3050 shells, found and/or purchased, try to find shells of all

shapes and sizes (available from online seashell sellers or from your
own collection).
poster board
containers: glass canning jars and shoe boxes work well
gram scale (optional)
tape measure(optional)
Approximate Budget $15 for purchasing shells; $0 if use found shells.
Timetable one to two hours to sort through and organize shells by
characteristic. Consider this project as an ongoing hobby that you can
continue as you find and collect new shells.
1. Find a large space, table or area on the floor and spread out all the
shells.
2. Organize the shells by shape. Determine if the shell falls into one of the
four categories below: gastropod, bivalve, crustacean, or echinoderm
Gastropod: Cone-like or spiral shell.
Bivalve: Two shells that are identical and hinged together to
form a complete covering for the animal that lived inside.
Crustacean: Hard outer covering that is segmented with flexible
joints.
Echinoderm: Spiny or spiky outer covering of animal like a sea
urchin or live sand dollar. Star fish are unique in that they have
five distinct arms, like a star.
3. Put aside any shells that do not fit into the four categories.
1026
Seashells
1
2
4. Separate each of the groups into smaller

groups of the animals that lived inside the
shells, such as snails, clams, scallops, and
crabs.
5. There are many ways you can further
classify the shells in each group. You can
group them by:
Size: Use a tape measure to determine

the length of the shells; for the volume
you can measure the amount of water
each shell holds.
Color: If there is more then one color, categorize by the main
color or you can group by patterns.
Weight: Weigh each on a gram scale.
Geography: Separate the general location of where the shell was
found, such as in the Northeast or Southeast of the United
States.
Step 5: Use a tape measure to

determine the length of the
shells. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
6. You can display your shells by gluing them to paper and writing
the name of the shell or type of shell under it. You can also group
them by type into containers: jars or boxes.
Summary of Results Examine the physical characteristics of the shells in
each groups. Do some shells have ridges, for example, and others do not?
Choose how to display each category of shells, on a poster board or in
containers. Consider what each characteristics tells about the group of
shells. Write what you know about each type of shell. Researchers still
have many questions about seashell characteristics. You can look to see if
your questions are some of the same questions scientists are exploring.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Seashells are products of
their environment. Consider why and how different environments

yield different shells. Water temperature and acidity, types of shoreline:
sandy vs. rocky are just some of the factors that can affect a shells
development.
information on seashells and questions that interest you.
1027
Seashells
your question.

your presentation should be visual, using charts and graphs. Remember,
whether or not your experiment is successful, your conclusions and
experiences can benefit others.
Related Projects Seashell formation and characteristics encompass animals, the environment, geography, and other sciences. There are many
experiments and projects you can do to get more information about
seashells. For instance, scientists are finding that some scallop shells
have ridges that can determine the age of the shell and the environment
the shell lived in, such as water temperature. Also, you could consider
how shells differ by geography and why. Do warmer waters produce more
or fewer shells, or different colored shells? You can also explore how
increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could affect the acidity of the
oceans and its resulting effect on seashells.

Arthur, Alex. Shell. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. Provides a good overview
of different types of shells focusing on aspects of camouflage and collection
Conchologists of America, Inc. COA Kids. http://www.conchologistsofamerica.
org/kids/inicial/default.asp (accessed May 23, 2008). Facts, games, and activities
on shells.
Dance, S. Peter. The Worlds Shells. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company,
1976. A guide for collectors of the worlds shells.
1028
Seashells
National Geographic. Science and Space. http://science.nationalgeographic.com/

science/earth (accessed May 23, 2008). Provides up to date articles on the
oceans and seashells
San Diego Natural History Museum. Frequently Asked Questions about Marine
Invertebrates. Marine Invertebrates. http://www.sdnhm.org/research/marine
inverts/marifaq.html (accessed May 23, 2008). Answers to basic questions
about seashells and collecting shells.
1029
Separation and Identification
ost natural and manufactured materials are mixtures, not pure

substances. In a mixture, each of the substances has its own
chemical properties. Salt water, gravel, and cookies are a few examples
of mixtures. People can use physical means to separate mixtures into their
component parts. Separating mixtures is important because it allows
people to identify the substances that make up the mixture.
Separating the components in a substance is usually one of the first
steps in identifying its components. All mixtures can be separated and
identified by the distinguishing chemical or physical properties of the
components. The separation technique chosen depends on the type of
mixture and its characteristics. After a mixture is separated, one or all
of its components can be identified. Researchers can match the properties
of the unknown substance to those properties of a known substance.
Appearance and the way the unknown substance reacts with other substances are ways to identify a substance.
Separation and identification techniques are used for all types of
different purposes. If there are pollutants in the water, scientists first
separate and identify the pollutants to clean the water. Forensic scientists,
people who work in criminal investigations, use the techniques to identify
evidence, such as fabrics or blood. Research scientists will separate
unknown biological samples to identify the molecules in the sample. In
blood tests doctors may need to identify and then separate iron or another
component out of the blood.
Mixing it up Anything a person can combine is a mixture. Mixtures

with varying compositions are called heterogeneous, meaning that they
have different appearance and properties at different points in the mixture. For example, a mixture of oil and water is a heterogeneous mixture.
The two substances form layers because of their different chemical
properties, and one part of the mixture will have a higher concentration
1031
When mixed together, oil and

water form a heterogeneous
mixture. Here, a layer of olive
oil floats atop a layer of water.
Doctors often need to separate

and identify components in
patients bloodfor example,
ironin order make a
diagnosis. # TO M AN D DE E
A NN M CCA RT HY/ CO RB IS.
1032
of oil, while another part of the mixture will have

a higher concentration of water.
Solutions are a type of mixture in which all
the substances are evenly distributed, or homogeneous. A solution has the same appearance and
properties throughout the entire mixture. When
sugar is mixed into a cup of hot tea, for example,
the sugar molecules dissolve and are spread
evenly throughout the cup. The sugar-tea mixture is a solution. The sugar molecules are called
the solute molecules. The substance it dissolved
in, the tea water, is called the solvent.
Separating by size Size is one method used
to separate many simple mixtures. If the parts of
a heterogeneous mixture are large enough, the mixture can be separated
by hand or by a sieve. A sieve has holes in it that are small enough for some
of the solid substance or substances to pass through and the larger
particles will remain above the holes. Soil, for example, is sifted through
a sieve to separate out the chunks of rock and gravel from the fine soil
particles.
Filtration is a commonly used separation technique similar to a sieve
except it separates undissolved solid particles from a liquid. In filtration, a
mixture passes through a filter, a material with spaces in it that holds back
the particles. Filters are used frequently to clean water, make coffee, and
purify air.
Other simple separation techniques include settling and evaporation.
Settling is when the larger, heavier components will sink or settle to form
distinct layers. When muddy water sits for a period of time, for example,
the dirt will sink to the bottom. In evaporation,
the liquid is heated until it becomes a gas and
leaves behind the solid particles.
Separating by speed One widely used
method that scientists use to identify the parts
in a solution is known as chromatography.
Chromatography is a technique that separates
components based on the rate each moves over
a specific material. Each component has properties that determine its movement. Chromatography has many uses. It is commonly used in
laboratories to isolate new compounds, analyze

water solute
oil solute
differences between environmental samples, and
molecules
molecules
identify drugs from urine or blood samples.
In chromatography, a gas or liquid mixture
travels over an unmoving substance. The unmovcoffee
ing substance chosen depends on the type of mixsolute
molecules
ture. Paper chromatography is one of several types
of chromatography that are all based on the same
principles. In paper chromatography the unmovHeterogeneous
Homogeneous
ing substance is paper. The components in the
mixture move at different rates over the paper
In a homogenous mixture,
based on their attraction to the paper. Some large-sized components may
solute molecules are evenly
stick to the paper and hobble along; other small-sized components may glide
distributed; in a heterogeneous
over the paper and travel quickly. For example, to separate the colors in a
mixture, molecules are
dye, the dye is made into a preparation. A spot of the dye preparation is
unevenly distributed and can
be visually distinguished from
placed on the end of a piece of chromatography paper. Different colors that
one another. GAL E GR OU P.
make up the dye then travel at varying rates along the paper.
Paper chromatography is one of the most basic types of chromatography. Other types include gas chromatography and liquid chromatography.
Gas chromatography has a gaseous mixture while liquid chromatography
uses liquids. Each is used in many ways including detecting explosive
materials, analyzing fibers and blood, and testing water for pollutants.
What is it? Over the years scientists have gathered and compiled the
many properties of individual substances. To identify an unknown substance in a mixture, scientists try to match the properties of the unknown
substance to those of known substances. While there are numerous
properties used in identification, there are some routine techniques that
test for common properties.
A substances shape and color is one of the first pieces of evidence
scientists note. Its solubility or its ability to dissolve in another substance
is another first step in identification. Because water is a common and
known substance, it is the standard for many tests. A substance that
dissolves in water is called soluble in water, and one that does not is
called insoluble in water. Another common method used to identify a
liquid is to determine its pH, or the measure of its acidity. The pH scale
goes from 0 to 14. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution. For
example, lemons are acidic and so would have a lower pH than soaps,
which are basic. At the midway point, where the pH is 7, the substance is
neutral. Water is an example of a neutral substance.
1033
The effect of heating a substance can also

provide several pieces of information. The temperature where a solid substance turns into a
liquid is called its melting point. The temperature
where a liquid turns into a gas is called its boiling
point. Different substances also give off unique
colors when placed in a flame. Potassium, for
example, gives off a violet flame when heated in
a flame; sodium emits a yellow-colored flame.
In the following two experiments, you will
use separation and identification techniques to
identify a mixture.
EXPERIMENT 1
Chromatography: Can you
identify a pen from the
way its colors separate?
A chromatography machine is
commonly used in laboratories
to isolate new compounds,
analyze differences between
environmental samples, and
identify drugs from urine or
blood samples. CUS TOM
Purpose/Hypothesis Chromatography is a common technique used to identify substances, from

drugs in blood samples to a type of pen used in a
crime. The word chromatography comes from
the Greek word chromato, which means color.
In this experiment, you will use paper chromatography to separate the colors out of four different types of black ink.
The color black is a mixture of several colors. Different types of pens mix
together varying amounts of colored inks to produce black ink. Once the
colors are separated you will have a partner select one of the black pens as
M ED IC AL S TOC K PH OT O
A pH scale ranges from 0 to 14

and is used to determine a
solutions acidity. With 7 being
neutral, a pH of 0 is the highest
acid value and a pH of 14 is the
highest base value. GA LE
Acids
Water
Bases
GR OU P.
1034
WORDS TO KNOW
Boiling point: The temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
Chromatography: A method for separating mixtures into their component parts (into their
ingredients) by flowing the mixture over
another substance and noting the differences in
attraction between the substance and each
component of the mixture.
Filtration: The mechanical separation of a liquid
from the undissolved particles floating in it.
Heterogeneous: Different throughout.
Homogenous: The same throughout.
experiment.
Mixture: A combination of two or more substances

that are not chemically combined with each other
and that can exist in any proportion.
pH: A measure of a solutions acidity. The pH scale
ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (least acidic),
with 7 representing a neutral solution, such as
pure water.
Solubility: The tendency of a substance to dissolve
in some other substance.
Solute: The substance that is dissolved to make a
solution and exists in the least amount in a solution; for example, sugar in sugar water.
Solution: A mixture of two or more substances that
appears to be uniform throughout except on a
molecular level.
Soluble: A substance that can be dissolved in some
other substance.
Insoluble: A substance that cannot be dissolved in

some other substance.
Solvent: The major component of a solution or the

liquid in which some other component is dissolved; for example, water in sugar water.
Melting point: The temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.

experiment.
the unknown. You will then identify the unknown pen based on the
pattern of the colors.
Paper chromatography identifies the parts of a mixture by first
treating the paper with a solvent, a liquid that can dissolve other substances, and then observing how those substances travel different distances over the paper. How far each substance travels depends on the
attraction it has for the paper.
this experiment based on your knowledge of chromatography and
separation. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A
1035



type of paper
time allowed for separation
concentration of alcohol and water
experiment: Different colors will separate out
type of ink used in the pens
from each other by traveling different distances
on the stationary phase. The pattern of the separe everything that might affect the ink colors
arated colors can then be used for identification.
moving over the paper. If you change more
type of black ink. The variable you will measure is
effect on color separation.
the pattern of how the inks colors separate.
in the dependent variable. Only one variable will change between the
control and the experimental trials. Your control experiment will use an
ink of one color, either red or blue.
Level of Difficulty Moderate to Difficult.
Materials Needed
Step 8: Experiment 1 setup.
Make sure the ink dots are not
submerged in the liquid. G ALE
4 paper coffee filters

pencil
G RO UP.
control
Pen #1 Pen #2
1036
Pen #3 Pen #4
4 different kinds of black pens, permanent ink

red or blue pen (control)
91% isopropyl alcohol
water
ruler
measuring cups
2 small glasses about 4 inches (10 centimeters) tall
3 paperclips
scissors
marking pen

Timetable 2 hours.
Be careful when handling alcohol; do not ingest

it and keep it away from your face.
1. Cut the coffee filter paper into four strips

measuring 2 inches by 4 inches (5 centimeters by 10 centimeters). One paper will hold the control ink,
one the unknown ink, one the two black inks, and one the other
two black inks.
2. Assign each of the four black pens a number, 1 through 4.
3. On each strip of paper, draw a line about 0.75 inches (2 centimeters)
from the end of the paper with a pencil (NOT a pen). This end will
be the bottom of the strip.
4. To separate the four unknown pen inks: Take two of the strips of
filter paper. On the pencil line, about 0.5 inches (1.3 centimeters)
Step 14: Different types of pens
in from the edge of the paper, make a large dot with Pen 1. The
mix together varying amounts of
dot should be about the size of an eraser on a pencil. On the same
colored inks to produce black ink.
Measure from the top of every new
pencil line on the opposite edge of the paper make a dot with Pen
color to the pencil line to determine
2. Use the pencil to label each dot below the line (between the line
how far the separate colors traveled
and the bottom of the strip) with the pen number. (For example,
up the strip G AL E GR OUP .
the dot made with pen number 1 should
be labeled 1.) On a fresh strip of filter
paper, repeat this process for Pen 3 and
Pen 4.
5. To separate the control ink: On the pencil line in the middle of a fresh strip of
paper, make a large dot with the control
ink. The control is a single color ink of
red or blue. Label the dot Control.
6. Stir together cup (60 milliliters) of the
top of
alcohol with cup (60 milliliters) of
color #2
water. Pour this mixture into each of the
two glasses so that the liquid sits below
top of
color #1
the 2-centimeter line. It should be about
halfway to the line.
Unknown Pen
7. Straighten the two paperclips. Push one
paperclip carefully through the top (the
end without the dots) of two labeled
1037
strips of paper, and push the second

paperclip through the top of the third
strip of paper.
8. Rest each straightened paper clip across
the top of one glass, with the bottom of
the paper strips hanging down into the
liquid. There will be two strips of paper in
Problem: The spot disappeared off of the paper.
one glass and a third strip of paper in the
Possible cause: The liquid level is too high and is
over the line. The ink dot could have dissecond glass. The ink dots should be close
solved into the liquid. Repeat the experiment
to the surface of the liquid, but NOT
with less liquid in the glass, making sure the
submerged in it.
dots are not submerged in the liquid.
9. Wait 30 minutes.
Problem: The ink spot does not spread.
10. While you are waiting, turn away and
Possible cause: The ink is not soluble in the liquid.
have a partner select one of the four pens
Repeat the experiment using a different type
tested. This will be the Unknown ink.
of ink.
11. To separate the unknown ink: On the pencil
Problem: The black ink did not separate into its
different components.
line in the middle of a fresh strip of paper
make a large dot with the unknown pen.
Possible cause: The paper may not be able to
separate all the components. Repeat the
Label the dot Unknown. Push a straightexperiment using a filter paper of a finer grade
ened paperclip carefully through the top.
or of a different weave. You can also purchase
12. Remove the first three strips of paper after
chromatography paper from a lab supply house.
the 30 minutes, and rest the paperclip
Problem: The unknown ink did not match any
holding the Unknown pen along the
of the inks already separated.
top of one of the glasses. This strip should
Possible cause: There may have been a probalso sit in the liquid 30 minutes.
lem during the experiment for any of the
reasons above, or you may have changed
13. Allow the first three strips of paper to dry
more than one variable, which is the
(about 30 minutes). When the unknown
unknown pen. Check that the mixture prepink has been submerged for 30 minutes,
aration was given the same amount of time to
remove and let dry.
move up the paper. Make sure the paper was
14. For each of the known inks, measure
the same. If you prepared a different mixture
preparation, that could also have altered the
from the top of every new color to the
results. Repeat the experiment, making sure
pencil line to determine how far the septhat all the other variables are equal.
arate colors traveled up the strip. Write
your results in a table, noting the description and measurement for the four pens.
15. Repeat the measurements for the separated colors of the unknown
ink. Identify the unknown pen by comparing its measurements
and pattern to the four black pens.
1038
Summary of Results Examine the results of the table compared to that of
the unknown pen. How closely does the unknown pen match the pattern
of one of the inks? Scribble a few lines with each of the black pens and
label the scribble with the associated pen number. Compare each of the
pens patterns with its associated color black. Can you see a difference
between the shades of each black pen? Look at the color of each black pen
again and re-examine the table. Evaluate whether the black inks that
appear more similar also have a greater likeness in their patterns.
Change the Variables Changing some of the variables may lead to
interesting results. Try changing the type of paper you are using to a
coffee filter paper or a finer grade of white paper. You could also change
the mobile phase. Try using water without adding alcohol or alcohol
without adding water. Mix the two in different amounts and record what
your results. You can also change the color and types of pen you use.
EXPERIMENT 2
Identifying a Mixture: How can determining
basic properties of a substance allow you to
identify the substances in a mixture?
Purpose/Hypothesis Because the components in a mixture keep their
own chemical properties, scientists can identify the substances in a

mixture by knowing the properties of its components. In order to identify
a substance, its components are isolated and tested.
In this experiment, you will determine different properties of several
substances that are similar in appearance. You will then have a partner
create a mixture with two of the substances. Using the properties of the
substances that you determined, you will identify the composition of the
mixture.
The substances you will use are three household items: flour, sugar,
and baking soda. The properties you will determine for each substance are
its appearance, solubility in water, solubility in vinegar, and pH.
To determine pH you will use red cabbage. The chemicals that give
red cabbage its red/purplish color also can act as a pH indicator. The red
cabbage pH indicator does not determine an exact pH number, but it can
distinguish between acid (pH of 0 to 6), neutral (pH near 7), and base
(pH of 8 to 14). When the juice of red cabbage is added to an acid, such as
vinegar or lemon juice, it will become pink to red; when it is added to a
1039
base, it will turn blue or green. If the solution

turns purple, it indicates that the substance is
neutral, neither an acid nor a base.
guess about what you think will occur based on
your knowledge of mixtures. This educated guess,
the substance
the solvent
the quantity of each component in the
mixture
the temperature of the solvent
the pH indicator
anything that might affect the identification of
the components in the mixture. If you change
tell which variable impacted the determination
of the substances properties and, thus, the
experiment: A mixture can be identified by
mixtures composition.
determining the properties of the individual substances in the mixture.
change will be the substances that might possibly make up the mixture.
The variable you will measure will be the mixtures properties.
Materials Needed
1040
clear plastic cups (at least six, as many as twenty)

water
vinegar
white flour (about a cup)
white sugar (about a cup)
baking soda (about a cup)
measuring spoons
measuring cups
mixing spoons
red cabbage
sealable sandwich bag
knife
measuring cups
marking pen
Be careful when handling alcohol; do not ingest

it and keep it away from your face. Handle the
knife carefully when cutting. Even though you
are working with food products, never ingest
any of the experimental solutions because one
might contain alcohol. Throw away each solution in the sink and clean the cups thoroughly if
you are going to reuse them.
Timetable 2 hours.
1. Prepare a chart with four columns down

and four rows across. Label the columns
with the headings of Flour, Sugar,
Baking Soda, and Unknown. Label
the rows: Appearance, Soluble with
water, Soluble with vinegar, and Acid/Base/Neutral.
2. Label one clear plastic cup Flour, a second Sugar, and a third
Baking Soda. The cups may be reused throughout the experiment by rinsing them thoroughly with water and drying.
3. Put 1 teaspoon of each of the three substances in the appropriate
plastic cup.
4. Record the color and description of the substances appearance on
the chart (for example, powder, grainy, etc.)
Flour
Sugar
Baking Soda
Unknown
Appearance
Soluble with
Water
Soluble with
Vinegar
Acid, Base,
or Neutral
Step 1: Prepare a chart to

record the results of Experiment
2. GAL E GR OU P.
1041
Step 5: Stir completely before

you note if the mixture is
soluble or not soluble G AL E
GRO UP.
Bakin
Sod
1042
5. Add cup (about 60 milliliters) of water to each of the cups and

stir vigorously for 30 to 60 seconds. Allow the mixtures to stand
for 15 minutes, then record whether each substance is soluble in
water. If the solvent is clear it is soluble; if the solvent is cloudy
and most of the substance remains at the bottom of the cup, it is
insoluble.
6. In a clean cup, repeat Step 4 and Step 5, using vinegar in place
of water.
7. Prepare a pH indicator: Chop red cabbage into small pieces and
measure cup of the pieces. Put the pieces into a sealable
sandwich bag. Add cup (about 120 milliliters) of very warm
water to the cabbage. Close the bag and mix gently by squeezing.
Let the water and cabbage sit for five minutes, mixing occasionally. Pour the purple water into a separate plastic cup.
8. In a clean cup, add 1 teaspoon of each of the substances into the
appropriate cup.
9. Place 2 teaspoons (10 milliliters) of the purple pH indicator into
each of the three cups and stir. Note whether the substance is an
acid (solution turns pink to red), a base (solution turns blue or
green), or neutral (solution remains purple).
10. Turn away and have a partner mix two of the three substances
together, using 2 tablespoons of each of the substances into a clean
cup. Have your partner write down the two substances he or she
selected.
11. Follow the procedures in Steps 4 through 9 to test the mixture
for the properties defined in the chart. (You can use the same
pH indicator made in Step 7.) For example, after recording the
appearance of the mixture, add vinegar
and stir the mixture to determine if it is
soluble in water, and so on. Remove 1
teaspoon of the mixture each time you
test for a specific property.
FLOU
Sugar
Summary of Results Use the data you have

collected for each property to identify which of
the substances made up the unknown mixture.
When you have reached a conclusion check with
your partner. How did each of the properties
enable you to narrow down the identification of
the mixture? Hypothesize how a mixture of

another two substances would have reacted.
Record your results and list the steps you took
to identify your mixture.
Change the Variables There are numerous ways
you can change the variables in this experiment.
You can use different food substances that have
the same powdery appearance as the ones given.
Cream of tartar, powdered sugar, and cornstarch
are some examples. You can change the look of
the materials completely and use any substances
that appear similar. You can also examine how
other liquids react with these substances. Make
sure you change only one variable at a time for
each test, and keep careful records of your
results.
Design Your Own

Experiment
Problem: Some of the substance will not
dissolve.
Possible cause: The mixture may need to be
stirred further, or more solvent should be
added to the substance. Repeat the test,
stirring the solution thoroughly.
Problem: The solvent has turned a slight
color.
Possible cause: The substance you are using
may not be pure and some small part of the
substance may be soluble in the solvent.
Make sure you are using pure white flour and
white sugar, and repeat the test.
Possible cause: You may not have rinsed the
cups thoroughly. Repeat the test, washing
the cup again or using a fresh plastic cup.
Separation techniques and identification are

used in many professions for a variety of reasons.
Wherever there is a mixture, there is some way to
separate it.
teacher to learn more about separation and identification. You can
examine the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, listed in
Further Readings, which provides detailed tables of chemicals
behaviors and characteristics. Using this book as a guide could
provide ideas on how to separate and identify substances. If you
construct a project that uses heat or flames, make sure you have
adult supervision.
not be sure what question you are answering, what you are or should
be measuring, or what your findings prove or disprove.
1043

question.
such as any experimental setup you designed. For any unknown substance
you may want to have a sample out so that people can note the characteristics of the substance. If you have completed a nonexperimental project,
explain clearly what your research question was and illustrate your
findings.
Related Projects Separation and identification is a broad topic that can
branch out to many projects. You can use paper chromatography to

analyze the makeup of other liquid mixtures, such as candy or the pigments in vegetables. To identify the makeup of solid substances, you can
examine rocks and minerals. Rocks are made of minerals and minerals
each have specific properties. Certain minerals will dissolve in an acid like
vinegar, for example, and others will not.
You can also explore how different fields of study use separation and
identification techniques, and what techniques they use. You can select
one profession to focus and conduct an experiment related to that area of
study. Or you can research the many techniques and uses used by a range
of professions. For example, the biotechnology field performs separation
techniques on many biological substances to identify the molecules.
Astronomers use separation and identification techniques to analyze
any chunks of rocks or other materials that have landed on Earth from
space. Examples of other professions you can explore include art conservators, archaeologists, and food scientists.
1044

BBC. Mixtures.Mixtures. Schools. Science: Chemistry. http://www.bbc.co.uk/
schools/ks3bitesize/science/chemistry/elements com mix 6.shtml (accessed
on February 18, 2008). Basic information on the chemistry of mixtures.
Kurtus, Ron. Mixtures. School for Champions. http://http://www.school for
champions.com/chemistry/mixtures.htm (accessed on February 18, 2008).
Basics of mixtures versus compounds.
Lide, David R, ed. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 83rd edition. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2002. This authoritative reference provides properties
of chemical substances.
Separating and Purifying. Journal of Chemical Education. http://jchemed.chem.
wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA6/MAIN/1ChemLabMenu/Separating/MENU.
HTM (accessed on February 18, 2008). Somewhat technical description of
separation techniques.
1045
Simple Machines
hen most people envision machines, the image probably does not
include a simple screwdriver or pencil sharpener. Yet these devices
are also machines. A machine is any object that makes work easier by
altering the way in which the work is accomplished. Put another way, a
machine can use a smaller force to overcome a larger force. In physics,
work is defined as force applied over a distance. For example, a person
does work when pushing a shopping cart down an aisle, yet does no work
when pushing against a closed door.
Simple machines have few moving parts, or sometimes none at all.
They are the building blocks for machines of all levels of complexity and
all mechanical devices. People have been using simple machines for
thousands of years. Zippers, staplers, nails, and scissors are just a few
examples of common modern-day machines.
Machines can enlarge and change the direction of a force, yet all
machines must follow the principles of the conservation of energy. This
principle states that the work or amount of energy coming out of a
machine is equal to the amount of energy put into the machine. Work
is made up of the amount of force applied and the distance over which the
force is maintained. Effort is the force applied. In mathematical terms,
work equals force times distance w = fd. Put another way, a machine that
uses half the force to lift an object, must then double the distance it
applies the force.
Simple machines include the inclined plane, wedge, screw, lever,
pulley, and wheel and axle.
Incline at work An inclined plane, also called a ramp, decreases the

amount of force needed to lift a load or weight by increasing the distance
the load travels. For example, an inclined plane that covers twice the
distance of the vertical side will need half the amount of effort to lift a
1047
Simple Machines
p
am
of r
e
c
tan
dis
of
unt
mo
a
s
ine
erm
det
Full
Effort
In a ramp or inclined plane, the

greater the distance, the less
effort. GAL E GR OU P.
weight than if the weight was lifted straight up. The amount of work
remains the same.
Historians theorize that ancient Egyptians used long, shallow ramps
to help them carry five-ton stones up pyramids that soared hundreds of
feet tall. Driveways, slides, and car ramps are modern-day examples of
machines that make use of inclined planes.
A wedge looks like an inclined plane, yet it does work by moving (an
inclined plane always remains still). A wedge changes the direction of a
force. When a wedge comes into contact with an object, the wedge
changes the direction of the force and causes it to move at a right angle.
Wedges are often used to push things apart. The force needed for the
wedge depends upon the size of the wedge angle. The smaller the angle of
the wedge, the less force is needed yet the greater the distance it must be
pushed. The pointed end of the nail is an example of a wedge. As the nail
is pounded down with a force, the wood is pushed apart sideways. A
narrow nail with a small angle must be moved more distance than that of
a thick nail with a larger angle. Less force is needed for the thin nail yet it
must move a greater distance. Doorstops, the tines on a fork, and knives
are other examples of wedges.
A screw is basically an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. The
length of the screw is the height of the plane, and the distance traveled is
determined by the amount of threads on the screw. While turning, a
screw converts a rotary motion into a forward or backward motion. The
spiral ridges, or threads, around the screw cause the screw to turn many
1048
Simple Machines
times to move forward a short distance. This is

similar to moving an object up an inclined plane
or ramp.
The width between the threads, or pitch, is
similar to the angle of the inclined plane. The
closer together the threads are around the screw,
the more it needs to turn to move the same
distance, making it less effort to turn. Screws
with threads spaced farther apart travel less distance and take more force to turn. The screws
spiral threads act like wedges. Each thread produces a force at right angles to its rotation.
Pulley power A pulley consists of a rope or
other cord pulled over a steadied wheel. At one
end of the rope is the object or load to be lifted;
the other end is where the force is applied.
A single, fixed pulley changes the direction
of a force. The force needed to lift the load still
equals the weight of the load, yet it can feel easier
if a person is pulling down instead of pushing
up. Using two or more pulleys connected
together can decrease the amount of effort
needed to lift the same load. If using two pulleys,
the rope leading to each individual pulley can hold half as much weight.
With the load weighing half as much, a person need apply only half the
force. The tradeoff is that the rope needs to be pulled twice the distance.
The force is cut in half but the distance the rope must be pulled has
doubled.
Lever lifts A lever is any bar-type object free to move or pivot about
at a fixed point. The point at which the lever pivots is called the fulcrum.
A downward motion at one end results in an upward motion on the
opposite side.
In a lever, the fulcrums relationship to its load and the force applied,
or effort, determines the work of the lever. Levers are categorized by
where the fulcrum is located in relation to the load and effort. There are
three basic types of levers. A first-class lever has its fulcrum placed
between its load and the effort. One end is forced down and the other
end moves up. When the fulcrum is in the center of the lever, the amount
of effort pushed down on one side equals the amount of load lifted on the
Slides of all kinds are examples

of inclined planes. # K EL LY MOO NE Y PH OTO GR APH Y/
COR BI S.
1049
Simple Machines
spiral
groove
ramp
Screws are examples of simple

machines. The closer together
the threads are around the
screw, the more it needs to turn
to move the same distance,
making it less effort to turn.
Screws with threads spaced
farther apart travel less distance
and take more force to turn.
distance between
grooves determines
amount of effort
tighter grooves
increase distance,
and lessen effort
GAL E GR OU P.
other side. If the distance from the effort to the fulcrum increases by two,
then only half as much pushing effort is needed to raise the same load. If
the load doubles, then the distance from the fulcrum to the load must also
double in order for the same effort to move it. Pliers, a persons jaw, and a
seesaw are examples of this type of lever.
downward force on one

end results in upward
force on other end
Fulcrum
A seesaw is an example of a lever
where the fulcrum is equally
centered between load and
effort. GAL E GR OU P.
1050
equal distance from center
Simple Machines
A fulcrum at one end with the load in the

middle and the effort at the far end is a secondclass lever. This type of lever, such as a wheelbarrow, increases the force needed to lift the
load, but decreases the distance it has to move.
A third-class lever has the fulcrum at one end,
the effort in the middle, and the load at the far
end. Tweezers and fishing rods are examples of
this type of lever.
A wheel and axle machine rotates around a
fixed point and works in a similar way to a
revolving lever. The axle is the object that
attaches to the wheel. The wheel moves the axle. When the wheel revolves
it moves a greater distance than the axle. The larger the diameter of the
wheel, the less effort needed to turn it, but the greater distance needed for
the same work. In reverse, a greater force applied to the axle will turn the
wheel a greater distance. Doorknobs, pencil sharpeners, screwdriver
handles, and steering wheels all use a wheel and axle.
A wheelbarrow is an example of
a lever where the fulcrum (in
this case, the wheel) is at one
end with the load (the bucket)
in the middle and the effort
(person lifting the handles) at
the far end. # KE LL Y A. QUI N.
EXPERIMENT 1
Wheel and Axle: How can changing the size
of the wheel affect the amount of work it
takes to lift a load?
Purpose/Hypothesis A wheel and axle can be used to do work using less
force. In a wheel and axle, both parts move together. In this experiment
you will construct a wheel and axle that also incorporates the pulley. You
will join two spools together, one the wheel and
the other the axle. The axle will hold a load and
you will apply force to the wheel. Washers will
be the load and also apply the force. This experiment will use three wheels of different diameters.
By changing the diameter of the wheel, you will
find out how the relationship in size between the
wheel and the axle determines how easy it is to
lift the load.
your knowledge of work and machines. This
In a pencil sharpener, the wheel

turns the axle, which is
attached to a blade. The more
turns you have to make, the less
effort it takes. GA LE G RO UP.
axle
wheel
1051
Simple Machines
WORDS TO KNOW
Conservation of energy: The law of physics that
states that energy can be transformed from one
form to another, but can be neither created nor
destroyed.
Machine: Any device that makes work easier by

providing a mechanical advantage.
Pulley: A simple machine made of a cord wrapped
around a wheel.

Screw: A simple machine; an inclined plane

wrapped around a cylinder.
Effort: The force applied to move a load using a

simple machine.
Simple machine: Any of the basic structures that

provide a mechanical advantage and have no or
few moving parts.
Friction: A force that resists the motion of an object,

resulting when two objects rub against one
another.

an experiment.
Fulcrum: The point at which a lever arm pivots.
Wedge: A simple machine; a form of inclined

plane.

Inclined plane: A simple machine with no moving
parts; a slanted surface.
Wheel and axle: A simple machine; a larger

wheel(s) fastened to a smaller cylinder, an axle,
so that they turn together.
Work: Force applied over a distance.



possible hypothesis for this experiment: Given that the axle stays constant, the larger the wheel, the less force will be needed to lift the load.
In this case, the variable you will change is the diameter of the wheel.
The variable you will measure is the amount of force needed to lift the
load.
1052
Simple Machines

the experimental setup, and that is the diameter
of the wheel. For the control, you will use a wheel
that is of equal size to the axle. At the end of the
experiment you can compare the results of the
control to the experimental trials.
Materials Needed

the diameter of the wheel
the weight of the cups
the diameter of the axle
the load
force needed. If you change more than one
getting the work done.
2 small paper or plastic cups

metal washers all of equal size, at least 20
dowel (should fit through spools to allow
spools to spin)
masking tape
ruler
hole puncher
marking pen
string (optional)
2 full thread spools of equal size (wheel and axle)
3 cylindrical objects of varying sizes: (full thread spools or ribbon
spools work well). Use the thread spool as a guide when collecting
these objects: find one about half its size, one about twice its
diameter, and one about three or four times its diameter).
1. Measure and note the diameters of the

two equal-size cylinders in a data chart.
2. Set up a wheel and axle control by placing
the dowel into the two cylinders of the
same size: the wheel and axle. Tape the
spools together so they move as one unit.

1053
Simple Machines
Set the dowel on a table with the wheel

and axle hanging just over the edge, then
tape the dowel firmly to the table at the
far end and several points along the
dowel. The wheel is the outside cylinder.
3. Label the cups A and B. Punch two
holes in each of the cups on opposite sides
near the open upper rim. Cut two pieces
of string slightly larger than the diameter
of the cup. Tie each end of the string to a
hole on the outside of the cup so that it is
slightly loose.
B
force
load
Step 7: Apply force by placing

washers in cup B, one at a time,
until cup A has been raised and
is sitting just below the axle.
GA LE G RO UP.
4. Pull down 20 inches (51 centimeters) of

thread from the axle and attach cup A to
the thread. Use several inches of the
thread from the wheel to attach cup B.
(Note: If you are not using thread spools or the thread is weak,
then tape a piece of string to the center of the cylinder.)
5. Wrap the thread around the wheel until cup B is sitting just below
the thread.
6. Place eight washers in cup A.
7. Apply force by placing washers in cup B, one at a time, until cup A
has been raised and is sitting just below the axle. Note the force
needed by counting the amount of washers. Record your results.
8. Remove the wheel; cup A will fall back in its starting point.
diameter
wheel
axle
load
force
control
wheel 1
wheel 2
wheel 3

GAL E GR OU P.
1054
Simple Machines
9. Measure the diameter of a second spool.

Slide this wheel on the dowel and firmly
attach it to the axle. Pull down the string
(or ribbon) and reattach cup B to the new
spool, making sure it is at the same starting point just below the spool.
10. Again, apply force by placing washers in
cup B, one at a time, until cup A is sitting
below the axle. Note the results.
11. Repeat Steps 7 through 10 for the next
two wheels.
Summary of Results Examine your chart.
remedy the problem.
Problem: The load only lifted part of the time.
Possible cause: The wheel and axle may have
come loose at some point during the experiment. Check to make sure that the two cylinders are firmly attached and they are
moving as one unit. You may need to use
electrical tape or some other stronger tape.
Repeat the experiment.
Compare the ratio of the diameters between

the wheel and axle, and the ratio between the
load and force for each wheel. How do they
relate to each other, and how do they relate to the control? What
size wheel made the work of lifting the load the easiest? In your
wheel and axle, look at what other type of machine is in use? How
does changing the direction of the force provide an additional
mechanical advantage?
Change the Variables To change the variable in this experiment, you can
alter the diameter of the axle instead of the wheel. You can also use more
or less weights as the load.
EXPERIMENT 2
Lever Lifting: How does the distance from
the fulcrum affect work?
Purpose/Hypothesis A lever is a bar that pivots on a fulcrum. The mass
placed on a lever is called the load. In a first-class lever, the fulcrum sits in
between the two loads. The load presses down on the lever with a force or
effort. In this experiment, you will vary the distances between the applied
force, or effort, and the fulcrum to determine how to make the load easier
to lift. You will use a ruler as the lever, metal washers as the load, and a
small narrow object as the fulcrum.
Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome
of this experiment based on your knowledge of levers and machines.
1055
Simple Machines

things:

the mass of the load

the distance from load to fulcrum

experiment: More force is needed when it is
applied closer to the fulcrum than farther from
the fulcrum.
In this case, the variable you will change is the distance from the
fulcrum. The variable you will measure is the force needed to lift the
load.

are everything that might affect the work of the
lever. If you change more than one variable at
variable had the most effect on the work.

Materials Needed
12-inch (30-centimeter) flat ruler

ten metal washers of the same size
narrow flat object, such as a pencil or domino

1056
1. Make a lever by placing the narrow object

that serves as a fulcrum, such as a domino,
under a ruler at the 6-inch (15-centimeter) mark.
2. Place four washers at one end of the ruler.
Add washers on the opposite end of the
ruler until the load is lifted and the lever is
Simple Machines
balanced. Note the number of washers

and the distance.
3. Remove the washers on the 12-inch
(30-centimeter) mark so that the opposite side lies on the table.
4. Place washers one at a time on the 10inch (25.4-centimeter) mark, until the
lever is balanced. Note the number of
washers and the distance.
force
load
5. Remove the washers on the 10-inch mark

and repeat, placing the washers on the 8inch (20.3-centimeter) mark.
Step 5: Place the washers closer

to the fulcrum to determine
how many it takes to lift the
load. GA LE G RO UP.
Summary of Results Examine your results and compare the different
loads required to accomplish the same amount of work: lifting the load.
For each trial, complete the equation work equals force times distance,
where force is the number of washers needed to push down one side, and
distance is the distance from the fulcrum. Predict how many washers you
would need at several different points along the ruler.
Change the Variables To change the variable in this experiment you
could alter the position of the fulcrum. Keep the number of washers on
one side the same, move the fulcrum, and then determine how much
force is needed to lift the load.
EXPERIMENT 3
The Screw: How does the
distance between the
threads of a screw affect
the work?
Purpose/Hypothesis The screw is a simple
machine that is a modification of an inclined

plane. The threads (or grooves) wrapped around
a cylinder are an incline. It is this incline that
helps the screw move into an object. The distance between the threads around the cylinder
determines the steepness of the incline. The
remedy the problem.
Problem: The washers keep falling off.
Possible cause: Your fulcrum may be too high.
Use a smaller object, such as a flat pencil, and
1057
Simple Machines
incline affects the distance the screw moves into

an object after one full turn.

circumference of screws
the number of threads
the diameter of the screwdriver
the type of screw
the type of wood
are everything that might affect the work of the
screw. If you change more than one variable at
variable had the most effect on the work.
This experiment will use three screws with

different threads. Fewer threads will give a steeper
incline. By changing the distance between the
threads, you will find out how the steepness of
the threads incline determines the amount of
work needed to turn the screw into a piece of
wood. You can estimate work through distance
and force. Work equals force applied over a distance. All the screws will be moved the same distance. For the purposes of this experiment, you
can estimate how much force each screw takes
to turn by measuring the number of turns.
Some screws may take more effort to turn
than others. As you conduct the experiment,
consider difficulty of turning each screw compared to one another.
experiment based on your knowledge of simple machines and screws.
Screw 1
Screw 2
Screw 3
Thread width
Number of
revolutions
Step 2: Fill in the distance on a
chart. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TE MA H NEL SO N.
1058
Simple Machines

things:


Hold the screwdriver firmly in your hands and
be careful not to let it slip. Do not attempt to
pull the screw out without adult help.

measurable. It must be something you can test through further investigation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis
is correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: More
work is needed to turn a screw with fewer threads into an object compared
to a screw that has more grooves.
In this case, the variable you will change is the distance between the
grooves. The variable you will measure is the work needed to twist the screw.
Materials Needed
3 screws that are 2-inches (5-centimeters) long, each with a different number of threads; they should all be either flat or Phillips
1 block of 2x4 pine wood
screw driver, flat or Phillips depending on type of screw
painters tape
ruler with centimeters and millimeters
marker or pen
Steps 3 and 4: Wrap a piece of

tape one-half inch from the
point of each screw. Mark a line
on the tape to help you count
the revolutions. I LLU ST RATIO N BY TEM AH N EL SON .

1. Use the marker to mark three lines on the

wood where the screws will be inserted.
2. Measure the distance between the threads
on each screw in centimeters or millimeters. Fill in the distance on a chart
similar to the illustration.
1059
Simple Machines
3. Wrap a piece of tape one-half inch from

the point of each screw.
4. Mark a line on the tape to help you count
the revolutions.
Step 5: Turn the first screw into

the wood, counting the
rotations. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
T EMA H NE LS ON.
5. Turn the first screw into the wood. You

will need to count the number of rotations made by the screw. Continue with
the twisting until the screw is into the
wood 0.5 inches (1.3 centimeters),
where the mark was placed on the tape
matches with the line on the wood.
6. Turn the second and then third screws
into the wood. Note the number of turns each screws until it
reaches the mark on the tape.
7. Analyze chart to determine which screw required the least amount
of revolutions, greatest amount of revolutions.
Summary of Results Consider how easy or hard each screw was to turn.
How does the amount of effort relate to the distance between the threads.
Using the data on your chart consider when it be better to use a screw with
a larger thread distance versus a shorter thread distance? Think about
some ways that the principles behind screws are incorporated into common devices.
Change the Variables One way to change the variable in this experi-
ment is to use screws with the same threads but different thicknesses. Try using an extremely wide screw compared to a thin one.
You can also use different types of screws and compare the effort
involved.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept To choose a topic related
to simple machines and mechanics you can look at the objects that you
use every day. Select several items and identify the type(s) of simple
machines that it utilizes. You can use these tools to model the design of
your machines. Check the Further Readings section and talk with your
science teacher to learn more about machines and mechanics.
1060
Simple Machines

experiment:
You should not encounter many problems
during this experiment. Below is one problem
that may arise, and a way to remedy the
problem.
Problem: The screw wont turn into the wood.

Possible cause: You may not be using soft pine
or you may be screwing into a particularly
hard section of the wood. Try using a fresh
propose to do.
piece of pine wood and repeat.
question at hand.
Did you know that your jaw is
a simple machine? The jaw acts
question.
as a first-class lever when you
are chewing food. # K EL LY A .
QUI N.
Your data should include charts and drawings

such as the one you did for these experiments.
They should be clearly labeled and easy to read.
You may also want to include photographs and
drawings of your experimental setup and results,
which will help other people visualize the steps
in the experiment.
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may
want to display your results, such as any experimental setup you designed. You may also want
to include specimens, in a closed container, so
that others can observe what you studied. If you
have completed a nonexperimental project,
explain clearly what your research question was
Related Projects Because simple machines are all
around, finding materials and ideas related to

simple machines is relatively simple. As machines
1061
Simple Machines
are linked with force, you can investigate the principles behind force that
are at work in a machine. A project idea can be to take one simple machine
and use the same force in many different setups. You can take apart
common household simple machines (with an adults permission,
of course) and compare the differences and similarities between machines
that use the same principles. Compare one type of simple machine, such as
a screwdriver, to its different types. Look at what features each machine has
to make its work easier.
You can also build or take apart complex machines, and sketch the
simple machines that it uses. For a research project, you can investigate
the history of simple machines and how they have impacted peoples
lives.

Background Information for Simple Machines. Canada Science and
Technology Museum. http://www.sciencetech.technomuses.ca/english/
schoolzone/Info Simple Machines.cfm (accessed on February 29, 2008).
Informative site explaining various simple machines, including levers,
pulleys, and more.
Lafferty, Peter. Force & Motion. New York: EyeWitness Books, Dorling
Kindersley, 2000.With photographs and many graphics, this book describes
the science of force and motion and their applications in simple machines.
Macaulay, David, and Peter Lafferty. The Way things Work. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1988. Clear text with many illustrations describes the principles
behind numerous inventions and tools.
Museum of Science, Boston. Exploring Leonardo. http://www.mos.org/sln/
Leonardo/LeoHomePage.html (accessed on February 29, 2008). Exhibit on
Leonardo da Vincis work with machines.
Simple Machines. BrainPOP. http://www.brainpop.com/technology/
simplemachines/ (accessed on February 29, 2008). Animations, activities,
and explanations of simple machines.
University of Utah. Simple and Complex Machines. ASPIRE. http://sunshine.
chpc.utah.edu/javalabs/java12/machine/index.htm (accessed on February 29,
2008). Illustrated explanations with lab activities of various machines.
1062
Soil
ommonly called dirt, soil is a central ingredient for life on Earth. Soil
is the thin, outer layer of material on the surface of Earth, ranging
from a fraction of an inch to several feet thick.
Plants depend on soil for their nutrients and growth. These plants are
then consumed and used by animals, including people. Soils provide
shelter and a home for insects and small animals. Microscopic organisms
flourish in soil, breaking down dead matter, which returns nutrients into
the soil for new life. People use soils directly as a material to build on and
grow crops in. Soils also reveal a historical record of an areas past life and
geography. Understanding the properties of a soil is a key to determining
how the soil will function for a particular use.
The specific makeup of soil depends on its location, yet all soils share
the same basic composition: minerals, water, air, and organic matter,
meaning matter that contains carbon and comes from living organisms.
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic or nonliving substances that
come from Earths crust. Different types and combinations of these
components form multiple types of soil. In the United States alone,
researchers have identified over seventy thousand different soils. Soils
are characterized by many features, including their structure, texture,
living organisms, and acidity.
The scoop on dirt Soil is a dynamic material that Earth is constantly

manufacturing. The highest percent of any given soil is made of minerals,
which all come from the same material: rocks. Nature churns rocks into
new soil regularly and slowly. A rock is a mixture of minerals that stays
together under normal conditions. Rocks can be hard, relatively soft,
small, or large. Over time, rocks get weathered or worn down naturally by
their environment.
Several factors contribute to how fast the rock weathers. The rocks
composition, climate, surrounding organisms, and location are all key
1063
Soil
factors. Weathering also needs time. It can take

100 years to more than six hundred years to form
one inch of topsoil.
The rocks that form soil are called the parent
material.
When some rocks weather, their min25%
erals react with other elements to form different
water
chemicals from the original parent material.
45%
minerals
Other rocks retain the same composition of the
parent material. The makeup of the parent material determines many properties of the resulting
25%
soil.
air
The mineral content of the parent material
can be acidic, neutral, or alkaline. The acidity of
soil is measured on a pH scale from 0 to 14. On
5%
this scale, a pH of 7 is neutral, above 7 is alkaline,
organic matter
and below 7 is acidic. The acidity of the soil is a
key factor in determining the types of plants and
other organisms that thrive there. Iron, for
Basic composition of soil. G AL E
example,
is
an
acidic
mineral
in which azaleas and blueberries grow
GRO UP.
well. Elm, yucca, and sycamore grow in nonacidic soils. Soil life also
depends upon minerals for essential nutrients, which come from the
specific mineral content in the parent material. Calcium, phosphorus,
and potassium are examples of familiar minerals soil life needs.
Winds, rain, sunshine, and temperature shifts all play a part in
weathering. Water slips into the cracks of a rock. Varying temperatures
Climate and location are two

factors that cause rocks to break
down and form soil. GA LE
GR OU P.
1064
Soil
freeze and thaw the water repeatedly, expanding

the cracks and fragmenting the rock. Rain pounds
against a rock, wearing it down into increasingly
smaller particles. Winds beat against the rocks
surface, tearing away its outer layers. In general, a
moist, warm climate causes rocks to break down
more quickly than a cool, dry climate.
The surface features of an area also impact
soil formation and its erosion. Water that flows
over land can carry soil with it and expose new
rocks to weathering. Soils on slopes and hills
have a high rate of water flow. Here, soils are carried by the water flow
at a faster rate than soils on flat surfaces, which have more time to form.
Along with the weather, a warm climate also hastens the weathering
process because it provides a comfortable environment for life. Organisms that live in and on the soil affect soils formation in several ways.
Plant roots stretch into the soil and break up small fragments. Burrowing
animals wriggle through soil and move rock fragments to cause crumbling. Animals stomp on the soil and split up rock pieces. Some microscopic organisms that produce acid, such as fungi and lichens, break up
the minerals within rocks.
Size matters Soils are generally made up of one of three mineral
particles: sand, silt, or clay. The type of particles is another major factor in
determining the life in and on the soil. Water and air, needed by both
plants and animals, sit in the spaces between the particles. Almost all soils
have some combination of these particles, and it is the relative percentage
of one over the other that determines its category.
Sand particles are relatively large, ranging in size from 0.002 inches to
0.08 inches (0.05 millimeters to 2 millimeters) in diameter. Sandy particles
feel gritty to the touch. The particles have large air spaces between them,
causing water to run through easily. Because they do not retain moisture,
sand is loose and crumbly. Water that runs through sand can cause minerals
necessary for growth to drain or leach out of the soil. Leaching is the
movement of dissolved particles downward through the soil.
Silt is the next largest soil particle, ranging in size from 0.00008 inches to
0.002 inches (0.002 millimeters to 0.05 millimeters) in diameter. Silt
particles are fine and hold in some water. Silt particles feel soft and can
hold together well when moist. When they are dry they are easily blown away
by wind.
Nature churns rocks into new

soil regularly and slowly.
COR BI S.
1065
Soil
sand
Soils are generally made up of

one of three mineral particles:
sand, silt, or clay. GA LE
silt
clay
mm
GR OU P.
Clay particles are the smallest type of soil. Clay particles have little air
space between them. They hold the highest amount of water and keep
other soil particles together. Moist clay packs tightly together and can be
molded. When clay particles are dry they harden, which can slow the
growth of plant roots.
Dirty layers As the weathering process continues over time, it causes
soil to develop into layers that have distinct characteristics. A vertical slice
of two or more of these layers is known as a soil profile. The layers are
known as soil horizons and are named O, A, B, and C. How thick each
horizon is depends upon its location. Soil horizon properties differ in
their color, texture, consistency, life, and acidity.
The uppermost soil layer, the O layer, is filled with organic matter. As
this matter gets decomposed from soil-dwelling creatures it forms a darkbrown, organic material called humus. Most humus comes from plant
materials, such as dead leaves, twigs, and stems that fall to the ground.
Dead animals in the soil and above it also contribute to humus. Humus
retains water and contains nutrients for life to grow.
Sitting right below this layer is the A layer, called topsoil. Topsoil
contains decaying plant and animal remains, along with a wealth of
microscopic organisms such as bacteria. With all of its humus and
organic matter, topsoil is usually the darkest and most fertile layer in
the soil. Soil animals, such as earthworms and ants, live comfortably in
1066
Soil
this layer, using the plant and animal remains

for food. Plant roots stretch out in this region to
suck up the water and nutrients.
Subsoil is the middle, or B, soil layer. It is
usually lighter in color than topsoil because it does
not contain as much humus, making it less fertile.
Denser and with less nutrients than topsoil, relatively few animals and plants are found here. Some
plants with long roots reach down into the subsoil
to get at the water stored between the particles.
The C layer, or horizon, contains partially
disintegrated parent material and its minerals. It
is far less altered and weathered than the layers
above it and has none of the organic matter life
needs to grow. Beneath this layer is the bottom
region below the soil called bedrock. This layer
contains bits of rock similar to the parent material.
Life in the dirt lane Soils are teeming with
life, from the microscopic bacteria and fungi to the
visible small animals and plants. Live organisms
promote growth and new life in soil. Once dead,
organisms contribute to the amount of decayed
organic matter in soil, which influences its
characteristics.
Pick up a handful of soil and you are holding
billions of microscopic organisms. These microbes
decompose organic matter and return vital nutrients
into the environment. Plant roots hold soil particles together and prevent them
from blowing away. Animals that burrow into the soil, such as squirrels and
moles, create holes that allow air and water to enter. Insects such as beetles,
ants, spiders, and snails eat organic matter and begin the decaying process.
Worms tunnel through the soil, creating air pockets and turning over the soil.
O horizon
humus
A horizon
topsoil
B horizon
subsoil
C horizon
bedrock
In a soil horizon the soil

particles get gradually larger.
GAL E GR OU P.
EXPERIMENT 1
Soil Profile: What are the different properties
of the soil horizons?
Purpose/Hypothesis Soil is composed of three main categories of particles: sand, silt, and clay. Each of these particles has distinct properties
1067
Soil
Earthworms tunnel through the

soil, creating air pockets and
turning over the soil. # SA LLY
A. M OR GA N; E COS CE NE/
CO RB IS.
including its feel, texture, color, nutrients, and

size. While these three particles can form many
different combinations in a soil, the proportion
of each changes in each horizon.
In this experiment, you will take a soil
profile and determine the properties of three
different horizons. Because the depth of each
soil horizon depends on location, the depth
suggested to dig is a guide. You may need to
dig farther down than suggested to find three
unique horizons, or you may not have to dig
as deep.
Once you have the three samples you will
examine their characteristics in several ways.
Using a kit, you will test each sample for
nutrients. By feeling the soil and pressing it
together you can determine its texture and feel.
You will then estimate the relative proportions of
sand, silt, and clay by measuring the point at
which each layer settles in water. Larger particles
will settle first; the smallest particles will settle
last. Another varying characteristic among the horizons is the amount of
microorganisms, which decompose organic matter and create the humus.
An optional part to this experiment is to determine the amount of
microorganisms in each horizon by placing chopped organic matter in
each sample and examining the results.
experiment based on your knowledge of soil horizons and soil particles.


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The soil horizons at lower
1068
Soil
WORDS TO KNOW
Alkaline: A substance that is capable of neutralizing an acid, or basic. In soil, soil with a pH of
more than 7.0, which is neutral.
Parent material: The underlying rock from which

soil forms.
Bedrock: Solid layer of rock lying beneath the soil

and other loose material.
Clay: Type of soil comprising the smallest soil
particles.
Humus: Fragrant, spongy, nutrient-rich decayed
plant or animal matter.
experiment.
Leach: The movement of dissolved minerals or
chemicals with water as it percolates, or oozes,
downward through the soil.
Mineral: An nonorganic substance found in nature
with a definite chemical composition and structure.
Organic: Made of, or coming from, living matter.
Sand: Granular portion of soil composed of the

largest soil particles.
Soil: The upper layer of Earth that contains nutrients
for plants and organisms; a mixture of mineral
matter, organic matter, air, and water.
Soil horizon: An identifiable soil layer due to color,
structure, and/or texture.
Soil profile: Combined soil horizons or layers.
Topsoil: Uppermost layer of soil that contains high
levels of organic matter.
experiment.
Weathered: Natural process that breaks down rocks
and minerals at Earths surface into simpler materials
by physical (mechanical) or chemical means.
depths will contain more sand, be grittier, lighter, and have less minerals
and organic matter than the soil of the top horizon.
In this case, the variable you will change is the depth of the soil. The
variable you will measure is the soils properties, including its particle
makeup, organic matter, color, and mineral content.
Level of Difficulty Difficult (because of the digging and the multiple parts).
Materials Needed
area with soil that you can dig (another option is to find an area
already dug; see also Change the Variables)
1069
Soil

the patch of soil you choose
the depth you dig
the amount the jar is shaken
the type of organic matter present
are everything that might affect the soil horizons. If you change more than one variable at
variable had the most effect on the properties of
each horizon.
shovel
plastic container that can hold about 2
cups (500 milliliters)
grasses, flowers, leaves (optional part)
yardstick
ruler
three self-sealing bags
three 1-quart (about 1-liter) straight jars
with lids
water
marking pen
nutrient testing kit (available from garden
or hardware stores)
Timetable Varies because of digging; 3 hours
experiment time; 24 hours waiting. Optional
part will take 3 weeks; 15 minutes per week.
1. Find a clear area of soil and dig to a depth

of about 30 inches (76 centimeters).
Place the ruler in the hole to measure
depth.
2. Label the self-sealing bags Soil A, Soil
B, and Soil C.
3. Use the plastic containers to collect three samples at different
depths. (Examine the soil profile for differences in color and
texture and use this as your collection indicators. The following
measurements are guidelines.) Collect the first soil sample by
placing the top of the container at 2 inches (5 centimeters)
down and scooping dirt inside the container. When filled, place
the soil in Soil A bag and note the depth on a data chart. Collect
the next soil sample at roughly 15 inches (38 centimeters). Place
the soil in Soil B bag and note the depth. Collect the third soil
sample at 30 inches (76 centimeters). Place the soil in Soil C bag
and note the depth. Remove any visible insects from the soil
samples.
This is a messy experiment; be sure to wash

your hands thoroughly after collecting the soil.
Watch out for any insects in the soil.
1070
Soil
4. Note the color(s) of each sample on your

data chart.
15
5. Determine the texture of each layer: Collect a small ball of soil in your hand from
Soil A and spray it with water so that it is
damp. (If it is already damp leave as is.)
Rub the soil between your fingers and feel
if the texture is floury (silt), sticky (clay),
or gritty (sand).
6. Use that same ball to determine if the

soil sticks together. Press the soil
between your thumb and forefinger to
make a ribbon. Note whether the soil
forms a ribbon without breaking, forms
a ribbon with breaking, or does not form
a ribbon.
so
il A
soil
C
Step 3: Collect soil samples

from three horizons. GA LE
7. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for Soil B and Soil C.
GRO UP .
8. Estimate the relative percentage of clay, sand, and silt particles:

Place 1 cup of Soil A in a labeled jar and add water until the jar is
almost full. Repeat with the other two soils, adding the same
amount of water in each jar and making sure the jars are labeled.
Cover the jars and shake for at least two minutes.
9. After one minute, make a mark on the jar at the level the particles
have settled to the bottom. This is the sand. Measure up to the
mark with the ruler.
Texture
Depth
Color
Feel
Ribbon
% Sand,
Silt, Clay
Nutrients
soil A
soil B
soil C

GA LE G RO UP.
1071
Soil
10. Let the jars sit undisturbed. After two to

three hours, mark and measure the thickness of the next layer. This is the silt.
11. Wait at least 24 hours to measure the last
level, which is the clay.
12. Divide the thickness of each layer by the
total height of all three layers. Multiply
that number by 100 for a rough percentage of each type of particle. Note the
results.
13. Test for nutrients: Follow the directions
on the nutrient kit to determine the level
of nutrients in each soil sample.
silt
sand
Steps 9 to 11: Measure each
layer of particle. GAL E GRO UP.
14. (Optional) Determine the relative

amount of microorganisms in each samclay
ple: Leave 1 cup (about 240 milliliters) of
each soil sample in the bag and add
enough water to moisten (the rest of the
soil can be returned to ground). Seal the bag and poke small holes
in the top.
15. Chop up organic matter, such as leaves, grass, and/or flowers.
Add 2 tablespoons (30 milliliters) of the chopped organic matter
to each bag. Spray each soil so each is the same moistness and
place bags in a dark environment, such as a drawer. Every five to
seven days add another tablespoon of water (15 milliliters) to
each of the soils. Every week for two to three weeks, note the
decomposition of the organic matter and any visible life, such as
fungi.
Summary of Results Examine your chart of the three soils. What is the
most striking difference in soil properties between them? How did Soil A
compare to Soil C in texture and color? How do the differences in the
estimated soil particles relate to the soils color and whether it sticks
together? Determine if any of your soils showed the property of only
one type of soil particle? Hypothesize would happen if you grew the same
plant in each soil. Based on your results, how does each soil hold water?
Write a brief summary of the experiment and your analysis.
1072
Soil
Change the Variables The main way to change
the variable in this experiment is to alter the type

of soil. If digging is not possible in your area, you
can purchase different soil types in a garden shop
and repeat the same steps for each soil. To
change the variable in the microorganisms part,
you can use the same type soil and alter the kind
of organic matter.
Modify the Experiment You can conduct a sim-
Problem: The soil horizons were very similar.
Possible cause: You may not have dug down
deep enough when you collected the samples. There should be a change in texture and
color marking the different horizons. Repeat
the experiment, digging down another 12
inches (30 centimeters) or more.
plified version of this experiment that will take

less time (and less mess) by comparing the soil
composition from two locations. First, consider
Problem: The organic matter did not
what two areas you want to collect soil. Try to
decompose.
find soils that have different characteristics, such
as color or if plants grow in it. Make a hypothesis
enough time for the microorganisms in the
if one soil contains more sand, silt, or clay than
soil to decompose it. It is also possible that
the other sample.
you have few microorganisms in any of your
Using a spade, collect a sample of each soil
soils. Repeat with another sample from the
same location, and use a soil as a control that
type. Scrape away the first couple inches of the
is a rich, dark brown color from the top layer
soil and then place about a cup of the soil in a
of the soil.
plastic bag. Make sure to label the bag with the
soil location. Spread out each sample and remove
any pebbles, leaves, or other debris. You can do
this by hand or with a colander. You will need two narrow glass jars with
lids, a measuring cup, liquid soap, and a ruler.
Place a cup of soil from one location in the first glass jar and a cup of
soil from the second location in the second jar. Add a drop of liquid
soap (this will separate the soil particles). Fill the jars with water and
shake for at least two minutes. Set the jars down and watch the particles
settle to the bottom. After a couple minutes, use a ruler to measure the
amount of sand that settled. Sand is the heaviest soil particle. After
another 15 minutes, measure the particles that have settled. Measure the
buildup of particles over a set time period, comparing the two jars.
When you have finished, you can graph the amount of particles that
settled in each sample for each time period. Did one sample have more
sand? Are there still clay particles floating about in the water? Was your
hypothesis correct? Think about how the area and soil life, if anything,
relates to the soil sample.
1073
Soil
EXPERIMENT 2
Soil pH: Does the pH of soil affect plant
growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis A soils pH is a measure of how acidic or basic it is.
A soil that is basic is called alkaline. Alkaline soils are often referred to as
sweet; acidic soils are referred to as sour. Soil pH is measured on a pH
scale. The pH scale ranges from 1 to 14, with 7 being neutral, neither acid
nor alkaline. Water, for example has a pH of 7. Acidic soils have a pH less
than 7; the lower the number, the more acidic the soil. Alkaline soils have
a pH above 7; the higher the number, the more alkaline the soil.
Most plants prefer a neutral to slightly acidic soil, with a pH between
6 and 7, yet some plants prefer acidity whereas others grow best in
alkaline soil. Potatoes, gardenias, and blueberries grow best in acidic
soils. Geraniums, asparagus, and mint grow best at higher pH levels.
The pH of the soil also affects how available the nutrients are for plants to
absorb. For example, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous are key
nutrients that plants needs to grow. In soil that is highly acidic or alkaline,
plants cannot get phosphorus. Potassium is most available in soils with
high pH and unavailable at low pH. Nitrogen becomes available to plants
with a pH of roughly 5.5 or above.
To ensure proper growth of

crops or other plants, it is
important to know the pH level
of the soil before planting.
FI ELD MA RK P UBL IC ATI ON S.
1074
Soil
In this experiment, you will test how acidity affects plant growth by growing the same
type of plant in both an acidic and an alkaline
soil. To make soil more alkaline, gardeners add
calcium carbonate (limestone). This is referred
to as liming. For a quick way to make soil more
alkaline you can add baking soda, which is also
alkaline. To increase the acidity of the soil you
will add vinegar (gardeners use sulfur or aluminum sulfate). To determine the soil pHs effect,
you can measure height, number of leaves, how
fast the plants grow, leaf color, and number of
flowers.
your knowledge of soil and acidity. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A

the type of soil
the nutrients in the soil
the type of plant
the pH of the soil
the plant. If you change more than one variable
plants growth.

possible hypothesis for this experiment: The plant will grow best in one
type of soil pH; plants grown in the other two pH soils will not be as
healthy.
In this case, the variable you will change is the pH of the soil. The
variable you will measure is the health of the plant.
will change between the control and the experimental setup, and that is
the soil pH. For the control, you will use a neutral potting soil, between
pH of 6 and 7. At the end of the experiment you can compare the results
of the control to the experimental trial.
1075
Soil
Materials Needed

15 seeds of one plant type

3 plant pots, such as plastic containers
potting soil
white vinegar
baking soda
cheesecloth
small bucket that cheesecloth can fit over
rubber band or string (to fit around container)
ruler
container that holds 8 cups (about 2 liters), such as a soda bottle
pH test kit or strips (available at garden or hardware store)
measuring spoons
measuring cup
marking pen

Timetable Varies depending on the plant selected and soil; an estimated 1
hour for setup, then 10 minutes every five days for six weeks.
Steps 7 and 8: Measure how pH

affects the plants health. G ALE
G RO UP.
acid
1076
control
1. Measure the pH of the Control soil and note the results. It should
be somewhere between 6 and 7.
2. Prepare acidic soil: The soil should be dry to moist. Make a
solution of 1 tablespoon (15 milliliters) vinegar with 8 cups
(about 2 liters) of water in the bottle or container and shake it.
3. Secure the cheesecloth over the top of the
small bucket with a rubber band or string.
Put the soil on top of the cheesecloth. One
cup at a time, pour the vinegar-water solution over the soil until it is saturated, then
test the pH. Have the soil reach a pH of
roughly 5.0. Depending on the soil, you
may need to add more of the vinegar solalkaline
ution. If more acidity is needed, wait until
the soil becomes dry to moist (try putting it
in the Sun), then again pour the vinegarwater solution over the soil. Retest the pH
Soil
of soil. When the pH is at the right level for

the experiment, note the pH on a chart.
4. Prepare alkaline soil: The soil should be
dry to moist. Make up a solution of 1
tablespoon baking soda with 4 cups
(about 1 liter) of water and shake it.
5. Repeat Step 3, replacing the vinegarwater solution with the baking sodawater solution. Have the soil reach a pH
of roughly 8.0. Depending on the soil,
you may need to make the soil more
alkaline. Wait until the soil becomes dry
to moist, then pour more of the baking
soda-water solution over the soil. Retest
the pH of soil and when it is alkaline
enough note the number.
remedy the problem.
Problem: The soil did not turn very acidic or
alkaline.
Possible cause: The soil may not have been dry
enough for it to soak up the vinegar or baking
soda. Make sure you wait long enough so
that when you press the soil together it falls
apart, then add the solution.
6. Label each of the containers: Alkaline, Acidic, and Control.

7. Plant five seeds in each container, using the indicated soil, and care
for as indicated.
8. Every five days (this may vary depending on your plant) measure
the height of the plant, number of leaves, flowers/buds, or any
other characteristic of your plant.
Summary of Results When the control plants have reached full height,
examine your results. Was your hypothesis correct? How did each of the
other plants compare to the control? Are there specific characteristics of
the plant that were especially different than the control? Once you have
determined the best pH of your plant, research what nutrients are
available to your plant in that soil. What nutrients are lacking?
Change the Variables There are a few ways that you can change the
variables in this experiment. You can alter the type of plant you grow, or
you may want to grow several different types at once. (Some plants
display interesting differences in a range of soil pHs, such as hydrangeas,
which have a visible petal-color change.) You can also choose a soil with a
low amount of nutrients, then add different nutrients to the soil to
determine each ones effect on plant growth. Nutrient-testing kits are
available at garden or hardware stores.
1077
Soil

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Whether it is bought or
dug, soil offers many possible project ideas. Check the Further Readings
section and talk with your science teacher to learn more about soil. You
may want to visit a garden store or greenhouse to look at the different
varieties of soils available. Look around at the types of soils in your area
and the kinds of plants that grow in them.
question.
If you are preparing an exhibit, you may want to bring samples of any
soil samples you used, and display your results, such as any experimental
setup you designed. If you have completed a nonexperimental project,
explain clearly what your research question was and illustrate your
findings.
Related Projects Soils diversity and significance offer a range of project
ideas. You could further compare the properties of soil particles by

measuring how different types of soils hold water. The amount of water
soils hold relates to pesticides and fertilizers that people put in the soil. A
project could explore what happens to these products when they are
1078
Soil
placed in soils of various types. This could lead

to a project on leaching and nutrient deficiencies
in the soil.
You could also explore the properties of
parent materials and the process of weathering.
A project could look at why certain parts of the
world have distinct soils, such as deserts. You may
be able to collect or purchase rock samples and
compare their characteristics with one another.
How does the soil composition in certain geographic areas impact their economy, environment,
and agriculture? You could also look at the methods scientists have developed to replenish the soil
of minerals, nutrients, and other vital properties.
Backyard
Playgroun d

Bial, Raymond. A Handful of Dirt. New York: Walker and Company, 2000.
Explains what soil is made of and what lives in it.
The Dirt on Soil: Whats Really Going on Under the Ground? Discovery
Education. http://school.discoveryeducation.com/schooladventures/soil/
(accessed on March 11, 2008). Information and pictures of soil layers and
life, along with a game.
Soil Science Education Home Page. http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html (accessed
on March 11, 2008). Basic information, featured soils, and learning activities
about soil.
Stell, Elizabeth P. Secrets to Great Soil. Pownal, VT: Storey Publishing Book,
1998. Comprehensive book on soil properties and how to create fertile soil.
Compare the properties of soil

particles by measuring how
different types of soils hold
water. The amount of water
soils hold relates to pesticides
and fertilizers that people put
in the soil. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
1079
Solar Energy
unlight has been recognized as a powerful source of energy since

ancient times. Burning glasses that dated back to 7 B . C . E . have
been found in the ruins of Nineva (now part of Iraq). These glasses were
similar to magnifying lens and could concentrate sunlight into a beam hot
enough to start a fire. Each day, Earth receives about 4 quadrillion
kilowatt-hours of solar energy, generated by nuclear reactions deep inside
the Suns mass. While we receive a lot of solar energy, it is not easy to
harness. Environmental concerns and our limited supply of fossil fuels
make finding ways to gather and concentrate solar energy efficiently an
urgent challenge.
Hot! Hot! Hot! Think of the Sun as a constantly active hydrogen
bomb: a swirling, mass with eruptions that give off great amounts of
energy. Within the Suns center, the temperature is about 25,000,000F
Solar eruptions like this one

could provide us with enough
power for thousands of years
if we could harness the energy.
GA LE G RO UP.
1081
Solar Energy
These solar collectors turn to

catch the Suns rays throughout
the day. P HOT O R ES EAR CH ER S
I NC.
This plant in the Pyrenees

Mountains in France uses
mirrors to capture solar energy.
1082
(14,000,000C). About 700 million tons (635

million metric tons) of hydrogen fuse into 695
million tons (630 million metric tons) of helium
each second. What happens to the missing five
million tons of material? It is converted into
solar energy. Besides heating and illuminating
the Sun itself, some of this energy travels to
Earth as sunlight.
How is some of this energy collected? One
way is through the use of solar collectors, flat
devices made of aluminum, copper, or steel panels
painted black. The black color helps to absorb the
heat energy. The glass or plastic covering these
panels enables light to enter, but prevents most of the heat from bouncing
back into the atmosphere. The heat is then stored in a layer of pebbles or salt
surrounded by a thick layer of insulation behind the black panel.
This type of solar energy collection is an active solar energy system. An
active system requires a separate collector, as well as a storage device and
pumps or fans that draw heat when needed. Passive solar energy systems use
the design of the building or natural materials to collect the Suns energy.
One example is buildings with large windows that face south, allowing the
Suns heat to spread throughout the structure during the day. This process
is similar to the greenhouse effect, in which the Suns energy gets trapped
near Earths surface by gases and other atmospheric matter.
Various forms of passive solar energy systems have been applied for
centuries. For example, buildings were constructed with thick walls of
stone, sod, and adobe to absorb the Suns heat during the day and release
it at night. Greenhouses were used in the early
1800s to capture the Suns heat so plants could
be grown during cold weather.
Solar reflections The Pyrenees Mountains,
near Odeille in southern France, seem like an
unlikely place for a solar reflector, but one has
existed there since the 1950s. It towers over a
meadow of wildflowers and features 63 separate
mirrors that reflect sunlight onto a curved, mirrored wall. Electric motors move the mirrors to
track sunlight and direct it to a central receiving
tower. This method generates the intense heat
Solar Energy
WORDS TO KNOW
Active solar energy system: A solar energy system
that uses pumps or fans to circulate heat captured from the Sun.
used, and stored by means of the design of a

building and the materials from which it is
made.
Efficiency: The amount of power output divided

by the amount of power input. It is a measure of
how well a device converts one form of power
into another.
Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon in which

light falling upon certain metals stimulates the
emission of electrons and changes light into
electricity.

Photovoltaic cells: A device made of silicon that

converts sunlight into electricity.
Solar collector: A device that absorbs sunlight and
collects solar heat.

experiment.
Solar energy: Any form of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted by the Sun.
Passive solar energy system: A solar energy

system in which the heat of the Sun is captured,

experiment.
needed for industrial use. It also produces steam in boilers, which is used
to produce electricity.
Other solar energy collectors include photovoltaic (pronounced
photo-vol-TAY-ic) cells, developed by three Bell Telephone scientists in
1954 as a way to produce electric power from sunlight. Also known as
solar cells, they convert sunlight energy into electrical energy. They have
been used to provide electric power during space exploration, but are
most commonly used to light billboards and power irrigation pumps.
Because the energy output of solar cells is small, many are needed to
produce a significant amount of electricity. However, newer cells now
operate at about a 40% efficiency, a good rate compared to the efficiency
of burning fossil fuels, which is about 34%. As the demand for less
expensive and sustainable solar energy increases, scientists are developing
new ways to create more efficient solar cells. sola
In the experiments and project that follow, you will learn about two
uses of solar energy: helping plants grow, powering electric motors, and
heating a home. The experiments and project will help you appreciate all
the ways that solar energy canor couldaffect our lives.
1083
Solar Energy
EXPERIMENT 1
Capturing Solar Energy: Will seedlings grow
bigger in a greenhouse?
Purpose/Hypothesis A greenhouse is a passive solar collector, allowing
light energy to pass through while blocking the escape of heat. The
locked-in heat and moisture from watering create a warm, humid environment similar to a rain forest. In this experiment, you will build a
greenhouse and determine whether it helps seedlings grow faster and
bigger. Clear plastic will be used as the walls of the greenhouse because it
allows the light in and traps the heat.
energy to make a guess about how the greenhouse will affect the seedlings.


Greenhouse model. GA LE
GR OU P.
1084
Solar Energy
hypothesis for this experiment: The trapped

solar energy in a greenhouse will cause seedlings
to grow faster and larger than identical seedlings
grown in the same environment without a
greenhouse.
whether seedlings are inside or outside the
greenhouse, and the variable you will measure
is the growth rate of the seedlings. If the seedlings inside the greenhouse grow more than
those outside the greenhouse, your hypothesis
is correct.
Materials Needed
4 wooden boards, roughly 1 6 20

inches (2.5 15 50 centimeters)
1 piece of transparent plastic or glass, 24
24-inch (60 60-centimeter) and 0.25
inch (0.5 centimeter) thick
Eight 2-inch (5-centimeter) nails
10 marigold or radish seeds
10 small plastic pots, or 10 plastic yogurt
containers, or 10 bottoms cut from 1quart (1-liter) milk cartons
soil
hammer
goggles
gloves

the amount of sunlight reaching all the
seedlings
the type of plants
the temperature outside the greenhouse
the color of the material under the
greenhouse
the water and care given to the seedlings
the seedlings. If you change more than one
on the growth rate.

Goggles and adult supervision are required
when hammering the nails. Wear gloves when
handling the glass.
Approximate Budget $12. (Use any lumber that is cost-effective.
When formed into a box, the lumber must be tall enough for the
pots to fit under the glass or plastic and still have room for the
seedlings to grow.)
Timetable 2 to 3 weeks. (This experiment requires 30 minutes to
assemble the greenhouse and 2 to 3 weeks to monitor the plant

growth.)
1085
Solar Energy
Step 1: Nails positioned on

wood for assembling the
greenhouse. GA LE GRO UP.
1. Hammer two nails through each end of a

piece of wood, as illustrated. Repeat with
a second piece of wood. Place the wood
into a square with the two pieces with
nails opposite each other.
2. Hold the wood in position and assemble the
box by carefully driving the nails into the
ends of the two remaining pieces of wood.
3. Place the piece of plastic or glass over the
wood box. Be sure it completely overlaps
the wood box so there are no gaps around the edges.
4. Place the greenhouse outside in a sunny spot or inside near a sunny
window.
5. Plant the seedlings in the ten pots. Place five pots inside the
greenhouse and five next to the greenhouse. Water each pot
when the soil feels dry.
6. Measure and record the growth rate of each group of seedlings
every day on a chart similar to the one illustrated. Continue your
experiment for 2 weeks or longer.
Step 6: Growth chart for

1086
Solar Energy
growth chart. Can you see a difference between

the seedlings inside and outside the greenhouse?
Which ones are growing faster? Which ones look
healthier? Was your hypothesis correct? Did the
heat and humidity in the greenhouse affect the
plants growth rate? Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your findings.
ment by using different kinds of seeds or using

small, identical plants. You can also try growing
plants under a ceiling of plastic, with the sides
open to the air. Does this arrangement still trap
enough heat to make a difference in the growth?
Does the difference in humidity affect plant
growth?
PROJECT 2
Solar Cells: Will sunlight
make a motor run?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will be
working with photovoltaic cells, or solar cells,

which utilize the photoelectric effect to convert
solar energy into electricity. This project will
allow you to determine if you can operate a
small electric motor with solar cells. It will also
let you determine how many cells and how much
sunlight it takes to operate the motor.
Problem: The seedlings inside and outside the
greenhouse are growing slowly.
Possible causes:
1. The time of year makes a difference,
especially in the northern area of the
country. During the winter, the Suns
rays are less intense, and all the seedlings
will grow more slowly. You will still see a
difference. It will just take a little more
time.
2. The spot does not get enough sun. Move
the greenhouse and the other seedlings
to a sunnier spot.
3. There is a gap between the box and the
glass or plastic, which allows the warm air
and humidity inside the greenhouse to
escape. Seal the gap with tape.
Problem: The seedlings inside the greenhouse
withered and died after they sprouted.
Possible cause: During the summer, the temperature inside the greenhouse can soar to
110F (43C) or more in direct sun. Move the
greenhouse and all ten pots to a less sunny
location or cover the glass or plastic with a large
sheet of thin white paper to block some of the
Suns rays.
Materials Needed
3 solar cells (.5-volt rating each)

1 DC motor (l.5-volt rating)
4 jumper wires with alligator clips on each endthree about 4
inches (10 centimeters) long, and one about 12 inches (30 centimeters) long
1087
Solar Energy

Handle solar cells carefully. They are fragile and
break easily.
stopwatch or clock
marking pen
posterboard or a small table to support
the experiment
cardboard to provide shade, about 24
inches (60 centimeters) square
Approximate Budget $25. (Supplies can be pur-
project, a possible cause, and a way to remedy it.
chased at an electronics store.)

Problem: The motor does not rotate under any

condition.
1. Place the jumper wires with alligator clips

on the + and - terminals of the solar cells, as
Possible cause: The connections may be loose.
illustrated. Attach the other ends to the
Check them connections and try again.
motor terminal. Be careful to match the +
or - connections. Place the experiment on a
piece of posterboard or a small table so you
can move it around.
2. Make a small mark on the shaft of the electric motor with the
marking pen.
3. Test the ability of the solar cells to power the motor under different
lighting conditions, such as the following: outside on a sunny day;
outside on a sunny day, but shaded by the cardboard; inside on a
sunny day, but out of direct sunlight; inside in a dark room; inside
at night under an incandescent and/or fluorescent light bulb.
Step 1: Set-up of three-cell

circuit. GAL E GR OU P.
1088
Solar Energy
Step 4: Sample performance

chart for Project 2. GA LE
GR OU P.
4. Record how many rotations the motor makes in 10 secondsor if

it runs at allunder each condition, using a chart similar to the
one illustrated.
Summary of Results Study your results. Under which conditions did the
solar cells operate the motor? How many rotations could you record?
Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your findings.
1089
Solar Energy
EXPERIMENT 3
the amount of heat generated from the
heat lamp
Retaining the Suns heat:

What substance best
stores heat for a solar
system?
Purpose/Hypothesis Solar energy is often used
in homes as a source of heat. The solar energy

system (solar panels) captures and stores the heat
the amount of time the container is left
of the sun during the sunny hours. The heat is
under the heat lamp
then re-circulated in the home when needed,
the length of black plastic tubing and
during the night or on cloudy days. Storing the
therefore the volume of the substance
heat of the sun is a major component of a solar
put into the tube.
energy system.
Some storage devices use Glaubers salt
are everything that might affect the air tem(sodium sulfate decahydrate) in their storage
perature in the containers. If you change more
than one variable at a time, you will not be able
systems. Glaubers salt has the ability to store
to determine which variable had the most effect
more heat in its liquid state than water or other
on the temperature.
substances.
In this experiment you will test Glaubers salt
along with two other substances to measure which
one stores heat longer and would be most useful in a solar energy system. A
heat lamp will provide the Suns energy. You will place three different
substances: water, Glaubers salt, and iodized salt in three clear plastic
containers and place under a heat lamp for 12 hours. Once the heat lamp
is turned off, you can begin to measure which substance best retains heat.
energy to make a guess about what substance will retain heat the longest.
hypothesis for this experiment: The Glaubers salt will retain heat longer
than the water and table salt after being placed under a heat lamp.
1090
Solar Energy

the substance in the plastic containers. The variable you will measure is the air temperature in
each of the containers. If the air temperature in
the container with the substance containing the
Glaubers salt remains higher than the other
containers, your hypothesis is correct.

The heat lamp can get hot. Be careful when
handling the lamp; you may want an adult to
help.
Level of Difficulty Moderate to Advanced (because of the time and detail
involved).
Materials Needed
3 clear plastic containers with lids, approximately 2 6 6 inches

1 heat lamp (150 watts) with a clip
60 grams (about one-quarter cup) of water
60 grams iodized salt (table salt)
60 grams Glaubers salt (sodium sulfate decahydrate, available
from a science supply store; you may need to ask your teacher
for help ordering)
a container big enough to hold all three containers, an empty
aquarium works well
tape
3 digital thermometers small enough to be placed inside plastic
container. If testing one substance at a time, then only 1 thermometer is needed (if you only have 1 thermometer, you can test
each item separately)
Approximate Budget $15 (assuming you have or can borrow a heat lamp
and large container).

Timetable approximately 30 minutes to set-up; 12 hours waiting; 2 hours
monitoring results
1. Place 60 grams of Glaubers salt (in crystal form) in one plastic

container. Label the container Glaubers.
2. Place 60 grams of water in the second container, and 60 grams of
iodized salt in the third container. Label each container with the
substance it contains.
1091
Solar Energy
3. Tape one thermometer on the side of

each container so that the temperature
readings are visible.
4. Place all three labeled containers in the
large container and clip the heat lamp
onto the side of container. Make sure
the heat lamp shines on all three containers evenly.
Glauber
Salt
5. Record the starting temperature of containers on a chart.

6. Turn on the heat lamp. Leave the lamp
on for 12 hours.
Step 3: Tape one thermometer

on the side of each container so
that the temperature readings
are visible. I LL UST RA TIO N BY
TE MA H NE LS ON.
Step 6: Turn on the heat lamp.

Leave the lamp on for 12 hours.
7. Turn off the heat lamp and record the

temperature every 15 minutes for two
hours. You can keep recording every 30
minutes until the air returns to the starting temperature.
Summary of Results Study the results of your
temperature readings. You may want to graph the data. Can you see a
difference between the rate at which the Glaubers salt and table salt
cooled? How did these substances compare to the water temperature
reading? Which substance cooled down the fastest and which took the
longest to cool? Was your hypothesis correct? Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining your findings.
NE LS ON.
Change the Variables You can change the var-
iables in this experiment several ways. You can

vary the substances within the containers to
measure what stores heat more than others.
Instead of using a heat lamp, you could place
the containers out in the sun. Depending upon
where you live and the season, you can place the
containers in a sunny spot, and record the
temperatures after the sun has gone down.
How does this compare with using a heat
lamp? How high do the temperatures get?
1092
Solar Energy
Design Your Own

Experiment
First, define what aspect of solar energy you are

interested in, such as ways to use this energy. You
might want to investigate whether pollution is
changing the effects of solar energy on our world.
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on solar energy questions that interest you.
As you consider possible experiments, be sure to
discuss them with a knowledgeable adult before
trying them. Some of the materials or processes
may be dangerous.

things through. Otherwise you might not be sure
which question you are answering, what you are
or should be measuring, and what your findings
prove or disprove.
propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Its common for experiments to not work
exactly as planned. Learning from what went
wrong can also be a good experience. Below are
some problems that may arise during this
Problem: Temperature changes between the
three substances did not differ.
Possible causes: The heat lamp may not be hot
enough. Check your heat lamp; it should be
at least 150 watts. If it is 150 watts, the containers may not be receiving the same
amount of heat. Try heating one container at
a time with the heat lamp directly over the
container.
Problem:The thermometer is not taking readings.
Possible causes:The thermometer may have
fallen into the liquid in the container and is
wet. Make sure the thermometer is anchored
to the container and check that the thermometer is working. Repeat the experiment.
Problem: The Glaubers salt did not melt
completely.
Possible cause: The salt may not be getting
enough heat. Try heating one container at a
time with the heat lamp directly over the
container. You also can increase the number
of hours you leave on the heat lamp. If you
increase the hours, make sure to keep it the
same for the other substances. Even in a
partial liquid state Glaubers salt will retain
heat. You can take your temperature readings and see the outcome.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Every good experiment
should be documented so that other people can understand the procedures and results. Keep diagrams, charts, and graphs of any information
1093
Solar Energy
that is useful. Your experiment, whether successful or not, is important

information to be shared with others.
Related Projects Solar energy is available on a daily basis (except on
cloudy days), so take advantage of this free resource. For example, you
could design and build a solar oven for cooking, a solar battery to
run toys, or a radiometer to measure solar intensity. Explore the
possibilities!

Aldous, Scott. How Solar Cells Work. HowStuffWorks. http://
www.howstuffworks.com/solar cell.htm (accessed on March 18, 2008).
Explanation of solar cells.
Asimov, Issac. The Sun and Its Secrets. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens
Publishing, 1994. Discusses the Suns origins, content, and historical facts.
Edelson, Edward. Clean Air. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992.
Explores the devastating effects of population growth and industry on air
quality and ways to clean up the air including using solar energy as a solution.
Energy Information Administration. Solar Energy: Energy from the Sun.
renewable/solar.html (accessed on March 18, 2008). Basic information on
solar energy.
Energy Story: Solar Energy. Energy Quest. http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/
story/chapter15.html (accessed on March 18, 2008). Information and science
projects related to solar energy.
Solar Energy Animation. Ocean Motion. http://oceanmotion.org/html/
resources/solar.htm (accessed on March 18, 2008). Information
demonstrates how the intensity of the energy from the sun varies with
location and time.
1094
Sound
ou hear sound when vibrations enter your ears and send signals through
your nerves to your brain. These vibrations are caused by disturbances
in the air. For example, when you hit a drum, the top of it vibrates, causing a
disturbance in the molecules in the air. This vibration, or sound wave, travels
through the air in all directions, eventually reaching your ears.
If you could see sound waves, they would look much like the waves
you see when you drop a stone onto a calm water surface.
Sound waves are usually

described with two
measurements: frequency and
amplitude. GAL E GR OU P.
How do we hear? Sound waves travel through air at about 1,088 feet
(332 meters) per second. When the sound waves or vibrations reach your
ears, they push on your eardrums and cause them to vibrate. Each
eardrum pushes against a series of three tiny bones in your middle ear.
These tiny bones push against another membrane, which causes waves in
a fluid inside your inner ear. Here, special cells pick up the differences in
pressure from the waves and transform them into electrical signals that
travel along nerves to your brain. When these signals reach the brain, you
hear the sound and usually recognize its source.
How is sound measured? Sound waves are usually described with
two measurements: frequency and amplitude. Frequency means the
number of waves passing a given point in a
given period of time. This is usually measured
in hertz, abbreviated Hz. One hertz equals 1
cycle per second. Humans can usually hear
sounds with frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000
Hz. The faster a wave vibrates, the higher its
frequency and the higher a sound it produces.
The highness or lowness of a sound is its pitch.
A high-frequency sound has a high pitch.
The amplitude of the sound is its power or
loudness. The taller the sound wave, the higher
1095
Sound
As the drum vibrates, it pushes

on molecules in the air, causing
them to vibrate in the same
way. This vibration, or sound
wave, travels through the air in
all directions, eventually
reaching your ears. PE TER
AR NO LD I NC.
its amplitude and the louder the sound it produces. We usually measure amplitude in decibels. For example, leaves rustling in the wind
might produce a sound of about 20 decibels,
while a jet taking off creates a sound of at least
140 decibels, loud enough to damage your hearing. Listening to very loud sounds for a long
time, including loud music, will damage the
tiny nerves in your ears and can lead to a permanent hearing loss. Many rock musicians have
discovered that they already have hearing
problems.
How long have people wondered about
sound? People have been experimenting with
sound for a long time. Pythagoras (572497
B . C . E .) experimented with strings to determine
how sounds changed with changes in the lengths
of the strings. Historians credit him with the
development of the musical scale.
In about 1700, French physicist Joseph Sauveur first used the word acoustics to describe music
and the way sound works. He worked on the
mathematics of sound and studied how strings
made different sounds depending on their length.
Hermann von Helmholtz (18211894) discovered much about
sound in the 1800s, especially the connections between mathematics
and music. He also built one of the first sirens.
Sound, and the way humans and other animals perceive it, is a
fascinating topic. What kind of questions do you have about sound?
You will have an opportunity to explore different aspects of sound in the
following experiments.
EXPERIMENT 1
Wave Length: How does the length of a
vibrating string affect the sound it produces?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will find out how the length
and tightness of a plucked string affects the sounds it produces. Before

you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of the experiment
1096
Sound
WORDS TO KNOW
Acoustics: The science concerned with the production, properties, and propagation of sound
waves.
Hertz (Hz): The unit of measurement of frequency;

a measure of the number of waves that pass a
given point per second of time.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement (difference between an original position and a later
position) of the material that is vibrating.
Amplitude can be thought of visually as the
highest and lowest point of a wave.

Decibel (dB): A unit of measurement for the

amplitude of sound.
Wave: A regular disturbance that carries energy

through matter or space without carrying matter.
Frequency: The rate at which vibrations

take place (number of times per second the
motion is repeated), given in cycles per
second or in hertz (Hz). Also, the number
of waves that pass a given point in a given
period of time.

experiment
Pitch: A property of a sound, determined by its

frequency; the highness or lowness of a sound.
Vibration: A regular, back-and-forth motion of

molecules in the air.
Volume: The amplitude or loudness of a sound.
based on your knowledge of sound. This educated guess, or prediction, is

Waves spread out from the

source of the disturbance in
wider and wider circles. K EL LY
A. Q UI N.

longer the string, the higher the pitch of the
sound produced by that string.
be the length of the string, and the variable you
will measure will be the pitch of the sound. You
expect a longer string to produce a higher pitch
sound.
1097
Sound

the kind of string
the length of the string
the tightness or tension of the string
the strength with which the string is
plucked
the pitch of the sound
the experimenters ability to detect different pitches
are everything that might affect the perceived
pitch of the sound. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the pitch.

Be careful handling the scissors.
Steps 1 and 2: Set-up of

experimental instrument. G AL E
GRO UP.
1098
Materials Needed
a sturdy cardboard box, such as one for

copy paper
thin, strong string
scissors
hole-puncher
ruler
Approximate Budget $5, if you need to buy
string; other materials should be available in the

average household.
Timetable 1 hour.
Step-by-Step Instructions You will be working
with the top edge of two sides of the box; the

edges join to make a V.
1. Use the hole puncher or the tip of your
scissors to make ten small holes along
each side of the V, placing the holes
opposite from each other, as shown.
2. Tie a length of string through each pair of
holes, pulling it tightly before tying it to the
other edge of the box. You should end up
with strings of 10 lengths, as illustrated.
3. Using your ruler, measure the length of
each string from knot to knot. Record
these lengths on your data sheet.
4. Pluck each string several times and listen
carefully. What do you hear? Describe it
on your data sheet. You may want to play
the strings for other people, so you are
not depending on only your own ears.
5. If possible, bend the cardboard angle a
little outward to pull the strings tighter
and increase the tension. Repeat sStep 4.
How do the sounds change?
Sound
6. Try plucking the strings harder and

softer. Record what you hear on your
data sheet.
chart. Did the longer strings produce higher

pitches or lower pitches? Why? Was your
hypothesis correct? Did increasing the tension
change the pitch of the sound? Write a paragraph
summarizing and explaining what you have
found.
ment. Try using different materials, such as

piano wire, fishing line, thicker string, or rubber
bands. See how the pitch of the sound is affected.
EXPERIMENT 2
Problem: You cannot hear a clear sound from
the strings.
Possible cause: Your strings are not tied tightly
enough. Try again, trying them tightly.
Problem: All the strings sound the same.
Possible cause: Your cardboard box is not big
enough to allow markedly different lengths of
strings. Find a bigger box so the lengths of the
strings vary more and try again.
Pitch: How does the

thickness of a vibrating
string affect sound?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will explore how the thick-
ness of the vibrating object affects the pitches it produces. You will use
different sizes of rubber bands to test this effect. Before you begin, make
an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your
knowledge of sound. The educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
Step 3 and 6: Data sheet for


hypothesis for this experiment: Thicker bands
will produce lower pitches.
1099
Sound

variables for this experiment:
the thickness of rubber bands
the length of bands

be the thickness of the rubber band, and the
variable you will measure will be the pitch of
the sound. You expect a thicker band to produce
a lower pitch sound.
Materials Needed
the strength with which the band is plucked

the sound produced by plucking
the experimenters ability to detect different pitches
are everything that might affect the pitch of the
sound. If you change more than one variable,
the most effect on the pitch.

Try not to snap yourself with the rubber bands.
8-inch-square (20-centimeter square)

metal baking pan with straight sides
5 rubber bands of different thickness but
the SAME length
ruler
Approximate Budget $5, if you need to purchase
rubber bands; other materials should be available

in the average household.
Timetable 1 hour.
1. Arrange the rubber bands in order from

thinnest to thickest.
2. Measure the width of each rubber band with your ruler. Record
these numbers on your data sheet, as illustrated.
Step 2 and 5: Data sheet for

1100
Sound
3. Keep the bands in order, stretch each one

over the pan, which acts as a sound box.
Be sure to stretch them the same amount
so the portion of the band over the open
part of the pan is under the same tension
as the rest of the band. See illustration.
4. Pluck each band, beginning with the
thickest one, and listen carefully to the
pitch it produces.
5. Describe each tone as you pluck the band
and record on your data sheet what you
hear.
Problem: You cannot hear the differences in the
pitches.
Possible cause: Your rubber bands are too
similar in size. Try to find bands that are several
millimeters different in width. Check an office
supply store or an art supply store.
Problem: You cannot hear much sound at all.
Possible cause: The pan is absorbing the vibra-
chart. How did the thickness of the band affect

tions. Be sure the pan is metal, with straight sides,
the pitch it produced? Did a thick band produce
and deep enough so the bands are free to vibrate.
a lower pitch or a higher pitch? Thick bodies
vibrate more slowly than small ones, and slower
vibrations produce lower pitches. Is this what
happened in your experiment? Was your hypothesis correct? Write a
paragraph summarizing what you learned.
Step 3: Keeping the rubber

bands in order, stretch each one
over the pan, which acts as a
sound box. G AL E GR OUP .
1101
Sound

the loudness of the sound
the distance of the sound from the
experimenter
the material covering the sound device
the thickness of the material covering the
sound device
ment in several ways. Try using bands with even

greater differences in thickness. Record their
width and see what happens. Try putting the
same size bands on a larger pan and plucking
the two instruments next to each other. What do
you hear? Experiment with different size pans
and you can create an entire orchestra. What is
the effect of length on the sounds you produce?
You can also use a box made from something
else, such as wood or plastic. Repeat the experiment and record what you learn.
the enclosure of the sound device

the experimenters ability to detect the
loudness
are everything that might affect the perceived
loudness of the sound. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on the sound.
EXPERIMENT 3
Soundproofing: How do
different materials affect
sound?
Purpose/Hypothesis How sound waves travel
through a gas, liquid, or solid depends upon

the properties of the matter. When sound
waves pass through materials, they may move
easily through the material, be absorbed, or be reflected. It is likely that
some combination will happen. The more a sound is absorbed, the better
the material is at sound insulation.
In this experiment, you will measure how different solid materials
affect sound. You can test several materials, including cardboard, plastic,
aluminum foil, Styrofoam, felt, and rubber. The thickness of a material
also affects the amount of sound waves that pass through the material. For
this reason, you will need to have all the materials at about the same
thickness. Which of the materials will best absorb the sound waves?
You will need a helper to carry out this experiment. Your helper will
make sure the listener does not see the materials being tested, which will
help avoid bias. Your helper will also serve as a second listener, so you can
have two sets of data to draw upon.
Before you begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of the
experiment based on your knowledge of sound and the materials. This
1102
Sound


You may need to cut the Styrofoam to make it
the same thickness as the other materials. Be
careful handling the scissors.

hypothesis for this experiment: The rubber material will absorb the sound
more than the other materials.
In this case, the variable you will change will be the material covering the
sound, and the variable you will measure will be the loudness of the sound.
In this experiment, your control will be the reference for you to
compare each sound. The control in this experiment will be the metronome sound moving through air, not enclosed by any solid material.
Throughout the experiment you will compare the control against the
experimental test materials.
Materials Needed
piece of cardboard, about 1/8 inch thick, large enough to cover the
box opening
aluminum baking sheet, about 1/8 inch thick, large enough to
cover the box opening
felt fabric
Styrofoam (available at hardware or craft stores)
rubber floor mat (car mats work well)
masking tape
scissors
metronome, you could also use an alarm clock, watch that ticks
loudly, or other device with a constant sound
shoe box, large enough to fit the metronome or other sound device
ruler
helper
headphones (optional)
Approximate Budget $10, most materials should be available in a
household.
1103
Sound
Step 2: Place the shoebox on a

table or countertop and set the
metronome (or other device)
inside. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
4.
T EM AH NE LS ON.
5.
6.
Step 5: Completely cover the
box opening with one of the
materials. I LLU ST RAT IO N BY
TE MA H NE LSO N.
1104
7.
1. Using the ruler, make sure the felt and

Styrofoam are the same thickness as the
other materials. You may need to fold
over the felt and cut the Styrofoam.
2. Place the shoebox on a table or countertop and set the metronome (or other
device) inside.
3. Stand back several feet from the box, at a
distance where you can hear the sound.
Use the tape to mark the spot on the floor where you are standing.
Place the shoebox on a table or countertop and set the metronome
(or other device) inside. Stand at the tape and turn around so you
cannot see the box. Have your helper start the metronome. This is
the loudness you will compare the test materials against.
While you cover your ears with headphones (if available), have
your helper completely cover the box opening with one of the
materials. You should not know which of the materials your helper
is using. The material may need to be taped to the box so that the
opening is sealed.
After your helper has given you a signal, uncover your ears and
listen. Note how the loudness compares to the Control sound in a
chart (see the sample chart).
Still keeping your back turned, have your helper listen to the
sound device uncovered before moving on to the next material.
This will help you compare the sound
against each test material.
8. Repeat Steps 68, using all the materials.
Make sure you cover your ears while your
helper places the material over the box
opening. Do not turn around. After you
listen to each sound, write down how the
loudness compares to the Control.
9. When you have tested all the materials,
you and your helper switch places. Make
another chart. Have your helper stand at
Sound
the tape mark on the floor, facing away

from the box. Repeat the process, with
you placing each material over the box
opening in any order.
Summary of Results Look at the results on the
two charts. Are they the same? Was there one

material that you both thought significantly
affected the loudness of the sound? Were there
any materials that made the sound louder? Were
you or was your helper surprised at the results?
While analyzing your results, consider the properties of each material. Write a paragraph summarizing and explaining what you have found.
Change the Variables There are many ways you
can vary this experiment to explore soundproofing. You can focus on one of the materials, such
as the fabric, and test different types. You can test
velour, silks, and felt. You can test different types
of metals. If you test different types of one material, make sure the thicknesses are about the
same. But you also can use one material and
change the thickness. You could try combining
certain materials together to test for soundproofing. You may want to research the materials that
buildings or musicians use to soundproof rooms,
and test how these materials affect sound.
Problem: You had different results than your
helper.
Possible cause: It is likely that there will be
some difference in how you and your helper
perceive the loudness. If the results are
extremely different, it may be that one of you is
not completely covering the box opening.
Compare how you are both placing the material
against the box opening? Are you both sealing
the box completely? When you have found a
consistent setup, try again.
Problem: The sounds were all muffled about the
same amount.
Possible cause: You may be standing too far
away from the sound to make a noticeable
difference. Stand far enough away that you can
hear the sound clearly without anything covering the box opening, and repeat the
experiment.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Are you interested in the
frequency of vibrations and the pitches they produce, how to amplify

sound to make it louder, or how to direct where the sound waves go?
Maybe you are interested in how sound waves travel through different
materials, such as gases, water, and solids. Would you like to make your
own instruments and experiment with the sounds they make?
information about sound questions that interest you.
1105
Sound
Structure of the human ear.

GAL E GR OU P.
plan carefully and think things through. Otherwise you may not be sure
your question.
graphs, or drawings of your experimental set-up and results.
If you are preparing an exhibit, display the sound-producing devices
you create to help explain what you did and what you discovered.
Observers could even test them out themselves. If you have done a
1106
Sound
nonexperimental project, you will want to

explain clearly what your research question was
Related Projects There are many uses of sound
in modern technology. You could investigate
how acoustics work in a large concert hall or
how speakers and amplifiers work in your
home sound system. You could also see how
sound is used in modern medicine, in ultrasound machines, for example. These machines
help doctors observe things that are difficult to
see by turning sound into pictures.

Dale, Jeremy W., and Simon F. Park. Molecular
Genetics of Bacteria. New York, NY: John Wiley &
Sons, 2004.
De Pinna, Simon, and Chris Fairclough. Sound
(Science Projects). Austin, TX: Raintree/Steck
Vaughn, 1998. Provides ideas for science fair
projects involving the principles of sound.
Harris, Tom. How Hearing Works.
HowStuffWorks. http://www.howstuffworks.com/
hearing.htm (accessed on March 13, 2008). Clear explanation of hearing and
sound.
Kaner, Etta. Sound Science. Toronto: Kids Can Press, 1991. Explores the nature
of sound using games, puzzles, fun facts and experiments.
Science of Music. Exploratorium. http://www.exploratorium.edu/music/
(accessed on March 13, 2008). The science of the sounds of music.
Trun, Nancy Jo, and J.E. Trempy. Fundamental Bacterial Genetics. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Science, 2003.
Van Cleave, Janice. Physics for Every Kid: 101 Easy Experiments in Motion, Heat,
Light, Machines, and Sound. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991. Presents
step by step experiments using household materials and scientific
explanations.
ZoomSci. PBS Kids. http://pbskids.org/zoom/activities/sci/ (accessed on
March 13, 2008). Simple science experiments on sound.
Ultrasound scan of a fetus.

1107
Space Observation
eoples fascination with space goes back hundreds of years to simple

stargazing and trying to understand the heavens. Todays astronomers
use a wealth of tools to study space. Most astronomers are involved in
measuring things, such as the speed, distance, and mass of objects in the
universe. Knowing these facts can lead to further knowledge, such as the
objects origin or composition. To measure things astronomers use
observations and laws of the universe.
Much of what we know about space comes from the study of light
given off by objects in space. The change from observing objects with the
naked eye to powerful instruments was one of the major advances in
astronomy. Telescopes are one of the main tools astronomers use to
gather light. Understanding the physical laws of how light and objects
move also fueled astronomers knowledge of the universe. Merging the
visual data with calculations has led to awesome findings on stars, planets,
galaxies, and solar systems that are far, far away.
Mountains on the Moon Peer through the right telescope on
Earth and it is possible to view something in space that is a billion
light years awayjust one light year is about 5,865,696,000,000 miles
(9,460,800,000,000 kilometers)! The telescope was the first groundbreaking tool used in astronomy. With the telescope, astronomers
could study the motions of celestial objects that were previously
undetectable.
The telescope was invented in the Netherlands in the early 1600s.
Soon afterwards, Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (15641642) became the
first person to use this new instrument to study the sky. He made a series
of remarkable discoveries. Among his observations was that the Moon
had mountains and craters on it and was not smooth as previously
believed. He observed four bright objects orbiting or revolving around
Jupiter, what is now known as Jupiters moons. He also saw that the Sun
1109
Space Observation
had spots, which rotated. His observations led

him to conclude that objects rotated and that
they revolved around other objects.
In modern day astronomers use telescopes of
all shapes and sizes. Some are located on Earth
and others sit in space. One of the most famous
telescopes in space is the Hubble Space Telescope. The Hubble was launched into space in
1990 and has transmitted up-close views of celestial objects that are billions of light years away.
One of the largest optical
telescopes in the world is the
W. M. Keck telescope in
Hawaii. It measures 33 feet
(10 meters) in diameter.
# ROG ER R ES SM EY ER/
CO RB IS.
The Hubble Space Telescope

was launched into space in
1990 and has transmitted upclose views of celestial objects
that are billions of light years
away. UPI /B ETT MA NN.
How they work In the way that they collect

and magnify the light, telescopes make objects appear larger than they are.
There are two basic types of telescopes: refractor telescopes and reflector
telescopes. Each goes about enlarging an image in different ways. The
amount of light a telescope can collect relates to the size of the lens or
mirror used to gather light. Telescopes that have a larger lens or mirror
will generally collect more light, and so will detect much fainter objects.
The Galileo-style of telescope is a refractor telescope and it uses two
types of lenses to gather and bend or refract the light. The lens in the front
of the telescope, the objective lens, gathers the light from the object. In a
refracting telescope the objectives lens is a convex lens, a lens that is
thicker in the middle and curves outward. Convex lenses make objects
appear larger but blurry. This is the type of lens
used in a magnifying glass.
In one type of refractor telescope the second
lens, called the eyepiece lens, uses a smaller concave lens. A concave lens caves or curves inward
in the middle. This focuses the light from the
objective lens and magnifies it. A long tube, or
series of tubes, holds the lenses in place at the
correct distance from one another.
The reflector telescope uses mirrors instead
of lenses to collect light. The primary mirror that
collects and focuses the light is usually a concave
mirror. The light reflects off the primary mirror
to another mirror, which directs the light to the
eyepiece. Each type of telescope has strengths
and weaknesses. Most of the largest telescopes
1110
Space Observation
Incoming
light
eyepiece
A refractor telescope uses two

types of lenses to gather and
bend or refract the light. GA LE
objective
lens
GR OU P.
in the world are reflectors. Large mirrors cost less and are easier to support
than lenses.
The deeper astronomers look into space, the farther back in time they
are looking. It takes so long for light traveling through space to reach
Earth that astronomers scanning the edges of the universe are seeing
objects as they were billions of years ago.
Shifty light Astronomers take observations gathered from telescopes
and apply their knowledge of how light travels to theorize on the past,
present, and future behavior of objects in space. The Doppler effect or
Doppler shift is one way that astronomers make measurements on the
light they observe. Astronomers use the Doppler effect to calculate the
speed of an object and its movements.
Although they are not visible, light energy travels in waves. Water and
sound energy also travel in waves. A wave is a vibrational disturbance that
eyepiece
primary
mirror
Incoming
light
secondary
mirror
A reflector telescope uses

mirrors instead of lenses to
collect light. GA LE G RO UP.
1111
Space Observation
travels through a material or space. Light waves

can travel through matter or a vacuum, such as
space. Every wave has a high point called a crest.
Red
The distance from one crest to the next crest is
called the wavelength.
Orange
Visible light is made up of seven basic colors
crest
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
Yellow
violet. Each color has its own unique wavelength.
For example, blue light waves are shorter than red
Green
light waves. The frequency is the number of
waves that pass a point in space during any time
interval. What a person sees as color is actually
Blue
the frequency of the light. Because red has a
longer wavelength, something red has a lower
Violet
frequency than something blue.
The Doppler shift occurs because there is an
apparent shift in the wavelength depending on
whether an object is moving towards or away
Light travels in waves; each
from the observer. As objects in space move away, or recede, from Earth,
color has its own wavelength.
the wavelengths appear stretched or longer. This is called a redshift,
GA LE GRO UP.
because the light appears to have a lower frequency. If the object moves
towards Earth, the wavelengths appear compressed or shorter. This makes
the light appear to have a higher frequency and a blueshift occurs.
When an object approaches a
In a vacuum, such as space, all the wavelengths in light travel at one
person, waves bunch together
speed. If scientists know the amount and colors of light that an object
and there is a blueshift; when
gives off, they can measure the amount of color shift. Since the wavean object recedes, waves spread
length of each color is known, the color shift will determine the direction
out and there is a redshift.
and speed of the object.
GA LE GRO UP.
The Doppler effect can be used by astronomers to gather information about how fast
object approaching
stars, galaxies, and other astronomical objects
(blueshift waves)
object moving away
move toward or away from Earth. Using the
(redshift waves)
Doppler shift, astronomers calculated that the
more distant galaxies are moving away from
Earth more rapidly than the ones that are closer.
This finding led to the theory that the universe is
expanding, and to the origins of the solar system.
direction of car
In the following two experiments you will
explore the Doppler effect and telescopes.
wavelength
1112
Space Observation
WORDS TO KNOW
Blueshift: The shortening of the frequency of light
waves toward the blue end of the visible light
spectrum as they travel towards an observer;
most commonly used to describe movement of
stars towards Earth.
Concave lens: A lens that is thinner in the middle
than at the edges.
Convex lens: A lens that is thicker in the middle
than at the edges.
Crest: The highest point reached by a wave.
Doppler effect: The change in wavelength and
frequency (number of vibrations per second) of
either light or sound as the source is moving
either towards or away from the observer.
Focal length: The distance from the lens to the
point where the light rays come together to a
focus.
Objective lens: In a refracting telescope, the lens

farthest away from the eye that collects the light.
Redshift: The lengthening of the frequency of light
waves toward the red end of the visible light
spectrum as they travel away from an observer;
most commonly used to describe movement of
stars away from Earth.
Reflector telescope: A telescope that directs light
from an opening at one end to a concave mirror
at the far end, which reflects the light back to a
smaller mirror that directs it to an eyepiece on the
side of the tube.
Refractor telescope: A telescope that directs light
through a glass lens, which bends the light waves
and brings them to a focus at an eyepiece that
acts as a magnifying glass.
Telescope: A tube with lenses or mirrors that
collect, transmit, and focus light.
experiment.
Frequency: The rate at which vibrations take place

(number of times per second the motion is
repeated), given in cycles per second or in hertz
(Hz). Also, the number of waves that pass a
given point in a given period of time.
Wave: A motion in which energy and momentum

are carried away from some source; a wave
repeats itself in space and time with little or no
change.

experiment.
Wavelength: The distance between the crest of a

wave of light, heat, or energy and the next corresponding crest.
EXPERIMENT 1
Telescopes: How do different combinations
of lenses affect the image?
Purpose/Hypothesis Telescopes take advantage of the properties of light
to enlarge and focus images. The basic design of a telescope aligns two
1113
Space Observation
Powerful telescopes allow

scientists to observe parts of
space that the human eye never
could, such as this cluster of
thousands of stars. SP AC E
TEL ES COP E SC IE NC E
I NS TIT UT E
1114
lenses a set distance from each other. In general, the objective lens is
relatively large in diameter so that it can gather light; the eyepiece is
smaller and stronger. For this experiment, you will test different combinations of convex (curving outward) and concave (curving inward) lenses.
If possible, try to gather several different strengths and sizes of lenses; the
listed sizes are only suggestions. Check the Further Readings section for
places to find lenses.
The objective lens will always be a convex lens. This lens should be
larger in diameter and weaker than the eyepiece lens. The thinner a lens is
in the center, the weaker it is. Use an eyepiece lens that is smaller and
more powerful than the objective lens. You can determine a lens power
by its focal length, the distance required by the lens to bring the light to a
focus. In general, as the focal length of a lens decreases, the power of the
lens increases. You will use both a convex and a concave eyepiece lens.
Cardboard, or construction paper, tubes that slide in and out from each
other will hold the lenses. The distance between the two lenses should be
about the sum of the focal lengths of the lenses.
Using a convex and a concave lens will produce a right-side-up
image. Using two convex lenses will produce an upside-down image.
(When viewing celestial objects, astronomers do not care that much
whether the object is upside down or not.)
You can also calculate the magnification
power of your telescope if you know the focal
lengths of your lenses. The magnification power
equals the focal length of the objective lens divided by the focal length of the eyepiece lens. For
example, if the focal length of the objective lens
is 50 centimeters, and the focal length of the
eyepiece is 5 centimeters, your telescope will
magnify the object ten times the actual size of
the object. If the focal length of that same telescope had a focal length of 1 centimeter, the
telescope would magnify the object 50 times its
actual size.
your knowledge of telescopes. This educated
Space Observation


experiment: Two convex lenses will produce a
larger but blurrier image than a convex and a
concave lens combination.
the type of eyepiece lens. The variable you will
measure is the size and sharpness of the image
produced.

the thickness of the lens
the size of the lens
the curvature of the lens
the distance between the lenses
are everything that might affect the magnified
image. If you change more than one variable at
variable had the most effect on seeing the
image.

Materials Needed
1. 1 convex lens for the objective lens (can be about 2 to 4 inches [5

to 10 centimeters] in diameter, and over 500 millimeters in focal
length). (Lenses are available from scientific supply houses and
hobby stores. You could also try to find lenses around the house,
such as from magnifying glasses or old eyeglasses, as well as asking
an eyeglass store if they have any lenses they are going to discard.)
2. 1 convex lens for the eyepiece, smaller in diameter than the
objective lens (can be 1 to 1.5 inches [2.5 to 3.5 centimeters] in
diameter, focal length of less than 20 to 50 millimeters)
3. 1 concave lens for the eyepiece, (can be 1 to1.5 inches [2.5 to 3.5
centimeters] in diameter, focal length of less than 20 to 50
millimeters)
4. sturdy tape, such as masking tape
5. scissors
6. ruler
7. 2 cardboard tubes, one that slides inside the other: The tubes
should be about the same size as the lenses. If you do not have
tubes, you can roll up thick construction paper and tape to make
them.
1115
Space Observation
8. helper
9. picture or news article to view
10. other concave and convex lenses of different sizes (optional)

If you use the telescope outside, never look
directly at the Sun. The Suns rays are so powerful
they can cause permanent eye damage.

Timetable 1 hour.
Step 7: Tape the objective lens

to the far end of the telescope,
and the eyepiece lens to the near
side. GA LE GRO UP.
eyepiece lens
1116
1. Tape the picture or printed piece of paper on a wall.

2. Begin with the smaller, stronger convex lens to use as the eyepiece,
and the larger, less powerful convex lens for the objective lens.
Hold the objective lens towards the picture at arms length.
3. Hold the eyepiece near your eye, in front of the objective lens.
4. Move the eyepiece closer and farther away to the objective lens
while focusing on the picture.
5. When the object is in focus, have your helper measure the distance
between the two lenses. (If you know the focal length of your
lenses, the distance of the tubes should about equal the sum of the
focal lengths of the lenses.)
6. Place the smaller tube inside the larger tube. The tubes should fit
snugly inside each other, with the inner tube able to slide. Extend
the tubes and cut them so the combined length of the tubes is
slightly greater than the distance between the lenses. If you are
rolling tubes out of thick construction paper, make sure you roll
the paper into tubes where the openings are roughly equal to the
size of the lenses.
7. Tape the objective lens to the far end of
the telescope, and the eyepiece lens to the
near side.
8. Look at the picture through the telescope,
sliding the tubes until the object comes
into focus.
9. Note whether the image is right side up or
inverted, and the relative size of the image.
objective lens
(convex)
10. Remove the eyepiece lens and repeat
Steps 2 through 7 using the concave lens
as the eyepiece.
Space Observation
11. If you have other lenses of differing sizes

and thickness, repeat the process to compare the results. Old glasses and magnifying
glasses are a couple inexpensive sources for
lenses. Record whether the lens is thicker or
thinner than the one you already used when
you note the results. If you know the focal
lengths of the lenses, calculate the magnification power.
Problem: The picture is blurry.
Possible cause: The distance between the two
lenses may be too short or long. The distance
should be equal to the sum of the focal
lengths of the two lenses. Building a telescope involves some trial and error to get the
correct distance and focus. Take careful
measurements when holding the lenses up
and try to gather several different lenses to
investigate telescopes thoroughly.
rect? What does sliding the inner tube in and out

do to the image? If you tried using other lenses,
how did these compare to the first set? Think
about what change the eyepiece made in the
appearance of the image once you placed it in
front of the objective lens. If you want to continue the project to view celestial objects, go outside at night. Pick one
particular light in the night sky and compare the image using each of the
telescopes.
change the type of lens you use, the thickness of the lens, or the length
between the lenses.
Modify the Experiment You can simplify this experiment by testing two
magnifying glasses by themselves. Try to find two magnifying glasses that

are different sizes. If you do not have two magnifying glasses, you can use
other lenses around the house, such as eyeglasses. You need to make sure
that one of the lenses is convex (thicker in the middle).
Find a well-lit object or picture that you can focus on. Hold the more
powerful magnifying glass up close to your eye. This is the eyepiece lens.
Hold the weaker magnifying glass between the eyepiece lens and the
object. This lens should be convex. Move this lens back and forth until
the object become clear and in focus. How does moving the lens change
the look of the object? What happens when you take the lens away and
only look through the eyepiece lens? Keep the eyepiece lens the same and
experiment with convex lenses you can find that are different strengths.
How does this magnify the object?
1117
Space Observation
EXPERIMENT 2
Doppler Effect: How can

waves measure the
distance and speed of
objects?
Purpose/Hypothesis Astronomers use the Dop-
the sound
pler effect to determine whether an object in

space is moving towards or away from Earth
and how fast it is moving. However, the Doppler
the direction the object is movingeither
effect was first discovered using sound waves, not
towards or away from the person holding
light waves. The perception of both light and
the microphone
sound is from the waves emitted. Waves coming
from an object moving away from an observer
are everything that might affect the sound of
have a lower frequency than those from an object
the noise maker. If you change more than one
moving toward the observer.
In sound, pitch is determined by how many
distance and speed of the object.
waves per second reach the ear. The more sound
waves a person hears, the higher the pitch. When
an object moves toward a person, it takes less and
less time for each wave to reach the person. The waves crowd together. The
person gets more waves per second and it results in an increase in pitch.
When the sound moves away from a person, the waves spread out. A person
gets fewer waves per second and the person hears a decrease in pitch.
In this experiment, you will determine how the Doppler effect relates
to sound waves. You will record the sound of an alarm clock or noisemaking device that is approaching and moving past you at varying speeds.
You can then draw conclusions about the relative distance and speed of
the object from listening to the increase and decrease in pitch.
experiment based on your knowledge of the Doppler effect and waves.
the speed of the object (in this case, the
bicycle)

1118
Space Observation

experiment: The object moving at the fastest
speed will emit a pitch that quickly increases,
Be careful when biking. Find an empty area with
then decreases, as it passes a stationary person.
little or no traffic before you begin.
the speed of the moving object. The variable you
will measure is the pitch of the sound.
will change between the control and the experimental setup, and that is
the movement of a noisy object. For the control in this experiment you
will record the sound of an unmoving object, which will release its sound
waves at a steady pitch.
Materials Needed
an assistant to help perform experiment

bicycle
wind-up alarm clock with continuous sound or other portable
noise-making appliance, such as a kitchen timer
tape recorder with microphone
helper
Approximate Budget $0 (assuming that you have the tape recorder
and bike).
Step 3: Tape record the sound

of the alarm clock as it
approaches and moves past you.
GAL E GR OU P.
1. For the control: Stand at the side of a

low-traffic area with the tape recorder.
Start the alarm clock or buzzer and record
the noise as you hold it for about five to
10 seconds. When finished recording, say
the word control into the microphone
to identify what is happening on the tape.
1119
Space Observation
2. One person will hold the tape recorder

and one will ride the bike. Have your
helper (or you) walk a set distance away
with the tape recorder; when the biker is
ready to ride, he or she should turn the
remedy the problem.
alarm clock or buzzer on.
3. The person at the side of the road begins
Problem: There was no difference between the
Slow tone and the Fast tone.
tape recording, as the biker slowly rides
the bike past the tape recorder. The biker
Possible cause: The biker may not have been
riding at a significantly slower speed that the
should keep at a steady, slow pace, by
fast speed. Try biking at two different speeds
counting the rotations of each pedal.
as you steadily count, matching your count4. Say the word Slow into the microing to each pedal rotation. Practice for the
phone after the bike stops.
slow and fast speeds, then repeat the
experiment.
5. Repeat the bike ride, returning to the set
distance, this time riding at a steady quick
pace past the tape recorder with the alarm
clock on.
6. Say the word Fast into the microphone after the bike stops.
7. Turn off the noise and listen to the tape recordings.
Summary of Results Write a brief description of each recording. How did
the control sound compare to the fast sound? Did you hear the sound
increasing in pitch? By using the data on both the fast and slow sounds,
and the set distance, what conclusions can you draw on the relative speed
at which each object was traveling? How does this help you draw conclusions on the relative distance the object was from you? Write a
summary of the experimental results and how these results relate to
astronomical measurements.
Change the Variables You can change the variable in this experiment by
changing the speed of the moving object. You can physically throw the
sound maker, or move it around in a ball or a string. You can also see what
happens when the person with the microphone runs alongside the bike at
the same speed.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept There are many types of
tools and theories astronomers use for space measurements. You can
1120
Space Observation
further experiment with the telescope and the Doppler effect, or explore
other tools.
Check the Further Readings section and talk with your science or
physics teacher to learn more about space measurements. You may
also want to visit a planetarium or science museum to get some ideas.
There are also many amateur astronomy groups and organizations you
could join.
question.
Related Projects Space observations and calculations is a broad topic with
many related projects. Every day, astronomers are learning new information produced from tools on Earth and in space. There are many different
types of telescopes with varying combinations of lenses and mirrors. You
can explore the strengths and weaknesses of the different types. Once you
have built a standard telescope, you can experiment with building telescopes of varying powers and materials.
1121
Space Observation
You could explore the data from telescopes and how humans view of
space has changed over the past several centuries. A project related to
space measurement could involve identifying stars with a telescope that
you have constructed. You could also look at how computer calculations
have influenced peoples knowledge of space. The Doppler effect also has
many commonplace usages that you could examine.

Freudenrich, Craig. How Telescopes Work. How Stuff Works. http://science.
howstuffworks.com/telescope1.htm (accessed on February 3, 2008). Simple
explanation of telescopes.
Galileos Biography. The Galileo Project. http://galileo.rice.edu/bio/index.
html (accessed on February 8, 2008). Details of Galileos life and work.
How Telescopes Work. Yes Mag. http://www.yesmag.bc.ca/how work/
telescope.html (accessed on February 8, 2008). Brief, clear explanation of
how telescopes work, with references.
Kerrod, Robin. The Night Sky. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck Vaughn Publishers,
2002. A look at the history of the exploration of the sky, with graphics and
illustrations.
Telescopes. Astro-Tom.com. http://www.astro tom.com/telescopes/
telescopes.htm (accessed on February 8, 2008). Explanation of telescopes
along with lots of other astronomy information.
1122
Stars
Galileo Galilei confirmed that

a huge collection of stars make
up the Milky Way. CO RB IS
CO RP .
he first myth about the stars in the night sky probably came from the
Chinese 5,000 years ago. They described stars as a heavenly river. The
two brightest stars lived on either side of the river. They were known as
Vega, a princess who wove beautiful clothes, and Altair, a herdsman. One
night each year, a bridge of birds would span the river, allowing Vega and
Altair to meet.
We now know that stars are not princesses, herdsmen, gods, or
goddesses, but vast clumps of hydrogen gas and dust that exist in space
millions of miles (kilometers) away. Scientists who study the positions,
motions, and composition of stars, planets and other objects in space are
known as astronomers.
Whats up there? Ancient people were intrigued by what we now call

the Milky Way. What was this band of light that stretched across the
skies, they wondered. According to Greek
legend, droplets of milk spilt upwards when
Juno breastfed the infant Hercules. Thats why
this light became known as the Milky Way.
Democritus, a Greek philosopher, realized
the truth in the fifth century B . C . E . He suggested
that countless stars, too faint to be seen individually, make up the Milky Way. In 1609, when
the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei
(15641642) focused the telescope he had
made, the immense number of stars he saw
staggered him. Galileo confirmed that the
Milky Way is made up of innumerable stars
grouped in clusters.
A star is born How does a star begin? First,
hydrogen, helium, dust, and ashes of stars that
1123
Stars
The Orion Nebula is

the birthplace of at least
700 young stars. PH OTO
RE SEA RC HER S I NC.
Sirius is the brightest star in the

sky. PHO TO R ES EAR CH ER S
I NC.
1124
have died form swirling nebula, the Latin word

for cloud. When a dense accumulation of
these nebula gathers, the mass becomes a spawning ground for stars. As this mass of gas and dust
heats up, gravity causes it to clump together, and
a new star is formed. But only after nuclear
fusion takes place at the stars core does it produce enough light for us to see it. This process
takes about 50 million years.
A star stays in the same spot during its lifetime. We do see stars in different positions over
the course of a month, but this apparent movement of the stars is caused by Earth moving
around the Sun. Certain stars lie in patterns called constellations. Of
the eighty-eight constellation patterns, some form shapes that look like
animals, women, warriors, or objects. Constellation patterns sparked the
star myths told by ancient people.
Astronomers use light-years to measure the distance between stars. A
light-year is the distance light travels in one year: roughly 5.9 trillion
miles (9.5 trillion kilometers). How vast are the distances between stars?
The star Proxima Centuri is 25 trillion miles (40 trillion kilometers)
awayor 4.29 light-years. And thats the closest star.
The brightest and the biggest Sirius, 8.6 light-years away, is the
brightest star in the sky, twenty-six times brighter than the Sun, which is
also a star. How was this determined? In 1912, astronomer Henrietta Swan
Leavitt (18681921) discovered that stars increase and fade in brightness
over time. By studying a sequence of photographs of stars, analyzing their
changes, and applying mathematical formulas,
Leavitt came up with a way for astronomers to
calculate the true brightness of stars.
Stars are just one part of a galaxy, which also
includes gas, dust, and planets, all drawn
together by gravity. The Milky Way is not the
only galaxy. The Andromeda Galaxy, which has
about 300 trillion stars, and the Milky Way,
with about 200 billion stars, are the two biggest
and most important in a cluster of thirty galaxies
called The Local Group. Improved technologies
are helping astronomers detect galaxies that were
Stars
WORDS TO KNOW
Astronomers: Scientists who study the positions,
motions, and composition of stars and other
objects in the sky.
Light-year: Distance light travels in one year in the

vacuum of space, roughly 5.9 trillion miles (9.5
trillion kilometers).
Constellations: Patterns of stars in the night

sky. There are eighty-eight known
constellations.
Milky Way: The galaxy in which our solar system is

located.
Nebula: Bright or dark cloud, often composed of
gases and dust, hovering in the space between
the stars.
Fusion: Combining of nuclei of two or more

lighter elements into one nucleus of a heavier
element; the process stars use to produce
energy to produce light and support themselves
against their own gravity.
Star: A vast clump of hydrogen gas and dust that

produces great energy through fusion reactions
at its core.
Galaxy: A large collection of stars and clusters of

stars containing anywhere from a few million to
a few trillion stars.
The Local Group: A cluster of thirty galaxies,

including the Milky Way, pulled together by
gravity.
unknown just decades ago. Scientists estimate that there are over 100
billion galaxies in the visible universe.
The two projects that follow will help you learn more about the stars
over our heads.
PROJECT 1
Tracking Stars: Where is Polaris?
Purpose/Hypothesis Stars do not move in space, but the planets, includ-
ing Earth, rotate on their axis and revolve around stars like our Sun.
While stars appear to be in different places in the sky from one night to
the next, what has really happened is that Earth has shifted its position.
In this project, you will use a camera to follow the stars. Normally
when a picture is taken, the film is exposed to light for only a fraction of a
second. In this experiment, the film will be exposed for 1200 seconds. To
obtain a clear picture and avoid over-exposing the film, you must take the
pictures at night in dark surroundings (no overhead lighting including
street lights) with a clear sky and a view of the North Star (Polaris).
Level of Difficulty Moderate, because of the camera operation.
1125
Stars
Materials Needed
single-lens reflex 35-mm manual camera,

such as a Pentax K-1000 (your school
This project poses no hazards. However, you
may use this type in photography classes)
might ask a knowledgeable adult to help you
1 roll 35-mm film, 1000 speed, 12 to 24
operate the camera.
exposures
shutter bulb (Keeps the shutter open for
prolonged exposures. You can purchase
one in a photography store.)
tripod stand for camera
compass (optional)
ruler and protractor
Approximate Budget Less than $20 for film and shutter bulb. (Try to
borrow all other supplies.)

1. Properly load the film in the camera. If necessary, ask for help.
2. Set the shutter speed to the manual setting (M). Some cameras
have a different symbol. Use the setting that keeps the shutter open
as long as you press the shutter button.
Steps 2 to 5: Parts of a camera.

GAL E GR OU P.
1126
Stars
3. Set the film speed at 1000.

4. Attach the shutter bulb by screwing the
end into the shutter button.
5. Set the aperture to the highest number.
6. Screw the tripod into the bottom of the
camera
7. Set the tripod on firm ground.
8. Locate Polaris, the North Star, in the
northern sky, using the pointer stars of
the Big Dipper.
9. Position the camera so the North Star is visible through the
eyepiece.
10. Squeeze the bulb to open the shutter. Hold it open by adjusting
the screw near the bulb.
11. Leave the shutter open for one hour.
12. Close the shutter by loosening the screw or releasing the bulb.
13. Advance the film and repeat steps 10 through 12 on different
nights.
14. Remove the roll of film and get it developed.
15. Using a pen, draw lines on each photo from the North Star
(the only star that did not move) to the ends of one or two star
trails.
16. Using a compass, measure the angle of the two lines. The angle
should measure 15 degrees for each hour the film is exposed.
Step 8: Locate Polaris, the

North Star, in the northern sky,
using the pointer stars of the Big
Dipper. G ALE GR OUP .
Step 16: Compass over photo

with lines drawn to North Star
from an angle. GAL E GR OU P.
1127
Stars

remedy the problem.
Summary of Results Record your angle measurements and the date on each photo. All angles
should be 15 degrees for each hour of exposure
because Earth revolves 15 degrees each hour.
What seemed to happen to all the stars except
the North Star? How can you explain this?
Problem: The photo is too hazy, and the star

trails are not visible.
PROJECT 2
Possible causes: The sky was not clear enough,

or there were too many lights that overexposed
the film. Try the project again, away from
houses and streets.
Tracking the Motion of the

Planets: Can a planet be
followed?
Purpose/Hypothesis Planets sometimes reflect
light from the Sun, which makes them shine

like stars. But unlike the stationary stars, Earth
and the other planets move through the sky as they orbit the Sun. As the
other planets orbit the Sun, Earth continues through its orbit. The
combination of these movements can make the apparent path of the
planets in Earths sky resemble an s-shaped pattern. In this project, you
will examine this phenomenon.
Level of Difficulty Moderate. (You need to be familiar with the star
positions.)
Steps 3 to 5: Example of
plotting the position of a planet
on Day 1 and 2, related to the
Orion Constellation. GA LE
GR OU P.
1128
Stars
Materials Needed
a star map for your area and time of the

year
binoculars or telescope (optional)

Always stay on level ground when star gazing.
Have an adult with you.
Approximate Budget $2 for a star map. (Consult
local papers or magazines for current monthly

maps.)
Timetable 15 to 20 minutes per night for 10 to 15 nights.
1. Examine your local star map. Most star maps should be held
upside down and over your head.
2. Choose a planet that should be visible in your night sky. Locate its
position on the map.
3. With or without using binoculars, try to find this planet in the
night sky. Planets are usually the brightest objects in the sky and
do not twinkle like stars.
4. On your star map, record the position and time you located the
planet.
5. Repeat this procedure every night for 10 to 15 nights.
6. Connect the marks on the star map and trace the path of the
planet.
Step 6: Example of graphing a

planets motion relative to the
Orion Constellation. GA LE
GR OU P.
1129
Stars
Summary of Results Record your results on a star
this project, some possible causes, and ways to
map like the one illustrated. Be sure to label each

star and the daily positions of the planet. After 10
to 15 nights of observations, were you able to
notice the motion of the planet among the stars?
Problem: You cannot see the planets or stars.
Possible cause: The sky is too overcast. Try

coming out again an hour or two later.
Problem: You cannot find the new position of

the planet.
Possible cause: You might be unfamiliar with
the night sky. Ask a knowledgeable adult for
help, or look on the Internet for a daily star map.
Locate the planet and transfer its position to
your star map.
Example of apparent motion

of star and planets. G AL E
GRO UP.
Space is an infinite frontier sparsely filled with

objects. Comets, stars, meteors, asteroids,
moons, and planets are just a few of the objects
visible in space. Before you begin making observations or experimenting, ask yourself questions.
What is an asteroid? What is the difference
between a meteor and a meteorite?
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on star questions that interest you.
propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
1130
Stars
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results As a scientist investigating
a question, you must gather information and share it with others. Observations, researched facts, and data can be diagrammed or charted. Once
you have gathered your information, study it, draw a conclusion, and
share your results with others.
Related Projects Binoculars and telescopes can improve your view of the
nighttime sky. When choosing a topic such as comets, make sure you
have the proper instruments to observe the object. You may want to
choose a phenomenon or event that is easily observed, such as a meteor
shower. When a meteor shower is predicted, you might try to calculate
the number of shooting stars you see in one hour.

Matloff, Gregory L. The Urban Astronomer. New York: John Wiley, 1991.
Describes interesting objects you can see in a city sky.
McSween, Jr., Harry Y. Stardust to Planets. New York: St. Martins Press, 1993.
Provides a good survey of the solar system.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA: For Students. http://
www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/index.html (accessed on January 10,
2008).
Van Cleave, Janice. Astronomy for Every Kid. New York: John Wiley, 1991.
Outlines more than one hundred simple experiments that demonstrate the
principles of astronomy.
1131
Static Electricity
ou experiment with static electricity every time you shuffle across a

rug and touch a metal door handle. Static electricity is a form of
electricity produced by friction (the rubbing of one object against
another) in which the electric charge does not flow in a current but
stays in one place.
Electricity is a form of energy caused by the presence of electrical
charges in matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. All
matter, including you and this book, is made of tiny particles called
atoms. An atom is the smallest particle of which an element can exist.
Each atom, in turn, contains positively charged protons in its nucleus, or
center core, and negatively charged electrons orbiting around its nucleus.
How does an object become electrically charged? An increase or
decrease in the number of electrons in an object gives it an electrical
charge. When an object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.
When it loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
In some materials, such as copper and silver, electrons can move
around freely. These free electrons make these two metals good conductors. A conductor is a substance that is able to carry an electrical
current. In other materials, electrons are tightly bound to their atoms.
These materials, such as glass, rubber, and dry wood, do not conduct
electricity easily, so they are good insulators and can be used as protective
layers around conductors.
Some materials have a stronger attraction for electrons than other
materials. When two different materials are rubbed together, electrons
move from the material that has the weaker attraction for them to the
material that has the stronger attraction. For example, a balloon will
usually not stick to a sheet of paper. However, you can make it stick by
rubbing them together. As you rub, electrons move from the paper, which
has a weak attraction for electrons, to the balloon, which has a stronger
1133
Static Electricity
attraction. Because the paper has lost some electrons, it now is positively charged. The balloon
has gained electrons, so it is now negatively
charged.
When it comes to electrical charges, opposites attract. A material with a positive charge
attracts a material with a negative charge, and
vice versa. However, materials that both have a
positive charge repel (are resistant to) each other,
as do materials that both have a negative charge.
Rubbing does not create new

electrons. It just causes them to
move from the paper to the
balloon. GA LE GRO UP.
When you place the negatively charged balloon near the positively charged paper, they will
now cling together. As they cling, however, some
of the electrons move from the balloon back to
the paper. When the electrons are evenly distributed again, the balloon and paper are no longer
electrically charged, so they will stop clinging together.
What is static electricity? As you placed the charged balloon near the
charged paper, you might have seen or heard a small crackle of static
electricity. When an object with a strong negative charge is placed near
one with a strong positive charge, the attraction of these opposites is so
Benjamin Franklin was the

first to use the words positive
and negative to describe
electric charges. PHO TO
1134
Static Electricity
great that the air between them becomes electrically charged. It forms a path over which the
electrons can move. As the electrons jump from
the negative object to the positive one, they
create static electricity. After the jump, the electrons are balanced again, so both objects lose
their electrical charge.
American scientist and political leader Benjamin Franklin (17061790) was one of the first to
experiment with static electricity. You may
remember his famous and dangerous kite experiments with lightning, which is a form of static
electricity.
Scientists still do not know exactly how
lightning occurs, but they do know that a negative charge in one cloud repels electrons on the
ground beneath it or in another cloud. As these
electrons are repelled, the surface of the ground
or the other cloud facing the negative cloud ends
up with an excess of protons, giving it a positive
charge. When the difference between the negative and positive charges reaches a certain point,
lightning flashes from the negatively charged
cloud to the positively charged ground or to
the other cloud. This powerful burst of static electricity balances the
electrons at both locations.
In the first experiment, you will build an electroscope, a device that
determines whether an object is electrically charged, and you will use it to
test objects for electrical charges. In the second experiment, you will
determine whether wool or nylon creates a stronger electrical charge.
Lightning is a form of static

electricity. P ETE R A RNO LD
INC .
EXPERIMENT 1
Building an Electroscope: Which objects are
electrically charged?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will build an electroscope
and use it to determine whether objects have an electric charge. An

electroscope has two metal strips that hang down. When you hold a
negatively charged object near the strips, the excess electrons move into
1135
Static Electricity
WORDS TO KNOW
Atom: The smallest unit of an element, made up
of protons and neutrons in a central nucleus
surrounded by moving electrons.

experiment.
Conductor: A substance able to carry an electrical

current.

electrical current will flow.

Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up

space.
Current: A flow of electrical charge from one point

to another.
Electricity: A form of energy caused by the presence
of electrical charges in matter.
Electron: A subatomic particle with a single electrical
charge that orbits around the nucleus of an atom.
Electroscope: A device that determines whether an
object is electrically charged.
Friction: The rubbing of one object against another.
Nucleus: The central core of an atom, consisting

of protons and (usually) neutrons.
Proton: A subatomic particle with a single
positive charge that is found in the nucleus of an
atom.
Static electricity: A form of electricity produced by
friction in which the electric charge does not
flow in a current but stays in one place.
an experiment.
the strips, causing them both to have a negative charge. Because they both
have the same charge, they will repel each other and move apart. When you
remove the charged object, the strips will lose their negative charge and
hang down, as before.
An electroscope responds in the same way if a positively charged
object is brought near the strips. The positively charged object attracts
electrons from the strips, giving them both a positive charge. This time
the strips move apart because they are both positively charged.
your knowledge of static electricity. This educated
guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothHow to Experiment Safely
esis should explain these things:
Be careful in handling the glass materials and in
using the scissors.

1136
Static Electricity

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: A glass test tube and a plastic comb that
have been rubbed will hold an electric charge,
but identical objects that have not been rubbed
will not hold a charge.
whether the objects have been rubbed, and the
variable you will measure, using the electroscope,
is the electric charge of the objects. You expect
the objects to have a charge only after they have
been rubbed.
The unrubbed objects will serve as a control
experiment, showing whether the objects have an
electric charge if they have not been rubbed. If
only the rubbed objects have an electric charge,
Materials Needed
1 wide-mouth jar
cardboard circle cut to cover the jar opening
2 strips of aluminum foil, each 0.5 inches x
2 inches (1.3 centimeters x 5 centimeters)
large paper clip
sharpened pencil
masking tape
scissors
clean, dry cloth
2 identical pairs of objects to test, such as
two glass test tubes and two plastic combs

whether the experimental and control
objects are identical
which objects are rubbed
how long and in what manner the objects
are rubbed
whether the test objects touch each
other (keep those you rubbedthe
experimental objectsseparate from
those you did not rubthe control
objectsso electrons will not move from
one to the other before you test them)
the humidity level of the air (electric
charges can leak away in humid air and
change the results of your experiment)
everything that might affect the electric charges of
the objects. If you change more than one variable,
most effect on each objects electric charge.
Steps 2 and 3: Preparing

aluminum foil strip and paper
clip. G AL E GR OUP .
1137
Static Electricity
Approximate Budget $0 to $5. The materials
should be available in most households.

Timetable 15 minutes to build the electroscope;
10 minutes to test the objects.

Step 4: Set-up of cardboard

circle and paper clip. G AL E
GRO UP.
1. Choose a day with low humidity to do

your experiment. (If the air feels damp, it
has just rained, or you seem to perspire
easily, the humidity is too high for this
experiment.)
2. Use the pencil to make a small hole in one end of each foil strip.
3. Open the paper clip so that it becomes a loop with two hooks at
the bottom.
4. Use the scissors to cut two slots in the cardboard circle. Slip the sides
of the paper clip into the slots.
5. Hang each foil strip on a paper clip hook. If the strips do not move
freely, enlarge the holes in them.

1138
Static Electricity
6. Use masking tape to secure the cardboard

circle to the top of the jar. Your electroscope is ready to use.
7. Hold one of the control objects near the
top of the paper clip loop that is sticking
out of the cardboard circle. Do not touch
the clip with the object.
8. Move the object away. Use a chart such as
the one illustrated to record whether the
aluminum strips moved apart.
9. Repeat Steps 7 and 8 with the other control object.
10. Rub one test object vigorously with the
dry cloth and repeat Steps 7 and 8.
11. Rub the other test object vigorously with
the cloth and repeat Steps 7 and 8.

Then study your chart and graph and decide
aluminum strips move apart only for the rubbed
objects? What does this show? Write a paragraph
summarizing your findings and explaining
Problem: The aluminum strips did not move for
any objects.
Possible causes:
1. The air is too humid. Wait for a drier day
and try again.
2. The holes in the strips are too small, preventing movement. Enlarge the holes
and try again.
3. The test objects were not charged. Rub
them longer or try rubbing them with a
wool scarf.
Problem: The strips moved for all of the objects.
Possible cause: The control objects were
charged accidentally. Touch them to something
metal to release any electric charge in them and
test them again.
example, use different pairs of objects, including copper or silver objects
that are good conductors. You can also put an object that you know has a
positive charge near the paper clip. For example, you might use paper
after it has been rubbed against a balloon. Do the aluminum strips
respond in the same way?
EXPERIMENT 2
Measuring a Charge: Does nylon or wool
create a stronger static electric charge?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will create an electric charge
in nylon, which is a synthetic fiber, and in wool, a natural fiber. Then you
1139
Static Electricity

the types of cloth used and the size of the
pieces
whether the pairs of control and experimental cloth squares are identical
which cloth squares are rubbed
how long the cloth squares are rubbed
and what they are rubbed against
will measure the strength of each charge, using

the electroscope you built in Experiment 1 or
using an alternative procedure.
your understanding of static electricity. This
whether the rubbed cloth squares touch

anything before they are tested

the humidity level of the air (electric
charges can leak away in humid air and
change the results of your experiment)
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiIn other words, the variables in this experiment
ment: Wool will create a stronger static electric
are everything that might affect the strength of
charge than nylon.
the static electric charge. If you change more
the material being rubbed, and the variable you
which one had the most effect on the strength
will measure is the strength of the electrostatic
of the static charge.
charge, as measured on your electroscope. You
expect the wool will have a stronger charge.
As a control experiment, you will also test
squares of wool and nylon that have not been rubbed. The control
experiment will determine whether these unrubbed cloth squares also
have a charge and, if so, how strong it is. If the rubbed wool has a stronger
charge than the rubbed nylon and if the unrubbed cloth squares have little
or no static charge, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
Materials Needed
two 5-inch (12.7-centimeter) squares of wool

two 5-inch (12.7-centimeter) squares of nylon
plastic comb
1140
Static Electricity

electroscope from Experiment 1 (or a clean, empty margarine tub

with a clear lid and some dry, lightweight cereal, such as puffed
rice)
ruler
Step 3: Hold an empty

margarine container about 1
inch (2.5 centimeters) above
the lid of cereal. GA LE GRO UP.
Approximate Budget $3 for cloth. (The other
materials should
households.)
be
available
in
most
Step-by-Step Instructions To use an electro-
scope to measure the strength of a static charge:

1. Choose a dry day to do your experiment.
Be careful not to rub the control squares
of cloth against anything.
2. Place the control wool square near the
paper clip loop. Observe the response of
the aluminum strips. If they move, use
the ruler to estimate the distance between
the lower edges of the two strips. Record
1141
Static Electricity
the results on a chart like the one

illustrated.
Problem: None of the cloth squares held a static
charge.
Possible causes:
1. The air is too humid. Wait for a drier day
and try again.
2. The experimental squares were not
charged. Rub them longer, making sure
to rub both kinds of cloth in the same
way.
Problem: All of the cloth squares held a charge.
Possible cause: The control squares might have
been charged accidentally as you prepared for
your experiment. Touch them to something
metal to release any electric charge in them and
test them again.
Problem: The pieces of cereal flew all around.
Possible cause: The cereal had already been
charged, perhaps by being shaken and rubbed
inside the box. Try a different box of cereal and
try not to let the pieces rub together.
3. Repeat Step 2 with the control nylon

square.
4. Rub the experimental wool square vigorously against the comb. Then, without
touching the cloth to anything, hold it
near the paper clip loop. Observe and
record how the aluminum strips respond.
5. Repeat Step 4 using the experimental
nylon square, rubbing it in the same way
and as long as you rubbed the wool
square.
To use an alternative testing procedure:
Rubbing a plastic margarine container with a
cloth square will give the container a static electric charge that will draw lightweight cereal
toward the container. Rubbing causes electrons
to leave the cloth and move to the plastic tub.
The negatively charged tub then repels the electrons in the cereal and attracts the protons, drawing the cereal upward.
1. Choose a day with low humidity for your
experiment.
2. Place about 15 pieces of cereal in the tub
lid.
3. As a control experiment, hold the empty

margarine container about 1 inch (2.5
centimeters) above the lid of cereal.
Observe whether any cereal pieces move upward toward the
bottom of the container, and record your findings on a chart.
4. With one hand inside the container, rub the outside vigorously
with a square of wool. Then remove the wool and hold the
container above the cereal. Record how the cereal pieces respond
and how many respond.
5. Repeat Step 4 with the nylon square, rubbing in the same way and
for the same length of time. Record the results.
1142
Static Electricity
Summary of Results Use the data on your charts

Then study your charts and graph and decide
wool square create more static electricity than
the nylon square, either causing the aluminum
strips to move farther apart or causing more
cereal to cling to the bottom of the margarine
container? Did the unrubbed cloth squares exert
no noticeable static charge, according to your
electroscope? Or did the unrubbed container
not pull the cereal upward? Write a paragraph
summarizing your findings and explaining
Change the Variables You can change the var-
iables and conduct other interesting experiments. For example, use different kinds of
synthetic and natural fabrics, such as rayon,
polyester knit, cotton, or silk. You can also
change the length of time you rub a cloth square
to see if the strength of the electric charge
increases the longer you rub.
Another way to vary the experiment is to rub a cloth square against
the plastic comb, and hold the comb near the paper clip in the electroscope instead of the cloth. The comb should also hold a static charge,
although it will be negative, while the cloth should be positive. (The
electroscope should respond in the same way because both aluminum
strips will still receive the same kind of charge and move apart.)
Instead of using cereal in the alternative electroscope design, you can
put salt and pepper or tiny pieces of paper in the margarine container.
An electroscope can determine

whether an object holds an
electric charge. PE TER AR NO LD
INC .
Modify the Experiment This experiment tested whether nylon or wool
has a stronger static electric charge. You can make this experiment more
challenging by testing a variety of materials and creating a Triboelectric
Series. Triboelectricity relates to electricity that comes from friction. A
Triboelectric Series is a list of materials showing which are more likely
to let go of their negative charges (electrons) and becomes positively
charged, and which are more likely to attract electrons and becomes
1143
Static Electricity
negatively charged. Some materials, such as steel, are not likely to give
up electrons at all. If a material does not have a charge, it is called
neutral.
You will first need to gather a variety of materials found in the house,
such as leather, glass, wool, paper, plastic, wood, and plastic wrap. You
can also test your hair and skin. Test each object with the electroscope as
described in the experiment, and measure the distance between the
aluminum strips. Write up a summary of your results. When you are
done, you can see how your Tribolectric Series compares to others.
The electroscope in this experiment will show that there is a charge,
not whether the charge is positive or negative. You can carry this experiment even further by exploring the charge of each material. Knowing
what you do about static electricity and electricity, how would you sort
which of the items in your Tribolectric Series are positively or negatively
charged? If you start out with an item that you know has a certain charge,
how would that help?

other aspects of static electricity. For example, why does static electricity
occur in some situations and not in others? What kinds of materials are
more likely to have a positive or a negative charge? How does the humidity
in the air affect static electricity? How do static charges affect electrical
equipment?
As you consider possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with
your science teacher or another knowledgeable adult before trying them.
While static electricity usually involves a small electric charge (except for
lightning!), experiments with electricity are potentially dangerous.
NEVER experiment with lightning or the electric current that comes
from electrical outlets.
information on static electricity questions that interest you.
1144
Static Electricity

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the static electricity
experiments, your raw data might include not only charts and graphs of
the responses of control and electrically charged objects, but also drawings
or photographs of these responses.
If you display your experiment, make clear your beginning question,
the variable you changed, the variable you measured, the results, and your
conclusions. You might include photographs or drawings of the steps of
the experiment. Explain what materials you used, how long each step
took, and other basic information.
Related Projects You can undertake a variety of projects related to static
electricity. For example, you might explore products that claim to stop
static cling on clothes. Does one product work better than another? You
might see how many times you can transfer a static charge from one object
to another, or if you can use static electricity to move objects without
touching them.

Bonnet, Robert. Science Fair Projects with Electricity and Electronics. New York:
Sterling Publishing, 1996. Outlines nearly fifty projects designed for science
fairs.
Energy Information Administration. Electricity: A Secondary Energy Source.
electricity.html (accessed on February 12, 2008). Explanation of electricity
includes information on static electricity.
Garner, Robert. Science Projects about Electricity and Magnets. Hillside, NJ:
Enslow Publishers, 1994. Provides detailed explanations of projects and the
concepts they demonstrate.
Gibson, Gary. Understanding Electricity. Brookfield, CT: Copper Beech Books,
1995. Explains basic concepts and includes experiments.
1145
Static Electricity
Kurtus, Ron. School for Champions. Materials that Cause Static Electricity.
http://www.school for champions.com/science/static materials.htm
(accessed on February 9, 2008). List and explanation of the Triboelectric
Series.
Van Cleave, Janice. Spectacular Science Projects: Electricity. New York: Wiley &
Sons, 1994. Describes twenty science projects, explaining how to carry them
out and what they prove.
Wood, Robert. Electricity and Magnetism FUNdamentals.New York: Learning
Triangle Press, 1997. Offers instructions for experiments on the nature of
electricity and magnetism and the relationship between them.
1146
Storms
ight now, at least one area of the world is experiencing some type of
powerful storm. Storms are periods of extreme bad weather that can
bring powerful winds and torrential rains. Storms can rip buildings apart,
toss cars through the air, cause deaths, and spark forest fires. Every day
there are as many as fifty thousand storms occurring throughout the
world. They can stretch for hundreds of miles, or remain isolated to a
few hundred yards. Either way, storms can cause enormous devastation.
Some of the more common types of storms are thunderstorms, tornadoes
and hailstorms.
How air works Storms all begin by the movement of air. Air is made
up of a mixture of different gases, mainly oxygen and nitrogen with about
four times as much nitrogen. Air is constantly moving around as it
changes temperatures. The movement of air causes wind. (For more
details on how air works, see Air chapter.)
When air gets warmer its particles start to move about quickly and
expand. The warm air particles take up more room in a given space. This
makes the warm air rise because it is lighter than the air around it. Cooler
air particles move closer together and take up less room. That makes
cooler air heavier than the air around it and causes it to sink. As the Sun
heats the air around Earths surface, this warm air moves upwards and the
cooler air sinks. The faster that air is warmed and rises, the faster the
winds.
Clouds a brewing Thunderstorms need three basic ingredients to
form. The first is moisture in the air or water vapor, which forms clouds
and rain. The second is a column of unstable air, which provides relatively
warm, moist air on the bottom layers with cold, dry air high above it. And
lastly, a thunderstorm needs some kind of force to lift the air upwards.
When the moist, warm air rises it eventually meets colder air and
begins to cool. That forms the beginning of a cloud. Inside a cloud,
1147
Storms
cool air causes

water vapor to
condense
sun heats
surface,
warming air
The process of cloud formation.

GA LE GRO UP.
1148
currents of air move up and down quickly. This

air is filled with tiny particles of dust. Water
vapor is pushed upwards by the warm air.
When it comes into contact with cooler air, the
warm, moist
air rises
water vapor condenses. Condensation is when a
gas (or vapor) changes into a liquid. The condensed drops of water will then surround a dust
particle. Clouds form where millions of waterdust droplets gather together. Each of the particles in a cloud has a positive and a negative
electrical charge.
These small, puffy clouds grow increasingly larger as more warm air
rises from the ground. If the cloud gets large enough, it may continue to
rise into the ever-colder air. Strong winds can blow the top of the cloud
downwind, and this gives the top of the cloud an anvil shape. This
thunderstorm cloud is called a cumulonimbus cloud and it can extend
upwards for miles.
Shocking sights, loud noises To be called a thunderstorm there must
be thunder. Thunder is caused by lightning, and lightning begins in the
cumulonimbus clouds. Lightning is an intense discharge of electricity.
Scientists estimate that about a hundred lightning flashes occur each
second around the world. The electricity flowing within a lightning
bolt is so powerful that it can kill instantly, split trees, and spark fires.
The average flash of lightning could turn on a 100-watt light bulb for
more than three months.
As a storm advances, strong winds blow the particles of dust and
water in the cloud and cause them to hit each other. Each particle
contains positive and negative charges, which are attracted to each other
under normal conditions, but collisions cause the positive and negative
charges to separate. Positive charges tend to move towards the top of a
cloud and negative charges move towards the bottom. Both types of
charges hold energy. Charges that are alike repel each other and charges
that are opposites pull together. When enough charges and time build up,
the negative charge in the cloud reach out towards the positive charges on
the ground. The result is a burst of electricity, or a lightning bolt.
Every lightning flash produces thunder. In just a fraction of a second
a lightning flash can heat up the air to 50,000F (28,000C)a temperature hotter that the surface of the Sun. The burst of heat causes the air
molecules around it to expand quickly away from the lightnings flash. As
Storms
this hot air cools, it contracts. This quick expansion and contraction of air causes the air molecules to shake or vibrate, making sound waves
that create the sound of thunder.
+ + +
+
+ + + +
+
+
+
+ +
+
_ _
_ _ _ + _
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_
_
Thunder and lightning occur simultaneously, yet people will always see lightning before
_
they hear thunder because light and sound travel
+ ++
+
at different speeds. Light travels at about
186,000 miles per second (299,800 kilometers
per second). The speed of sound is only about
0.2 miles per second (0.3 kilometers per second).
That means a person will see lightning almost instantly, but wont hear
the thunder for several seconds. Knowing this allows any storm watcher
to calculate the distance of the lightning strike. Count the number of
seconds between the lightning and the thunder, and divide the number of
seconds by five to calculate the miles distance; divide the number of
seconds by three to calculate the kilometers distance.
_
_
Lightning forms when the

negative charges in the cloud
are attracted to the positive
charges on the ground. GAL E
GRO UP .
Twisting about Tornadoes are swirling columns of air that have

enormous power. They have a short life span, from a few minutes to over
an hour, yet are one of the most ferocious storms. They develop on land
Fujita Tornado Scale
F-Scale
Winds
Type of Damage
MINIMAL DAMAGE:
F0
40-72 mph
64-116 km/h
F1
73-112 mph
117-180 km/h
Automobiles overturned, carports destroyed, trees uprooted.
F2
113-157 mph
181-253 km h
Roofs blown off homes, sheds and outbuildings demolished,

mobile homes overturned.
F3
158-206 mph
254-332 km/h
F4
207-260 mph
333-418 km/h
F5
261-318 mph
419-512 km/h
Some damage to chimneys, TV antennas, roof shingles, trees

and windows.
MODERATE DAMAGE:
MAJOR DAMAGE:
SEVERE DAMAGE:
Exterior walls and roofs blown off homes. Metal buildings
collapsed or are severely damaged. Forests and farmland
flattened.
DEVASTATING DAMAGE:
Few walls, if any, standing in well-built homes. Large steel and
concrete missiles thrown far distances.
INCREDIBLE DAMAGE:
Homes leveled with all debris removed. Schools, motels, and
other larger structures have considerable damage with exterior
walls and roofs gone.
Developed by Dr. T. Theodore

Fujita in 1971, the Fujita
Tornado Scale, or F-Scale,
classifies tornadoes according to
the damage caused. G ALE
GR OU P.
1149
Storms
warm
co
ol a
air
ir
The formation of a tornado.

(A) formation of vortex;
(B) when the funnel cloud
touches the ground it becomes a
tornado. GA LE GRO UP.
and come from the energy released in a thunderstorm. This energy is concentrated in a small
funnel cloud
area, such as the size of a football field, and
moves across the ground at speeds of 20 to 40
vortex
miles per hour (32 to 64 kilometers per hour).
On average, the United States gets about a thouupdrafts
sand tornadoes each year. The most violent
tornadoes can reach wind speeds of over 250
miles per hour (400 kilometers per hour) and
can slice a path of destruction more than 1 mile
(1.6 kilometers) wide and 50 miles (80 kilometers) long.
Tornadoes are often called twisters because of their rapidly spinning, funnel-shaped clouds. Only a small percentage of thunderstorms
will turn into a tornado, and scientists have different theories on what
exactly causes a tornado to form. One widespread theory says tornadoes
form mainly due to wind. When winds at two different heights move at
two different speeds this can create a horizontal spinning column of air.
Thunderstorms supply the rising warm air or updrafts that a tornado
needs to form. The updraft tilts the spinning air from the horizontal to
the vertical direction. This whirling air is called a vortex and it causes the
funnel cloud to form. When the warm air gets pulled up and meets the
cold air, the moisture in the air condenses. Water droplets get swept into
Using special equipment, storm

chasers gather data on
tornadoes to help scientists learn
more about this powerful,
destructive form of storm.
# CO RB IS S YG MA
1150
Storms
the mass of whirling air, starting at the top of the

vortex where the temperature is lowest. This
begins to form the tornados visible funnel
cloud.
Hail growing
Colder Air
Strong updrafts will cause the funnel cloud

to narrow, which causes it to spin faster. This
principle works much as an ice skater spinning.
When an ice skater brings his or her arms closer
to the body, he or she will spin faster.
The funnel extends downwards from the
cloud to the land as a tornado forms. A funnel
cloud that touches land becomes a tornado.
Some funnel clouds are hard to spot until they
strike. As they pick up dirt and other materials
from the ground these materials swirl about and
cause the funnel cloud to darken and become more visible.
Scientists are still working to answer several questions on tornadoes.
One of the key questions is why updrafts in some thunderstorms become
twisting funnel clouds, while those in similar thunderstorms do not.
Some of the people who are helping to answer questions on tornadoes
and other storms are storm chasers. Storm chasers seek out storms for
study or adventure. They often use special equipment and can capture the
spectacular sights and sounds of these violent storms.
Warmer (Moist) Air
The formation of hail stones.

NEL SO N.
Hailstorms Hailstorms, like lightening and tornadoes, are a product

of strong thunderstorms. Hail can create massive damage to property and
crops, and harm people who are caught in them. Hail tends to fall along
paths, which can vary in size from a few acres to larger areas 10 miles (16
kilometers) wide by 100 miles (160 kilometers) long.
Hail is formed during thunderstorms when tiny particles are swept
into strong currents of rising and falling air in a storm cloud. The particle,
called the nucleus, can be dust, salt, pollutants or ice crystals. The nucleus
attracts water droplets around it that freeze as it moves into colder
temperatures. A gust of downward moving air causes the nucleus to
move into warmer temperatures where it picks up more water. The
water forms into ice when an updraft (rising air) lifts it higher. The
cycle of moving down and up through the air, gaining water that freezes,
creates layers of ice. The longer the cycle continues, the larger the hail
stone.
1151
Storms
WORDS TO KNOW
Air: Gaseous mixture that envelopes Earth, composed mainly of nitrogen (about 78%) and
oxygen (about 21%) with lesser amounts of
argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases.
Storm: An extreme atmospheric disturbance,

associated with strong damaging winds, and
often with thunder and lightning.
Condense: When a gas or vapor changes to a liquid.
Storm chasers: People who track and seek out

storms, often tornadoes.

Tornado: A violently rotating, narrow column of

air in contact with the ground and usually
extending from a cumulonimbus cloud.
Cumulonimbus cloud: The parent cloud of a thunderstorm; a tall, vertically developed cloud
capable of producing heavy rain, high winds, and
lightning.
Updraft: Warm, moist air that moves away from

the ground.
Updraft: A strong current of upward moving air.

an experiment.
Funnel cloud: A fully developed tornado vortex

before it has touched the ground.
Vortex: A rotating column of a fluid such as air or

water.

Water vapor: The change of water from a liquid to

a gas.
The size of a hailstone, generally, is also determined by the strength of

the updraft. The stronger the updraft, the more ice layers will accumulate
as it travels up and down in the cloud. The hailstone will eventually fall to
earth when it becomes too heavy to stay in the air. Most hailstones are
smaller than a dime and often melt before they reach the ground. However, severe thunderstorms can produce extremely large hailstones, golf
ball size and larger.
EXPERIMENT 1
Lightning Sparks: Explore how separating
charges causes an attraction between objects
Purpose/Hypothesis Lightning that is produced during a storm is simply
a massive electric spark, which is called static electricity. Friction causes

the particles to separate into positive and negative charges. These opposite
1152
Storms
charges attract one another, and when the

electric charges are separated they look for a
way to get back together. In a storm, the
jump of numerous negative charges reaching
out towards the positive charges produces a
bolt of lighting. A miniature version of static
electricity will produce sparks and an attraction
between charged objects.
In this experiment you will explore what happens when you cause charges to separate. You will
use friction to create electrical charges on a balloon, and observe how three different objects react
to these charges. The three objects you will use are:
salt and pepper, water, and another balloon.
your knowledge of lightning and charges. This

the object that is charged
the degree of friction
the material that produces the friction
the distance from the balloon to the
objects
are everything that might affect the charge of
the balloon. If you change more than one variable at the same time, you will not be able to
action of the charged particles.

possible hypothesis for this experiment: If enough charges are separated,
the balloon will attract different objects and create electricity.
In this case, the variable you will change is the separation of the
negative and positive charges on the balloon. The variable you will
measure is how the balloons charges are attracted to other objects.
Having a control experiment will help you isolate each variable and
measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable will
change between the control and the experimental setup, and that is the
amount of charged particles. At the end of the experiment you will
compare the charged balloon with the neutrally charged balloon.
1153
Storms
Materials Needed
This project poses little hazards, but remember

you are experimenting with electricity, however
small. Do not conduct this experiment if there
are any flammable vapors in the air, such as
gasoline from an open container.
2 balloons
salt and pepper
access to sink
small plate
wool cloth or nylon (optional)

Step 5: Hold the balloon close

to, but not touching, the stream
of water. GA LE GRO UP.
1. Sprinkle some salt and pepper on a plate.

2. Inflate both balloons. For the control, do not rub one balloon.
Place the balloon about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) above the salt and
pepper. Then place the balloon about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters)
away from a trickle of water from the faucet. Note the results.
3. Rub the second balloon briskly against a piece of wool or your
hair.
4. Hold this balloon about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) above the salt
and paper. Note what you see and hear.
5. Hold the balloon about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) from a trickle of
water. Note the results.
6. Darken the room. Rub both balloons against a cloth or your hair,
and place them together. Note what you see and hear.
7. Place your hand gently over the section of the balloon that you
rubbed. Again place the two balloons together and note the results.
Summary of Results Create a data chart that
describes the results of each trial. Compare the

results to the control experiment. What did placing your hand over the balloon do to the charges
in the balloon? Write a paragraph explaining
your conclusions. Include how powerful bolts
of lightning relate to this experiment.
ables in this experiment in several ways. You can

use different types of material to create friction,
1154
Storms
and determine if this produces less or more

attraction. You can also create charges on different objects, such as a comb. Try creating sparks
or picking up different objects.
EXPERIMENT 2
remedy the problem.
Tornadoes: Making a violent vortex
Problem: There was no difference between the

control and the experimental balloon.
Purpose/Hypothesis Tornadoes occur when air
Possible cause: You may not have created
masses clash and result in a spinning vortex.

enough friction, in which case not enough
The air in the vortex becomes stretched and narcharges would separate. Try rubbing the
balloon vigorously against your hair, and
rower with time. As the shape of the funnel
gradually narrows, it creates an increase in the
rotation speed, resulting in a twist similar to that
of a spinning skater.
In this experiment you will observe the relationship between
the intensity of a vortex and its shape. You will create a vortex using
water; a vortex of fluids behaves similar to that of air. A whirlpool and the
water in a draining bathtub are examples of a vortex in liquids. The vortex
forms when spinning water, or air, is pulled downwards, in this case by
gravity. The funnel of water narrows as it is pulled down.
You will fill two bottles with water, create a vortex, and observe the
water movement from one bottle to another. You will control the
A tornado rips across the

countryside in Jarrell, Texas, in
May 1997. A P/W ID E WO RL D
1155
Storms

the size of the hole
the shape of the bottles
the size of the bottles
the temperature of the liquid
narrowness of the vortex by placing two different

size holes between the two bottles. Observing
small colored materials placed in the water will
provide a way to measure the speed of the waters
rotation.
your knowledge of tornadoes and vortexes. This
the type of liquid

are everything that might affect the vortex. If
had the most effect on the waters speed.


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The speed of the water will
increase as the vortex becomes increasingly narrow.
In this case, the variable you will change is the size of the vortex hole,
and the variable you will measure is the speed of the water.
will change between the control and each of your vortexes. For the
control, you will observe the waters speed without narrowing the hole.
At the end of the experiment you will compare the intensity of the control
with each of the experimental vortexes.

Materials Needed
1156
2 identical 2-liter clear plastic soda bottles

scissors
duct tape or electrical tape
water
sparkles or any other small visible material that does not dissolve in
water, such as oregano
Storms
2 washers the same outside diameter as

the mouth of the bottles, one with a small
center hole and one with a larger center
hole
marking pen


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Label one bottle A and the other B.

For your control: Fill Bottle A about two-thirds full of water.
Sprinkle in some of the sparkles or other visible material.
Place bottle B upside down on top of bottle A.
Tape the mouths of the two bottles tightly together with the tape,
aligning the openings up exactly. Test for leakage by carefully
tilting the bottles.
Turn the bottles over so that bottle A (with the water in it) is on
top of bottle B, and quickly swirl the bottles several times, just like
you would spin a hula-hoop. Set the bottles down and observe the
water, noting the shape and speed of the swirling water.
Untape the bottles and tape the washer with the larger hole to the
mouth of bottle A. Do not cover the
washer hole with tape.
Again, tape the two bottles tightly
together, lining up the mouths exactly.
Quickly turn the bottles over and swirl.
Note the description of the shape and
B
speed of the vortex.
Repeat Steps 7 and 8, taping the washer
with the smaller hole to bottle A. Note
the results.
Step 5: Line up the two bottles

exactly and tape together. GA LE
GRO UP .
Summary of Results Evaluate your results. Was
your hypothesis correct? How does the water

relate to the actions of a tornado? Compare the
results of the two experimental trials with the
control experiment. Write a summary of the
1157
Storms
Below are problems that may arise during this
Problem: There was no vortex.
Possible cause: You may not have lined up the
washer exactly with the mouths of the bottles, or the tape may have covered some of
the circular opening. Repeat the experiment,
making sure the opening is clear.
Problem: It was difficult to gauge the speed of
the vortex.
Possible cause: Determining the speed of the
water is an estimate based on how quickly the
sparkles are swirling. You may need to place
less sparkles in the bottle. Select the same
point on the bottle for every experiment to
focus on the swirl.
experiment that explains your results. You may

want to include drawings of the shape and speed
of each vortex.
Change the Variables To alter this experiment
you can change several of the variables, one at a
time, and again observe the flow pattern of the
water. You can use bottles of different shapes and
sizes. You can also try changing the type of liquid
you use and the temperature of the liquid. Would
the experiment give the same results with a thick
liquid substance as opposed to one that has
greater flow? Different swirling techniques may
also provide interesting results.
EXPERIMENT 3
Forming Hailstones: How do
temperature differences affect the
formation of hail?
Purpose/Hypothesis Hailstones form when a
particle cycles up and down in a cloud. The extreme temperature difference between the cold, high air and the warmer air below leads to layers of
ice forming around the nucleus
In this experiment, you will explore how extreme temperature differences affect the formation of a hailstone. For the extremely cold temperature, you will use dry ice. Dry ice is frozen carbon dioxide. It has a
temperature of about -109Fahrenheit (-78Celsius). Dry ice and alcohol
is a slightly warmer temper than dry ice alone. For the relatively warm
temperature, you will use dry ice and water. A glass bead will act as the
hails nucleus. In one trial, you will form a hailstone by having the nucleus
move through all three temperatures. In a second trial, you will only use
the two relatively warm temperatures. The amount of time forming the
hailstones should be approximately the same. By comparing the formation of the hailstone, you can measure the affect of temperature differences on hail formation.
experiment based on your knowledge of how hail is produced in a cloud.
1158
Storms

things:

in this experiment:
the size of the glass bead
the temperatures of the baths

the time that the bead spends in the
baths
will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis
are everything that might affect the accumulais correct. Here is one possible hypothesis for
tion of ice on the glass bead. If you change more
this experiment: The nucleus that passes
through more extreme temperatures will accube able to tell which variable had the most
mulate more ice and form a larger hailstone than
effect on the properties of the hailstone.
the nucleus that moves through the relatively
warmer temperatures.
In this case, the variable you will change is the temperatures that the
nucleus will move through as it forms a hailstone. The variable you will
measure is size and shape of the hailstone.
Level of Difficulty Moderate

Materials Needed
1 pound (0.45 kilgrams) of dry ice (You will need adult help in
purchasing dry ice)
1 cup of isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol)
4 plastic containers
1 cup of water
2 glass beads, approximately 14 inch (0.64
centimeters) in diameter
thread to string the bead, approximately
10 inches (24 inches) long
thick, insulated gloves to handle dry ice
tongs to handle dry ice
pencil
clock with second hand
Step 2: Set up three temperature

baths: 1) container of dry ice;
2) container of isopropyl alcohol
and dry ice; and 3) a container
of water and dry ice.
NEL SO N.
er
dr y ice + wat
dry ice + alcohol

1159
Storms
1. Take the glass bead and string it on

thread. Make sure it is securely tied onto
the thread.
2. Set up three temperature baths: 1) container of dry ice; 2) container of isopropyl
alcohol and dry ice; and 3) a container of
water and dry ice
Dry ice usually comes in a cardboard box or insulated container.
For the dry ice container, you can leave it in the box or container.
For the dry ice/alcohol mixture: Place two plastic containers
inside of each other. Fill the container with one cup of isopropyl
alcohol and add three to four chunks of dry ice. Make sure the
mixture becomes slushy and thick, add more dry ice if needed as
it melts.
For the dry ice/water mixture: Place two plastic containers inside
of each other, as in the previous step, and add 1 cup of water. To
the water add two chunks of dry ice. Mixture should become
bubbly and foggy. Keep adding dry ice as it melts.
Place all three ice baths on a tray to protect the table or countertop.
To create a hailstone using three temperatures: Use the pencil to
push the glass bead into the dry ice until it covers the bead. Have
the bead sit in the dry ice for one minute.
Use the string to pull out the bead and dip it into the dry ice and
alcohol mixture for 10 seconds.
9. Dip the bead into the dry ice/ water mixture for three seconds.
10. Repeat the cycle, but place the bead on
top of the dry ice instead of submerging it
so you do not dislocate any ice that is
forming. Leave the bead in the dry ice
for 30 seconds.
11. Repeat Steps 79 for seven to eight cycles
and record your observations.
12. To create a hailstone using two temperatures: use the pencil to push a glass bead
into the dry ice until it covers the bead.
Dry ice is a dangerous substance, have an adult

assist you in purchasing and using it during the
experiment. Never touch dry ice with your bare
hands. Always wear gloves and use tongs when
handling.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Step 7: Use the pencil to push
the glass bead into the dry ice
until it covers the bead.
NEL SO N.
1160
8.
Storms
Have the bead sit in the dry ice for one

minute.
13. Use the string to pull out the bead and
dip it into the dry ice and alcohol mixture
for 30 seconds.
14. Dip the bead into the dry ice and water
mixture for three seconds.
15. Repeat the process of dipping the bead
into the dry ice/alcohol and into the dry
ice/water for nine to 10 cycles. The
amount of time forming the two hailstones should be approximately the same.
dr y ice + wate
dr y ice + alcohol
Summary of Results Look at the two pieces of
hail you formed. How do the sizes of the hailstones compare to one another? Was your
hypothesis correct? How does the ice accumulate on the bead as it passes
through the different temperature baths? Write a summary of the experiment that explains your results. You may want to include drawings of
how the ice forms on the bead over time.
Step 8: Use the string to pull out

the bead and dip it into the dry
ice and alcohol mixture for 10
seconds. I LL US TRA TI ON BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Change the Variables To alter this experiment you can change one or
more of the variables. You could use a nucleus other than a glass bead,
such as a pebble or small ball. If you change this variable think about what
materials maintain a cold temperature: glass, plastic, metal? You can
experiment with dipping the bead in the ice baths for varying lengths of
time, or change the order of baths that you dip the bead into. For
example, start the bead in the dry ice and alcohol bath and then place it
into the dry ice and then the dry ice and water. How does this affect the
build up of ice?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept To select a related project,
you can create models of weather phenomena and collect information

from observing. An experiment with storms could include observing
collecting data before and during a thunderstorm. You can also use the
information meteorologists and storm chasers have gathered on tornadoes. The tools used to measure storms opens up another branch of
related projects.
1161
Storms
Below are problems that may arise during this
Problem: Ice did not accumulate on the glass
bead.
Possible cause: The bead did not get cold
enough initially to sustain the formation of
ice. Make sure there are still chunks of dry ice
in the water bath. Keep the bead submerged
in dry ice for one full minute before moving it
into the alcohol and water baths.
Problem: Ice built up on the bead but was lost in
water bath.
Possible cause: The water and dry ice bath
serves the purpose of adding water to the
bead. But if the bead is submerged in the
water and dry ice too long it will melt the ice
that has accumulated. Make sure that you dip
the bead briefly into this bath. You can try two
seconds instead of three. Also, make sure that
you are replacing the dry ice that melts in the
water. The dry ice serves to keep the water
cold, and as it melts the temperature increases.

storms. You may also want to contact a local
weatherperson in your area to talk about his or
her work and possible project ideas.
experiment:

propose to do.
question at hand.
selected.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results If appropriate, your data
should include charts and graphs. They should be clearly labeled and easy
to read. You may also want to include photographs and drawings of your
experimental setup and results, which will help others visualize the steps
in the experiment. If you are observing or reporting on a weather
phenomena, you may want to include a series of drawings or photographs
taken over a set period of time. Make sure you note the time each picture
occurred.
1162
Storms
Related Projects You can design your own experiments on storms.

Investigate methods that meteorologists use to measure storms and how
these tools have changed over history. How far in advance can meteorologists predict a storm and how accurate are these predictions? You can
also conduct a project related to storm safety and how people should
behave in a storm. Scientists have broken down each storm into stages.
You could create models of each of the stages and provide explanations for
each one.
There still remain many questions about how tornadoes form. You
can look at differing theories of what causes a tornado and evaluate the
evidence for these theories. Where are tornadoes most likely to form and
why? With lightning, there are theories on how lightning is attracted to
some types of trees more than others. You can investigate what lightning
hits and the cause of attraction of each object.

The Disaster Area. FEMA for Kids. http://www.fema.gov/kids/dizarea.htm
(accessed on February 18, 2008). Simple instructions and explanations of
storms by the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
DryiceInfo.com. www.dryiceinfo.com (accessed on February 18, 2008).
Background and searchable database on where to purchase dry ice.
Grazulis, Thomas P. Significant Tornadoes 1680 1991. St. Johnsbury, VT:
Environmental Films, 1993. Comprehensive listing of significant tornadoes
and their effects.
Kahl, Jonathan, D. Thunderbolt: Learning about Lightning. Minneapolis, MN:
Lerner Publishing Group, 1993. Simple explanations, photographs, and
charts related to lightning.
Kramer, Stephen. P. Lightning. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publishing Group,
1993. Lots of illustrations and color to explain this phenomena.
Moore, Gene. Chase Day. www.chaseday.com/hail.html (accessed on February
18, 2008). Information and photographs of hailstorms and hailstones.
Thunderstorms. Met Office. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/
secondary/students/thunderstorms.html (accessed on February 20, 2008).
Thunderstorms leaflet includes illustrations.
Tornadoes: The Most Ferocious Storm. The Why Files. http://whyfiles.org/
013tornado/ (accessed on February 20, 2008). Interactive animations
showing the formation and effects of a tornado.
1163
Structures and Shapes
umans have been busy building structures for almost as long as we

have existed. The structures that we build, however, have changed
dramatically over the last thousand years. We have learned to construct
buildings that extend thousands of feet up, and we can build bridges that
safely support tons of weight over immense stretches of water. What have
we learned that enables us to build what our ancestors would have
thought impossible?
The answer lies mainly in concepts about the nature of force and
motion that Sir Isaac Newton (16421727) developed over three hundred years ago. Newton proposed a set of laws that clearly explain why
and how objects move or remain still. These laws apply to the planning of
structures like buildings and bridges because they must be designed to
remain fixed in place and not be moved by the forces that act upon them.
Different forces can act upon one object One of Newtons laws tells
us that different forces can act on a single object at the same time, as
when two soccer players kick the ball at the same time. One has exerted
force on the ball toward the goal; the other has exerted force in another
direction. If the two players kick with precisely the same energy in
exactly opposite directions, then the ball will remain motionless. Two
kicks that are not equal in energy and not opposite in direction, however, will send the ball flying sideways off the field. This combined force
is called a resultant.
Standing a single playing card on its edge is nearly impossible. Two
cards, however, can be stood on edge quite easily. This is because the two
cards can be made to exert two equal and exactly opposite forces upon
each other. As long as this force stays balanced, the cards will remain
standing. When different forces add up to a resultant of zero, this state is
called equilibrium. If you increase the force on one side without increasing the force on the other, the resultant is no longer zero; equilibrium has
1165
WORDS TO KNOW
Arch: A curved structure that spans an opening and
supports a weight above the opening.
Beam: A straight, horizontal structure that spans an
opening and supports a weight above the
opening.
Force: A physical interaction (pushing or pulling)

tending to change the state of motion (velocity)
of an object.
Platform: The horizontal surface of a bridge on
which traffic travels.
Compression: A type of force on an object where

the object is pushed or squeezed from each end.
Resultant: A force that results from the combined

action of two other forces.
Equilibrium: A balancing or canceling out of

opposing forces, so that an object will remain at
rest.
Rigidity: The amount an object will deflect when

supporting a weight. The less it deflects for a
given amount of weight, the greater its rigidity.
been disrupted, and the cards will fall in the direction exerted by the
stronger force.
A card house can stand because
the forces acting on it add
up to a resultant of zero.
COR BI S-B ET TMA NN.
1166
The science of architecture and engineering is largely the analysis of

force: how to distribute and direct the many forces acting on a structure to
ensure that it remains in equilibrium.
The arch redistributes forces to maintain equilibrium One early
development in architecture that uses the principle of distribution of force is the arch. The
arch directs the downward force of the supported weight around the arch and into the
ground. In a stone arch, for example, each
stone has slightly tapered sides. The weight on
the top stone causes it to push out and down on
the next stone, and so on around the curve of
the arch until it reaches the ground. An arch can
support greater weight than a straight beam
across an opening, even when the beam and
arch are built of the same materials. This is
because the force in an arch squeezes, or compresses, the material in the arch, rather than
bending it the way it does in a beam. Most
materials are stronger in compression than
they are in bending. The greatest bending
force in a beam takes place in the center,
where it is unsupported. Over time, the bending force on the beam

could cause it to crack.
The same principle applies to bridges. The platform of a bridge, the
flat surface over which vehicles travel, can be supported either by a beam or
by an arch. A simple beam bridge can extend only a limited distance before
its weight and the weight of the traffic upon it would cause the beam to
fail. An arch bridge more effectively transfers the force of this weight out to
the ground. Many large bridges today use arches as part of their design.
In the first project, you will construct two bridgesone using a beam
and one using an archand determine whether the arch can support more
weight. In the second project, you will see if you
can increase the strength of the beam design by
increasing the vertical height of the beam.
RIGHT: The arch is an

effective design because it
distributes the downward force
around the arch and into the
ground. G ALE GR OUP .
LEFT: The beam design is
limited in the weight it can
bear because the middle section
is unsupported. G AL E GR OUP .

PROJECT 1
Arches and Beams: Which
is strongest?
Use only iron fishing sinkers for weights in this

experiment. If only lead sinkers are available,
substitute coins or some other easily measurable form of weights. Lead is toxic and should not
be handled without proper protection.
construct one bridge using an arch and one

1167
Steps 4 and 6: Set-up of arch

bridge. GAL E GR OU P.
using a beam. The bridges will use the same vertical supports and platforms, and the arch and beam will be of identical thickness. You will test
the bridges to determine how much weight each one can support.
Materials Needed
1 sheet of red poster board, 14 x 22 inches (36 x 56 cm)

1 sheet of white poster board, 14 x 22 inches (36 x 56 cm)
scissors
ruler
10 iron fishing sinkers, 0.5-ounce (14-gram) each
4 stacks of textbooks, each approximately 5 inches (12 cm) tall
Steps 5 and 6: Set-up of beam

bridge. GAL E GR OU P.
1168
Approximate Budget $15 for poster board and
sinkers.
Here is a problem you may encounter, some
possible causes, and ways to solve the problem.
Problem: The accordion folds of the beams tend

1. Cut two pieces of white poster board, 14
to flatten out, decreasing the vertical height of
x 4 inches (36 x 10 centimeters). These
the beam.
will be the platforms of your bridges.
Possible causes:
2. Cut two pieces of red poster board, 14 x 5
inches (36 x 12 centimeters). These will
1. Your tape is not holding. Try folding the
edges of the white platform around the
be the support designs (beam and arch) of
beam and then taping the assembly.
your bridges.
2. Your poster board is not rigid enough.
3. Place two stacks of textbooks about 8
Use thicker poster board.
inches (20 centimeters) apart. Do the
same with the other two stacks. These
will be the vertical supports of your bridges.
4. Bend one piece of red poster board into an arch and place it
between one pair of vertical supports. This will be the arch of
one bridge. The peak of the arch should be the same height as the
vertical supports. Adjust the distance between the vertical supports
until the peak of the arch is even with the top of the two stacks.
5. Lay the other red piece across the second pair of vertical supports. This
will be the beam of the other bridge. Adjust the distance between the
vertical supports until it is the same as the distance on the arch bridge.
6. Measure and mark the centers of the two pieces of white poster
board. Lay each of the white pieces across a pair of vertical
supports so that the center mark is halfway across the opening.
These will be the platforms of your bridges. The weights must be
placed on or near the centerpoints you marked on the platforms.
Your bridges should look like the illustrations.
7. Measure the height of the platforms (at the center) and record this
height on a data chart. Place one weight on the center point of each
bridge. Measure any distance the center of the platform has
dropped. Record this on your data chart. Add another weight as
close to the first as possible and measure the height again.
8. Continue adding weights to the bridges. Measure and record the
distance each platform drops after each new weight is added.
Repeat this process until both of the bridges have collapsed.
1169
Summary of Results Examine your data and compare the results of the
tests for the two designs. Did your predictions prove true? Which design
proved to be the sturdier one? Summarize your results in writing.
Change the Project By altering the project, you can investigate other
questions about bridges. How does doubling the thickness of the arch or
the beam affect its strength? What if you construct the arch bridge with
two arches instead of one? Also consider changing the materials. Is rigidity
always a good thing? See which supports more weight, a slightly flexible
design made of cardboard, or an identical design made of wooden hobby
sticks.
PROJECT 2
Beams and Rigidity: How does the vertical
height of a beam affect its rigidity?
Purpose/Hypothesis Rigidity is a measure of how much an object, such as
a bridge, will deflect when supporting a weight. Bridges must not only be
strong, but they must also be fairly rigid to keep the platform level without
sagging. In this project, you will construct three beam-support bridges
using beams of different vertical heights. You will test each one and
compare the results to determine whether increasing the height of a beam
can make this bridge design more rigid.
Materials Needed
1 sheet of red poster board, 14 x 27 inches (36 x 68 centimeters) or

the equivalent with 2 sheets
1 sheet of white poster board, 14 x 22
inches (36 x 56 centimeters)
scissors
tape
Use only iron fishing sinkers for weights in this
ruler
experiment. If only lead sinkers are available,
10 iron fishing sinkers, 0.5-ounce
substitute coins or some other easily measurable
(14-gram) each
form of weights. Lead is toxic and should
6 stacks of textbooks, each approximately
not be handled without proper protection.
5 inches (12 centimeters) tall
1170
Approximate Budget $15 for poster board and
sinkers.
1. Cut three pieces of white poster board, all

14 x 4 inches (36 x 10 centimeters).
These will be the platforms of your
bridges.
2. Cut three pieces of red poster board, 14 x
6 inches (36 x 15 centimeters), 14 x 9 inches (36 x 23 centimeters),
and 14 x 12 inches (36 x 30 centimeters). These will be used to
make the beams of your bridges.
3. Place the stacks of textbooks in three pairs. The stacks should be
about 10 inches (25 centimeters) apart. These will be the vertical
supports of your bridges.
4. On the 14 x 6-inch piece of red poster board, measure and mark
the board so the 6-inch (15-centimeter) width is divided into six
1-inch (2.5-centimeter) segments. Fold the board carefully along
these marks so it looks like the illustration.
5. Divide the 14 x 9-inch poster board into six 1.5-inch- (3.8
centimeter-) wide segments and divide the 14 x 12-inch poster
board into six 2-inch- (5-centimeter-) wide segments. Carefully
fold each one into an accordion shape.
6. Lay the three folded red pieces across the three pairs of vertical
supports. These will be the beams of the bridges.
7. Measure and mark the centers of the three
pieces of white poster board. These will be
the platforms of your bridges. The weights
must be placed on or near the centerpoints
you marked on the platforms.
8. Attach the platforms to the beams using
tape. Place the beam/platform assemblies
across the three pairs of vertical supports
with the beam-side down. Your bridges
should look like the illustration.
9. Measure the vertical height of each bridge,
from the bottom of the folded beam to the
Step 4: Illustration of
accordion-fold beam. GAL E
GRO UP.
Steps 6 to 8: Set-up of beam

bridge. GA LE G RO UP.
1171
Here is a problem you may encounter during
this project, some possible causes, and ways to
solve the problem.
Problem: One of the bridges tends to twist and
dump its weight before collapsing.
Possible causes:
1. Your weights are off center. Place your
weights as close to the center mark as
possible.
2. Your poster board is not rigid enough.
Use thicker poster board.
top of the platform. Record this information on a data chart.

10. Measure the height of the platforms at the
center and record this height on your data
chart. Place one weight on the center
point of each bridge. Measure the distance the center of the platform has
dropped. Record this on your data chart.
Add another weight as close to the first as
possible and measure again.
11. Continue adding weight to the bridges.
Measure and record the distance each
platform drops after each new weight is
added. Repeat this process until both of
the bridges have collapsed.
Summary of Results Examine your data and
compare the results of the tests for the three beams. Did your predictions
prove true? How much does each increase in vertical beam height increase
the beams ability to support weight? Summarize your findings in writing.
Change the Project By altering the project, you can determine whether it
is preferable to construct a wide bridge with a low vertical height or a

narrow bridge with a greater vertical height. Which is stronger, a bridge 4
feet (1.2 meter) wide and 2 feet (0.6 meter) high, or a bridge 2 feet
(0.6 meter) wide and 4 feet (1.2 meter) high? Also consider changing the
materials. Is rigidity always a good thing? See which supports more
weight, a slightly flexible design made of cardboard or an identical design
made of wooden hobby sticks.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Watching the way your
bridge designs reacted to the weight placed on them may have already
given you ideas for improving them. Architecture and design engineering
encompasses a wide range of structures and products you see and use
every day. Can you think of a way to make something work better or keep
people safer? Testing ideas in miniature is a vital tool for trying out new
ideas.
1172
Think about combining the ideas and

designs used in these projects. Can you think of
a way to use the strongest beams in the second
project to make a stronger arch? Can you build a
bridge that uses both a beam and an arch? If you
are doing a project as a group, try holding a
competition for bridge designs.
If you want to do an experiment or a project,
check the Further Readings section and talk with
your science teacher or school or community
media specialist to start gathering information
on structure and shape questions that interest
you.. As you consider possible experiments or
projects, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher or another knowledgeable adult
before trying them. Some of them might be
dangerous.

sure which question you are answering, what
you are or should be measuring, and what your
This modern-day bridge

combines the arch and the
beam designs. GAL E GR OU P.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the projects included
here and in any experiments or projects you develop, you can look for
ways to display your data in more accurate and interesting ways. For
example, can you think of a better way to measure the weight sustained by
1173
the bridge? Should you test the structures by distributing the weight
across the span?
Related Projects To develop other experiments or projects on this topic,
take a look at the structures and shapes of things you see around you every
day. Take different design options and test them in miniature. Consider
ways you could reinforce the bridges you built to enable them to hold
more weight. Can you think of a better way to construct new models?

Briscoe, Diane. Bridge Building: Bridge Designs and How they Work.
Bloomington, MN: Red Brick Learning, 2004.
Gibson, Gary. Making Shapes. Brookfield, CT: Copper Beech Books, 1995.
Demonstrates a variety of structural shapes and how they are applied in
construction.
Hawkes, Nigel. Structures: The Way Things are Built. New York: MacMillan
Publishing Company, 1990. Looks at ancient and modern structures and
describes how they were built.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Newtons Laws of
Motion. http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K 12/airplane/newton.html
(accessed on February 6, 2008). Descriptions and graphics of Isaac Newtons
three laws of motions.
Slafer, Anna, Keven Cahill, and the National Building Museum. Why Design?:
Activities and Projects from the National Building Museum. Chicago: Chicago
Review Press, 1995.
Stevenson, Neil. Architecture: The Worlds Greatest Buildings Explored and
Explained. New York: DK Publishing, 1997. Examines in depth the history,
design, and construction of fifty buildings and structures from around the
world.
The Visual Dictionary of Buildings. New York: DK Publishing, 1992. Clearly
illustrates and provides terminology for numerous architectural features from
ancient to modern times.
WGBH Educational Foundation. Building Big. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/
buildingbig/index.html (accessed on February 6, 2008). Information and
activities on bridges, domes, skyscrapers, dams, and tunnels.
1174
Time
nyone who has ever raced to finish an activity knows the importance
of time. In modern day, people monitor time by the minute. Yet
thousands of years ago, keeping track of time was not important. People
went about their work and play when the Sun was in the sky and they
slept when the Sun was down. Over the years, people began to notice
patterns in the Suns rising and falling. Eventually these patterns led to a
system of keeping time that was accepted throughout the world.
The natural rhythms of the Sun and Moon established the time
concepts of year, month, and day. Other timekeeping classifications
weeks, hours, minutes, and secondsare manmade inventions. The
concept of time has intrigued some of the most prominent scientists. It
has also led to the development of several major discoveries.
Breaking up time Ancient Egyptians noticed that the Sun rose at
different positions on the horizon depending on the season. In the
warmer season when the crops grew, the Sun rose farther to the north.
In the cooler season after the last harvest, the Sun rose farther to the south.
They noted the position of the sunrise on a particular morning and
tracked this position through the seasons. They found it took 365 sunrises
before the Sun returned to the same position. Today people know that
365 days is the time it takes Earth to orbit around the Sun. We call that
length of time a year. Technically, a year is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes,
and 46 seconds.
The ancient Egyptians also noticed a full moon occurred once every
2912 dayswhich is what we now call a month, from the Greek and Latin
words for moon. The Egyptians chose to split up a month into groups of
seven days. Historians theorize they could have selected the number seven
because ancient peoples believed (wrongly) that seven heavenly bodies
revolved around Earth.
1175
Time
It takes 365 daysone year

for Earth to orbit around the
Sun. N AS A.
As Earth revolves around the Sun, the planet also rotates. A day is
the amount of time it takes for Earth to complete one rotation. As it spins,
half of Earth faces the Sun and has light; the other half faces away from
the Sun and is dark. When a day exactly begins depends upon ones point
of view. Ancient Egyptians began their day at dawn; Babylonians,
Jews, and Muslims began at dusk; and Romans began their day at midnight. A solar day is the time it takes the Sun to return to its highest
point in the sky. While the average day in a year measures twenty-four
hours, lengths of individual days vary. After Earth has completed one
rotation it must spin for about an extra four minutes around the Sun
for the Sun to reach the same point in the sky. Astronomers measure a day
by the length of time it takes for Earth to make a complete turn with
respect to the stars, which is constant throughout the year. This is called a
sidereal day and it lasts 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds of average
solar time.
1176
Time
Hours came about when Egyptians studied

the movement of the stars at night. They noted a
regular motion of the stars and divided the night
into twelve equal parts, based on the rising of a
particular star or stars in the night sky. They then
decided to divide the day into the same number
of parts, known as hours.
To measure daylights hours, they used a
sundial to track a shadow as the Sun moved
across the sky (actually as Earth revolved beneath
the Sun). A sundial has an upright part in the
center called a gnomon. The gnomon casts a
shadow across a surface that is divided into
twelve equal parts. As the Sun moves across the sky, the tip of the
gnomons shadow creeps across the twelve sections. The sundials in
Egypt were probably fairly accurate because this area is relatively close
to the equator. Near the equator the position of the Sun is always high
overhead throughout the year, and the length of time the sun is up each
day is almost constant. Farther north or south from the equator, the time
the sun is up can be very long or very short depending on the season. For
example, in northern Alaska the Sun never sets in mid-summer and never
rises during mid-winter. Under those conditions, sundials would not be of much value in
keeping time.
The water clock was another type of time
measurement that ancient people used. The
water clock did not depend on an areas location
or the changing rhythms of the Sun. In a water
clock, a bowl with a small hole in the bottom was
filled with water. Lines were marked on the
inside of the bowl to symbolize the hours. As
the water dripped slowly out the bottom, the
water level sank, revealing the lines in the bowl.
A water clock worked steadily at all times of the
night and day, but someone had to refill the
supply of water when it was empty.
Swing time A revolution in science that
began in the sixteenth century had a significant
impact on time. First, Polish mathematician
Sundials tell time by the

position of the sun. CO RBI SBET TM ANN .
The water clock was another

type of time measurement that
ancient peoples used. GA LE
GRO UP .
1177
Time
In the late 1500s, Galileo

Galilei was the first to begin
experimenting with the
concepts of a pendulum and
oscillation. T HE L IBR AR Y O F
C ONG RE SS.
1178
Nicolas Copernicus (14731543) found that

Earth rotates around the Sun, not the other
way around as was previously believed. His
work caused a great deal of controversy because
it was generally accepted at the time that Earth
was the center of the universe. Eventually, the
Copernican theory became accepted, and people
could know Earths location when they calculated time.
Then in 1581 Italian teenager Galileo Galilei (15641642) made a significant finding.
The story goes that while Galileo was attending
a church service, he began to watch a heavy lamp
swinging from a chain attached to the ceiling.
He used his pulse as a timepiece to note how long it took for each swing or
oscillation. Whether the length of the swings was long or short, each
swing always took the same amount of time.
Galileo began experimenting with a pendulum, a free-swinging
weight, usually consisting of a heavy object attached to the end of a
long rod or string, suspended from a fixed point. He found that the
amount of time it takes a pendulum to complete one full swing had
nothing to do with the weight of the pendulum or how far the pendulum
swings. The length of time it takes for the pendulum to go back and forth
depends only on the length of the pendulum. Galileo designed a simple
pendulum timepiece, but he never built it.
In 1656 Dutch scientist Christian Huygens (16291695) used Galileos ideas of oscillation to build the first pendulum clock. Inside this
clock the regular movements of the pendulum turned wheels that controlled the hands of the clock. It was accurate to within one minute a day.
A mess of times Until the late 1800s, the world was a jumble of times.
Countries, cities, and even neighboring towns were using their own local
time, setting their clocks to noon when the Sun was directly overhead.
Four oclock in one city could be seven minutes past four in a town a short
distance away. As travel, industry, and communication began to grow, it
was decided there should be a standard time throughout the world.
In 1884 the world was officially divided into 24 time zones, like 24
segments of an orange. There was one zone for each hour of the day, and
the time within each zone was the same. The starting point for the time
zones was an imaginary north-south line that ran through Greenwich,
Time
11
PM
12
Mid
night
1
AM
2
AM
3
AM
4
AM
5
AM
6
AM
7
AM
8
AM
9
AM
10
AM
11
12
1
AM Noon PM
2
PM
3
PM
4
PM
5
PM
6
PM
7
PM
8
PM
9
PM
10
PM
ARCTIC O CEAN
Moscow
Los Angeles
Chicago
Denver
Toronto
New York
PACIFIC
O CEAN
Tehran
Cairo
Karachi
Mumbai
Delhi
Seoul
Tokyo
Shanghai
Kolkata Guangzhou
Bangkok
Abidjan
Lima
Monday
Sunday
Beijing
Tianjin
Rome
ATLANTIC
O CEAN
Honolulu
Mexico City
Novosibirsk
Paris
World Time
Zones
Nonstandard time
Jakarta
Kinshasa
Rio de
Janeiro
So
Paulo
Prime Meridian
(Greenwich Time)
International Date Line
London
I N DI A N
OC E A N
0
0
2000
2000
Perth
Brisbane
4000 mi.
4000 km
There are twenty-four time

zones worldwide, one for each
hour of the day. G ALE GRO UP.
England. The eastwest distance around the world from this imaginary
line determined each areas time zone. This system of time is called
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
Space-time: Its all relative Moving into the past and future has long
been a favorite theme of science fiction authors, but the subject of moving
in time has also fascinated scientists. For years people thought that time
was an absolute: It could not be stretched or condensed. In 1887 two
scientists found that the speed of lighthow fast light travels in a
vacuumappeared unchanged by the movement of its source or that of
the observer. The speed of light is rounded off to186,000 miles per
second (297,600 kilometers per second).
Then in the early 1900s physicist Albert Einstein (18791955)
changed peoples view of time and space. Where something is located is
its place in space. Einstein said that time combines with space to form
space-time, and that it is not absolute: How fast time moves depends on
how fast the person measuring time is moving in space. Einsteins theory
showed that time is relative, and so his theory is called the Theory of
Special Relativity. The faster an object travels, the more slowly time passes
for that object. This would only be noticeable at speeds approaching the
speed of light.
A simple theoretical example would be how you would perceive time
if you were looking at a clock while moving away from it on a rocket
traveling at the speed of light. When you first look back at the clock, you
see that it reads 2 hours, 20 minutes, and 11 seconds. This image of the
1179
Time
12
3
9
6
Amount of time passing

for astronaut
The theory of special relativity

says that time is relative: Less
time will pass for the person in
the fast-moving rocket than for
a person moving relatively
slowly. GAL E GR OU P.
12
3
9
6
Amount of time passing

for woman
Rocket
finishes
flight
Rocket
takes
off
clock is being carried to you through space on a beam of light traveling at

the speed of lightthe same speed as your rocket. When you look back at
the clock five seconds later, you discover that the clock still reads the same
time as it did before because the beam of light is just barely able to keep up
with your rocket, so the image you see does not change. Therefore time
does not change for you either.
Atomic time Over the years scientists have broken up time into
increasingly smaller bits. To divide time with such precision, researchers
again turned to something found in naturean atom. The negative
charges in atoms vibrate at a regular rhythm. Atomic clocks tell time by
measuring ticks inside a cesium atom. One second is defined as the
time it takes a cesium atom to tick 9,192,631,770 times.
The first atomic clock was developed in the 1940s and scientists keep
improving its accuracy. This clock is so accurate that it loses no more than
one second about every 20 million years.
EXPERIMENT 1
Pendulums: How do the length, weight, and
swing angle of a pendulum affect its
oscillation time?
Purpose/Hypothesis The swing of a pendulum led to one of the first
accurate timepieces ever developed. There are three main factors in a
pendulum: the weight hanging on the pendulum, the length of the
pendulum from the point of suspension to the weight, and the distance
1180
Time
WORDS TO KNOW
Gnomon: The perpendicular piece of the sundial
that casts the shadow.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The time at an
imaginary line that runs north and south
through Greenwich, England, used as the
standard for time throughout the world.
experiment.
Oscillation: A repeated back-and-forth
movement.
Pendulum: A free-swinging weight, usually consisting of a heavy object attached to the end of a
long rod or string, suspended from a fixed point.
Solar day: Called a day, the time between each

arrival of the Sun at its highest point.
Sidereal day: The time it takes for a particular star to
travel around and reach the same position in the
sky; about four minutes shorter than the average
solar day.
Sundial: A device that uses the position of the Sun
to indicate time.
Theory of special relativity: Theory put forth by
Albert Einstein that time is not absolute, but it is
relative according to the speed of the observers
frame of reference.
Water clock: A device that uses the flow of water to
measure time.
experiment.
or angle of the pendulums swing. In this experiment, you will predict

what factors affect the amount of time it takes a pendulum to complete
one full back-and-forth motion, or oscillation.
experiment based on your knowledge of pendulums. This educated guess,


possible hypothesis for this experiment: The time it takes a pendulum to
complete an oscillation is only affected by the length of the pendulum:
the shorter the length, the less time it takes.
1181
Time
In this case, the variables you will change,

one at a time, are the weight you hang on the
pendulum, the length of the pendulum, and the
angle of its swing. The variable you will measure
is the time it takes for the pendulum to complete
an oscillation.
the weight of the substance on the
pendulum
the length of the string or twine
variable will change between the control experi the angle of the pendulums swing
ment and each of your pendulum trials. To
change only one variable at a time, it is important
are everything that might affect the pendulums
to always begin the pendulums swing at the
oscillation. If you change more than one variasame point, and to use the same weight and
ble at the same time, you will not be able to tell
which variable had the most effect on the time it
string length. Then you will change one variable.
takes to make one oscillation.
The pendulum in your control experiment will
always have a length of 16 inches (40 centimeters), start at a 45-degree angle, and have a
weight of two washers.
You will complete three tests in this experiment. You will measure
how a pendulums oscillation is affected by the pendulums swing angle,
weight, and length. For each variable you will use a stopwatch to note the
exact time it takes for the pendulum to complete one back-and-forth
Experiment 1. G ALE GRO UP .
swing, or oscillation. To lessen the effect of
human error, you will conduct three trials of
each test, then average the times.
Time
Trial 1
Angle
45
60
75
Weight
2 washers
4 washers
6 washers
Length
8 inches
16 inches
24 inches
1182
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Level of Difficulty Easy to Moderate (because of
the number of trials needed).

Materials Needed
stopwatch
6 metal washers
a 16-inch (40-centimeter) piece of string
or twine
a 24-inch (60-centimeter) piece of string
or twine
a paperclip
Time
pendulum support: any stable object at

least 3 feet (91 centimeters) high, such as
a table
pencil
protractor
masking tape

Make sure the pendulum stand you are using
will not tip over.
Approximate Budget $5 (not counting stopwatch. If you do not have a

stopwatch, try using a precise timer that you can start and stop).
1. Tape the pencil onto the table so that half the pencil hangs over the
edge of the table (or other pendulum support).
2. Pull a paperclip slightly apart to make a hook and tie the end of the
16-inch (40-centimeter) long piece of string tightly to the closed
end of the paperclip. Tie the other end of the string to the pencil.
Place two washers on the paperclip hook.
3. Create a chart with a column listing the control, the varying
weights, angles, and lengths. List the time it takes for one
oscillation across the top row for three trials and the average
time.
4. Tape the protractor to the edge of the table, directly in back of the
pendulum so that the 0 mark lines up with the string.
5. Control Swing: Pull the pendulum back to the 45 mark. Using
your stopwatch, time how long it takes for the pendulum to
complete one full swing. Repeat two more times, noting the times
for each swing in the control row for each
variable.
6. Swing Angle: Repeat Step 5, pulling the
pendulum back to 60 and 75. Write
down the time it takes for each trial.
7. Weight: Add two more washers so there
are a total of four washers on the paperclip. Pull the pendulum back to the 45
mark and time one complete swing.
When you have completed the three trials, add another two washers and repeat.
Step 5: Pull the pendulum back

to the 45 mark. G AL E GR OU P.
180
135
90
1183
Time
Problem: One of my trials came out with a
much different time than the other two trials.
Possible cause: This experiment requires careful
attention to detail. This could be due to human
error. Make sure you always reset the stopwatch after every trial. Redo the three trials
again. If you have trouble accurately measuring the time of one swing, measure the time of
two swings and divide the time you measured
by 2 before recording it on your chart.
Problem: The pendulum is swinging erratically
and not moving in a smooth, flat arc.
Possible cause: Make sure the pendulum stand
is on a flat surface and the pencil is flat on that
surface. There could also be outside factors
effecting the swing, such as wind, the jostling
of the pendulum stand, or brushing the string
with your hand while swinging.
Problem: The washers are falling off the
paperclip.
Possible cause: Try using either smaller, flatter
washers or a larger paperclip. The washers
should be of equal size and weight for all
trials, but what they weigh will not affect the
experiment.
8. Length: Remove the string from the pencil and cut the string in half. Tie the 8inch (20-centimeter) string to the pencil.
Return to the standard weight, two
washers, and pull back to the standard
45 angle. Time one full swing for the
three trials.
9. Construct the standard pendulum except
with the 24-inch (60 centimeter) piece of
string: Attach the paperclip with two washers and tie to the pencil. Pull the weight
back to 45 and time one full swing. Repeat
two more trials. Note the results in a chart.
Summary of Results Either with a calculator or
by hand, average the three times for each trial

and note them on your chart. (In this case, you
add up the three times and divide the total by
three to get the average.) Compare the data from
the nine different tests. Determine which of the
variables affected the time of the pendulums
swingthe swing angle, the weight, or the
length. How did this variable affect the time?
Check your findings against the predictions you
made in your hypothesis. You can create three
separate graphs of the data, each conveying the
results of one variable, and compare them to each
other. The y-axis can represent the change in the
variable and the x-axis can represent the amount
of time it takes to complete an oscillation.
Change the Variables Using the same materials and methods, you can
change the variables by combining the different variables you tested.

Does using a heavy weight and a short angle cause the time of a pendulums swing to differ between a light weight and a long angle? Would
an oscillation of a short cord and a heavy weight take more, less, or the
same amount of time than an oscillation of a long chord and a light
weight? Make sure you change only one variable at a time so that you
can determine which variable is causing the change. For example,
1184
Time
if you are looking at the heavy weight/short angle

versus the light weight/long angle, conduct an
experiment first timing the oscillation of a heavy
weight/short angle, a heavy weight/long angle, a
light weight/short angle, and a light weight/long
angle.

The temperature of the water
EXPERIMENT 2
The size of the containers
Water Clock: Does the

amount of water in a water
clock affect its accuracy?
The size of the hole in the container
Purpose/Hypothesis Unlike sundials, water
The number of containers the water

flows through
The amount of water used
clocks do not depend on the daylight hours or

are everything that might affect the drip rate of
a sunny day. This fact made water clocks useful
the water. If you change more than one variable
timekeeping devices among ancient cultures.
which variable had the most effect on the water
There are many different versions of water
clocks accuracy.
clocks. Ancient water clocks used one container
with markings on it. A later water clock design
has water drip at a constant rate from one container into another container below it. The height of the water in the
bottom container indicates the amount of time that has passed since the
clock was started.
One challenge in designing an accurate water clock relates to the rate
at which the water flows or drips out of the container. The quantity of
water in a container is one factor that can affect the drip rate of the water.
In a container of water, all the water pushes downwards, causing pressure
on the water at the bottom. A greater quantity of water will cause a greater
quantity of pressure pushing downwards; less water will result in less
pressure.
In this experiment you will investigate how the amount of water can
affect a water clocks accuracy. You will first make a simple water clock
and measure a specific period of time with the water always remaining at a
constant level. This will be your control. You will then use three different
levels of water that will each drip into the container: a quarter, half, and
three-quarters filled.
experiment based on your knowledge of water clocks and timekeeping.
1185
Time

This project poses very few hazards. Be careful
with the thumbtack. If you are concerned about
spilling water, place old newspapers on the floor
under the area where you are conducting the
experiment.

things:


possible hypothesis for this experiment: As the amount of water in a
water clock decreases, the accuracy of the water clock will also decrease.
In this case, the variable you will change is the amount of water in the
water clock. The variable you will measure is the clocks ability to measure
time. At the end of the experiment you will examine the waters ability to
keep time compared to the control.
Having a control experiment will help you isolate each variable and
measure the changes in the dependent variable. Only one variable will
change between the control experiment and the experimental water
clocks, and that is the amount of water in the container. For the control
experiment you will use a full container that will have level water pressure
and time one minute. At the end of the experiment you will compare the
one-minute markings with the markings of the experimental clocks.
Materials Needed
1186
thumbtack or pin
ruler
water
rectangular plastic container (roughly 1 gallon or 3.7 liters)
cylindrical tall glass jar
2 chairs, with flat seats
masking tape
cup
marking pen
Time

remedy the problem.
1. Measure the height of the rectangular plastic container and draw a mark at the oneProblem: The water ran out before it completes
the five minutes.
quarter, one-half, and three-quarters points.
Possible cause: The pinhole may be too large
2. Use the thumbtack to punch a small hole
or your plastic container may not be large
in the bottom of the plastic container in the
enough. Repeat the experiment, using a
center. Position the container so that each
smaller pin or thumbtack. You could also
side rests on a chair, with the middle open.
shorten your time measurement, but the
experiment works best if timed for at least
3. Place the cylindrical glass on the floor
three minutes.
directly beneath the hole.
4. Hold your finger tightly over the hole in
the plastic container and completely fill
the container with water. Have a cup of water nearby to keep the
container full as the water drips out.
5. Take your finger off the hole and let the water drip out into the
glass on the floor for one minute. While the water is dripping,
refill the container with water so that it remains completely full.
6. After one minute place your finger over the hole and empty the
container in a sink. Place a piece of masking tape lengthwise along
the cylindrical glass and draw a small line on the tape at the water
level.
7. Use the ruler to precisely measure the height of the water in the glass.
Setup of Experiment 2: Making
This measurement equals one minute. From the one-minute mark
a water clock. GAL E GR OUP .
measure four more one-minute marks. You
should have five evenly spaced lines along
the masking tape, one for each minute.
8. Return the plastic container to its position on the chairs. Hold your finger over
the hole and fill the water level to the onequarter mark. Remove your finger and
time how long the water takes to reach
each of the marks on the tape. Do not put
more water in the container. Note your
results in a chart.
1187
Time
9. Repeat the process with the starting water level at the one-half
point and the three-quarters point. Note your results.
Summary of Results Examine your chart of the times. Was your hypoth-
esis correct? How did the starting water level at the one-quarter mark
compare to the control minute? How did the times change as a result of
the water level? Plot your results with the time on one axis and the starting
water level on the other axis. Can you think of ways to make your water
clock remain accurate? Write a summary of your results and conclusions.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The topic of time has
many angles that you can explore. You could examine areas related to the
mechanical property of time, such as in a watch or grandfather clock.
Other topics you could explore include cultural differences in keeping
time, the inventions of keeping time and how they have impacted everyday life; and the theory of time travel.
physics teacher to learn more about time. If you want to build something
for an experiment, such as a timekeeping device, make sure to check with
an adult before using any tools.
question.
1188
Time
Related Projects The subject of time is a broad one and can include many
projects. You could examine how different timekeeping devices work, such
as a watch and a solar watch, by carefully taking them apart. You could also
investigate solar time by building a sundial. There are many different types
of sundials. You can build a sundial with the goal to tell time to within
minutes or build a sundial to examine how keeping time with it changes
over the seasons. Other timekeeping devices you could explore include a
shadow clock, a sand clock, and different types of water clocks.
You could also examine the idea of time and relativity. There are
scientists who hypothesize that moving backwards or forwards in time is
theoretically possible, and there are other scientists who disagree. You
could explore this debate and make your own conclusions.

Albert Einstein: Person of the Century. Time.com. http://www.time.com/
time/time100/poc/home.html (accessed February 3, 2008). Albert Einstein
was named Time magazines Person of the Century; site includes articles,
links, and the runners up.
Ganeri, Anita. The Story of Time and Clocks. New York: Oxford University Press,
1996. Explores the development of recording and measuring time.
MacRobert, Alan M. Time and the Amateur Astronomer. Sky & Telescope.
http://skyandtelescope.com/howto/basics/article 259 1.asp (accessed
February 3, 2008). Summary of the different time systems used from ancient
to modern day.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. A Walk Through Time.
http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/ (accessed February 3. 2008]. A look at
time from ancient calendars to modern day.
Skurzynski, Gloria. From Seasons to Split Seconds. Washington D.C.: National
Geographic Society, 2000. The history and science of time and timekeeping.
Snedden, Robert. Time. New York: Chelsea House, 1996. Looks at scientists
involved with time and times role in the universe.
1189
Tropisms
W
Charles Darwin, who helped us
understand evolution, also
studied plant growth. LI BRA RY
OF CON GR ESS .
hy do plants grow toward light? How far will plants stretch to

reach light? These questions fascinated the famous British biologist Charles Darwin (18091882), who is best known for formulating
the theory of natural selection. Also called survival of the fittest, natural
selection is the process by which plants and animals best adapted to their
environment to survive and pass their traits on to their offspring. Darwin
studied tropism, which includes the bending of plants toward light,
because he believed that this trait helped plants reach the light they
needed to survive.
In 1880, Darwin performed experiments
showing how the growing tip of a plant bends
toward a light source. This behavior is called
phototropism. Photo means light, and tropism
means the growth or movement of a plant
toward or away from a stimulus. Thus, phototropism means the tendency of a plant to grow
toward a source of light. At the same time,
Darwin noticed that some shade-loving plants
turn away from light, a behavior called negative
phototropism.
Darwin also discovered another kind of tropism: geotropism, meaning a bending toward
Earth. He found that the roots of plants are
sensitive to gravity, the attraction of Earths mass
on objects, and grow toward the center of gravity,
which is the planets core.
Auxins hold the key In 1926, Dutch botanist
Fritz W. Went discovered that a group of plant
hormones called auxins strongly affect plant
growth. Hormones are chemicals produced in the
1191
Tropisms
Auxins have caused the shady

side of the plant stems to grow
more quickly than the sunny
side, turning the plant toward
the light. PHO TO R ES EAR CH E RS I NC.
1192
cells of plants and animals that control bodily

functions. Stem cells with a large supply of auxins
grow faster than stem cells with just a little of these
hormones. Auxins are repelled (turned away) by
sunlight, so when light shines on one side of a stem,
the auxin moves toward the shady side. Thus,
growth slows or stops on the side facing the light.
While the shady side of the stem grows more
quickly, the sunny side remains nearly the same.
In time, the longer side of the stem arcs over the
shorter side, bending the plant toward the light.
Roots reaction to gravity is also controlled
by the hormone auxin. However, although auxin
speeds the growth of cells in plant stems, it slows
the growth of cells in roots. For example, if a
plant in a pot is turned on its side, gravity pulls
the auxin to the underside of the root, where it
slows growth. Then the top side of the root
grows more quickly. As the top side grows longer
than the underside, the root is forced downward
toward Earth. This behavior makes sure that the
roots grow deep into the soil, anchoring the
plant. At the same time, the stem of the plant
grows away from gravity, a negative geotropism. This behavior exposes
the leaves to sunlight, which the plant needs for photosynthesis.
Reaching outto water and fence posts Two growing behaviors do
not seem to be controlled by auxins. A behavior called hydrotropism
causes roots to grow toward a water source. This behavior is controlled by
cells in the growing areas of the roots that are sensitive to the presence
of water. The root cells grow at different rates, bending the root in
the direction of the water. Growing toward water increases the plants
chances of survival.
The second behavior occurs in vines and climbing plants and is called
thigmotropism. Thigmo- means touch; thigmotropism is the tendency for
a plant to grow toward a surface it touches. Vines and climbing plants have
delicate stems called tendrils. When a tendril touches a solid object, such as a
fence post, plant cells on the side away from the post grow very quickly,
pushing the tendril toward the post and making it curl around it. That is
how plants such as sweet peas, beans, and morning glories climb fences.
Tropisms
Why are scientists interested in tropisms?

Researchers have created chemical growth substances based on auxins that offer many benefits.
These artificial auxins can be sprayed or dusted on
stored potatoes to slow the growth of eyes or on
fruit and flower petals to stop them from falling
too soon. They can also be used as herbicides to
kill broad-leaved weeds. In addition, these fake
auxins encourage root growth in plant cuttings.
Food webs, interconnected sets of food
chains, depend on plants. People are part of food
webs, so the worlds population also depends on
plants. For this reason, we need to learn as much as
possible about plant growth to feed our expanding
population. Your own experiments can interest
and educate others about this vital topic.
EXPERIMENT 1
Phototropism: Will plants follow a maze to
reach light?
Auxins cause roots to grow

longer on their top side, pushing
the root toward the ground.
GAL E GR OU P.
will find out whether plants will grow sideways

through a maze to reach light. Before you begin,
plant growth. This educated guess, or prediction,
these things:

A hypothesis must be brief, specific, and

Here is one possible hypothesis for this

results of an experiment. The main variables in
this experiment are:
the type and health of the plants
the position and strength of the light
the distance from the plant to the light
the temperature where the plants are
placed
the amount of water they receive
are everything that might affect plant growth. If
you change more than one variable during the
experiment, you will not be able to tell which
variable had the most effect on plant growth.
1193
Tropisms
WORDS TO KNOW
Auxins: Plant hormones that strongly affect plant
growth.
Hydrotropism: The tendency of roots to grow

toward a water source.


experiment.
Food webs: Interconnected sets of food chains,

which are a sequence of organisms directly
dependent on one another for food.
Photosynthesis: The process by which plants use

sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water
into food and oxygen.
Geotropism: The tendency of roots to bend toward

Earth.
Phototropism: The tendency of a plant to grow

toward a source of light.
Gravity: The attraction of Earths mass on objects.
Thigmotropism: The tendency for a plant to grow

toward a surface it touches.
Heliotropism: The tendency of plants to turn

towards the Sun throughout the day.
Tropism: The growth or movement of a plant

toward or away from a stimulus.
Hormones: Chemicals produced in the cells of

plants and animals that control bodily functions.

an experiment.
experiment: A plant will grow sideways through a maze to reach a light

that is about 10 inches (25 centimeters) away.
In this case, the variable you will change is the position of the light, and
the variable you will measure is the plants growth toward the light. You
expect the plant to grow sideways through the maze toward the light
positioned at the other end of the maze.
Only one variable will change between the control plant, which is not
being experimented on, and the experimental plant. That variable is the
position of the light. The light will continue to be overhead for the
control plant, as usual. It will be coming from the side for the experimental plant.
You will measure the direction of growth for the experimental plant and
the control plant. If the experimental plant grows sideways while the control
plant continues to grow upright, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
1194
Tropisms
Materials Needed
2 small potatoes with eyes (buds)

2 small planting pots with saucers
Be careful as you use the scissors to cut a section
potting soil
out of the shoe box.
scissors
an empty shoe box with a top
3 strips of cardboard, each about 5 inches
(12.5 centimeters) long and as wide as the height of the shoe box
masking tape
ruler
water
a warm, sunny spot
Approximate Budget $2 for the potatoes and planting materials.

Timetable 1 to 2 weeks for the potato plants to sprout; plus 1 to 2 weeks
for the experiment once the plants have sprouted.

1. Allow the potatoes to sit in a warm, sunny place for a week or two
until their buds (eyes) start to grow.
2. Plant each potato in a pot with the eye or
eyes just above soil level. Water both pots.
3. Take the cover off the shoe box. Cut a
section about 2 inches (5 centimeters)
square out of one end. (See illustration.)
4. Follow these steps to form a maze inside
the box:
a. Tape one cardboard strip to the right
side and bottom of the box about 2 inches
(5 centimeters) from end. (It should end
about 2 inches [5 centimeters] from the left
side of the box.)
b. Tape another strip to the left side and
bottom of the box about 2 inches (5 centimeters) from the first strip. (It should end
about 2 inches [5 centimeters] from the
right side of the box.)
Steps 3 to 5: Set-up of shoe box

maze. G AL E GR OUP .
1195
Tropisms

c. Repeat for the third strip, taping it to the right side and bottom of
the box, as shown in illustration.
d. Leave space at the far end of the box for a potato plant.
5. Place one potato plant in the far end of the box. This is your
experimental plant. Place the other potato plant outside ofbut
nearthe box, where it will get the same amount of sun as the box.
This second plant is your control experiment.
6. Water both plants, if needed, and put the lid on the shoe box.
7. Every day, take the lid off the shoe box. Use the ruler to measure
the growth and direction of growth of both plants. Record this
information on a chart (see illustration). Also make sketches of the
growth. Keep the lid on the box the rest of the time. Water both
plants whenever the soil feels dry.
Summary of Results Create a chart like the one shown to record your
findings. Be sure to record your observations every day. Make the chart
easy to read, as it will become part of your display.
After the plant has been growing in the box for a week or two, study
your chart and sketches and decide whether your hypothesis is correct.
Did the experimental plant grow through the maze to reach the light? Did
the control plant grow upward toward the light, as plants usually do?
1196
Tropisms
Write a paragraph summarizing your findings

and explaining whether your hypothesis was
correct and how you know.
ment by changing the variables. For example,

use rooted avocado pits or sunflower or bean
seedlings. Just make sure the experimental and
control plants are identical and healthy. You can
also move the position of the light. Construct
identical mazes in two shoe boxes. Then place
one box flat, as in this experiment, and one on
end with the light hole at the top. Put a plant at
the far end of the first box and at the bottom of
the second box. See whether plants move faster
through the maze when they are growing up or
growing sideways. Finally, you can change the
distance of the light from the plants. Construct
more elaborate mazes to test the limits of a
plants efforts to reach the light.
EXPERIMENT 2
Geotropism: Will plant
roots turn toward
the pull of gravity?
will find out whether plant roots change the

direction they are growing as their position is
changed in relation to the pull of gravity. Before
knowledge of plant growth. This educated
Problem: One or both plants are not growing
at all.
Possible cause: The plant may have been diseased or infested with insects. Repeat the
experiment with different plants.
Problem: The control plant is growing sideways,
too.
Possible cause: The light might have been
coming from a low position, perhaps blocked by
a window blind. Remove any obstructions and
make sure the light comes from overhead. The
control plant should begin growing upright.
Problem: The experimental plant is growing
straight up and pushing against the top of the
box.
Possible causes:
1. Light might have been seeping in through
cracks in the box, drawing the plant
upward. Cover the box with a towel,
making sure not to cover the light hole at
the end. Also, make sure to replace the
box lid immediately after making your
daily growth measurements.
2. The light source might not have been
strong enough. Place both plants in a
sunnier spot or remove one cardboard
strip to let in more light.
Problem: By the end of a week, the experimental plant has barely started to grow
through the maze.
Possible causes: You might not have allowed
enough time, or the plant may be growing
slowly because of cool temperatures or too little
light. If you remedy these problems, the plant
should continue to grow or grow faster.
1197
Tropisms
A hypothesis must be brief, specific, and measurable. It must be something you can test through
observation. Your experiment will prove or disprove whether your hypothesis is correct. Here is
one possible hypothesis for this experiment: Roots
will change the direction they grow as their position is changed in relation to the pull of gravity.
the type of seeds and their germination rate
the amount of light and water the seeds receive
direction of the pull of gravity, and the variable you
the temperature where the seeds are placed
will measure is the direction of root growth. You
the direction of the pull of gravity
expect the roots to grow toward the pull of gravity.
everything that might affect the direction of root
growth. If you change more than one variable
change between the control seeds, which are not
during the experiment, you will not be able to tell
being experimented on, and the experimental
which variable had the most effect on the roots.
seeds. That variable is the direction of the pull of
gravity, the attraction of Earths mass on objects.
Gravity will continue to pull from the bottom for the control seeds as they
remain with their roots pointing down. Gravity will seem to pull from
Steps 4 to 7: Set-up of control
different directions as you turn the experimental seeds so their roots point
and experimental glass pane
in various directions.
sandwiches. GA LE GRO UP.
You will record the direction of root growth
for the experimental seeds and the control seeds.
If the roots of the experimental seeds grow in
different directions as you turn them, while the
control seeds roots continue to grow straight
down, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
The experimental roots will be turning toward
the direction of the pull of gravity.
involved.
Materials Needed You can complete this experi-
ment using small panes of glass held together

with rubber bands and set in cake pans. As an
alternative, you can use large glass jars with lids.
The panes are easier to turn to encourage roots to
grow in a circle. However, glass panes are more
1198
Tropisms
expensive and require careful handling to avoid

accidents.
four 10-inch (25-centimeter) squares of
glass with the edges taped for safety
8 large rubber bands
2 cake pans or other flat containers, large
enough to hold the squares of glass standing on an edge
bean or sunflower seeds
paper towels
water
eyedropper
warm, sunny spot
optional: camera and film

The edges of glass panes can be razor sharp.
Ask an adult to wrap all edges of the glass
with tape to prevent cuts. Then be careful in
handling the glass so it does not break.
Approximate Budget $16 for four 10-inch (25-centimeter) squares of
double-strength glass (or $8 for the same amount of single-strength glass);

about $1 for seeds.
Timetable 2 to 3 weeks for the roots to complete a circle.
Step 10: Experimental

sandwich with roots formed
into a circle. G ALE GRO UP .
1. Cut five or six layers of paper towels to

form a 10-inch (25-centimeter) square pad.
2. Place the pad on one glass square and
cover the pad with enough water to
moisten it.
3. Arrange six to eight seeds in a circle on
the pad.
4. Carefully place another square of glass on
top, so the pad and seeds are like the filling
in a sandwich.
5. Place four rubber bands around the sandwich, at the top, bottom, and both sides,
to hold it together.
Alternative method: Fill a jar with damp, crumpled
paper towels. Then carefully place the seeds in a
row around the inside of the jar between the towels
and the glass.
1199
Tropisms
6. Repeat Steps 1 through 5 to create a control experiment.

7. Place the cake pans side by side in a warm, sunny spot. Stand each
sandwich vertically in a cake pan, propping it up with books or
other supports, if necessary. If you are using the alternative
method, place the jars side by side in a warm, sunny spot.
8. Leave the control sandwich (or control jar) in this position throughout the experiment.
9. Use the eyedropper to moisten the towels if they dry out.
10. After the roots have grown about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters), turn the
experimental sandwich (or jar) once, resting it on its side. Now the
roots should point to the side. In a few days, the roots should bend
downward toward the pull of gravity again. Then turn the sandwich once again, so the top is the bottom. When the roots point
down again, turn the sandwich again. Continue until the roots
form a circle.
11. Every day, record the root growth you see in both experimental and
control seeds on a chart (see illustration). If possible, take photographs of the two sandwiches (or jars) together each time you turn
the experimental one.

1200
Tropisms
Summary of Results Create a chart like the one

illustrated to record your findings. Be sure to record
your observations every day. Make the chart easy to
read, as it will become part of your display.
Study your chart and decide whether your
hypothesis was correct. Did the roots of the
experimental seeds change direction as you
changed the position of the roots in relation to
the pull of gravity? Did the roots of the control
seeds continue to grow downward, as they usually do? Write a paragraph summarizing your
findings and explaining whether your hypothesis
was correct and how your measurements and
observations support it.
can vary this experiment. For example, try different seeds like mustard, radish, or other seeds. You
can also change the light. Light one seed sandwich
from the top and one from the bottom to see if the
position of the light affects how the roots grow.
Finally, you can change the amount of water the
seeds receive. Set up two seed sandwiches, as in
this experiment, then use the eyedropper to water
only one section of the paper towels for the experimental seeds. The moisture will spread somewhat,
but the farthest, driest roots should turn toward
the moisture. This demonstrates hydrotropism,
growing toward water.
EXPERIMENT 3
Heliotropism: How does the Sun
affect the movement of certain
plants?
Purpose/Hypothesis Heliotropism is the ten-
dency of plants to follow the movement of the

Sun throughout a day. Tropism means turning and helio comes from the Greek meaning
planned. However, figuring out what went
Problem: One or both sets of seeds did not
sprout and/or grow roots.
Possible causes:
1. The seeds may have been diseased or
exposed to freezing temperatures or
other adverse conditions. Dispose of
them, clean the glass panes or jars thoroughly, and repeat the experiment with
different seeds.
2. The seeds might have dried out or they
might be too cold. Try adding more
water or putting the seeds in a warmer
spot. Or start again with new seeds.
Problem: The roots of the experimental plant
did not form a circle.
Possible cause: They needed more time to
grow between turns. Try again, allowing more
time.
Problem: The stems of the new plants became
tangled in the roots.
Possible cause: As roots grow toward gravity,
stems grow away from it. Every time you turned
the sandwich or jar, the stem also responded to
the change in the pull of gravity. You might try
seeds that grow less vigorous plants, such as
mustard or radish seeds (which are also smaller
and harder to handle). You can point out the
stems response to gravity as part of your
experiment as well.
1201
Tropisms

the type of sunflower
the amount of water
the placement of the sunflowers
the age of the sunflowers
are everything that might affect the sunflower
reacting to the Sun. If you change more than
on plant movement.
sun. In heliotropic plants, flowers, leaves, and

stems can all move in the direction of the Sun.
Sunflowers are a heliotropic species. In this
experiment you will observe and measure how
sunflowers move in relation to the Sun. You will
need to grow the sunflower plants because generally sunflowers have more of a tendency to be
heliotropic when they are young. By comparing
the movement of sunflowers left alone in the Sun
to sunflowers moved away and blocked from the
Sun, you can measure how the Suns movement
affects the plants throughout the day.
your knowledge of sunflowers and heliotropism.

12
Step 3: In the morning, note or

draw the plants direction in
relation to the sun. Look at the
leaves, stem, and any flower
buds. IL LU STR AT IO N BY
TE MA H NEL SO N.
1202
Tropisms

experiment: The sunflowers moved away from
the Sun will either stop moving or move towards the Sun while the plants
left alone will move towards the Sun throughout the day.
In this case, the variable you will change is the availability of the Sun
to the sunflower. The variable you will measure is the movement of the
sunflowers.
Level of Difficulty Easy to Moderate, due to the time involved.
Materials Needed
sunflower seeds, at least eight (avoid giant or tall sunflowers)

potting soil
3 pots or dishes to grow flowers
large tree or other object outside that can block sun
open sunny area
several warm, sunny days

Timetable 20 minutes setup time; several minutes every day to care for
the plants, and approximately 45 minutes every day for the last several
days to week.
Step 4: At midday, turn one of

the pots sitting in the sunny
area around in a half-circle.
Place one pot in the shade.
NEL SO N.
1. Plant two seeds (in case one does not

grow) in each pot and water. Follow the
directions on the packet. Sunflowers need
sun, so you will likely need to find a
sunny spot for the pots.
2. When the young plants begin to sprout
leaves and are about to bud, set the pots
outside near one another in an open,
sunny area. A good time to do this is
when you have at least two days you can
12
1203
Tropisms
remedy the problem.
3.
4.
Problem: None of the sunflowers are moving

towards the Sun.
Possible cause: The sunflowers may be too
young for you to notice. If they have only
just germinated, allow them to grow until you
see some leaf shoots and the beginnings of a
flower bud, and then begin your
observations.
Problem: The sunflowers are not growing.
Possible cause: Sunflowers need a lot of sun
and water. Make sure your soil is rich in
nutrients. Purchase another bag of sunflower
seeds, or you can buy young sunflowers and
continue the experiment.
5.
6.
observe the plants at three different times

throughout the day.
In the morning, note or draw the plants
direction in relation to the Sun. Look at
the leaves, stem, and any flower buds.
At midday, turn one of the pots sitting in
the sunny area around in a half-circle.
Again note or draw how the plants in
each of the pots face in relation to the Sun.
In the late afternoon, before the Sun sets,
note the direction each of the plants face
in relation to the Sun.
For the next week, continue the experiment by repeating Steps 35. You may
want to shorten or lengthen the experiment depending upon your schedule and
observations.
Summary of Results Examine your drawings and

notes. How did the direction of the leaves, stems,
and buds that only had afternoon shade differ
from the plants in the pot you turned around.
Did the sunflowers you left alone move with the Sun? Was your hypothesis correct. Consider some advantages for plants to always face the Sun.
What would be some disadvantages for some plant types, such as desert
plants. Write a summary of your findings. You may want to include
drawings or pictures.
Change the Variables One of the ways you can vary this experiment is to
test heliotropism in different types of plants. You can ask at a gardening

store or nursery what plants you could test. You can also investigate if
certain desert plants would move to avoid the Sun. Another variable you
can change is the free movement of the plants. What would happen if you
prevented the sunflowers from moving for part of the day? How would it
affect growth or direction?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept Whether your interest in
plants is old or new, plants offer fascinating questions to explore through

science experiments. Consider what puzzles you about plants. What have
1204
Tropisms
you wondered about? For example, if you cut the

growing tip off a plant, will the remaining stem
still turn toward the light? What if you turn a
potted plant upside down and put the light source
underneath the plant? Will the stem grow downward, toward the light?
Do roots grow differently if the seeds are
planted upside down? What happens if you cut
the tip off roots? Will they still turn toward the
pull of gravity? Which way would roots grow in a
zero-gravity environment? How might tropisms
affect plants growing in a space station?
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on tropism questions that interest you.

your question.
Thigmotropism is the behavior

that causes this green bean vine
to grow up and around the wire
support. PH OTO RE SEA RC HERS IN C.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the two tropism experi-
ments, your raw data might include not only charts of measurements of
plant or root growth, but also drawings or photographs of these changes.
If you display your experiment, you need to limit the amount of
information you offer, so viewers will not be overwhelmed by detail.
Make clear your beginning question, the variable you changed, the
variable you measured, the results, and your conclusions about plant
1205
Tropisms
growth. Viewersand judges at science fairswill want to see how each

experiment was set up, including the shoe-box maze or seed sandwiches
you created. The plants or seeds or a photograph or drawing of the plant
or root growth at several stages during the experiment would be valuable
and interesting. Be sure to label everything you include clearly to show
how it fits together. Viewers will want to know what kinds of plants or
seeds you used, how long each step took, and other basic information.
Related Projects There are a variety of projects relating to plants and plant
growth that you can undertake. You can make a paper or clay model of the
reproductive parts of flowers, or you can collect and display different kinds
of plants that have been equally exposed to acid rain. Or you can demonstrate how a process works, such as showing how water circulates through a
plant from the roots up the stem and out through the leaves.

Alvin, Virginia, and Robert Silverstein. Plants. New York: Henry Holt, 1996.
Explains the plant kingdom classifications and specific kinds of plants, from
the first seed plants to edible plants.
Capon, Brian. Plant Survival: Adapting to a Hostile World. Portland, OR:
Timber Press, 1994. Covers ways that plants have adapted to adverse
conditions, such as cold or hot temperature and too much or too little
precipitation.
Catherall, Ed. Exploring Plants. Austin, TX: Steck Vaughn, 1992. Provides
information and projects relating to plant structures, functions, reproduction,
and growth.
Cochrane, Jennifer. Nature. New York: Warwick Press, 1991. Examines how
plants have invaded seemingly inhospitable land and managed to thrive there.
Hangarter, Roger P. Plant Tropic Responses. Plants-In-Motion. http://
plantsinmotion.bio.indiana.edu/plantmotion/movements/tropism/
tropisms.html (accessed February 25, 2008). Brief movies of different plants
showing tropics responses.
Kerrod, Robin. Plant Life. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1994. Information
about plant biology, groups, and habitats.
Parker, Steve. Science Project Book of Plants. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1989.
Features more experiments and explanations about plants and their growth.
Tesar, Jenny. Green Plants. Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch Press, 1993. Includes
information on the metabolism, reproduction, and growth of plants, plus
their reactions to the environment and role in the food web.
Van Cleave, Janice. Plants: Mind-Boggling Experiments You Can Turn into
Science Fair Projects. New York: Wiley, 1997. Illustrates possible projects,
along with lots of information about plants and plant processes.
1206
Vegetative Propagation
our grandmother proudly shows you an African violet she has grown
from seed. Its flower is really unusual: pink with tiny red dots. She
grew this plant by pollinating a pink African violet with a red one and
planting the seeds that resulted. You remember that pollination is the
transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs to the female
reproductive organs of plants. It is a form of sexual reproduction.
Only one of your grandmothers seedlings produced dotted flowers.
She knows that if she pollinates this special plant with pollen from a
different violet, she might not get any more plants with dotted flowers.
Pollinated seeds, like the fertilized eggs of animals, contain the characteristics of both parents. The flower-color characteristics of the other violet
may be stronger than the ones in the special plant. If so, none of the
seedlings from this pollination will have dotted flowers.
Still, your grandmother is smiling. She knows how to grow more of
these special plants without using pollen or seeds. She will use vegetative
propagation.
Pollination mixes the

characteristics of two parent
plants. G AL E GR OUP .
1207
Pollination has produced

African violets of many colors in
this greenhouse. PET ER
ARN OL D IN C.
Auxins can speed up plant

growth or slow it down. G AL E
GRO UP.
1208
What is vegetative propagation? Vegetative propagation is a form of

asexual reproduction, a reproductive process that does not involve the
union of two individuals in the exchange of genetic material. In sexual
reproduction, genetic material transfers characteristics from both parents
to their offspring. But plants produced by vegetative propagation, or
asexual reproduction, have only one parent, so they have the genetic
material of only that parent. They are identical to that parent.
Grandma does not want any new characteristics in her seedlings, just
the ones from her special parent plant, so she will grow new violets from
that plants leaf cuttings. Growing plants from leaf cuttings is one form of
vegetative propagation. In Experiment 1, you will grow new plants from
leaf and stem cuttings.
How can a plant grow from a leaf or
stem? In many plants, cells in the stem tips,
root tips, leaves, and certain other areas of the
plant are capable of becoming different kinds of
plant tissue. These cells allow the stem of a plant
to produce roots. They allow the eye, or bud, of a
potato to produce both roots that grow downward and shoots that grow upward and become
the stems and leaves of a new potato plant. You
will explore the growth of potato eyes during
Experiment 2.
Plant hormones help control this growth. A

hormone is a chemical produced in living cells
that regulates the functions of the organism.
Auxins are a group of plant hormones responsible for patterns of plant growth.
When a stem begins to grow horizontally,
gravity causes auxin to accumulate on the lower
side of the stem. This hormone makes the cells
on that side grow longer. This forces the growing
tip of the stem to turn upward. Auxin has the
opposite effect on roots. A concentration of auxin on the lower side of
roots stops growth there. As the top side of the root continues to grow, the
root tip turns downward.
English scientist Charles Darwin (18091882) noticed that plants tendency to bend toward light increased the chances of their survival. He figured
out that the growing tip of the plant controlled this bending, but it was not
until 1926 that the Dutch botanist (one who studies plants) Fritz W. Went
isolated the hormone auxin in the growing tip.
Since then, scientists have produced artificial auxins. They are used to
improve root growth and produce seedless fruits by stimulating the
growth of fruit without pollination. These hormones can also stop fruit
from falling from trees before it is ripe. In addition, the hormones slow
the ripening of fruit that will be shipped long distances and help preserve
potatoes, onions, and other vegetables that will be stored for an extended
period. Auxins can also kill weeds by speeding up their growth cycle.
Learning about plant growth can help you increase your plant
collection. More importantly, it can enable you to better understand
the plants that we depend on for our existence. Without plants, also
called producers, the plant-eaters or herbivores starve. Without herbivores, the meat-eaters or carnivores go hungry, too.
Whether you are a strict

vegetarian or live from
hamburger to hamburger, you
need plants! PET ER A RN OLD
INC .
EXPERIMENT 1
Auxins: How do auxins affect plant growth?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will try to produce new
plants from stem and leaf cuttings. You will treat half of the cuttings with
the plant hormone auxin, while the other half will not be treated. The
difference between the two groups of cuttings in root, leaf, and stem
1209
WORDS TO KNOW
Asexual reproduction: A reproductive process that
does not involve the union of two individuals in
the exchange of genetic material.

experiment.
Auxins: A group of plant hormones responsible for

patterns of plant growth.
Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the male

organs of plants.
Carnivore: A meat-eating organism.

experiment.
Genetic material: Material that transfers characteristics from a parent to its offspring.
Herbivore: A plant-eating organism.
Hormone: A chemical produced in living cells that
regulates the functions of the organism.
Humidity: The amount of water vapor (moisture)
contained in the air.
Producer: An organism that can manufacture its

own food from nonliving materials and an external energy source, usually by photosynthesis.
Sexual reproduction: A reproductive process that
involves the union of two individuals in the
exchange of genetic material.
Tuber: An underground, starch-storing stem, such
as a potato.
an experiment.
Vegetative propagation: A form of asexual
reproduction in which plants are produced that
are genetically identical to the parent.
growth will tell you whether auxin makes any difference. Before you
begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment
based on your knowledge of plant propagation. This educated guess, or
hypothesis for this experiment: Stem cuttings treated with auxin will
1210
grow more roots, taller stems, and more leaves,

and treated leaf cuttings will grow more new
plants than will untreated stem and leaf
cuttings.
the auxin treatment, and the variable you will
measure is root, stem, and leaf growth for the
stem cuttings and the number of new plants
grown by the leaf cuttings. Your untreated cuttings will serve as a control experiment to allow
you to measure any difference in growth. If the
treated cuttings grow more than the untreated
ones, you will know your hypothesis is correct.
and materials involved.

Materials Needed

the types and health of the plants from
which the cuttings are taken
the size of the plant cuttings and the
locations from which they are taken on
the parent plants
the light, water, soil, and temperature
conditions under which the cuttings are
grown
treatment with the hormone auxin
the cuttings. If you change more than one variable, you will not be able to tell which variable
had the most effect on growth.
stem cuttings from several plants, including geranium, coleus, petunia, fuchsia,
dieffenbachia, dracena, philodendron,
and ivy
leaf cuttings from several plants, including African violet, gloxinia,
rex begonia, piggyback plant, peperomia, sansevieria, and succulents (such as a jade plant)
rooting hormone powder, such as Rootone or Hormodin
pruning shears or scissors
two 4-inch-diameter (10-centimeter-diameter) pots with saucers
for each kind of cutting you plan to make (one pot for the treated
cuttings and one for the untreated cuttings)
potting soil (if possible, mix vermiculite or perlite, two kinds of
soil conditioners, into the soil)
pot labels and a marker
pencil
water
clear plastic bags big enough to fit over each pot
ruler
1211
Approximate Budget Costs will depend on

Be very careful in using the shears or scissors to
make the cuttings. You might ask an adult to
help you. Also try not to get the rooting
hormone on your skin or especially in your eyes.
Wash your hands after setting up the
experiment.
whether you need to buy plants or can take

cuttings from available plants. Pots cost about
$1 each. Potting soil is $3 to $4 for a large bag. A
container of Rootone will be $4 to $5.
Timetable 3 weeks for the cuttings to sprout and
grow.
1. Label each pair of pots Experimental

and Control, along with the name of the plant.
2. Fill each pot with soil, leaving 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) or so at the
top of pot.
3. Take the cuttings. Make at least two cuttings of each plant for the
experimental pot and two identical cuttings of the same plant for the
control pot. (You will need extra cuttings in case some die.) For stem
cuttings from each plant you selected:
a. Take four 3- to 4-inch (7.5 to 10 centimeter) cuttings from the
plant. Slice at an angle to expose as many special growing cells in the
stem as possible. Cut just below where a leaf is attached.
b. Pull off any leaves close to the bottom of the cuttings.
c. Use the pencil to make two holes 2 inches (5 centimeters) deep in
each pot.
d. Dip about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of the end of two cuttings into
the container of rooting hormone. Tap the stem to remove excess
powder.
e. Gently put the stem of each treated cutting into a hole in the
experimental pot without rubbing off the powder. Pat the soil
around the cutting.
f. Put the two untreated cuttings into holes in the control pot, and
pat the soil around them.
4. For leaf cuttings from each plant you selected:
a. Cut four healthy leaves from the plant. The leaves might have
stems attached or not, but make the cuttings identical.
b. Use the pencil to make two shallow grooves in the potting soil of
each pot.
1212
c. Dip the bottom edge (and any stem) of

two leaves into the container of rooting
hormone. Tap the leaves to remove excess
powder.
d. Gently place each treated leaf into the
soil in the experimental pot without rubbing off the powder. Pat the soil around it.
e. Put the two untreated leaves into the
control pot, and pat the soil around them.
5. Water all the cuttings and place the pots
in a warm, light spot, but not in direct
sunlight.
6. Place a plastic bag loosely over each pot to keep the humidity level
high around the cuttings. Humidity is the amount of water vapor
(moisture) contained in the air. The cuttings will all have a better
chance of taking root and growing if the air around them is moist.
7. Observe and record any visible growth on a chart similar to the
one illustrated. Stem cuttings may grow taller and grow more leaves.
Leaf cuttings may sprout tiny leaves at their base.
8. Check the soil in each pot twice a week and water any pots that
feel dry.
9. At the end of Week 3, gently pull each cutting out of its pot, shake
off the soil, and record the number and length of any roots that have
grown.
Steps 3d and 3e: Dip cuttings

into root hormone and then
gently plant them in
experimental pot. GA LE
GRO UP .
Summary of Results Use the data on your chart to create some or all of
these graphs:
a line graph comparing the height of the experimental and control
stem cuttings at the end of each week
a line or bar graph comparing the leaf growth of the two groups of
stem cuttings at the end of each week
a bar graph comparing the number of new plants growing on the
leaf cuttings at the end of each week
a chart comparing the final root growth of all cuttings, carefully
labeling the stem and leaf cuttings
Then study the graphs and your growth chart and decide whether
your hypothesis was correct. Did the experimental stem cuttings show
more stem, leaf, and root growth than the control cuttings? Did the
experimental leaf cuttings grow more tiny new plants than the control
1213

cuttings? Write a paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining

Change the Variables Here are some ways to vary this experiment:
Use cuttings from plants that are harder to root, such as woody
stem cuttings from a rose bush.
1214
Try a variation on leaf cuttings: cut rex

begonia leaves into wedge-shaped pieces
or cut sansevieria leaves horizontally into
short lengths. Dip the bottom edges of
some pieces into rooting hormone, and
plant in potting soil.
Treat all cuttings with rooting hormone
and experiment with the amount of
humidity around the cuttings to see how
that affects their growth.
Root the cuttings in water instead of soil.
Cover the top of the water containers with
clear plastic wrap or aluminum foil and
make a hole for each cutting. Stir rooting
hormone into the water of some cuttings
to see if it improves root growth under
these conditions.
Sprinkle seeds with rooting hormone
before planting them. Compare their
growth with that of untreated seeds.
Modify the Experiment In this experiment you
Problem: All or most of the cuttings rotted.
Possible cause: The humidity was too high. Try
again, watering the cuttings less or not using
the plastic bags.
Problem: All or most of the cuttings dried up.
Possible causes:
1. The cuttings needed more water. Try
again, checking every other day to see if
the soil has dried out.
2. The cuttings received too much direct
sun. Place them where they will receive
light but not direct sun.
Problem: The control cuttings from one kind of
plant grew more than the experimental cuttings
from another kind of plant.
looked at how auxins effect plant growth.

Possible cause: Different types of plants have
Researchers now know that auxin activity is
different growth rates. Focus on whether cutaffected by the time of day. Like people, plants
tings from the same plant grew better when
go through a natural cycle every 24 hours. Plants
they were treated with the rooting hormone.
may produce more auxins at night, for example,
because that is when water is most available and
the plants are preparing for daylight.
You can modify this experiment and increase the level of difficulty by
experimenting with auxins and the day-night cycle. By using lights, you
will not let the plants experience a nighttime. Make a hypothesis about
how depriving plants of nighttime will effect growth.
You will need two more pots and two grow lights. (If you only have
one light you could conduct the two experimental cuttings one after
another.) For each of your trial experiments, set up one more pot and
label it Experimental/Daylight. You should have three pots for each of
the cuttings. Prepare the Experimental/Daylight cuttings at the same time
and the same way as the Control setup.
1215
During the day, place all the pots in an area where they receive light.
Every night, turn a grow light on over the Experimental/Daylight pots.
Make sure the pots are far away from the Experimental and Control pots
so these plants can experience darkness. In the morning, you can turn off
the lights and turn them back on in the evening. Over the next three
weeks observe and record any visible growth. How do the cuttings of the
daylight trials compare to the Control and Experimental cuttings? Was
your hypothesis correct? What can you learn from this experiment about
when plants may produce auxins and how that affects plant growth?
EXPERIMENT 2
Potatoes from Pieces: How do potatoes
reproduce vegetatively?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will cut up potatoes and
plant different parts of them to determine which parts can be used for
vegetative propagation. The potatoes we eat are actually tubers, which are
underground, starch-storing stems. The eyes, or buds, on one potato can
develop into several identical new plants through vegetative propagation.
The starch stored in the potato or tuber provides food for the new plant
until it develops its own root system.
Here are the questions to investigate: Do only the eyes of potatoes
develop into new plants? What about chunks of potato without eyes? And
will eyes grow without any potato attached? To find out, you will plant
some chunks of potato with eyes, some chunks without eyes, and some
eyes without potatoes attached.
experiment based on your knowledge of plant propagation. This educated guess, or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain
these things:
hypothesis for this experiment: Only chunks of potatoes with eyes will
develop into new potato plants.
1216

whether the potato has an eye, and the variable
you will measure is the presence or absence of
new growth. Your control experiment will consist of planting potato chunks without eyes and
planting eyes without potato chunks attached to
them. If only the chunks with eyes sprout, you
will know that your hypothesis is correct. This
result will prove that the special cells in plant
stems and leaves that can develop into different
kinds of plant tissue are also present in potato
eyes. However, the eyes require the starch food in
potatoes in order to reproduce successfully.
involved.
Materials Needed
2 or 3 seed potatoes (available at garden

supply stores or farmers markets) or
other potatoes that have not been treated
to stop the growth of eyes
three 5- or 6-inch- (12- or 15-centimeter)
diameter pots and saucers
pot labels and a marker
potting soil (if possible, mix vermiculite
or perlite into the soil)
sharp knife and cutting board
water
ruler

the kind of potatoes used
the light, water, soil, and temperature
conditions under which the potato parts
are grown
the presence of eyes in the potato chunks
whether the eyes have potato attached
new potato plants. If you change more than one
variable, you will not be able to tell which variable had the most effect on the new plant
growth.

Take care in cutting the potatoes into chunks.
You might ask an adult to help you.
Approximate Budget $6 for potatoes, pots, and potting soil.

Timetable 3 weeks.
1. Locate the green or white eyes on the potatoes. If there are no eyes
yet, place the potatoes in a shallow dish that contains about 1 inch
1217
Steps 4 and 5: Set-up of three

pots with soil and potato
chunks. GAL E GR OU P.
(2.5 centimeters) of water. Leave the dish in a sunny place for

several days, and eyes should appear.
2. Carefully cut up the potatoes, creating two or three chunks with
eyes attached. Also create two or three chunks that do not have
eyes. One surface of these chunks should be covered with potato
skin.
3. Use your fingernail to gently separate two or three eyes from a
potato.
4. Mark the three pots Chunks with eyes,Chunks without eyes, and Eyes
only.

1218
5. Fill each pot about half full of soil and

place the appropriate chunks or eyes on
the soil. Cover with more soil.
6. Water all pots and place them in a warm,
sunny location.
7. Observe and record any growth you see,
using a chart like the one illustrated. Feel
the soil every other day and add water
when it seems dry.
Summary of Results Study the findings on your

correct. Did only the potato chunks with eyes
sprout? Did the eyes without potato attached
sprout and then die? Write a paragraph summarizing your findings and explaining whether they
support your hypothesis.
Change the Variables Here are ways to vary this
experiment:
Problem: Nothing in any of the pots sprouted.
Possible causes:
1. The pots might have been too cold or the
soil too dry. Try again, providing good
growing conditions for all the pots.
2. The potatoes might have been old or
diseased. Try again with new potatoes.
Problem: Some of the chunks without eyes
sprouted.
Possible cause: Perhaps they contained eyes
that had not yet broken through the potatos
skin. Take the chunks out of the soil and see if
eyes have developed. If so, eliminate them from
your experiment.
Use a different type of potato, such as

baking, red, or sweet potatoes, to see if
Problem: Some of the eyes without potato
the experiment results change.
attached are growing.
Leave different amounts of potato
Possible cause: A small amount of potato might
attached to the eyes to determine how
be attached, providing a temporary source of
much potato results in the best growth.
food. Continue the experiment to see if the eyes
keep growing. (They might, if they develop
Sprinkle a rooting hormone on potato
roots quickly enough.)
chunks, with and without eyes, to see if
it changes the results of the experiment.
(Versions of the growth hormone auxin
are often sprayed on potatoes to slow the growth of eyes. Auxin
can both promote and discourage plant growth, depending on
how much is used and when it is applied.)

other aspects of vegetative propagation. Consider what you would like to

know about this topic. For example, you might investigate growing new
1219
plants by using runners (strawberries and spider plants), suckers (succulents such as aloe), or air-layering (dieffenbachia and dracena).
information on plant growth questions that interest you. As you consider
possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher or
another knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some of the chemicals
or procedures might be dangerous.
your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In the plant growth experi-
ments, your raw data might include charts, graphs, drawings, and photographs of the changes you observed. If you display your experiment, make
clear the question you were answering, the variable you changed, the variable
you measured, the results, and your conclusions. Explain what materials you
used, how long each step took, and other basic information.
vegetative propagation. For example, how small a piece of a leaf will

produce new plants? Will all parts of a leaf produce new plants equally
well? Will a bulb (an underground stem, like a potato) produce two
identical plants if it is cut in half and both parts are planted? Which will
bloom first, a plant grown from seed or a plant reproduced vegetatively?

Alvin, Virginia, and Robert Silverstein. Plants. New York: Twenty First Century
Books, 1996. Offers a general description of the plant kingdom and its
1220
classification system, along with discussion of specific kinds of plants, such as

poisonous ones.
Bleifeld, Maurice. Botany Projects for Young Scientists. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1992. Contains a collection of activities and experiments, exploring
photosynthesis, plant structures, and growth.
Hershey, David. Plant Biology Science Projects. New York: Wiley, 1995. Outlines
plant related science projects that will interest young adults.
Missouri Botanical Garden. Biology of Plants. http://www.mbgnet.net/
bioplants/ (accessed on February 6, 2008). Basic information about plant
biology and life.
Tocci, Salvatore. Experiments with Plants. New York: Childrens Press, 2001.
Van Cleave, Janice. Spectacular Science Projects with Plants. New York: Wiley,
1997. Presents facts and experiments relating to plants.
1221
Vitamins and Minerals
itamins and minerals are substances that are essential for people to
grow, develop, and remain healthy. Vitamins are organic, meaning
that they contain carbon and come from living organisms. Minerals are
inorganic, meaning that they do not contain carbon or come from living
organisms. Except for two vitamins, humans cannot make any of their
own vitamins and minerals. People must get these nutrients from foods.
Diseases characterized by lack of nutrients are called deficiency diseases.
There are hundreds of vital functions that require proper vitamins
and minerals. Maintaining strong bones and muscles, ensuring good
vision, healing wounds, providing energy, and fighting infections are a
few examples of how the body uses these substances. For years researchers
focused their work on determining the amount of each vitamin and
mineral needed to avoid any health problems. The Recommended
Daily Allowance (RDA) are guidelines formulated by the U.S. government for the amount of each substance a person needs every day.
Researchers also are exploring how vitamins and minerals can prevent
and treat disease.
An alphabet of vitamins The discovery of vitamins is a story of

many people working to understand disease symptoms. In England
during the 1700s, it was common for sailors traveling on long voyages
to develop bleeding gums, loose teeth, and bruised skin. Some symptoms
were more severe and caused many sailors to die. A Scottish naval doctor
found that citrus fruits cured the sick sailors, and prevented others from
getting ill. The substance in these fruits was unknown at the time. The
disease, called scurvy, is now known to be caused by a lack of vitamin C,
also called ascorbic acid.
Other physicians around the world were recognizing how the changes
in a personsor animalsdiet affected health. For the deadly disease
beriberi, it was a study of chickens that furthered vitamin research. When
1223
Vitamin A for
healthy vision
A combination
of vitamins and
minerals
gives strong bones
and muscles
Vitamins and minerals

perform many functions in the
body and are essential for good
health. GA LE GRO UP.
Vitamins are categorized into

two types: water soluble and fat
soluble. GA LE GRO UP.
fat soluble
vitamins stored
in liver and fat
until needed
1224
a group of chickens started coming down with

beriberi-like symptoms, it was discovered they
Fluorine gives
had been fed white rice instead of their usual
strong enamel, which
prevents cavities
brown rice. Upon switching them back to the
brown rice, the chickens recovered. This led to
Vitamin K
the theory that patients were not falling ill from
clots blood
when cut
something they took in, but from something
they were missing from their diet.
In 1913, scientists isolated the first vitamin,
vitamin A, and named it after the first letter of
the alphabet. Vitamin B1, or thiamine, was the
first B vitamin found and is the vitamin in
brown rice that prevents beriberi, a deficiency
disease involving the nervous system. As more
vitamins were isolated, scientists continued to
name them with letters.
The human body needs thirteen different vitamins. These vitamins serve many functions vital to good health. For example, one of
vitamin As main roles is in the production of retinal. Eyes need retinal
to sense light, and it is manufactured with the help of vitamin A. Even
today, vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in millions around the
world, and is a major cause of childhood blindness. Vitamin B12
maintains healthy nerve cells and red blood cells, and is also needed
to make DNA, the genetic material in all cells.
Peoples bodies can only make two
vitaminsvitamin K and vitamin D. The sunlight reacts with a chemical in the skin to produce vitamin D, which is necessary for hard
bones. About half of the vitamin K a person
water soluble
vitamins travel
needs is made in the intestines, from the bacteria
in bloodstream
that live there. Vitamin K helps make blood clot
when there is a cut, preventing too much blood
from flowing out of the body. People need to get
the rest of the required vitamin K, and all the
excess vitamins
eliminated
other vitamins, through foods.
Fats and water Vitamins are also divided
into two categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fats.
These vitamins are stored in the bodys fat
Vitamins
Major functions
A (fat soluble)
helps night vision and color

vision, growth, healthy skin,
fights sickness
B1 - thiamine
(water soluble)
strong muscles, growth
Major sources
apricots, nectarines, carrots,
liver, eggs, milk, broccoli,
pumpkin
brown breads, beans, grain,
cereals, nuts, peas
B2 - riboflavin
(water soluble)
helps eyesight; heals cuts,

bruises; involved in making
red blood cells
milk, cheese, eggs, leafy

vegetables, meat, brown
breads
C - absorbic acid
(water soluble)
repairs broken bones, strong

gums and teeth, fights
infections
green vegetables, berries,

tomatoes, oranges, lemons,
grapefruit, and citrus juices
D (fat soluble)
strong bones, teeth
body makes this with sun;

tunafish, eggs; added to milk
E (fat soluble)
protects eyes, skin, liver;

protects lungs from pollution;
helps store Vitamin A
vegetable oils, leafy green

vegetables, peanuts
K (fat soluble)
clots blood when wounded
leafy green vegetables,

cabbage, cheese, broccoli
Calcium
strong teeth, bone; crucial

roles in nerve and muscle
cells
milk, yogurt, cheeses,

fortified in some juices
Iron
(trace mineral)
transports oxygen in red

blood cells
red meat, poultry, fish, dried

beans, apricots, raisins
Zinc
(trace mineral)
heals cuts, helps body grow
seafood, liver, eggs, peanuts,

grain food, dark meat of
chicken
Fluorine
(trace mineral)
strong tooth enamel
sardines, salmon, apples,

eggs; added to water
Magnesium
(macromineral)
strong bones, controls

body temperature
milk, eggs, cheese, yogurt,

meats, seafood, molasses
Potassium
(macromineral)
keeps the heart strong
bananas, potatoes, raisins,

melons, broccoli, beef
Minerals
A selection of the roles some

vitamins and minerals play and
their sources. GA LE G RO UP.
tissues and liver until the body needs them. Fat-soluble vitamins can
remain in storage from a few days to a year. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are
all fat-soluble vitamins.
Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and travel through the bloodstream. They move quickly through the blood and need to be replenished
often. As the vitamins stream through the body, organs and tissues pick up
the vitamins they need. Whatever the body does not use comes out in
urine. Water-soluble vitamins include Vitamin C and the B vitamins.
Mind your minerals Minerals originate in the ground and are taken
in by plants and animals. Water in the ground soaks up such minerals as
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe). This natural, mineral-rich
1225
Brown rice and other grains are

a good source of vitamin B1,
which helps build muscle.
C OPY RI GH T # KE LL Y A.
QU IN.
water is called hard water. Animals get their

minerals when they eat the plants. Plants absorb
minerals from the water in the soil. People ingest
the majority of minerals directly from foods.
They either eat plants directly or consume the
animals that have eaten the plants.
People need a smaller amount of minerals than
vitamins. These minerals play a number of crucial
roles. They help build strong bones and teeth,
transmit nerve signals, maintain a regular heartbeat,
metabolize food, and many other functions.
Minerals are categorized into two types based
on how much of the mineral a person needs for good health. The two groups
are macrominerals and trace minerals. The body needs a larger amount of
macrominerals than trace minerals, although both types are essential. The
macromineral group is made up of calcium, phosphorous, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, and chloride. Trace minerals include iron, manganese,
copper, iodine, zinc, chromium, fluoride, and selenium.
Food sources Vitamins and minerals are found in a variety of foods. Each
type of food contains a certain amount of vitamins and minerals. Some foods are
a rich source of these nutrients, such as broccoli, and others, such as soda, are not
a significant source. For most people, eating a well-balanced diet with a wide
variety of foods supplies the necessary amounts of vitamins and minerals. People
who are ill or do not get their nutrients through food take supplements, or
additional vitamins and minerals.
Many foods are fortified or enriched with essential vitamins and minerals.
Water, for example, is fortified with additional mineral fluorine. Vitamin D is
added to milk after it is heated to kill germs, which causes it to lose Vitamin D in
the process. Many cereals and juices are also fortified with vitamins and minerals.
Packages list the RDA for the vitamins and minerals they contain. There
are RDAs provided for children, teenagers, and adults. The RDA listed on
food packaging is the amount that an average, healthy adult should consume
each day.
EXPERIMENT 1
Vitamin C: What juices are the best sources of vitamin C?
Purpose/Hypothesis Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that is essen-
tial for human growth and health. In this experiment, you will explore the
1226
relative quantity of vitamin C in different juices.

To measure the amount of vitamin C you will
observe the chemical reaction of vitamin C with
iodine.
Iodine mixed with water forms ions, which
are charged particles. When ions mix with starch
they produce a compound that has a blue color.
the type of juice
Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, breaks up the bond
the freshness of the juice
between the ions and the starch, reversing the
the temperature of the juice
color change. The more vitamin C in a subIn other words, the variables in this experiment
stance, the quicker the bonds will be broken,
are anything that might affect the speed at
and the faster the liquid will turn clear.
which the vitamin C breaks up the bond. If you
change more than one variable at the same
You will test the vitamin C content of
orange, grapefruit, and apple juice. Make sure
has the highest concentration of vitamin C.
all the juices are freshnot from concentrate.
You can use your imagination and test a variety
of other juices also, such as tomato, grape, and
carrot. You will first create a bond between a starch solution and iodine.
You will then slowly add juice to the solution to determine the amount it
takes for the juice to break the bond, turning the solution clear.
experiment based on your knowledge of vitamin C. This educated guess,
or prediction, is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these
Minerals in the earth are taken
things:
in by plants, which are then
ingested by animals. Humans
can get their required minerals
by eating plants and animals.

G AL E GR OUP .

experiment: The orange juice will contain more
vitamin C than the other two juices.
In this case, the variable you will change
is the type of juice. The variable you will
Mg
Ca
Fe
1227
WORDS TO KNOW
Deficiency disease: A disease marked by a lack of
an essential nutrient in the diet.
Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins such as A, D, E, and K
that can be dissolved in the fatof plants and animals.
Fortified: The addition of nutrients, such as vitamins
or minerals, to food.
Inorganic: Made of or coming from nonliving
matter.
Macrominerals: Minerals needed in relatively large
quantities.
Minerals: Inorganic substances that originate in the
ground; many are essential nutrients.
Organic: Made of, or coming from, living matter.

Scurvy: A disease caused by a deficiency of
vitamin C, which causes a weakening of connective tissue in bone and muscle.
Supplements: A substance intended to enhance
the diet.
Trace minerals: Minerals needed in relatively small
quantities.
an experiment.
Vitamins: Organic substances that are essential
for peoples good health; most of them are not
manufactured in the body.
Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins such as C
and the B-complex vitamins that dissolve
in the watery parts of plant and animal
tissues.
measure is the relative amount of juice it takes to make the solution

clear.
will change between the control and your experiment. For your control in
this experiment you will use a solution of pure vitamin C. At the end of
the experiment you can compare the results of the control with the
Materials Needed
paper towel
spoon
1228
500-milligram vitamin C tablet

cornstarch
4 small clear glasses or jars, such as baby
food jars
iodine (available at drug stores)
apple juice
orange juice
grapefruit juice
other juices: tomato, carrot, or grape (optional)
dropper
measuring cup
measuring spoons
paper towel
marking pen
2 mixing cups

Be careful when handling iodine: It is a poison
and can stain your skin, clothing, and
countertops.

Timetable 1 hour.
1. Write the name of the juice to be tested on each of the jars. Label one
jar Vitamin C.
iodine
vitamin c
grapefruit
orange
starch
solution
apple
Step 6: Add one drop of iodine

to each jar. Cap the jar and
swirl. GAL E GR OU P.
1229
2. To prepare the starch solution, mix

teaspoon (2.5 milliliters) of cornstarch in
1 cup (0.25 liters) warm water. Stir thoroughly until the cornstarch dissolves.
3. Crush the vitamin C tablet in a folded
remedy the problem.
paper towel.
4. Dissolve the crushed tablet in 2 cups
Problem: The pure vitamin C took as many
drops as a juice to turn clear.
(0.5 liters) of warm water. The vitamin C
Possible cause: You may not have crushed and
solution is now 500 milligrams/milliliters,
dissolved the vitamin C thoroughly. Make
or 1 milligram/milliliter. Allow to cool to
sure the tablet is in a fine powder before you
room temperature.
pour it in the water, then mix briskly and
5. Put 2 tablespoons (30 milliliters) of the
starch solution into each jar.
6. Add one drop of iodine to each jar. Cap
the jar and swirl. The solution should
turn blue-black.
7. Test the control solution: Add 1 drop of the vitamin C solution to
its jar and swirl. Add another drop, if needed, until the blue-black
color has disappeared. Note the results in a chart.
8. Test each juice: Add 1 drop of the orange juice to its jar and swirl.
Continue to add drops, swirling after each drop, until the blue
color clears completely. Note the number of drops in the chart.
9. Repeat with the apple and the grapefruit juices. Note your results.
Summary of Results Examine how many drops it took for each juice to
dissolve the bond and clear the color. Graph the results of your experiment.
Which juice had the highest concentration of vitamin C? How did this
juice compare to the test standard, pure vitamin C? Hypothesize how the
vitamin C content of other types of beveragesvegetable juice, carrot
juice, soda, and sports drinkswould compare the juices you tested.
Change the Variables In this experiment you can change the variables in
several ways. You can use the same type of juice, such as orange juice, and
vary the brands. You could also test the vitamin C content in different
solid foods by blending a set quantity of each food with a set amount of
water. Length of storage, heat, light, and oxygen can all affect the amount
of vitamin C in beverages and food. You could change each of these
variables for one kind of food or beverage. With one type of juice you
could also vary the freshness. For example, you could test one frozen
1230
concentrate orange juice, one store-bought refrigerated orange juice, and one freshly squeezed
orange juice.
EXPERIMENT 2
Hard Water: Do different water
sources have varying mineral
content?
Purpose/Hypothesis Water that contains miner-

the water source
the amount of soap
the type of soap
the mineral added
als in it is called hard water. The hardness or level

of the mineral content varies from location to
location. In this experiment, you will examine
soap scum the water produces. If you change
the mineral content of various waters by mixing
the water with soap.
Two common elements in hard water are
most effect on the soap scum.
magnesium and calcium. These minerals can
lessen the cleaning ability of soap by preventing
the lathering action. Hard-water minerals readily bind to the soap molecules, forming a large and heavy compound that sinks. The result is a
soap scum that does not dissolve in water. (Water softeners remove the
hard minerals.)
To determine the hardness of varying water sources, you will mix
water with soap. You will use tap water, rainwater, and chalk-water.
Chalk is a form of limestone, which is composed of calcium.
experiment based on your knowledge of minerals and hard water. This
possible hypothesis for this experiment: The water highest in minerals
will be the chalk water; the water least high in minerals will be the
rainwater.
1231

the water source. The variable you will measure
is the hardness of the water.
If you are not using a disposable eyedropper,
make sure to wash the dropper thoroughly to
remove all traces of the soap. Be careful when
handing the hot water.
your experiment. For your control you will use
distilled water, water that has no minerals in it.
At the end of the experiment you can compare the control and the
Materials Needed
Step 8: After placing two drops

of liquid soap in each of the
bottles, shake each bottle and
examine the amount of soap
scum. GA LE GRO UP.
eyedropper
liquid soap
4 small plastic bottles with caps
measuring cup (with spout preferably)
funnel (optional)
piece of chalk (calcium)
tap water
rain water
distilled water
spoon
cup or bowl to collect rain water
marking pen
Timetable 45 minutes (not counting the time it
takes to wait for rain).
control
ta p
rain
calcium
1. On a day when rain is forecast, place a

bowl outside to collect at least 1 cup of
rainwater.
1232
2. Over a measuring cup, scrape about 1

teaspoon (5 milliliters) of chalk into powder using the edge of a spoon.
3. Measure 1 cup (240 milliliters) of hot distilled water into the cup. Stir the ground
chalk and water thoroughly. Cool to room
temperature.
4. Label the bottles: Calcium, Tap, Control, and Rain.
5. Pour the chalk water into its designated
bottle. (There may be some chunks left
over on the bottom so pour slowly.) You
may need to use a funnel for this. Rinse
out the measuring cup.
6. Measure out 1 cup (240 milliliters) of tap
water and carefully pour into its bottle.
Rinse the cup and repeat with the distilled
and rain water.
Problem: The chalk did not dissolve in the
water.
Possible cause: You may not have scraped the
chalk into a fine enough powder. Chalk will
dissolve better in warmer water than cooler
water. Repeat the experiment, making sure
to use hot water and a fine powder.
Problem: There was no difference in the amount
of scum between the calcium water and the
tap water.
Possible cause: Try allowing the bottles to sit
for another 15 minutes to determine if there
is a difference as the soap bubbles disappear.
7. Using the eyedropper, place two drops of

the liquid soap into each of the bottles.
8. Shake each of the bottles and examine the amount of soap scum.
Note a description of the results.
9. Allow the bottles to sit for 15 minutes and, again, note the results.
Summary of Results Examine the results of your experiment. Was your
hypothesis correct? How does the rainwater compare to the control? The
ability of soap and detergent to lather directly affects their ability to
clean. Hypothesize why water softeners are popular in some areas of the
country more than others. What would be the result of simply adding
more soap or detergent? Write an analysis of the experiment, including
an explanation of your results for each type of water.
Change the Variables In this experiment you can change the variable by
altering the water source. You can focus on one type of water, such as tap
water or mineral water. Different geographic locales will have varying
amounts of mineral in the water. You can also try the experiment on
different brands of mineral water.
1233
Modify the Experiment
In order to keep in top physical

shape, athletes require the
proper balance of vitamins and
minerals. AP/ WI DE W OR LD.
You can modify this experiment by increasing

the level of difficulty and experimenting with
water softeners. Water softeners inactivate the
minerals in water. Adding water softener to
hard water can lead to less soap scum and more
lather.
You will need to gather three cups, three
bottles, and a laundry water softener. Follow
the experiment procedures, making sure to save
the soapy water in the bottles. After you have
determined which water is highest in minerals,
make three more cups of this hard water. Pour
one cup of hard water into each of the three
bottles. Place two drops of liquid soap into
each of the bottles. In two of the bottles, drop
in a different amount of water softener. You
could add two drops in one bottle and four
drops in the second bottle. The third bottle
will be the control. Make sure you label each of
the bottles.
Shake each of the bottles and note the
results. How much lather or soap scum did
each bottle make? How do the results compare
to the natural rain water? Try using different
amounts of water softener. Is there an amount
you can use that will give results similar to the
rainwater? You might want to graph your findings and summarize your results.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept There are many possible
projects related to vitamins and minerals. As almost all foods contain some
amounts of vitamins and minerals, you can work with food and beverages.
You can also focus on where vitamins and minerals are derived from, and
their effect on various life forms.
nutrition teacher to learn more about vitamins and minerals. You can also
1234
gather ideas from examining the vitamin and

mineral contents listed on the packaging of the
foods you eat.

State the purpose ofand the underlying question behindthe experiment you propose to do.
question.
For most people, eating a wellbalanced diet with a wide

variety of foods supplies the
necessary amounts of vitamins
and minerals. CO PY RI GHT
# KE LL Y A. QUI N.
charts and drawings, such as the one you did for these experiments. They
Related Projects There are many possible project ideas related to vitamins
and minerals. You can examine the vitamins and minerals that you and
people you know take in by adding up the foods you eat and charting the
results. Compare the numbers to the Recommended Daily Allowances
(RDA). You can also experiment with removing the minerals from certain
types of food.
You could also examine how other species, besides humans, use
vitamins and minerals. Different animals produce certain vitamins that
humans do not. You could look at what elements these animals produce
1235
and how vitamins and minerals impact an animals health. Vitamin and
mineral deficiency is also a serious health problem in many parts of the
world. A project on deficiency diseases could include examining several of
these diseases and possible foods people of that area could easily attain to
stop or prevent the disease. You could also conduct a research project on
the history of the discovery of vitamins and minerals, and the work of
finding more of these elements.

All About What Vitamins and Minerals Do. KidsHealth. http://kidshealth.
org/kid/stay healthy/food/vitamin.html (accessed on February 19, 2008).
Easy to read explanation of vitamins and minerals.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fruits & Veggies More Matters.
http://www.fruitsandveggiesmatter.gov/ (accessed on February 19, 2008).
Provides benefits and recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables.
Food Standards Agency. Vitamins and Minerals. eatwell. http://www.eatwell.
gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals (accessed on
February 19, 2008). Information about vitamins, minerals, and where they
are found.
Kalbacken, Joan. Vitamins and Minerals. San Francisco, CA: Childrens Press,
1998. Simple, basic information about vitamins and minerals.
United States Department of Agriculture. Search the USDA National Nutrient
Database for Standard Reference. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/
search (accessed on February 19, 2008). Search for the vitamin and mineral
content of specific foods.
1236
Volcanoes
n August 24, in 79 A . D ., the citizens of Pompeii, in what is now

Italy, woke up to a warm, sunny day. Some probably went to sit
outside their beautiful villas to sit and admire the fruit trees, ornamental
wall paintings, and statues in their enclosed gardens. Many of the villas
overlooked the sparkling Bay of Naples. Businesses were opening and
some were already bustling with activity. But life in Pompeii ended
abruptly that morning when nearby Mount Vesuvius erupted. Pompeii
and the neighboring town of Herculaneum were destroyed. More than
2,000 people were suffocated by the gas and ash that spewed from
Vesuvius and covered Pompeii or by the lava flow of molten rock that
leveled Herculaneum. Pliny the Younger, a Roman historian, saw the
terrible event from the nearby town of Miseneum and wrote the first
written, eyewitness account of a volcanos eruption.
This gold pin, with the head of

a ram at the tip, was found in
Pompeii. C ORB IS .
Today Vesuvius is still an active volcano, a conical or domelike

mountain of lava, ash, and cinders that forms around a vent leading to
molten rock deep within Earth. When volcanoes
erupt, they literally blow their top, ejecting tons
of rock and debris into the air, as well as sending
clouds of toxic gases and steam and rivers of lava
down the sides of the mountain.
Get the drift? After the Americas were
discovered, scientists observed that Earths continents fit together like the pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle. The scientists believed that the continents had once been joined together in one
land mass and then violently separated. In
1912, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener
(18801930) proposed that the continents
were moving apart slowly at a predictable rate.
1237
Volcanoes
Alfred Wegeners theory about

continental drift was a first step
in discovering the dynamics of a
volcano. C OR BI S CO RP.
1238
He coined the term continental drift and conducted much research to support his theory.
Many thought Wegeners idea was radical, but
his suggestion that some force caused the continents to move eventually became the key to
unlocking the dynamics of a volcano.
After Wegener died, the geologists who agreed
with his theory took it a step further. They
proposed that the radioactive decay of naturally
occuring elements deep within Earth produced
tremendous heat. The heat was so intense that it
melted rock, forming a vast caldron of liquid that
boiled and swirled in vast amounts. This bubbling
mass generated convection currents, currents of
molten rock. The scientists suggested that these
molten rock currents pushed up under ridges in
the ocean and through active volcanoesmoving
the continents.
How does a volcano blow its top? Deep
under a volcano is Earths mantle, a layer that
lies between the the Earths crust or outermost
layer, which extends 25 miles (40 kilometers) down, and Earths core.
The further down, the hotter the temperature gets. Earths inner core can
reach 13,000F (7,000C). At the top of the mantle, around 30 miles (45
kilometers) down, magma can be found. Magma is liquid rock that
consists of gases and silica; this substance collects and forms pools
known as a magma chambers,which are the volcanos furnace. The
gases bubble through the magma, making the liquid hotter and lighter
than surrounding rocks, and this helps push this volatile liquid mixture
up through a volcanos vent.
Even the slight strain of tides can affect the inner pressure of a
volcano and cause it to blow. Most often, though, the cause is the movement of tectonic plates, large flat pieces of rocks that form Earths outer
crust and fit together like pieces of a cracked eggshell. Grinding or
overlapping can melt some of the plate rock, which pushes it up into
the magma chamber, where it causes a magma surge. If the dome over a
volcanos vent is obstructed with rock or dirt, pressure builds up even
more, causing a more violent eruption. The same basic principles that
govern tectonic plate movement can cause both earthquakes and volcanic
Volcanoes
WORDS TO KNOW
Continental drift: The theory that continents
move apart slowly at a predictable rate.
Convection currents: Circular movement of a fluid
in response to alternating heating and cooling.
Crust: The hard outer shell of Earth that floats
upon the softer, denser mantle.
Lava: Molten rock that occurs at the surface of
Earth, usually through volcanic eruptions.
Magma: Molten rock deep within Earth that consists of liquids, gases, and particles of rocks and
crystals. Magma underlies areas of volcanic
activity and at Earths surface is called lava.
Magma chambers: Pools of bubbling liquid rock
that are the source of energy causing volcanoes
to be active.
Magma surge: A swell or rising wave of magma

caused by the movement and friction of tectonic
plates, which heats and melts rock, adding to the
magma and its force.
Mantle: Thick dense layer of rock that underlies
Seismograph: A device that records vibrations of
the ground and within Earth.
Seismometer: A seismograph that measures the
movement of the ground.
Tectonic plates: Huge flat rocks that form Earths
crust.
Volcano: A conical mountain or dome of lava, ash,
and cinders that forms around a vent leading to
molten rock deep within Earth.
eruptions, so it is not surprising that both can be detected by the same

instrument. While seismographs are used mostly for detecting earthquakes, they can also detect vibrations deep within Earth that indicate
the gradual rise of magma.
Sometimes theres a good side to a down side The citizens of Pompeii
and others who died because of volcanic eruptions would certainly disagree
that there is any positive side to this natural disaster; but volcanic eruptions
do have some good effects. If an eruption produces a layer of ash less than 8
inches (20 centimeters) thick, farmers get a free, nutritient-rich natural
fertilizer blanketing their land. For example, the ash from Mount Vesuvius
helps the grapes grow in that areas wine region. Although the 20 feet (6
meters) of ash that covered Pompeii smothered every living thing, the ash
also preserved the city, its artifacts, and its inhabitants. Archeological findings
have shown us in detail the civilization of an ancient people who were lively,
cultured, and gifted.
In the following projects you will be able to learn more about
volcanoes.
1239
Volcanoes
PROJECT 1
Do not activate the volcanos eruption without
adult supervision. Wear goggles to do it. Always
handle scissors carefully.
Model of a Volcano: Will

it blow its top?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this activity you will
construct a working model of a volcano. This

model will demonstrate the dynamics of magma
flow and the gaseous buildup that causes a volcano to blow.

Materials Needed
Step 3: Set-up of plastic tube

and straws. GA LE GRO UP.
glue
8-inch (20-centimeter) long plastic tube, 1.5 inches (3.8 centimeter)
in diameter
4 plastic straws
newspaper
masking tape
scissors
4 rolls plaster of Paris gauze (or papier-mache mix and newspaper)
empty film container
effervescent antacid tablets
water
goggles or other eye protection
brown and red water-based or acrylic paint
cornstarch
baking soda
vinegar
red food coloring
1. Place about six sheets of newspaper over

the surface you will be working on.
1240
Volcanoes
2. Poke four holes in the plastic tube

between 1 and 2 inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters) from the bottom. Make sure the
straws can fit through the holes.
3. Glue the straws into the tubes holes,
making sure the glue does not clog the
straws openings.
4. Twist a sheet of newspaper into a stick
shape. Repeat with several sheets.
5. Wrap the sticks around the tube, making
sure the straws stick out, and tape into
place. The bottom should be wide and the top narrower, just like a
volcano.
6. Gently moisten the plaster of Paris strips and wrap them around
the volcano. Make sure you cover all the newspaper.
7. Allow to dry for 30 minutes. Trim the straws that are protruding
out of the volcano.
8. Paint the surface with brown and red water-based or acrylic paint
and allow to dry.
9. Using leftover material, create a cap that covers the top of the
plastic tube. Make sure its removable but snug.
10. Remove the volcano cap.
11. Place one to five antacid tablets inside the plastic film container.
12. Pour 1 tablespoon of water into the container. Snap the top on and drop into the
plastic tube opening at the top of the
volcano.
13. Place the volcano cap back on quickly,
stand back, and watch it blow!
14. Remove the volcano cap.
15. Mix 1 cup (224 grams) of cornstarch with
0.75 cup (178 milliliters) of water. Add
ten drops of red food coloring. Add 0.25
cup (56 grams) baking soda mix and add
0.25 cup (56 grams) of vinegar.
16. Pour the mixture into the plastic tube and
observe. The magma mixture will swell
inside the volcano and cause a bubbling
eruption. Slowly the magma will creep
Steps 4 and 5: Wrap newspaper

sticks around the tube, making
sure the straws stick out, and
tape into place. GAL E GR OU P.
Step 16: The magma mixture

will swell inside the volcano
and cause a bubbling eruption.
Slowly the magma will creep
out of the volcano and become
lava. G ALE GRO UP .
1241
Volcanoes
out of the volcano and become lava. Lava

should also slowly come out of the straw
vents on the side.
this project, possible causes, and ways to
Problem: The magma/lava flow did not come
out of the straws.
Summary of Results Write a paragraph explain-
ing what you witnessed when the volcano

erupted and the magama/lava flowed. Research
how Mount Vesuvius blew and compare your
volcano with how that volcano erupted. Make a
diagram of the internal structure of the volcano.
Possible cause: The tubes are clogged. Stick a

pipe cleaner through the straws to make sure
the tubes are open. Add more vinegar and
baking soda to the mix and try again.
PROJECT 2
Problem: The film container did not blow the

top off the volcano.
Looking at a Seismograph: Can a

volcanic eruption be detected?
Purpose/Hypothesis Seismometers are instruments that detect disturbances in Earths

crust. Used mostly for earthquake detection,
they can also measure the turbulence of a volcanos magma activity. The disturbance or
activity is recorded on a seismograph, a sheet of paper that shows the
intensity of the activity. For this project you will construct a seismograph that will simulate the types of disturbances that indicate volcanic
activity.
Possible cause: You need more antacid. Try

adding more to the container and do not forget
to wear your goggles.

Steps 1 to 3: Set-up of shoe box
and coil toy. GA LE G RO UP.
Materials Needed
shoe box
metal coil toy (like a Slinky)
metal block (or a stone), 2 by 2 inches (5
x 5 centimeters)
pencil
roll of adding machine tape
scissors
tape
Approximate Budget $2 to $5 for purchase of
coil toy and adding machine tape.
1242
Volcanoes
Timetable Less than 30 minutes.

1. Cut a 2.5 to 3-inch (6 to 7-centimeter)

Handle scissors carefully.
slit on each side of a shoe box.
2. With scissors cut the coil toy in half.
3. Poke a hole in the top of the box and pull a few coils of the toy
through.
4. Tape the metal block to the spring.
5. Tape the pencil to the block. Face the tip toward the back and
make sure the tip touches the back wall.
6. Carefully feed the paper through both slits cut in the side walls.
Do not tear the paper. You have now built the seismograph.
7. Place your seismograph on a table.
8. Place any heavy object on top of the seismograph to hold it in
place.
9. Ask a friend to help by gently shaking the table or lifting it off the
ground a half inch.
10. As your friend is causing the disturbance, slowly and gently pull
the paper through the hole.
Summary of Results Examine your seismic data. The tape records the
magnitude of seismic disturbances in Earths crust that can lead to a

magma surge. Mark your tape with observations of what may have
happened if a volcano really erupted. Refer to the illustration of the
sample seismograph paper for ideas.
Steps 4 to 6: Set-up of the

seismograph. GAL E GR OU P.
1243
Volcanoes


Concept These projects are simple models that

will familiarize you with some of the important

dynamics of a volcano. If you wish to investigate
further, research the type, sizes, and places of
volcanoes. Or lava flows, properties of lava, or
the effects of volcanic ash may interest you.
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on volcano questions that interest you.
Problem: The pencil does not move up and

down.
Possible cause: The coil toy is too tight. Either
try a heavier coil toy or gently stretch the coil
toy until the coils no longer touch each other.
Problem: The pencil is not making clear marks
on the seismograph paper.

your question.
Possible cause: The pencil is not touching

the paper. Adjust it or try using a marker with
a fine tip.
Sample seismograph paper with

observations recorded. How
does your paper compare? GA LE
GR OU P.
1244
Volcanoes

selected.
In any experiment, you should keep notes and

data organized so that others can utilize and
understand it. Charts, graphs, and pictures are
excellent ways to share and summarize your
results.
Related Projects Besides constructing a model of
a volcano and simulating its eruption, you could

investigate the environmental effects of eruptions or past climate changes due to eruptions.
Start by asking a question you want answered.
Then construct an investigation around that
question.

North Dakota and Oregon Space Grant Consortia.
Volcano World. http://volcano.und.edu (accessed on January 12, 2008).
Rubin, Ken. Volcano & Earthquakes. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for
Young Readers, 2007.
Van Rose, Susanna. Volcano & Earthquake. New York: Knopf, 1992.
Photographs and text explain the causes and effects of volcanoes and
earthquakes and examine specific occurrences throughout history.
Mount Tolbachik in Russias

Kamchatka Peninsula erupted
on July 6, 1975, spewing lava
that gushed at a speed of 550
feet (168 meters) per second.
AP/ WI DE W OR LD PH OT OS.
1245
Water Cycle
ater is found not only in oceans, rivers, streams, ponds, swamps,

puddles, and similar places. It is also stored in the soil, in polar ice
caps, and in underground areas called aquifers. Some water is actually in
the air as water vapor. The water cycle, sometimes called the hydrologic
cycle, is the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere,
land, and bodies of water. Rainstorms are the major way that water gets
from the atmosphere to Earth. Then the rain seeps into the soil or runs
over land into streams, rivers, and oceans.
Over time, water evaporates from lakes, ponds, swamps, rivers,
oceans, and even soil, changing from a liquid to a gas called water
vapor. This water vapor rises into the atmosphere again, where it cools
and condenses around dust or salt particles in the air, turning back into
droplets of liquid. When the droplets get too heavy to remain in the air,
they fall as precipitation: rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
Water vapor is often invisible, but on a warm summer day, you can
feel water vapor. The air often feels damp because it contains a lot of water
vapor.
How much water can the air hold? There is a limit to how much
water vapor air can hold. When the air becomes saturated with water
vapor, the excess water vapor condenses into droplets of water. Water
vapor high in the atmosphere forms clouds, large masses of droplets.
When these clouds are close to the ground, we call them fog. You have
probably also seen water vapor condense on windows or on cold drink
glasses.
Is the water cycle a new idea? The water cycle is driven by the Sun
and gravity and affects climate, soils, erosion, habitat, transportation,
and so on. This cycle has been recognized and studied by scientists for
thousands of years. Leonardo da Vinci wrote about it in the 1400s. The
founders of modern hydrologic study were Pierre Perroult (16081680),
1247
Water Cycle
Illustration of global water

cycle. GAL E GR OU P.
Edme Mariotte (16201684), and Edmund Halley (16561742). Today,

people who study the water cycle are called hydrologists.
People can affect the water cycle. For example, paving land with
concrete decreases the amount of water that can enter the soil. Using
dams to create artificial lakes or reservoirs increases evaporation. What
other factors affect the water cycle? How do temperature and surface area
affect the rate at which water changes into water vapor? You will have an
opportunity to explore these questions in the following two experiments.
When it is really cold outside
you can see your breath. What
you see is water vapor. GRA NT
H EIL MA N.
EXPERIMENT 1
Temperature: How does temperature
affect the rate of evaporation?
Purpose/Hypothesis Evaporation occurs when
liquid water turns into water vapor, a gas. The

more water that evaporates and then condenses
back into water droplets in the atmosphere, the
more rain that falls.
In this experiment, you will determine how
water temperature affects the rate of evaporation.
1248
Water Cycle
WORDS TO KNOW
Aquifer: Underground layer of sand, gravel, or
spongy rock that collects water.
Condense/condensation: The process by which a
gas changes into a liquid.
the experiment but is not affected by the variable that affects the experimental group.
Results from the control experiment are compared to results from the actual experiment.
Evaporate/evaporation: The process by which
liquid changes into a gas.
Hydrologists: Scientists who study water and its
cycle.
Hydrology: The study of water and its cycle.
Precipitation: Water in its liquid or frozen form

when it falls from clouds in the atmosphere as
rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
Saturated: Containing the maximum amount of a
solute for a given amount of solvent at a certain
temperature.
Surface area: The area of a body of water that is
exposed to the air.
experiment.
Water (hydrologic) cycle: The constant movement
of water molecules on Earth as they rise into the
atmosphere as water vapor, condense into
droplets and fall to land or bodies of water,
evaporate, and rise again.
Water vapor: Water in its gaseous state.
knowledge of evaporation. This educated guess, or prediction, is your

hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:

The water cycle is important to

all life forms because it brings
water continuously to land and
removes many impurities along
the way. A P I MAG ES .

experiment: The warmer the water temperature, the more evaporation will occur.
be the temperature of the water, and the variable
1249
Water Cycle

the amount of water in each container at
the beginning and end of the experiment
the surface area of the water
the amount of humidity or water vapor in
the air
are everything that might affect the rate of
evaporation of the water. If you change more
evaporation.
you will measure will be the amount of water left

in your containers at the end of the experiment.
You expect the container with the warmer water
will have less water left because more has evaporated into the air.
change between the control and your experimental containers, and that is the water temperature.
The control container will remain at room temperature. You will make the water in the experimental containers cooler or warmer than room
temperature.
You will record the amount of water you put
into your containers and the amount of water left
after the containers spend a day at different
temperatures. If the container with the hotter
water has less water left in it, your hypothesis is
correct.
Materials Needed
3 containers of the same size, shape, and material

6 cups (3 pints or 1.4 liter) water
ice cubes
Step 2: Set-up of three

containers. GAL E GR OU P.
1250
Water Cycle
an insulated container large enough to

hold one of the three containers above
(an ice chest would work)
thermometer
measuring cup
graduated cylinder
flexible lamp

If your containers are made of glass, handle
them carefully. Also be careful not to touch the
light bulb in the lamp.

available in the average household.)
Timetable 1 to 2 hours to set up and take the initial data, plus another 24
hours to take the final data.

1. Measure 2 cups (1 pint or 0.4 liters) of water into two containers.

Fill the third container to the same level with a mixture of water
and as many ice cubes as will fit. Mark the water level on the side of
each container.
2. Label one container control, the second one warm, and the
third one with the ice cool.
3. Place all three containers in a room where the temperature is about
70 to 72F (21 to 22C). Use the thermometer to take the
temperature, and record it on your data sheet.
4. Leave the control container as is. Place the cool container inside
the insulated container. Take the water temperature and record it.
Data sheet for Experiment 1.

GA LE G RO UP.
1251
Water Cycle
planned. However, figuring out what went
remedy the problem.
Problem: The containers all lost about the same
amount of water.
Possible cause: The water temperatures were
not different enough. Use more ice in the cool
one, and place the light bulb closer to the
warm one.
5. Place the flexible light so it shines

directly on the warm container but does
not warm the other two containers. After
an hour or so, take the water temperature
and record it.
6. Leave your containers in place for 24
hours.
7. The next day, use the graduated cylinder
to measure the amount of water remaining in each container. Record your
findings.
Summary of Results Study your results. How did
the air temperature affect the amount of evaporation from each container? Was your hypothesis
correct? Summarize what you found.
Change the Variables You can change the variables and repeat this
experiment to learn more. Try controlling the temperature more closely

so you can measure the change in evaporation rate that occurs with a
smaller temperature difference. You can also see if any changes in the
results occur when you change the size or shape of your containers. What
do you notice?
Modify the Experiment This experiment examines how the temperature
of water affects its evaporation rate. Wind speed also can have a significant affect on evaporation. You can make this experiment more challenging by measuring how wind speed compares to temperature in affecting
the rate of evaporation.
In order to measure wind speed, you will need two small fans that are
the same size. You can use the same three containers you used to test
temperature differences. Again, fill each of the containers with two cups
of water. Set one fan to a low speed and place it near the first container.
Set the second fan on a high speed and place it near the second container.
The third container will be your control. Leave the containers alone for
24 hours, and then use the graduated cylinder to measure the remaining
water in each container.
Compare your data for wind speed and temperature variations.
The results only measure how two specific wind speeds compare to
1252
Water Cycle
specific temperatures. In actuality, wind and

temperature would vary and they would play
a role together. You can experiment with different wind speeds and temperatures to find
the highest or lowest evaporation rate. You
can also look at humidity, another key weather
event that affects evaporation rate. Humidity is the amount of water
vapor in the air. You can experiment with humidity by using a
humidifier, and placing a container of water in an enclosed area,
such as a closet.
EXPERIMENT 2
Surface Area: How does surface area affect the rate of
evaporation?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will fill containers of
different sizes with the same amount of water to explore how their
surface area affects the rate of evaporation. For example, if you poured
a certain amount of water in a tall, thin test tube with a small surface
area, and the same amount in a short, broad cake pan with a large
surface area, which container would have the greater rate of
evaporation?
experiment based on your knowledge of evaporation. This educated
these things:
experiment: A greater surface area will lead to
faster evaporation.
be the surface area of your trays. The variable
Which body of water do you

think experiences the most
evaporation? PE TE R AR NO LD
INC .
1253
Water Cycle

surface area of the water
amount of water
length of the experiment
temperature of the water
the amount of humidity or water vapor in
the air
are everything that might affect the rate of
evaporation of the water. If you change more
evaporation.
you will measure is amount of evaporation that

occurs.
For the control experiment, you will use a
medium-sized tray. For the experimental containers, you will use larger and smaller trays.
You will measure how much evaporation occurs
by monitoring the water level in the trays over
time and measuring the amount of water left.
If the tray with the largest surface area shows the
fastest rate of evaporation, then your hypothesis
is correct.
Materials Needed
3 metal or plastic square or rectangular

watertight trays or containers of different
sizes
water
graduated cylinder
available in the average household; try to borrow the graduated

cylinder.)
Step 1: Figuring the surface

area of the tray. GAL E GR OU P.
1254
Water Cycle
Data sheet for Experiment 2.

GA LE G RO UP.
Timetable About 5 days.

1. With your ruler, measure both sides of each tray. Multiply the two
sides together to get the surface area of the tray. Record these
numbers on your data sheet (see illustration).
2. Measure exactly the same volume of water into each tray. The
amount is not important, as long as you know how much it is and
put the same amount in each tray.
3. Place the trays side by side under the same conditions. They
should either all be exposed to sunlight or all be in the dark, for
example.
Steps 2 and 3: Set-up of the

three trays. Place the trays side
by side under the same
conditions. GAL E GR OU P.
1255
Water Cycle
Problem: No evaporation occurred.
Possible cause: Your containers did not receive
enough light or heat for measurable water to
evaporate. Try putting all of them in direct
sunlight.
Problem: Evaporation seemed the same in all
the containers.
Possible cause: There is not enough difference
in the surface areas of your containers. Try using
larger trays and smaller trays.
4. After the trays sit for a day, pour the water

from each tray into the graduated cylinder and measure it. Record this information on your data sheet, and pour the
water back into the same tray. Be careful
not to lose any water as you pour.
5. Repeat Step 4 every day for five days.
Summary of Results To find out how much
water evaporated each day, subtract the amount
of water left each day from the amount from the
previous day. Compare your findings. What
have you discovered? Did the tray with the largest surface area lose the most water to evaporation? Did the tray with the smallest surface area
lose water to evaporation at the slowest rate? Was
your hypothesis correct? Summarize what you
have found.
example, you can use pans that are really big and really small. Compare
the evaporation rates. What does this tell you about evaporation from
lakes, ponds, and oceans?
You can also experiment with the effect of temperature. Try moving
all your pans to a very warm or very cool place, such as a refrigerator.
What happens then? Be sure to record the temperature in the places you
put the pans.
Finally, you can use containers with similar surface area but different
depths. Determine the effect of depth on the evaporation rate.

the water cycle, you could study the evaporation rate when water is
moving and still, investigate the evaporation differences between
saltwater and fresh water, or compare how concrete and soil affect
the rate of evaporation.
If you are more interested in condensation, you could try making
your own clouds and studying the effects of water temperature, air
temperature, and sizes of water bodies. Or you may want to study the
1256
Water Cycle
surfaces on which rain falls on and measure how long it takes to evaporate
or seep into the soil.
information on water cycle questions that interest you.
what question you are answering, what your are or should be measuring,
or what your findings prove or disprove.
your question.
If you are preparing an exhibit, draw diagrams of your procedure and
display your containers. If you have done a nonexperimental project,
explain clearly what your research question was and illustrate your findings.
Related Projects In addition to completing experiments, you could prepare
models that demonstrate the water cycle or you could research how the water
cycle is being affected by human actions, globally or locally. You might study
the amounts of rainfall in different parts of the country and how landforms
affect rainfall. You might go in many directions with your interests.

Hooper, Meredith, and Christopher Coady. The Drop in My Drink: The Story of
Water on Our Planet. New York: Viking Childrens Books, 1998. Detailed
information on the water cycle, interesting facts about water, and important
environmental information.
1257
Water Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle. Earthscape. http://www.und.edu/instruct/eng/fkarner/

pages/cycle.htm (accessed on March 2, 2008). Explanation of the water cycle
process along with activities.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Droplet and the Water Cycle.
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/droplet.html(accessed on March 2, 2008). A game
were users follow the cycle of a water droplet.
U.S. Geological Survey. The Water Cycle. Water Science for Schools. http://
ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html (accessed on March 2, 2008).
Information and illustrations on the water cycle.
Walker, Sally M. Water Up, Water Down: The Hydrologic Cycle. Minneapolis, MN:
Carolrhoda Earth Watch Book, 1992. Descriptions of the water cycle, historically
important experiments, and the water cycles importance to all life on Earth.
1258
Water Properties
ithout water, the life forms we see on Earth could not possibly
exist. This simple combination of three atomsone oxygen, two
hydrogenacts in complex ways that can turn a barren, dusty planet into
a thriving biological community. What are the properties of water that
make it so versatile and vital? How can we measure and compare waters
properties to those of other liquids?
A number of observable properties of water result from its molecular
structure, meaning not only the atoms that make up water, but also the
shape of the water molecule. The bonds between the one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms do not form a straight line but form an angle like a wide
V. This shape gives the molecule a positive electric charge on one side and
a negative electric charge on the other. This charge gives water the
properties of adhesion, the tendency to stick to certain other substances
and cohesion, the tendency to stick to itself.
The molecular structure of

water. GAL E GR OU P.
Adhesion and cohesion in everyday life The properties of adhesion

and cohesion can be easily observed by watching raindrops on a windowpane. Adhesion holds the drops to the glass. Even if the window is tilted
forward, some drops will cling to the underside of the pane. Cohesion can
be seen if you trace the path of drops down the
pane. Drops close to one another will be drawn
together by cohesion, forming larger drops.
Observe carefully and you will see that drops
will far more readily join together than split
apart. Splitting a water drop requires some energy
or change to loosen the bonds that hold the
molecules together.
Cohesion, as you might predict, results from
the attraction of one water molecules positive
side to another water molecules negative side.
1259
Water Properties
Cohesion creates surface tension, which enables

water bugs to skate along the waters surface
without sinking. The first experiment will demonstrate that surface tension can keep afloat an
object that is denser than water. You will then
compare the surface tension of two other liquids
to that of water.
Forces affecting adhesion Adhesion, waters
tendency to cling to certain substances, creates
capillary action. In extremely narrow spaces,
such as inside water vessels in the stem of a
plant, water will actually rise against gravity by
the force of adhesion. This capillary action helps
plants pull water up from the soil.
Observe the surface of water in a straw: the
water can be seen climbing the wall of the
straw. This bowing of the waters surface is called
the meniscus, and it is caused by the strength of
the waters adhesion to the solid around it. In
liquids that have much stronger cohesion than
adhesion, such as mercury, the meniscus bows
upward at the middle and down at the edges.
Waters adhesive force causes its
meniscus to rise up the walls of
the straw. Mercurys cohesive
force causes it to bow away
from the walls of the straw and
toward itself. PH OT O
Adhesion in water depends upon the structure of the second substances molecules. Some
substances are hydrophilic, attracted to water, and some are hydrophobic,
not attracted to water. This explains why water will easily clean a salty
film off your hands, but will not efficiently remove grease without using
detergent. Salt is hydrophilic, but grease is normally hydrophobic. Detergent acts as a link between the water molecules and the grease. The
molecules of the detergent possess one end that bonds with the grease
and another end that bonds with water. When these detergent molecules
coat the grease, they change it from hydrophobic to hydrophilic (see
illustration).
In the first experiment, you will demonstrate the strength of the
cohesive force of water by floating a metal object (one that ordinarily
would not float) on its surface. In the second experiment, you will
measure the adhesive force between water and a solid by determining
how much weight is required to break the strength of adhesion. You will
1260
Water Properties
WORDS TO KNOW
Adhesion: Attraction between two different
substances.
Hydrophilic: A substance that is attracted to and

readily mixes with water.
Buoyancy: The tendency of a liquid to exert a

lifting effect on a body immersed in it.
Hydrophobic: A substance that is repelled by and

does not mix with water.
Capillary action: The tendency of water to rise

through a narrow tube by the force of adhesion
between the water and the walls of the tube.

experiment.
Cohesion: Attraction between like substances.
Meniscus: The curved surface of a column of liquid.

volume.

an experiment.
then predict how coating the solid with a hydrophobic substance such as
grease or petroleum jelly will affect the strength of adhesion.
EXPERIMENT 1
Cohesion: Can the cohesive force of surface tension in
water support an object denser than water?
Purpose/Hypothesis In this experiment, you will first demonstrate the
strength of the cohesive force of water by floating a metal object on its

surface. Then you will test the relative cohesive force of two other liquids
by attempting to float the same object and others on them. Before you
begin, make an educated guess about the outcome of this experiment
based on your knowledge of the properties of
water. This educated guess, or prediction, is your
things:
Surface tension of a paper clip

floating on water. PH OTO

1261
Water Properties

the composition of the liquids
the purity of the liquids
the type of objects used to test surface
tension
the method by which the objects are
placed on the liquids
are everything that might affect the surface
tension of the liquid. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on surface tension.

Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: We can determine from observation of
surface tension whether other liquids have
greater or lesser cohesion than water.
the liquid, and the variable you will measure is
whether the object floats or sinks. You expect
that you will be able to observe the differences
in surface tension between liquids.
Materials Needed
3 wide-mouth glass jars or drinking

glasses
corn oil
isopropyl alcohol
distilled water
3 unused staples (make sure they are clean
of any adhesive)
3 small sewing needles
3 small steel paper clips
3 large steel paper clips
tweezers
safety goggles

Do not substitute any other liquids in this
experiment without checking with your teacher
first. Always wear goggles when experimenting
with alcohol and work in a well-ventilated
room. Keep the alcohol away from your nose
and mouth.
Approximate Budget $1 to $10. (Most materials

may be found in the average household.)
1. Pour 2 inches (5 centimeters) of water into jar 1. Fill jar 2 to the

same level with alcohol, and fill jar 3 to the same level with oil.
2. If you are using objects other that those in the materials list,
make sure none of them is less dense than the liquid, which
would make them float due to buoyancy and not due to
1262
Water Properties
cohesion and surface tension. To find

out, push each object to the bottom of
the liquid. If it floats to the top, then
you must replace it with something
denser.
3. Using the tweezers, carefully place a staple
flat on the surface of the water. You
should have little difficulty floating the
staple on the water.
4. Remove the staple and try the needle and
the paper clips. Do not put two objects in
the cup at the same time, and let any
ripples settle before trying the next object.
5. On your chart, describe what each object
does. Your chart should look something
6. Repeat Steps 3, 4, and 5 with jar 2 and jar 3.
Summary of Results Examine your chart and
When doing experiments in adhesion and
cohesion, be aware that unintended impurities
can greatly affect your results. Natural oil from
your fingers can alter the behavior of a small
object on water, and an invisible soap film on
the inside of a glass can easily spoil your results.
remedy the problem.
Problem: When any object is placed on the
surface of the water, it sinks.
Possible causes:
1. None of your objects is light enough. Try
using a staple and a sewing needle.
2. Your water has been contaminated.
Dump it out, clean the glass, and make
sure the glass is rinsed clean of any soap
residue.
compare the results of the tests for each liquid.

Did your predictions prove true? Were you able
to get meaningful results for each liquid? Which
liquid had the strongest cohesion? The weakest? How did the cohesive
force of alcohol and oil compare to the cohesion of water?

1263
Water Properties
the type of substance applied to the

object
ables and conduct similar experiments. For

example, what happens to the surface tension
if you dissolve salt in the water? That is, does
salty seawater have a different surface tension
than fresh water? You can also change the temperature of the watereither cooling or heating
itto determine the effect on surface tension.
Warning: Do not try heating the alcohol, as it
may burn with an almost-invisible flame and
cause injury or damage.
the amount of substance applied to the

object
EXPERIMENT 2

the purity of the water
the shape of the object used to test
adhesion

are everything that might affect the surface
tension of the liquid. If you change more than
variable had the most effect on surface tension.
The materials pictured will

serve to test your hypothesis, but
you might wish to construct a
sturdier set-up for
demonstrations or repeated
tests. GA LE G RO UP.
1264
Adhesion: How much weight

is required to break the adhesive
force between an object and water?
first determine the strength of the adhesive force

between a flat piece of wood and the surface of
water. Then you will measure the effect of altering the adhesion between
the two by adding a hydrophobic substance. Before you begin, make an
educated guess about the outcome of this experiment based on your
knowledge of the properties of water. This educated guess, or prediction,
is your hypothesis. A hypothesis should explain these things:
experiment: A coating of a hydrophobic substance on an object will measurably reduce the
adhesive force between that object and water.
the coating on the object, and the variable you
Water Properties
will measure is amount of weight (force) it

takes to overcome the surface tension. You
expect that a hydrophobic coating on an object
will reduce the weight required to overcome
surface tension.

Do not substitute any other substances in this
experiment without checking with your science
teacher first. If you decide to construct a sturdier balance, remember that you must wear
safety glasses when hammering nails.
Materials Needed
9 x 12-inch (23 x 30-centimeter) pan

block of balsa wood, approximately 6 inches (15 centimeters)
square and less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) thick, available in
most hobby stores)
12-inch (30-centimeter) or longer
wooden dowel
wooden ruler with three holes (to fit a three-ring binder)
plastic container with two holes punched near the lip
thumb tacks
string
pencil
distilled water
-cup of a hydrophobic substance such as cooking oil, grease, or
petroleum jelly
5 rolls of pennies (or enough to fill the container)
Approximate Budget $10 to $15. (Most materials may be found in the
average household.)
Steps 1 to 3: The assembled

balance should look like this.
GAL E GR OU P.
1. Assemble your balance.

a. Measure and mark the exact center of
the block of wood (draw two diagonals
from corner to corner). Cut a 30-inch
(76-centimeter) length of string and tie
a small loop in one end. Push a thumb
tack partway into the center mark.
Twist the loop of string around the
1265
Water Properties
The action of detergent between

water and grease. G AL E
GRO UP.
tack, and push the tack as far into the

wood as possible, securing the string.
b. Cut a 24-inch (60-centimeter) length
of string and loop the end through the
two holes in the lip of the plastic container. Then tie the end onto the
length of string about 4 inches (10
centimeters) up from the container.
c. Cut a 6-inch (15-centimeter) length of
string and tie it firmly around the
dowel, 2 inches (5 centimeters) from
the end. If necessary, put a tack next to
the loop of string to keep it from slipping off. Tie the other end of the string
through the center hole of the ruler.
d. Place the dowel on a desk so the ruler
is suspended at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) out over the
floor. Attach the wooden blocks string to one of the outside
holes on the ruler. Make sure that when the ruler is held level,
the block is suspended 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) from the floor.
2. Attach the plastic container to the other end of the ruler and begin
filling it with pennies until the weight is balanced. Record how
many pennies equals the weight of the wood block.
3. Place the pan on the floor beneath the wood block. Fill the pan
with water until the block is resting on the waters surface. The
ruler should remain at or close to level. (You may need someone

1266
Water Properties
to steady the ruler so it does not shift

from side to side during this step.)
4. Begin adding pennies to the plastic
container until the downward force
of the weight overcomes the force of
adhesion and lifts the block off the
surface of the water. Record the number of pennies added on a chart like
the one illustrated.
5. Wipe the block and let it sit in a warm
place for several hours until it is dry.
Coat the underside of the block with
your hydrophobic substance. (Note:
Once you have coated the block, you
will not be able to repeat Step 4. Some
of the substance may remain permanently on the wood, changing the adhesive force. If you wish to do repeated
tests, you must use two blocks.)
6. Remove enough pennies so the block is
balanced once more, and place the block
back on the waters surface. Repeat Step
4. Record the number of pennies necessary to lift the block clear of the water.
When doing experiments in adhesion and
cohesion, be aware that unintended impurities
can greatly affect your results. Natural oil from
your fingers can alter the behavior of a small
object on water, and an invisible soap film on
the inside of a container can easily spoil your
results. Here are some problems that may arise
and ways to remedy the problems.
Problem: The block breaks free of the adhesive
force after the addition of very little or no
weight.
Possible cause: The tack in the block is not
properly centered. Pulling upward on one side
of the block will overcome the adhesive force
more easily. Center the tack.
Problem: The plastic container is full and the
block still has not been balanced or lifted.
Possible causes:
1. Your container is too small.
2. Your block is too heavy. Use balsa wood
(and not a hardwood).
Summary of Results Examine your data and com-
pare the results of the tests with your hypothesis.

Did your hypothesis prove true? Compare the number of pennies necessary
to balance the block in Step 2 to the number necessary to break the surface
tension in Step 4. The difference between these two numbers shows the
strength of the surface tension. Note on your chart the exact number of
pennies.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment to investigate differ-
ent aspects of adhesion and cohesion. Try altering the test materials to
determine whether different solids have different levels of adhesion to
water. Repeat the experiment using a block wrapped in plastic and
another wrapped in aluminum foil. Hypothesize whether the two will
1267
Water Properties
show different levels of adhesion and test your

hypothesis. Be sure to check with your teacher
before testing with new materials.
Modify the Experiment Hydrophobic substan-
Cohesion, the bonding of water

molecules to one another,
enables this water bug to
skate over the waters surface
without sinking. PE TER
AR NO LD I NC.
ces, such as soap and oil, affect the surface tension of water. You can conduct a simple
experiment with adhesion and surface tension
with liquid soap and a small object, such as a
staple. Take four or five small plastic widemouth glasses or bowls. Fill all the glasses
about half way with water. Use the results of
Experiment 1 to find an object that floats, such
as a staple or small paperclip. With tweezers,
carefully place the staple (or other object) in
the first glass so that it floats. You should have
at least five of the same object.
In the second glass, add a drop of liquid soap
and stir. Wait for the water to settle and then
slowly place a clean staple (or other object) into
the glass. Does it float? Write down the number
of soap droplets and the results on a chart. Now
add two drops of soap to the third glass and stir.
Again, place a clean staple carefully on top of the
water and note the results. Continue add one more drop to each glass
until the object no longer floats. If you reuse the glasses or objects, make
sure you wash and dry them thoroughly. How does breaking the cohesive
forces of water depend upon the amount of a hydrophobic substance?
You can repeat this experiment with different size and shape objects.

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The simple experiments
described here touch on only a few aspects of adhesion and cohesion.

Many experiments on the nature of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances can be performed with inexpensive, readily available materials.
information on water property questions that interest you.
1268
Water Properties


your question.
included here and in any experiments you develop, you can look for
ways to display your data in more accurate and interesting ways. Diagrams
would be especially useful in Experiment 2.
Related Projects To develop other experiments on this topic, think about
adhesion and cohesion in everyday life. Why does a coaster stick to the
bottom of a wet glass? Investigate the function of capillary action in
plants. Think of ways you could demonstrate the reason oil spills are so
damaging to our ecosystem. Investigate how oil spills are cleaned up
without polluting the water with detergents.

Environment Canada. Properties of Water. The Nature of Water. http://
www.ec.gc.ca/WATER/en/nature/prop/e prop.htm (accessed on March 2,
2008). Lots of brief explanations about the different properties of water.
Kyrk, John. Animated Essentials of Water and pH. http://www.johnkyrk.
com/H2O.html (accessed on March 2, 2008). Animations of the chemical
properties of water.
1269
Water Properties
U.S. Geological Survey. Water Properties. Water Science for Schools. http://
ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterproperties.html (accessed on March 2, 2008).
Information and illustrations about the properties of water.
Van Cleave, Janice. Chemistry For Every Kid. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1989. Contains a number of simple and informative demonstrations
and investigations into properties of water, including cohesion, the meniscus,
and capillary action.
1270
Weather
The Suns rays shine directly on

the equator, so that region gets
very warm. The rays hit the
North and South Poles at an
angle, so the same amount of
heat spreads over a wider area,
thus these regions stay cool.
GA LE G RO UP.
eather is the state of the troposphere at a particular time and place.

The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earths atmosphere, ranging
to an altitude of about 9 miles (15 kilometers) above Earths surface.
Weather differs from climate. Climate is the average weather that a
region experiences over a long period. A change in the weather can mean a
rain shower. A change in climate might consist of a year-round warming
trend that affects how crops grow in a region.
All weather starts with the Suns heat, but the Sun does not heat
Earths surface evenly. The Suns direct rays make the equator regions
much warmer than other areas, while the tilt of Earths axis causes the
hemisphere that is tilted toward the Sun to be warmer than the hemisphere that is tilted away from the Sun.
The elements of weather include temperature, humidity, cloudiness,
precipitation (rain, snow, hail), wind, and air pressure. These elements
interact to spread the Suns heat more evenly around Earth. Without
them, the equator region would get much hotter than it does, while the
pole regions would get colder.
Air moves because of differences in both temperature and air
pressure, also called atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is the
pressure exerted by the atmosphere at Earths
surface due to the weight of the air.
As the Sun heats Earths surface, the surface
heats the air above it. As the air molecules warm
up, they move farther apart. This reduces the
density or heaviness of the air and creates an area
of low air pressure. On the other hand, molecules in cool air are closer together, making that
air denser and heavier. Cool air creates an area of
high air pressure.
1271
Weather
Recognizing different types of

clouds can help you predict the
weather. FI EL D MA RK
P UBL IC ATI ON S.
Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure,

creating wind. During Project 1, you will build an anemometer (pronounced an-eh-MOM-eter), a device that measures the speed of wind.
As warm air rises into the atmosphere, it carries with it water vapor,
which is water in its gas form. As the air cools, the gas molecules move
closer together and condense around very small particles of dust or salt in
the air. The water vapor turns into its liquid form, water droplets. Clouds
are huge masses of condensed water vapor.
As warm, light air rises, cooler,
heavier air rushes in to take its
place, creating windy
conditions. CO RB IS.
As the droplets bump into each other, they join to form larger drops.
In time, they are large and heavy enough to fall as rain. One rain drop can
contain a million cloud droplets!
An English naturalist named Luke Howard
gave cloud groups these Latin names in 1803:
Cirrus (pronounced SEAR-us, from the Latin
word for curl of hair); Stratus (from the
Latin word for layer); Cumulus (pronounced
CUME-u-lus, from the Latin word for heap);
and Nimbus (from the Latin word for rain).
Since then, meteorologists have used
Howards names to describe 10 types of clouds
at three levels.
1272
Weather
High-level clouds about 20,000 feet (6.0

kilometers) above Earth include Cirrus, wispy
clouds that precede bad weather; Cirrostratus,
layers of clouds that signal rain; and Cirrocumulus, rippled clouds that signal unsettled weather
Middle-level clouds about 7,000 to 17,000
feet (2.1 to 5.2 kilometers) above Earth include
Altocumulus, flat gray-white clouds that precede
a summer storm; Altostratus, layers of gray clouds
that indicate it will rain soon; and Nimbostratus,
thick dark-gray clouds that signal rain or snow.
Low-level clouds less than 7,000 feet (2.1 kilometers) above Earth
include Stratocumulus, gray or white rolls that indicate dry weather;
Stratus, layers of gray clouds that often bring precipitation; Cumulus,
fluffy white puffs seen on hot summer days; and Cumulonimbus, dark,
towering clouds that bring storms.
Weather affects what we wear, what we eat, the kinds of work we do,
how we have fun, and, most importantly, the ecosystem in which we live.
Learning more about the weather helps us better understand the world in
which we live.
This cup anemometer is connected

to instruments inside the weather
station that record how many
times the cups spin in a certain
period of time. The spinning rate
indicates the wind speed. P HOT O
PROJECT 1
Wind: Measuring wind speed with a homemade
anemometer
Purpose/Hypothesis In this project, you will make a simple anemometer
and compare the wind speed measured by your anemometer with the
wind speed measured in your region by the National Weather Service.
The National Weather Service gathers wind speed and other weather
information every one to six hours from about 1,000 land stations
throughout the United States and its possessions. Meteorologists at the
Weather Service use this information to make weather predictions, which
are then broadcast over radio and television. The Services weather
stations use cup anemometers to measure wind speed.
Some television stations provide a live broadcast of the current wind
speed; you might even see the speed change during the forecast. If you can
tune in to one of these broadcasts, you can make your wind speed
measurements simultaneously, thus eliminating the time variable.
1273
Weather
WORDS TO KNOW
Anemometer: A device that measures wind speed.
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the
atmosphere at Earths surface due to the weight
of the air.
Climate: The average weather that a region experiences over a long period.
experiment.
volume.
plants, animals, and microorganisms, considered

experiment.
Humidity: The amount of water vapor (moisture)
contained in the air.
Meteorologists: Scientists who study weather and
weather forecasting.
Troposphere: The lowest layer of Earths atmosphere, ranging to an altitude of about 9 miles
(15 kilometers) above Earths surface.
an experiment.
Water vapor: Water in its gas form.
Weather: The state of the troposphere at a
particular time and place.

Materials Needed
metal or plastic protractor

Ping-Pong ball
8 inches (20 centimeters) of strong thread
transparent tape
Approximate Budget Less than $5. (Most or all of these materials should
be available in the average household.)
1. Tape one end of the thread firmly to the Ping-Pong ball.

2. Tie the other end of the thread to the middle of the flat side of the
protractor, as illustrated. The ball should hang down so the thread
1274
Weather
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
crosses the rounded side of the protractor. The numbers (angles) marked on the
rounded side will indicate wind speed.
Determine when the weather will be
broadcast over a local radio or television
station and whether it includes a live
broadcast of wind speed.
At the same time as a live weather broadcast or about two hours before a taped
broadcast, take your anemometer outside. Stand in an open area, away from
trees, buildings, and traffic.
Hold the anemometer by one corner,
with the flat side parallel to the ground.
As the wind blows, note the angle of
the farthest movement of the thread.
Record it on a chart similar to the one
illustrated.
Use the scale provided to convert the angle to miles per hour
(mph) and record it on your chart:
Angle= mph
90 angle= 0 mph
80 angle= 15 mph
70 angle= 20 mph
60 angle= 25 mph
50 angle= 30 mph
40 angle= 35 mph
30 angle= 40 mph
20 angle= 50 mph
Steps 1 and 2: Set-up of PingPong ball and protractor. GA LE

GRO UP .

Project 1. G AL E GR OUP .
8. Take a second wind-speed measurement

and record it on the chart.
9. Add the wind speed from the radio or
television broadcast to your chart.
10. Repeat Steps 4 to 9 on two more days and
record the results.
to create a triple-bar graph comparing the three

1275
Weather
remedy the problem.
Problem: Your wind speed reading was much
higher or lower than the one broadcast on radio
or television.
Possible causes:
1. You took your reading in a spot that is
protected from the wind or a spot that
serves as a natural wind tunnel, increasing its speed and force. Try again in a
different spot.
2. You took your reading at a different time
from the reading that was broadcast. Try
calling the radio or television station and
see if the forecaster or someone else will
give you the current wind speed. Then
quickly do your own reading.
readings on each day. Then study your graph and

chart and how accurately your anemometer
measured wind speed. Were your own measurements on any day within 5 miles per hour
(8 kilometers per hour) of those given in the
radio or television broadcast? Write a paragraph summarizing your findings.
Modify the Project In this project you built an
anemometer to measure wind speed. You can
add to this project by also measuring wind direction. Using both an anemometer and a wind
vane will give you two key measurements used
to forecast the weather.
There are many materials you can use to

build a simple wind vane. The finished wind
vane will look similar to a T shape, with an
arrowhead on one end and a tail on the other
(see illustration). The top of the T, the rod, is
parallel to the ground and able to spin freely on
a rod. The arrow points in the direction of the
wind.
One way to build a wind vane is to attach a straw to a dowel or

pencil. You can use a long tack to attach the straw in the middle
point. Spin the straw around several times to make sure it spins freely.
Cut out an arrow and tail from card stock. Ask an adult to help you
cut slits into the straw and slip the paper into the straw. You may
need tape. You will need a compass to determine north and south.
Attach the dowel to a solid, wide base, such as a large plastic
container that is weighted down. Tape a compass or write the direction points on the base. For a sturdier rod, you could use a dowel in
place of a straw. You will need an adult to help you attach the rod
into the larger dowel using a drill and screw. The adult helper can
also cut small slits in both sides of the rod where you can slide the
arrow and tail.
Place the wind vane in an open area with the anemometer. When
you measure the wind speed, note the wind direction. Why is knowing
both wind direction and speed important? Follow the weather reports
1276
Weather
and compare your measurements and weather

predictions to the reports.
EXPERIMENT 2
Clouds: Will a drop in air
temperature cause a cloud to form?

how much the air pressure increases and
then drops inside the bottle
will create a cloud in a bottle by making water

whether the bottle contains smoke parvapor condense around tiny smoke particles in
ticles and how many particles are present
the air. To make the vapor condense, you will
whether the bottle is tightly sealed
suddenly reduce the air pressure, allowing the
the amount of water in the bottom of the
water vapor molecules to move farther apart
bottle
and cool off.
the air temperature outside the bottle
But is it the drop in temperature that causes
the cloud to form? And will a cloud form withare everything that might affect the formation of
out tiny particles in the air? To find out, you will
a cloud. If you change more than one variable,
also try the experiment without a drop in temyou will not be able to tell which variable had the
most effect on the cloud formation.
perature and without smoke particles in the air.
(You might need a helper to complete these
experiments.)
experiment based on your knowledge of clouds. This educated guess, or
something you can test through observation. Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: A cloud will form only after a drop in temperature and only when particles are present in the air.
In this case, the variable you will change in the first part of the
experiment is the air pressure (and hence the air temperature), and the
variable you will change in the second part of the experiment is the
presence of smoke particles in the bottle. The variable you will measure in both parts of the experiment is the presence of a cloud. You
expect the cloud will form only when the temperature drops and
particles are present.
1277
Weather

Ask an adult to help you light and handle the
matches.
You will complete two control experiments.

In one, you will determine whether a cloud will
form without a drop in temperature. In the other
control experiment, you will see if a cloud will
form without smoke particles in the air. If a
cloud forms only when the temperature drops
and when particles are present, you will know
that your hypothesis is correct.
Level of Difficulty Easy/moderatebut you may
need someone to help you manipulate the

materials.
Materials Needed
three 1-quart (1-liter) plastic soda bottles,

empty and clean, with caps
matches
Steps 3 to 7: Set-up of cloud
experiment. GA LE G RO UP.
flashlight
labels and a marker
measuring cup
water
Approximate Budget Less than $5. (Most materials should be available in
the average household.)

Timetable 1 hour.
1278
1. Label one bottle Experimental and two bottles Control.

2. Pour 1 cup of water into each bottle.
3. Drop two lighted matches into the
Experimental bottle and quickly screw
on the cap.
4. Let the matches burn until the water puts
them out.
5. Shake the bottle to make the air inside
moist.
6. With the bottle upright, squeeze the bottle to increase the air pressure inside.
Weather
7. Place the flashlight so it shines into the

bottle (or have your helper hold the
flashlight).
8. Quickly unscrew the cap to lower the
pressure inside the bottle and cool off
the water vapor.
9. Check to see if a cloud forms. If it does, it
will last only a few seconds. Record your
observations on a chart similar to the one
illustrated.
10. Using one of the Control bottles, repeat
Steps 3 through 9, omitting Step 8. (Do
not unscrew the cap, so the air pressure
and temperature of the water vapor inside
the bottle do not change.)
11. Observe this Control bottle for at least
three minutes to see whether a cloud
forms. Record your observations.
12. Using the other Control bottle, repeat Steps 5
through 9. (This time, you do not perform
Steps 3 and 4 so the bottle contains no smoke
particles.)
13. Observe the second Control bottle for at
least three minutes to see whether a cloud
forms. Record your observations.
Summary of Results Study the findings on your
correct. In which bottles did a cloud form?
Write a paragraph summarizing your findings
and explaining whether they support your
hypothesis.
Problem: A cloud did not seem to form inside
the Experimental bottle.
Possible causes:
1. The air pressure did not get high enough
inside the bottle. Try again, squeezing
the bottle harder.
2. You unscrewed the cap too slowly,
allowing the air to cool so slowly that the
water vapor did not condense. Try again,
unscrewing it as quickly as possible.
3. The bottle did not contain enough smoke
particles. Try again, dropping in three or
four lighted matches.
4. You did not look into the bottle quickly
enough and missed the cloud. Try again,
and have a helper unscrew the cap so you
can observe what is happening.
Problem: A cloud formed in the Control bottle
that contained no smoke particles.
Possible cause: The air in the bottle already
contained other tiny particles. Rinse the bottle
and try again.
Change the Variables Here are some ways you can vary this experiment:
Try increasing or reducing the amount of smoke particles, or try

adding dust to the air inside the bottle instead of smoke particles.
Experiment with the amount of water in the bottle. Try the
experiment with no water at all.
1279
Weather
Complete the experiment using saltwater

and no smoke particles. Shake the bottle
vigorously to release salt from the water
into the air. (Most cloud particles actually
form around salt released into the air
from ocean waves.)
Try doing the experiment outside on a
chilly day. Instead of unscrewing the cap,
see if the air outside the bottle chills the
air inside enough to form a cloud.

Concept You can explore many other aspects
A weather vane can determine
wind direction. I LLU STR AT IO N
of weather. Consider what you would like to

know about this topic. For example, you might want to find out how
Earths rotation affects wind direction. Or you might try your hand at
predicting the weather by observing clouds.
information on weather questions that interest you. As you consider
possible experiments, be sure to discuss them with your science teacher
or another knowledgeable adult before trying them. Some of the materials or procedures might be dangerous.
your question.
1280
Weather
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results In your wind speed and
cloud-making experiments, your raw data might include charts, graphs,
drawings, and photographs of the changes you observed. If you display
your experiment, make clear the question you are trying to answer, the
variable you changed, the variable you measured, the results, and your
conclusions. Explain what materials you used, how long each step took,
and other basic information.
weather. For example, you might find out how seeding clouds produces
rain. Or you could try an experiment with a pan of flour that will show
you the different sizes of raindrops. Now that you have an anemometer,
you might make a weather vane to determine wind direction, a rain
gauge to keep track of rainfall, and a hydrometer to measure the
humidity in the air.

Ahrens, C. Donald. Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and
the Environment. New York, NY: Brooks Cole, 2002.
Burt, Christopher C., and Mark Stroud. Extreme Weather: A Guide and record
Book. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2004.
Edheads. Weather. http://www.edheads.org/activities/weather/ (accessed on
February 19, 2008). Interactive animations on weather and stories about
professionals in the field.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National
Weather Service. Jetstream: Online School for Weather. http://
www.srh.weather.gov/jetstream/ (accessed on February 18, 2008).
Information and pictures of weather phenomena.
Web Weather for Kids. http://www.eo.ucar.edu/webweather/ (accessed on
February 19, 2008). Information, activities, and safety information on
weather.
1281
Weather Forecasting
Anemometers record wind speed.

Weather sleuths everywhere Thousands of weather stations

throughout the world communicate weather observations and data to
international weather centers every three hours where the information is
analyzed by meteorologists, who study the weather and the atmosphere.
The weather stations consist of outdoor shelters, known as Stevenson
screens, that house instruments such as thermometers, which measure air
temperature, and anemometers, which record wind speed. All instruments at these stations are of the same type and accuracy.
Weather stations also record many other weather
elements, including types of clouds, humidity,
air pressure, precipitation (rainfall or snowfall),
and visibility. Instruments and equipment that
record weather in the upper atmosphere include
radar, satellites, radiosonde balloons, and planes.
Radar tracks the path of storms, while satellites
send back pictures of entire weather systems.
The radiosonde balloons carry instruments that
record weather conditions in the upper atmosphere and send the data back by radio. Planes
with special meteorological equipment track
storms and their weather patterns.
A supercomputer collects all this information, calculates how air pressure, moisture, and
winds might affect each other, and produces a
forecast for the next 24 hours.
Weather forecasting before computers The
first weather forecasting guide was written about
2,000 years ago. A Greek naturalist named Theophrastus wrote the Book of Signs, a collection of
200 natural signs that indicated the type of
1283
Weather Forecasting
Tornado watches are posted for

a region when weather
conditions are likely to form
these destructive storms.
CO RB IS.
weather that was on its way. In 1687, John Tulley

of Saybrook, Connecticut, published a farmers
almanac that included the first weather forecast
made in the United States. In 1792, Robert Bailey
Thomas of West Boyleston, Massachusetts, began
writing an annual almanac, which he eventually
called The Old Farmers Almanac. Along with
humorous stories, Thomas offered some of the
nations earliest long-range weather forecasts.
Instruments such as the weathervane, which
indicates wind direction, were used at least 2,000
years ago in Athens, Greece. In the seventeenth century, more precise weather
instruments emerged that could indicate humidity, temperature, and barometric pressure, as well as wind direction and rainfall. The real science of
meteorology (pronounced ME-tee-or-ology), the study of the atmosphere
and weather, began during this era.
Measuring the airs ups and downs One of the most important
meteorological instruments was the barometer, which measures air pressure
changes with a column of mercury that rises and falls. Air pressure differences between two adjoining areas of the atmosphere cause winds, and the
barometer made it possible to predict wind velocity patterns. Many people
worked on the design and theory of the barometer, but Evangelista Torricelli of Italy (160847) is generally credited with developing the first one
in 1644.
Satellites can track deadly

hurricanes, such as Hurricane
Katrina, and alert those people
who live in their path. AP
I MA GE S.
1284
Weather Forecasting
Dewpoint temperature chart.

GA LE G RO UP.
Weather maps and computers Weather maps have isobars, continuous lines that connect areas with the same air pressure. Meteorologists
use isobars to observe the development of high and low pressure areas. A
high pressure area is surrounded by winds that blow clockwise in the
northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere.
It usually brings dry weather. A low pressure area is surrounded by winds
that blow counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the southern hemisphere. It usually brings cloudy, wet, and windy
weather.
Meteorologists also study the formation and movements of fronts,
the front edges of moving masses of air. When cold air lies behind the
edge, it is known as a cold front. When warm air lies behind, it is a warm
front.
Computer forecasting techniques were first developed in the 1950s.
The computer evaluates current weather conditions in a large area and
then predicts changes that will occur in the next 10 minutes. This
generates a new set of weather conditions, and the predictions continue
until the computer has created a forecast for the next days weather. With
todays supercomputers, the several billion computations required for a
single forecast can be worked out very quickly.
1285
Weather Forecasting
WORDS TO KNOW
Barometer: A device that measures air pressure.
Condensation: The process by which a gas changes
into a liquid.
Dewpoint: The point at which water vapor begins
to condense.
Front: The front edges of moving masses of air.
High air pressure: An area where the air is cooler
and more dense, and the air pressure is higher
than normal.
Isobars: Continuous lines that connect areas with
the same air pressure.
Low air pressure: An area where the air is warmer

and less dense, and the air pressure is lower than
normal.
Meteorologist: Scientist who studies the weather
and the atmosphere.
Radiosonde balloons: Instruments for collecting
data in the atmosphere and then transmitting
that data back to Earth by means of radio
waves.
an experiment.
Weather forecasting: The scientific predictions of
future weather patterns.
Weather forecasting: The scientific prediction of
weather patterns, may look simple when we
watch a television weather forecast on the local
news, but its not. That forecast was based on
data collected and analyzed from many sources.
Warning people of hurricanes and tornadoes is an important function of weather forecasting. Understanding weather terms and the formation of storms can help you avoid surprises and stay safe. In the
experiment that follows, you will learn more about why and when
condensation forms. The project will enable you to build your own
barometer to help you make your own weather forecasts.
EXPERIMENT 1
Dewpoint: When will dew form?
Purpose/Hypothesis This experiment deals with a principle of weather
called dewpoint. Dew is the moisture that forms on plants and other
objects when air is cooled sufficiently for the water vapor in the air to
condense into liquid. The temperature at which dew forms is called the
dewpoint temperature. If the dewpoint temperature is close to the air
1286
Weather Forecasting
temperature, there is a high possibility of fog,

rain, or snow during the next few hours.
In this experiment, you will first determine
the dewpoint temperature for that day. Then you
will use what you have learned to guess or predict
whether dew will form on a cold glass left outdoors. Before you begin, make an educated guess
the amount of water vapor present in the
atmosphere
your knowledge of weather. This educated guess,
the current weather conditions, including
air temperature
how fast the thermometer is swung during the experiment
are everything that might affect the dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures (and hence the
dewpoint temperature). If you change more
dewpoint.
hypothesis for this experiment: If the dewpoint
temperature is close to 32F (0C), dew should develop on a glass of ice
water.
In this case, the variable you will change is the temperature of the glass,
GAL E GR OU P.
and the variable you will measure is the formation
of dew. You expect dew to form on the glass of ice
water if the dewpoint temperature for that day is
near freezing.
As a control experiment, you will set up one
glass of water at air temperature. That way, you
can determine whether dew forms no matter what
the temperature of the glass. If dew forms only on
the cold glass, your hypothesis will be supported.
Materials Needed
thermometer (for safety, use an alcohol

thermometer with red fluid inside)
dewpoint temperature chart (illustrated)
1287
Weather Forecasting

Always use caution when handling thermometers. If a thermometer should break, ask an
adult for assistance in cleaning it up.
1-inch (2.5-centimeter) square of cloth

small rubber band
water (at air temperature)
ice
2 plastic or glass drinking cups (any size)
Approximate Budget About $10, if thermome-
ters need to be purchased.

Timetable 30 minutes each day; experiment can be repeated each day for
a week, if you wish.

Step 2: Thermometer with

cloth banded to the bottom.
Wet cloth thoroughly. G AL E
GRO UP.
1288
1. Using the thermometer, take a reading of the outside air temperature and record it on a data sheet. This will be the dry bulb
temperature.
2. Place the cloth around the bulb at the bottom of the thermometer
and wrap the rubber band around to hold the cloth securely. Wet
the cloth thoroughly with tap water.
3. Wave the thermometer with the wet cloth in the air for one
minute. Be sure to hold the thermometer at the top, at the
opposite end of the cloth. Do not touch
the thermometer stem.
4. Record the temperature shown on the
thermometer. This will be the wet bulb
temperature.
5. On the data sheet, write the difference
between the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures. Example: Dry Bulb Temperature is
61F (16C). Wet Bulb Temperature is
50F (10C). The difference is 11F (6C).
6. Using the data you have collected, refer to
the dewpoint temperature chart. Locate
the dry bulb temperature in the left column. Locate the difference in wet and dry
bulb temperatures across the top of the
chart. Find where the two points intersect
and record that number as the dewpoint
temperature.
Weather Forecasting
7. Fill one cup with water and ice cubes.

The approximate temperature of the
water will be 32F (0C). Fill the second
cup (your control experiment) with water
at normal tap water temperature.
8. Leave both cups outdoors in the shade for
30 minutes.
9. Check the outside of both cups for condensation. Record whether your hypothesis is correct. (The cup with ice water
should always be below the dewpoint
temperature and collect condensation.
The cup at air temperature should remain
dry unless the air temperature matches
the dewpoint temperature.)
remedy the problem.
Problem: Condensation does not form on either
glass.
Possible cause: The air does not contain
enough water vapor. Place the cups in a different spot (outside or inside) or repeat the
experiment on a different day.
Summary of Results Create a chart to organize your results. If you repeat
this experiment for several days, notice if dew has formed on the cup
surfaces each morning. Replace the ice every day.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways. The
air temperature and the amount of water vapor in the air change from day
to day. If you change the locations or seasons in which you try this
experiment, you can see different results. During spring and fall, high
water vapor tends to be present. Indoor environments during the winter
months often have less water vapor present.
PROJECT 2
Air Pressure: How can air pressure be measured?
Purpose/Hypothesis Changes in the atmosphere are the cause of most of
our weather. The purpose of this project is to build a barometer that

shows changes in air pressure. When air is warmed, it rises and the air
pressure decreases. If the air is cooled, it sinks and air pressure increases.
Low air pressure usually indicates stormy weather, and high air pressure
usually indicates fair weather. By observing air pressure trends, you will be
able to predict upcoming weather conditions.
1289
Weather Forecasting
When air is warmed, it rises

and the air pressure decreases. If
the air is cooled, it sinks and air
pressure increases. GA LE
GR OU P.
Materials Needed
wide-mouth jar without a lid

7-inch (17.5-centimeter) diameter round balloon
plastic straw
index card
rubber cement
scissors
Approximate Budget $1 for balloon.

Timetable 20 minutes to prepare barometer; 1 to 2 weeks to observe
changes in air pressure.
Materials for Project 2. GA LE

GR OU P.
1290
Weather Forecasting

1. Cut end off the balloon and stretch the
balloon over the mouth of the jar.
Use caution in handling the scissors.
2. Use the rubber band to attach the balloon
securely to the jar.
3. Rubber cement the straw horizontally to
the center of the balloon, so most of it extends over the edge of the
jar.
4. Prop up the index card behind the straw. Line up the straw with
the middle of the index card, but not touching it.
5. Draw a line behind the straw and label it baseline.
6. Draw a line 0.5 inch (1 centimeter) above the baseline and label it
high pressurefair weather.
7. Draw a line 0.5 inch (1 centimeter) below the baseline and label it
low pressurepoor weather.
8. Place the barometer outdoors in the shade and watch for changes
in air pressure.
9. Record your observations along with daily weather conditions.
Summary of Results Can you explain changes in the readings on your
barometer? (If the air pressure outside increases, it presses on the balloon
and causes the straw to rise. If the air pressure outside drops below the
pressure in the jar, the balloon swells, and the straw points downward.)
For a fun experiment, try monitoring the environment inside your home.
Leave the barometer in different rooms and record the results.
Illustration of completed
barometer. GAL E GR OU P.
1291
Weather Forecasting
Modify the Project You can extend this project
by detailing the relationship between specific

weather conditions and your barometer. After
you do so for several weeks, you can use your
barometer to predict the weather.
remedy the problem.
Follow the instructions for making your barometer. For the barometer in the project, you
Problem: The straw on the balloon does not
drew a 0.5 inch mark both above and below the
move.
baseline. Use the ruler to add lines every onePossible cause: If no change is noticeable, test
eighth of an inch both below and above the basethe barometer by using a hair dryer to warm up
line. Make a chart listing wind speed, temperthe air in the jar. Adjust the balloon until the
ature, and precipitation.
straw dips down.
Place your barometer outside in a safe spot
where it can stay for several weeks. Every day
note the change in the barometer and the weather conditions. Before and
after any weather change, try to make a precise note of the mark on the
barometer. News programs and weather Web sites can tell you the exact
wind speed and temperature. If it rains, find out the amount it rained in
your area and write it down in your chart.
After about a month take a look at your chart. What does the air
pressure tell you about wind, temperature, and precipitation? Using your
chart as a guide, use only the barometer to forecast the weather over the
next week. How close can you come to actual weather events?

How to Select a Topic Relating to this Concept The days weather
conditions affect your daily routine and sometimes your mood. Since
weather is always changing and is different around the globe, it presents
many study possibilities. Possible weather topics include precipitation,
humidity, air masses, hurricanes, tornadoes, and El Nin~o.
information on weather forecasting questions that interest you.
sure what question your are answering, what you are or should be
1292
Weather Forecasting

your question.
Recording Data and Summarizing the Results Experiments help us
answer questions, so it is important to save your experiment results;

keep a journal and jot notes and measurements in it. Your experiment
can then be used by others and help answer their questions.
Related Projects When thinking about experimenting in weather, focus
on one specific field. For example, if you decide to examine similarities

in weather between New York City and London, England, you might
compare weather patterns. When you start exploring possible projects, you
will be amazed at the range of experiments and projects available.

BBC. Become a Weather Detective. BBC Weather. http://www.bbc.co.uk/
weather/weatherwise/activities/weatherstation (accessed on February 6,
2008). Information and activities on weather forecasting.
Kerrod, Robin. Young Scientist Concepts & Projects: Weather. Milwaukee, WI:
Garth Stevens Publishing, 1998. Offers a fact file and learn it yourself project
book.
McVey, Vicki. The Sierra Club Book of Weather Wisdom. Boston: Little, Brown
and Company, 1991. Includes dramatic weather stories from around the
world, weather facts, and hands on activities, games, and experiments.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service.
http://www.nws.noaa.gov (accessed on February 6, 2008). Provides local
weather conditions and forecasts.
Peacock, Graham. Meteorology. New York: Thompson Learning, 1995. Provides
interesting information about weather and climate.
Taylor, Barbara. Weather and Climate. New York: Kingfisher Books, 1993.
Outlines weather and geography facts and experiments.
1293
Wood
long with providing oxygen and beauty, trees also supply people with
wood. Wood is the tissue of trees. We use wood to build houses,
make paper, and provide fuel. It is a natural resource that has great use
because of its strength and durability.
The hardwoods versus the softwoods There are two main group for
categorizing different types of woods: hardwood or softwood. The difference between the two types of woods relates to how the tree reproduces.
Hardwoods are angiosperms, which are flowering plants. Angiosperm trees have their seeds within the flowers, and the seeds are protected
by the ovary. A few examples of angiosperm trees are apple, oak, and
walnut. A peach, apple, or other fruit from a tree develops around the
seeds. Most hardwood trees are deciduous, meaning they lose their leaves
when the season turns cool and they grow back when the weather warms.
Deciduous trees have broad leaves.
Softwoods are trees that have their seeds exposed. These trees are called
gymnosperms, which means naked seed. Conifer trees are the most
common types of gymnosperms and are often referred to as evergreens.
These trees produce cones that contain the seeds and have needle-like leaves
that can stay on the tree during cold weather. When the seeds do fall, they
are exposed to air. Pine, spruce, and fir are examples of softwood trees.
A common rule of thumb is that a hardwood tree is harder and denser
than a softwood. (The density of a wood is its mass for a certain volume.)
But there are many exceptions to this rule. Balsa wood, for example, is
categorized a hardwood yet it is one of the lightest woods in the world. It
is commonly used to make model airplanes and other toys.
Inside the wood Outside of the tree is a layer of bark. The bark is
made up of dead tissue that protect the tree from pests, harsh environment, and other possible damage. The woody inside tissue of trees
carries water and nutrients throughout the tree. The layer directly next to
1295
Wood
The oak tree is an example of an

angiosperm tree. FI EL D MA RK
P UBL IC ATI ON S.
the bark is the phloem, which are living cells. The cells of the phloem
form thin tubes that transport nutrients throughout the tree.
The neighboring inside layer to the phloem is the cambium. The
cambium is where the trees growth occurs. The cells in part of the
cambium form the phloem, and the cells in the other part of the cambium
form the wood tissue on the other side. As a tree grows and expands, the
cambium layer move further from the center of the tree.
The wood tissue next to the cambium is also made up of layers. On
the outer layer of the wood tissue is the sapwood. The sapwood transports
the sap throughout the tree and it is usually a lighter color. When the
sapwood cells die, they eventually become heartwood, the inner wood
tissue of the tree. Although heartwood is dead, it is strong and provides
the tree with support. Water does not move through the heartwood.
Substances that form in the heartwood protect the wood from decay and
also give the wood its distinctive color.
Wood properties The properties of wood mainly depend upon the
type of tree. Yet even trees that are the same type can produce woods with
different characteristics. The properties that people look for in wood
depends upon the use of the wood. Common characteristics are wood
color, strength, grain, and density. Some woods are more resistant to
pests, and this would be important for wood that is outside. Flexibility
can also be an important characteristic.
1296
Wood
heartwood
sapwood cambium phloem
outer bark
The wood tissue next to the

cambium is also made up of
layers. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TE MA H NE LSO N.
When selecting woods, wood strength is an important characteristic.

The strength of wood depends upon the wood and the direction of the
fibers. Wood fibers stretch up and down the tree and are visible from
looking at the grain. The strength of wood is relatively high parallel to the
grain, and relatively low perpendicular (across) the grain. Woods can also
have a windy, curly grain. In general, the denser the wood, the stronger it is.
The fibers or grain of the wood also determines the pore size. Pores
are the ends of the wood fibers. Some woods are open grain or porous,
meaning they have large pores. Porous woods include oak and ash. Other
types of wood are closed grain, and the pores are less visible. Closed-grain
woods include cherry and maple.
Wood veneering and products Wood is considered a renewable
resource because new trees can be grown. But some woods come from
trees that take hundreds of years to fully mature. Veneering is one way to
have the appearance of a unique or exotic wood while using only a sliver
1297
Wood
Endgrain
Longgrain
Wood grain. I LLU STR AT IO N

of the wood. A veneer is a thin slice of wood. The

veneer is glued onto materials that are more
available, such as plywood, giving the wood the
appearance of the veneer wood type.
Plywood is a commonly used wood product
that uses the principles of veneering. Plywood is
made from gluing together many sheets of
veneer with the veneer grains going in opposite
directions. This produces an extremely strong
material.
In the two experiments that follow, you will
examine two properties of different woods: water
absorption and hardness.
EXPERIMENT 1
Water Absorption: How do
different woods absorb water?
Purpose/Hypothesis When wood absorbs waterfrom precipitation or
moisture in the airit can cause the wood to expand, then dry and possibly
crack. How woods absorb water and how much each absorbs are key
properties that help people select a type of wood. In this experiment, you
will look at three or more types of woods. First you will examine how grain
direction relates to water movement through the wood. You can place a
piece of wood in dyed water, and measure if the water moves along the
grain or across it (the end grain). Do you think the water will move in the
same direction on each of the pieces of wood?
After you test water direction on each piece of wood, the dyed water
will allow you to more easily examine the grain of each of the woods.
Which wood is more open grain or closed grain? You will use this
information to hypothesize which type of wood will absorb the most
water. You can measure your hypothesis by weighing each piece of wood,
before and after soaking the woods in water for 24 hours.
To begin the experiment, use what you know about wood and water to
make an educated guess about how the water will move. This educated guess,
1298
Wood
WORDS TO KNOW
Angiosperm: A flowering plant that has its seeds
produced within an ovary.
Cambium: The tissue below the bark that
produces new cells, which become wood
and bark.
Coniferous: Refers to trees, such as pines and firs,
that bear cones and have needle-like leaves that
are not shed all at once.
Deciduous: Plants that lose their leaves during
some season of the year, and then grow them
back during another season.
volume.
Hardwood: Wood from angiosperm, mostly
deciduous, trees.
Heartwood: The inner layer of wood that provide
structure and have no living cells.

statement that can be tested by observation and
or experiment.
Phloem: The plant tissue that carries dissolved
nutrients through the plant.
Relative density: The density of one material compared to another.
Sapwood: The outer wood in a tree, which is usually
a lighter color.
Softwood: Wood from coniferous trees, which
usually remain green all year.
experiment.
Veneer: Thin slices of wood.

possible hypothesis for this experiment: Water will move along the
grain for all the woods, and the wood type
with the most open grain will absorb the most
water.
If the wood needs to be cut into pieces, have an
the types of wood, and the variable you will
adult cut the wood to size. You will be working
measure is how water direction moves and
with dyed water so this experiment can be
which type of wood absorb the most water.
slightly messy. Wash your hands after working
with the dye.

1299
Wood
Materials Needed

the type of wood
the environment in which the wood is
kept
the dryness of the wood
the amount of time the wood is exposed
to water
the wood to absorb water. If you change more
which variable had the most effect.
Step 1a: Start with 3 (or more)

blocks of different types of
wood. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
3 (or more) blocks of different types of

wood, approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) wide by 6 inches (15 centimeters)
long, and 34 of an inch thick. Oak, poplar,
and pine work well; other wood types are
walnut, cherry, and mahogany. (Available
from building supply stores or scraps
from a lumber yard or school shop. If
you find wood that needs to be cut, have
an adult cut the wood to size. The wood
should all be approximately the same size
but they do not need to match exactly.)
Note: Avoid woods from trees you find
outside as they likely contain more moisture than woods in stores.
plastic container, large enough to fit the
blocks of wood
food coloring or dye, a dark color such as
blue or green
ruler
watch or clock with a minute hand
plastic or wooden stirrer
gram scale
wax paper
gloves (optional)
Approximate Budget Less than $5. (Assuming
you can find the wood as scraps and you have or

can borrow a gram scale.)
Timetable Approximately 45 minutes working
time; 24 hours total time.

1. Place a piece of wax paper on the scale

and weigh each of the three woods. Note
the weight on a chart.
1300
Wood
2. Fill the container about half way with

warm water. Add several drops of the
dye or food coloring. Stir and continue
adding the dye until the water is a dark
color.
3. At the same time, set each of the three
pieces of wood in the water with the
grain (length) facing up and down.
Start timing for one minute.
4. Observe the water movement in each of
the woods, looking at both the end grain
and long grain. After one minute, measure where the water has reached in each of
the woods. Measure on both the end and
long grain. Note the results. (If you have
gloves, you could wear them to avoid
getting dye on your hands, or you could handle the wood with
wax paper).
5. Set the woods back in the water and wait two more minutes, or
until the water has reached close to the top of a wood. Measure
how far the water traveled along the long and end grain, on each of
the woods.
6. Set all the wood on a piece of wax paper. Examine each of the
woods grains up close or with a magnifying glass.
7. Form a hypothesis as to which type of wood will absorb the most
water.
8. Set all the woods back in the container so they lie flat (with the
long side left to right). The water should cover the pieces of wood.
If it does not, add more water.
9. Wait about 24 hours.
10. Carefully drain the water.
11. Place a piece of wax paper on the scale.
Hold one piece of wood above the container until it no longer drips and set the
wood on it. You may want to pick the
wood up with wax paper or wear gloves so
as to not get dye on your hands. Note the
weight of the wood.
Step 1b: Weigh each of the three

woods. I LLU STR AT IO N BY
TEM AH N EL SON .
Steps 3 and 4: Set each of the

three pieces of wood in the
water with the grain (length)
facing up and down and
observe the water movement.
NEL SO N.
1301
Wood
Here is one problems that may arise during the
experiment and a way to remedy it.
12. Weigh each of the pieces of wood, holding the pieces so they no longer drip
before placing them on a fresh piece of
wax paper.
Summary of Results Subtract the end weight of

the wood from the starting weight. Which of the
woods gained the most weight from the water?
Possible causes: The wood may have been too
Did it relate to whether the wood had an open or
moist to start with. Woods are usually dried for
closed grain? Was your hypothesis correct? How
long periods of time before they are available
did the water travel along the grain of the wood?
for use. Try another piece of wood, making sure
Did it differ depending upon the type of wood?
it is not freshly cut, and repeat the experiment.
Consider how water absorption would affect
selecting a wood for a home or piece of furniture.
Write a summary of your findings. You might want to sketch pictures of
the water movement.
Problem: One of the woods did not take up the
dyed water at all.
Change the Variables You can vary this experiment in several ways. You
can focus on one type of wood, such as oak, and examine the water
absorption properties of different types of oak. You can also change the
amount of water available to each wood, to measure how much water the
end grain or long grain can absorb. Another way to vary the experiment is
to change the environmental temperature. How does humidity or cold
affect water absorption?
EXPERIMENT 2
Wood Hardness: How does the hardness of wood
relate to its building properties?
Purpose/Hypothesis In general, hardwoods are harder and denser than
softwoods. The structure of the wood depends on the thickness and

makeup of the cell walls. Many hardwoods have thicker cell walls (fibers)
than softwoods. How hard or soft a wood is affects how the wood is used.
For some soft woods, builders can pound nails into the wood without the
wood cracking. A nail inserted into a hard wood may crack, and builders
will use a drill before nailing wood together.
You can use a nail to determine the relative hardness or softness of
three to four different woods. The woods you test will be a mix between
hardwoods and softwoods. In order to compare them, you will need to
1302
Wood
use the same force when inserting the nail into

the woods. The deeper the nail is driven into the
wood, the softer the wood.
To form a hypothesis, you can first compare
the heaviness of each wood to one another. Using
this information, you can then make a hypothesis as to which nail will go in the least. You will
then finish driving the nail into the wood with a
hammer.
To begin the experiment, use what you
know about wood and hardness to make an
educated guess about how the heaviness of the
wood will determine its hardness. This educated

the wetness of the wood
the force with which the weight hits the
nail
the heaviness of the weight
the size of the nail
are everything that might affect how far the nail
is driven into the wood.


Be careful when using the hammer and nails.

Have an adult help you with the hammering to
make sure the wood cannot move around.
Here is one possible hypothesis for this experiment: The nail will move deeper into the woods
that are lighter compared to the heavier woods, which may crack.
In this case, the variable you will change is the type of wood, and the
variable you will measure is the depth the wood moves into the wood.
Materials Needed
3 or more different pieces of wood, minimum 34-inch thick and

approximately 6 inches (15 centimeters) square: at least 1 softwood
(pine, cedar) and 1 hardwood (poplar, balsa, oak)
3 nails 34-inch long with point, all the same diameter
1303
Wood
Step 6: Set the tubing in the

middle of the lightest piece of
wood and trace the circle onto
the wood. I LL UST RA TI ON BY
T EM AH NE LS ON.
Steps 7 and 8: Line up the

paper circle over the wood
circle. Place the nail on the
center mark of the wood.
cardboard or plastic tube, at least 30

inches (76 centimeters) long (wrapping
paper rolls works well); if tubing is not
available you can make tubing by taping
together several sheets of thick paper
full can or water bottle that fits tightly
into the diameter of the tube
hammer
marker
sharp pencil
piece of paper
scissors
ruler with 0.06-inch increments
Note: The exact size of the wood is not important but when the tubing is
on the wood there should be at least 2 inches (5 centimeters) of wood
around the tube and the nail should be slightly shorter than the thickness
of the wood.
Approximate Budget Less than $5. (Most, if not all, materials may be
found in the average household.)

NE LS ON.
1. Lift each of the wood samples one at a

time, then compare one to another in
each hand. Place the woods in order,
from the lightest to the heaviest.
2. Measure how long the nail is and note its
length on a chart.
3. Use the marker and ruler to make small
lines on each nail at 0.06-inch increments, about 34 way up the nail.
4. Set the tubing on the paper and trace the
circle. Follow your tracing to cut out the
circle.
5. To find the center of the circle, fold the
circle in half and then in half again.
1304
Wood
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Unfold and mark a dot where the fold

lines intersect.
Set the tubing in the middle of the lightest piece of wood. Use the pencil to trace
the circle onto the wood. Repeat this
process with the other wood samples.
Line up the paper circle over the wood
circle. Poke a small hole in the paper with
the pencil to mark the middle of the circle
on the wood.
Place the nail on the center mark of the
wood and gently hammer it in until it
reaches the second mark. The nail should
be standing straight and not wobbling. If
you can easily push the nail to its side,
hammer it in to the next mark.
Set the wood on the floor.
Place the tubing on the circle mark. Hold
the can or other circular object even with the top of the tubing and
release. Retrieve the object and drop the can four more times, for a
total of five times.
Repeat Steps 610 on the remaining types of wood.
Measure how far each nail went into the wood by measuring how
much of the nail did not go into the wood. Note your results.
Finish driving the nail into the wood with the hammer. Hammer
the nails gently and have an adult help you make sure the piece of
wood is secure.
Note if any of the woods starts to crack.
Step 10: Hold the can or other

circular object even with the
top of the tubing and release.
NEL SO N.
Summary of Results Subtract how much of the nail was still exposed from
the length of the nail. Was your hypothesis correct? Was the lightest wood
also the wood that the nail went into furthest? Compare the difference
between the two types of the hardwood or softwood. Did any of the heavy
woods crack or begin to crack? Write a summary of your results.
possibilities. Try different types of either hardwood or softwood to

compare them against one another. You could even try different types
1305
Wood
ways to solve the problem.
Problem: The nail fell over when the weight was
dropped.
Possible causes:
1. The nail may have been too thin. Try
using a slightly thicker nail with a sharp
point, and repeat the experiment.
2. The weight may have hit the nail at an
angle. The can, water bottle, or other
circular object should fit snugly in the
tube opening so that it cannot move
around and hit the nail straight. Change
the tube or object to there is no room for
the can to move, and repeat the
experiment.
Problem: The nail hardly went into the wood.
Possible cause: The weight you dropped is
not heavy enough. If you are using a can or
bottle, make sure it is full. See if you can
find a heavier object that is the same diameter. You may also want to try a larger tube,
and a larger (heavier) can, bottle, or other
object.
of the same wood, such as oak. You can also

experiment with driving the nail into the end
grain instead of the long grain.

There are many experiments you could design to

investigate the properties of wood and how people use it. Take a look at the wooden furniture,
toys, sports equipment, or other pieces in your
home or school and try to identify what type of
wood it is. What about the home itself? Consider
the properties of each piece. Can you see the
grain or pores in the wood? Think about what
woods you are curious about or you may want to
investigate familiar wooden items. Why is a
wooden bat, for example, made with a certain
type of wood and how does this affect the bats
ability to hit a ball?
with your science teacher or school or community media specialist to start gathering information on questions relating to wood that interest
you. You also may want to visit a lumberyard or
store that sells different woods.

what you are or should be measuring, or what your findings prove or
disprove.
1306
Wood

your question.

your presentation should be visual, using charts and graphs. You can also
include samples of the woods. Remember, whether or not your experiment is successful, your conclusions and experiences can benefit others.
Related Projects If you are interested in experimenting more with wood
and its properties, you can start collecting and examining different types
of wood. You may want to start collecting woods you find outside and
then purchase samples of other wood types. Compare properties of the
different woods to one another. You can conduct an experiment on what
gives wood its unique colors. Some woods, such as purpleheart, change or
fade over time. How might oxygen or sunlight affect the color of wood?
You can also explore the affect of disease and bugs on wood. In some
cases, disease, worms, and bugs can leave marks that increase its beauty
and value.
Another aspect related to wood you may also want to explore is wood
finishes. Finishes can protect and affect the appearance of woods. Try an
experiment in finishing the same type of wood with different finishes,
such as a wax, oil, and shellac. How does each change the appearance and
ability of the wood to withstand water? For a project, you can make
different types of paper out of wood.

Burnie, Davis. Tree. New York: DK Publishing, 2005. Information on trees and
wood.
Gardner, Robert. Science Projects Ideas about Trees. Springfield< NJ: Enslow
Publishers, 1997. Describes tree related projects for young people.
interesting entries on the nature of water.
Wood Cells. Nikon. http://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/confocal/
woodcells.html (accessed on May 2, 2008). Close up images of wood.
1307
Budget I nde x

number.
LESS THAN $5
air? 1:36
buoyancy? 2:264
color? 2:301
fly high? 3:418
lxxxv
BUDGET INDEX

seeds grow? 3:570
burn? 3:596
[Memory] False Memories: How can memories be influenced? 4:705
[Oceans] Currents: Water behavior in density-driven currents 4:780
fooled? 4:791
pennies? 4:813
chemicals? 4:861
lxxxvi
BUDGET INDEX

[Simple Machines] Wheel and Axle: How can changing the size of
the wheel affect the amount of work it takes to lift a load? 5:1051
followed? 6:1128
light? 6:1193
be detected? 6:1242
to form? 6:1277
anemometer 6:1273
measured? 6:1289
[Weather Forecasting] Dewpoint: When will dew
form? 6:1286
water? 6:1298
$5$10
brine shrimp? 1:5
plant growth? 1:9
lxxxvii
BUDGET INDEX
adhesives? 1:26
changes? 1:39
[Cells] Investigating Cells: What are the differences between
a multicellular organism and a unicellular organism? 1:141
of taste? 1:186
crater? 2:221
grow plants 2:237
[Composting/Landfills] Living Landfill: What effect do the microorganisms in soil have on the decomposition process? 2:232
lxxxviii
BUDGET INDEX

DNA 2:289
[Eclipses] Phases of the Moon: What does each phase look like? 2:329
action? 2:368
soil erosion? 2:381
liquids? 3:441
fruit gels? 3:463
lxxxix
BUDGET INDEX

yeast growth? 3:544
cleaned? 3:609
attracted to? 3:635
material? 4:691
[Microorganisms] Growing Microorganisms in a Petri
Dish 4:716
[Mountains] Mountain Plates: How does the movement of
Earths plates determine the formation of a mountain? 4:738
[Nanotechnology] Nanosize: How can the physical size affect
a materials properties? 4:750
xc
BUDGET INDEX

produced? 4:817
growth? 4:873
pressure? 5:900
others? 5:914
is it? 5:971
[Rotation and Orbits] Spinning Effects: How does the speed of a
rotating object affect the way centrifugal force can overcome
gravity? 5:989
density 5:1000
measured? 5:997
xci
BUDGET INDEX

sound? 5:1099
sound? 5:1102
growth? 6:1209
sources of Vitamin C? 6:1226
$ 11 $ 15

xcii
BUDGET INDEX

DNA from different species have the same
appearance? 2:291
battery? 2:340
process? 2:365
polluted? 3:605
capacity? 3:625
[Mixtures and Solutions] Suspensions and Solutions: Can
filtration and evaporation determine whether mixtures are
suspensions or solutions? 4:725
element relate to where it is located on the Periodic
Table? 4:835
[Renewable Energy] Capturing Wind Energy: How does the
material affect the amount of wind energy harnessed? 5:944
a trench? 5:957
xciii
BUDGET INDEX

[Structures and Shapes] Arches and Beams: Which is strongest? 6:1167
$ 16 $ 20

perception? 1:207
temperature? 1:210
xciv
BUDGET INDEX
[Nutrition] Nutrition: Which foods contain proteins and salts? 4:764

[Optics and Optical Illusions] Optics: What is the focal length of
a lens? 4:788
coaster 5:934
horizons? 5:1067
gravity? 5:1197
$ 2 1 $ 25

endothermic 1:156
$ 2 6 $ 30

xcv
BUDGET INDEX
rainbow 4:664
$ 31 $ 35

xcvi
Level of Difficulty Index
Chapter name in brackets, followed by experiment name. The numeral before

the colon indicates volume; numbers after the colon indicate page number.
EASY
Easy means that the average student should easily be able to complete
the tasks outlined in the project/experiment, and that the time
spent on the project is not overly restrictive.
air? 1:36
of taste? 1:186
fly high? 3:418
[Oceans] Currents: Water behavior in density-driven
currents 4:780
xcvii
LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY INDEX

[Rotation and Orbits] Spinning Effects: How does the speed of
a rotating object affect the way centrifugal force can overcome
gravity? 5:989
sound? 5:1099
be detected? 6:1242
measured? 6:1289
[Weather Forecasting] Dewpoint: When will dew form? 6:1286
E A S Y / M O D E R AT E
Easy/Moderate means that the average student should have little

trouble completing the tasks outlined in the project/experiment,
and that the time spent on the project is not overly restrictive.
changes? 1:39
xcviii

[Composting/Landfills] Living Landfill: What effect do the microorganisms in soil have on the decomposition process? 2:232
dissolved oxygen level affect the breathing rate of
goldfish? 2:279
[Dyes] Applying Dyes: How does the fiber affect the dye color? 2:301
[Eclipses] Phases of the Moon: What does each phase look
like? 2:329
process? 2:365
seeds grow? 3:570
xcix

rainbow 4:664
produced? 4:817
element relate to where it is located on the Periodic
Table? 4:835
pressure? 5:900
c

[Simple Machines] Wheel and Axle: How can changing the size of
the wheel affect the amount of work it takes to lift a load? 5:1051
[Structures and Shapes] Arches and Beams: Which is
strongest? 6:1167
to form? 6:1277
anemometer 6:1273
MODERATE
Moderate means that the average student should find tasks outlined
in the project/experiment challenging but not difficult, and that
the time spent on the project/experiment may be more extensive.
brine shrimp? 1:5
plant growth? 1:9
adhesives? 1:26
ci

endothermic 1:156
perception? 2:207
temperature? 2:210
crater? 2:221
grow plants 2:237
cii

buoyancy? 2:264
DNA 2:289
battery? 2:340
action? 2:368
soil erosion? 2:381
ciii

liquids? 3:441
fruit gels? 3:467
yeast growth? 3:544
burn? 3:596
polluted? 3:605
cleaned? 3:609
attracted to? 3:635
material? 4:691
[Microorganisms] Growing Microorganisms in a Petri
Dish 4:716
civ
[Mixtures and Solutions] Suspensions and Solutions: Can
filtration and evaporation determine whether mixtures are
suspensions or solutions? 4:725
[Nutrition] Nutrition: Which foods contain proteins and
salts? 4:764
[Optics and Optical Illusions] Optics: What is the focal length
of a lens? 4:788
pennies? 4:813
[Pesticides] Natural versus Synthetic: How do different types
of pesticides compare against a pest? 4:848
growth? 4:873
coaster 5:934
cv

a trench? 5:957
density 5:1000
sound? 5:1102
followed? 6:1128
gravity? 6:1197
light? 6:1193
growth? 6:1209
cvi

water? 6:1298
MODERATE/DIFFICULT
Moderate/Difficult means that the average student should find

tasks outlined in the project/experiment challenging, and
that the time spent on the project/experiment may be more
extensive.
capacity? 3:625
is it? 6:971
measured? 6:997
cvii
DIFFICULT
Difficult means that the average student wil probably find the tasks
outlined in the project/experiment mentally and/or physically
challenging, and that the time spent on the project/experiment
may be more extensive.
DNA from different species have the same
appearance? 2:291
fooled? 4:791
chemicals? 4:861
others? 5:914
horizons? 5:1067
cviii
Timetable Index

number.
LESS THAN 15 MINUTES

burn? 4:596
15 T O 2 0 M I N U T E S
air? 1:36
changes? 1:39
of taste? 1:186
buoyancy? 2:264
fly high? 3:148
[Heat] Convection: How does heat move through
liquids? 3:622
cix
TIMETABLE INDEX
is it? 5:971
[Rotation and Orbits] Spinning Effects: How does the speed of
a rotating object affect the way centrifugal force can overcome
gravity? 5:989
[Simple Machines] Wheel and Axle: How can changing the size
of the wheel affect the amount of work it takes to lift a
load? 5:1051
be detected? 6:1242
anemometer 6:1273
30 TO 45 MINUTES

cx
TIMETABLE INDEX

rainbow 4:664
element relate to where it is located on the Periodic Table? 4:835
density 5:1000
sound? 5:1102
[Structures and Shapes] Arches and Beams: Which is strongest? 6:1167
cxi
TIMETABLE INDEX

1 HOUR

endothermic 1:156
temperature? 2:210
crater? 2:221
DNA 2:289
cxii
TIMETABLE INDEX

battery? 2:340
[Fish] Fish Breathing: How do different fish take in
oxygen? 3:404
attracted to? 3:635
material? 4:691
[Mixtures and Solutions] Suspensions and Solutions: Can filtration and evaporation determine whether mixtures are suspensions or solutions? 4:725
[Nutrition] Nutrition: Which foods contain proteins and salts? 4:764
[Oceans] Currents: Water behavior in density-driven currents 4:780
chemicals? 4:861
cxiii
TIMETABLE INDEX

others? 5:914
[Rocks and Minerals] Rock Classification: Is it igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic? 5:975
measured? 5:997
sound? 5:1099
to form? 6:1277
2 HOURS

[Ethnobotany] Coiling Reeds: How does the tightness of the
coil affect the ability to hold materials? 2:396
liquids? 3:441
fruit gels? 3:467
cxiv
TIMETABLE INDEX

polluted? 3:605
cleaned? 3:609
capacity? 3:625
[Optics and Optical Illusions] Optics: What is the focal length
of a lens? 4:788
pennies? 4:813
coaster 5:934
3 HOURS
adhesives? 1:26
cxv
TIMETABLE INDEX

yeast growth? 3:544
6 HOURS
perception? 2:207
action? 2:368
1 DAY

[Eclipses] Phases of the Moon: What does each phase look like? 2:329
process? 2:365
pressure? 5:900
water? 6:1298
cxvi
TIMETABLE INDEX
2 D A YS

horizons? 5:1067
3 D A YS
DNA from different species have the same appearance? 2:291
color? 2:301
produced? 4:817
5 D A YS
[Food Spoilage] Spoiled Milk: How do different temperatures

of liquid affect its rate of spoilage? 3:485
cxvii
TIMETABLE INDEX

6 D A YS

1 W E EK
brine shrimp? 1:5
affect germination times? 3:573
fooled? 4:791
8 TO 12 DAYS
cxviii
TIMETABLE INDEX

10 DAYS
[Microorganisms] Growing Microorganisms in a Petri Dish 4:716
2 WE EK S
plant growth? 1:9
soil erosion? 2:381
seeds grow? 3:570
followed? 6:1128
gravity? 6:1197
measured? 6:1289
[Weather Forecasting] Dewpoint: When will dew
form? 6:1286
3 TO 4 W EE K S
cxix
TIMETABLE INDEX

a trench? 5:957
light? 6:1193
growth? 6:1209
4 W E EK S

growth? 4:873
6 W E EK S
6 T O 1 4 WE E KS

4 MONTHS

grow plants 2:237
[Composting/Landfills] Living Landfill: What effect do the
microorganisms in soil have on the decomposition
process? 2:232
6 MONTHS

cxx
General Subject Index

The numeral before the colon indicates volume; numbers after the
colon indicate page number. Bold page numbers indicate main essays.
The notation (ill.) after a page number indicates a figure.
A groups (periodic table), 4: 829

A layer (soil), 5: 1066 67, 1067 (ill.)
Abscission, 1: 192
Absolute dating, 3: 525
Acceleration
bottle rocket experiment, 3: 493 501, 495 (ill.),
498 (ill.), 499 (ill.)
build a roller coaster experiment, 5: 934 38, 935
(ill.), 936 (ill.), 937 (ill.)
centripetal force experiment, 3: 501 5, 503 (ill.)
centripetal force in, 3: 493, 493 (ill.)
Newtonian laws of motion on, 3: 492, 492 (ill.)
of planetary orbits, 3: 579 80
Acetate, 3: 509, 511 14, 511 (ill.), 512 (ill.),
513 (ill.)
Acetic acid, 1: 165, 4: 820 23, 820 (ill.), 821 (ill.),
822 (ill.)
Acetone, 3: 511 14, 511 (ill.), 512 (ill.), 513 (ill.)
Acid/base indicators, 4: 860
cave formation experiment, 1: 134, 134 (ill.)
pH of household chemicals experiment, 4:
861 65, 861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
Acid rain, 1: 1 17, 17 (ill.)
brine shrimp experiment, 1: 5 8, 7 (ill.)
damage from, 1: 1 3, 4: 860 61
design an experiment for, 1: 15 16
formation of, 1: 1, 164
pH of, 1: 1, 2 (ill.), 3 (ill.), 4: 860 61, 861 (ill.)
plant growth experiment, 1: 9 12, 11 (ill.)

structure damage experiment, 1: 12 15, 14 (ill.),
15 (ill.), 16
Acidity
in food preservation, 3: 452
in food spoilage, 3: 478
measurement of, 1: 1
neutralization of, 1: 4
for separation and identification, 5: 1033,
1034 (ill.)
of soil, 5: 1064
soil pH and plant growth experiment, 5:
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
See also pH
Acids
acid copper reduction experiment, 4: 813 17,
814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
cave formation experiment, 1: 132 35, 134 (ill.)
chemical properties of, 1: 164
chemical titration experiment, 4: 865 68,
865 (ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
copper color change experiment, 4: 820 23, 820
(ill.), 821 (ill.), 822 (ill.)
electricity conduction by, 2: 334
pH of, 4: 859 61
uses for, 4: 859, 860
See also Lemon juice; Vinegar
Acoustics, 5: 1096
Acronyms, 4: 700
Actions, reactions to every, 3: 492, 494
cxxi
GENERAL SUBJECT INDEX
Active solar energy systems, 5: 1082

Adaptation, 1: 87
Additives, food, 3: 453
Adenine, 2: 286 87
Adhesion
of water, 6: 1259 61, 1260 (ill.)
water adhesion and weight experiment, 6:
1264 68, 1265 (ill.), 1266 (ill.)
Adhesives, 1: 19 32, 20 (ill.), 21 (ill.)
environmental conditions experiment, 1: 26 30,
27 (ill.), 28 (ill.), 29 (ill.)
glue adherence experiment, 1: 22 25, 23 (ill.),
24 (ill.)
tape strength experiment, 4: 688 91, 689 (ill.),
690 (ill.)
types of, 1: 19 22
Aeration, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.)
Aerobic decomposition, 2: 231
African violets, 6: 1207, 1207 (ill.)
Agar, 1: 90 95, 92 (ill.), 93 (ill.), 95 100
Agriculture, 2: 229 30, 4: 646
Air, 1: 33 44, 35 (ill.), 36 (ill.), 43 (ill.), 45
composition of, 1: 33, 34 (ill.)
convection current experiment, 1: 39 42, 41 (ill.)
density of, 1: 34 36, 35 (ill.), 36 (ill.), 4: 737
in soil, 5: 1063, 1064 (ill.)
warm air vs. cool air experiment, 1: 36 39,
36 (ill.), 38 (ill.)
water vapor content of, 6: 1247
Air currents
convection, 1: 36, 36 (ill.)
in storm formation, 6: 1147
in weather, 6: 1272
Air masses, 1: 34 39, 35 (ill.), 36 (ill.), 38 (ill.)
Air pollution, 1: 45 60, 46 (ill.)
acid rain from, 1: 1
from coal, 1: 46, 164
from gases, 1: 45 46
greenhouse effect, 1: 46, 47 (ill.)
indoor, 1: 48
cxxii
lichen bioindicator experiment, 1: 51 55,

52 (ill.), 54 (ill.), 82
lichen bioindicators for, 1: 74
from particulate matter, 1: 45, 46 47, 59
prevention of, 1: 50
Air pressure
barometric measurement of, 1: 34, 43 44,
6: 1284
build a barometer experiment, 6: 1289 92,
1290 (ill.), 1291 (ill.)
flight and, 3: 422
fluids and, 3: 439, 439 (ill.)
in weather, 1: 33 34, 6: 1271, 1272 (ill.)
on weather maps, 6: 1285
wind and, 1: 33 34
Air resistance, 3: 581 82
Airplanes, 3: 413 15
Alcohol
in bread making, 2: 359
isolation and extraction experiment, 2: 289 91,
289 (ill.), 290 (ill.)
safety for handling, 2: 290, 293
species differences in DNA experiment, 2:
291 95, 293 (ill.)
yeast in, 3: 540
Algae, 1: 131, 3: 538, 4: 712
chlorophyll in, 1: 191
in eutrophication, 1: 49 50, 55 58
in lichens, 1: 51, 73 74, 75 (ill.), 3: 538
photosynthesis by, 1: 74, 75 (ill.)
Alkali earth metals, 4: 835 38, 835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Alkali metals, 4: 835 38, 835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Alkaline solutions. See Bases
Alkalinity
pH measurement of, 1: 1
of soil, 5: 1064
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
Alleles, 3: 554
Allergies, food, 1: 187
Altair, 6: 1123
Altitude
air density changes from, 1: 36, 36 (ill.), 4: 737
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272,
273 (ill.)
Altocumulus clouds, 6: 1273

Altostratus clouds, 6: 1273
Alum
crystal formation experiment, 2: 246 50, 246 (ill.),
249 (ill.)
fixatives for colorfastness experiment, 2: 304 7,
306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Aluminum
acidity reaction of, 1: 164
build an electroscope experiment, 6: 1135 39,
1137 (ill.), 1138 (ill.)
decomposition of, 2: 231
24 (ill.)
heat conduction experiment, 3: 618 22, 620 (ill.),
621 (ill.)
light refraction experiment, 4: 666 69, 666 (ill.),
667 (ill.)
soundproofing materials experiment, 5: 1102 5,
1104 (ill.)
Aluminum sulfate. See Alum
Alzheimers disease, 4: 699
Amazon Basin, 1: 105
Amber, 3: 535
Amino acids, 2: 286
Ammonia
comet composition experiment, 2: 218 21, 220 (ill.)
copper patina experiment, 1: 173 75, 174 (ill.),
175 (ill.)
861 65, 861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
safety for, 1: 173
Ammonium, 1: 157 59, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.),
159 (ill.), 164
Amnesia, 4: 699
Ampere, Andre Marie, 2: 333, 334 (ill.)
Amperes (amps), 2: 333
Amphibians
acid rain damage to, 1: 1 2
life cycle of, 4: 645 46, 646 (ill.)
tadpoles and temperature experiment, 4: 647 51,
648 (ill.), 649 (ill.), 650 (ill.)
Amplitude, 5: 1095 (ill.)
Anaerobic decomposition, 2: 231
Andes, 4: 735
Andromeda Galaxy, 6: 1124

Anemia, sickle cell, 2: 287, 3: 555
Anemometers, 6: 1273 77, 1273 (ill.), 1275 (ill.),
1283 (ill.)
Angel fish, 3: 407 9, 409 (ill.), 410
Angiosperms, 3: 423, 6: 1295, 1296 (ill.)
Angle of impact, 2: 221 25, 224 (ill.)
Anglerfish, 4: 775
Angraecum sesquipedale, 3: 426
Aniline, 2: 300
Animal defenses, 1: 61 69, 62 (ill.), 63 (ill.)
camouflage experiment, 1: 63 65, 64 (ill.)
ladybug experiment, 1: 65 68, 66 (ill.), 67 (ill.)
overview of, 1: 61 63
Animals
cave, 1: 130 31
color perception, 2: 214
desert biome, 1: 104 5
enzymes from, 2: 360
living on mountains, 4: 738
minerals from, 6: 1226
ocean, 4: 774 75
Annual growth, 1: 71 83
lichen growth experiment, 1: 79 82, 81 (ill.)
by lichens, 1: 72 74, 74 (ill.)
tree growth experiment, 1: 74 79, 78 (ill.)
by trees, 1: 71 72, 72 (ill.), 73 (ill.)
See also Plant growth
Antacids
build a model volcano experiment, 6: 1240 42,
1240 (ill.), 1241 (ill.)
chemical titration experiment, 4: 865 68, 865
(ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
nanosize and reaction rate experiment, 4:
753 55, 754 (ill.), 755 (ill.)
Antennae (insects), 3: 632, 632 (ill.)
Anthocyanin, 1: 192
Antibiotic resistance, 1: 88 90, 95 100, 97 (ill.)
Antibiotics, 1: 89 90, 3: 539 40, 4: 712
anti bacterial plant experiment, 2: 392 95,
394 (ill.), 395 (ill.)
growing penicillin experiment, 4: 713 16, 713
(ill.), 715 (ill.)
cxxiii
Ants, 1: 62, 3: 634

food for ants experiment, 3: 635 38, 636 (ill.),
637 (ill.)
queen, 3: 633, 634
Appert, Nicholas, 3: 452
Apple jelly, 3: 467 70, 468 (ill.), 469 (ill.)
Apple juice, 6: 1226 31, 1229 (ill.)
Apples, falling, 3: 579, 580
Aquarium projects. See Fish tank projects
Aquatic plants. See Water plants
Aquifers, groundwater. See Groundwater aquifers
Arches, 6: 1166 67, 1167 70, 1167 (ill.), 1168 (ill.),
1173 (ill.)
Archimedes, 2: 259 (ill.)
Archimedes Principle, 2: 259
Architecture. See Buildings; Structures
Arctic Ocean, 4: 771
Aristotle, 5: 1006, 1013
Arm muscles, 1: 115 16, 116 (ill.)
Arrhenius, Svante, 3: 589
Artesian wells, 3: 601
Ascorbic acid. See Vitamin C
Asexual reproduction, 6: 1208
Ashes, volcanic, 6: 1239
Astronomers, 6: 1109
Atlantic Ocean, 4: 771
Atmosphere, 1: 33 34, 35 (ill.), 3: 589 600,
599 (ill.)
Atmospheric pressure. See Air pressure
Atomic clocks, 6: 1180
Atomic mass, 4: 828, 829
Atomic number, 4: 828
Atomic symbol, 4: 828
Atomic weight, 4: 827 28
Atoms
chemical energy of, 1: 151
in crystals, 2: 244, 245 (ill.)
density of, 2: 257
electrons in, 2: 349
in nanotechnology, 4: 747 48
shells of, 4: 829, 830, 830 (ill.)
Automobiles. See Cars
Autotrophs, 1: 74
Autumn, 1: 192
cxxiv
Auxins
leaf/stem cuttings and auxins experiment, 6:
1209 16, 1213 (ill.), 1214 (ill.)
in phototropism, 6: 1191 92, 1193, 1193 (ill.)
in vegetative propagation, 6: 1208, 1209
Avery, Oswald, 2: 286 (ill.)
Axles. See Wheel and axle machines
B groups (periodic table), 4: 829

B layer (soil), 5: 1067, 1067 (ill.)
Babylonia, 2: 325 26, 375
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), 4: 844 45
Bacteria, 1: 85 102, 86 (ill.), 101 (ill.), 4: 712
394 (ill.), 395 (ill.)
bacterial resistance experiment, 1: 95 100,
97 (ill.)
blue green, 1: 51
in caves, 1: 129, 131
for cleaning oil spills, 1: 50
for decomposition, 2: 273
diet of, 1: 87 88
discovery of, 1: 85, 4: 711 12
DNA, 2: 286
extremophile, 1: 88, 88 (ill.), 101
in food, 1: 101
food spoilage by, 3: 477 80, 478 (ill.)
growth inhibition/promotion experiment,
1: 90 95, 92 (ill.), 93 (ill.)
microorganisms and decomposition experiment,
2: 233 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.), 236
safety for, 1: 91, 96
spoiled milk and temperature experiment, 3:
485 88, 487 (ill.)
structure of, 1: 86 87, 86 (ill.)
uses for, 1: 101, 4: 712
See also Antibiotics
Bacterial diseases, 1: 85 86, 3: 539 40, 4: 711 12,
712 (ill.)
Bacterial resistance, 1: 88 90, 95 100, 97 (ill.)
Baking powder, 3: 464

(ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
leavening agents and carbon dioxide experiment,
3: 470 73, 472 (ill.), 473 (ill.), 474
Baking soda
cave formation experiment, 1: 133 35,
134 (ill.)
as a leavening agent, 3: 464
3: 470 73, 472 (ill.), 473 (ill.), 474
mystery powder identification experiment, 5:
1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
861 65, 861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
stalagmites and stalactite experiment, 1:
135 39
unknown mixtures experiment, 5: 1039 43,
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
vinegar reaction, 1: 165
Balance/counterweight scale, 3: 585 87, 585 (ill.),
586 (ill.), 587 (ill.), 588 (ill.)
Balloons, radiosonde, 6: 1283
Balls, falling, 5: 931 34, 932 (ill.), 933 (ill.)
Balsa wood, 2: 257, 258, 258 (ill.), 6: 1295
Baltic Sea, 5: 996, 997
Bark (tree), 2: 299, 6: 1295 96
Barometers, 6: 1284
1290 (ill.), 1291 (ill.)
experiments for, 1: 43 44
mercury, 1: 34
Barometric pressure. See Air pressure
Barringer Meteor Crater, 2: 217, 221
Bases (basic solutions)
865 (ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
for neutralization, 1: 4
pH of, 4: 859 61
uses for, 4: 859, 860
Baskets, 2: 390 91, 396 99, 398 (ill.), 399 (ill.)
Bats, 1: 130, 131 (ill.), 3: 425 27
Batteries, 2: 334 35, 4: 824 (ill.)

build a multicell battery experiment, 2: 340 44,
341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
electromagnet strength experiment, 4: 678 81,
678 (ill.), 679 (ill.)
Beams, 6: 1166 67, 1167 (ill.)
rigidity of beams experiment, 6: 1170 72,
1171 (ill.)
strength of arches vs. beams experiment, 6:
1167 70, 1168 (ill.)
Bean seeds, 3: 566 70, 568 (ill.), 569 (ill.), 570 73,
572 (ill.)
Bedrock, 5: 1067, 1067 (ill.)
Beef
aging meat experiment, 2: 365 68, 366 (ill.),
367 (ill.)
ant food experiment, 3: 635 38, 636 (ill.),
637 (ill.)
Bees, 3: 426, 426 (ill.)
Beet dyes, 2: 301 4, 302 (ill.), 303 (ill.), 304 7,
306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Beriberi, 4: 760, 6: 1223 24
Bernoulli, Daniel, 3: 413, 415
Betta fish, 3: 404 6, 405 (ill.)
Billiard balls, 5: 911
Biodegradability, 4: 687, 691 94, 693 (ill.),
694 (ill.), 5: 914, 927
Bioindicators, 1: 51 55, 52 (ill.), 54 (ill.), 82
Bioluminescence, 3: 555, 638 42, 640 (ill.), 4:
775, 784
Biomass, 5: 942 43
Biomes, 1: 103 12
desert, 1: 103, 104 5, 104 (ill.)
desert biome experiment, 1: 108 11, 109
(ill.), 110 (ill.), 111 (ill.)
rainforest, 1: 105 6, 105 (ill.)
taiga, 1: 103 4, 104 (ill.)
temperate forest experiment, 1: 106 (ill.), 107 8,
107 (ill.), 108 (ill.)
Biopesticides, 4: 843, 844 46, 847 52, 851 (ill.)
Birds, 1: 50, 104, 105, 3: 425 27, 4: 846
Bitter taste, 1: 177, 180, 182 86
Bivalves, 5: 1019 20, 1020 (ill.), 1021, 1025 27,
1027 (ill.)
cxxv
Black ink, 1: 63, 5: 1034 39, 1036 (ill.), 1037 (ill.)

Black light, 4: 661 64, 662 (ill.), 663 (ill.)
Blanching, 3: 466
Bleach, 4: 812, 823
"Blending in," 1: 61 62
Blindness, 2: 205 6, 6: 1224
Blood, 1: 113, 4: 797, 798 (ill.)
Blood spatter analysis, 3: 508, 509 (ill.), 515 18,
516 (ill.), 517 (ill.)
Blue green bacteria, 1: 51
Blueshift, 6: 1112, 1112 (ill.)
Boats, sail, 5: 944 48, 945 (ill.), 946 (ill.)
BOD5, 2: 273
Boiling point, 4: 748, 752 (ill.), 5: 1034
Bonds, 1: 20, 151
Bone loss, 1: 115 20, 119 (ill.)
Bone marrow, 1: 114
Bone tissue, 1: 113
Bones, 1: 113 25, 114 (ill.)
apatite crystals in, 2: 243
bone loss experiment, 1: 116 20, 119 (ill.)
composition and function, 1: 113 14, 115
(ill.), 116 (ill.)
fossil formation experiment, 3: 530 33, 532 (ill.)
fossil molds of, 3: 523
muscle strength and fatigue experiment, 1:
120 23, 122 (ill.)
Bony fish, 3: 401, 402, 402 (ill.), 403 (ill.)
Book of Signs (Theophrastus), 6: 1283 84
Borax
polymer slime experiment, 5: 919 23, 921 (ill.),
922 (ill.)
white glue reaction, 1: 167 70, 168 (ill.), 169 (ill.)
Boreal forest, 1: 103 4, 104 (ill.)
Botany, 3: 565
Boussingault, Jean Baptiste, 2: 229
Bracken Cave, 1: 130
Brahe, Tycho, 3: 579
Braided rivers, 5: 956
Brain
hearing sounds, 5: 1095
memory and, 4: 698 99, 699 (ill.)
seeing optical illusions experiment, 4: 791 94,
791 (ill.), 792 (ill.), 793 (ill.)
cxxvi
Bran, 4: 760
Branches, 1: 71, 74 79
Bread
mold on, 3: 478
moldy bread experiment, 3: 481 85, 481 (ill.),
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
yeast in, 2: 359, 3: 464 65, 465 (ill.), 540, 544
Breathing. See Respiration
Bridges, 6: 1165, 1173 (ill.)
1171 (ill.)
1167 70, 1168 (ill.)
Brightness, 2: 206 7, 6: 1124, 1124 (ill.)
Brine shrimp, 1: 5 8, 7 (ill.)
Bromelain, 2: 368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
Bronze Age, 2: 231, 5: 969
Browning reaction. See Maillard reaction
Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis), 4: 844 45
Budding, 1: 143 44, 3: 539, 540 (ill.)
Buds, 1: 72, 72 (ill.), 73 (ill.)
Building materials, 2: 321
Buildings, 6: 1165
acid rain damage to, 1: 3, 12 15, 14 (ill.), 15
(ill.), 16
building properties of wood experiment, 6:
1302 6, 1304 (ill.), 1305 (ill.)
earthquake destruction experiment, 2: 317 21,
319 (ill.), 320 (ill.), 321 (ill.)
See also Structures
Buoyancy, 2: 257 69, 257 (ill.), 259, 259 (ill.)
make a hydrometer experiment, 5: 997 1000,
998 (ill.), 999 (ill.)
relative density and floating experiment, 2:
260 64, 262 (ill.), 263 (ill.)
water pressure experiment, 2: 264 67, 265 (ill.),
266 (ill.)
Burn test, 3: 513, 513 (ill.)
Burrs, 4: 685, 686 (ill.)
Butter, rancid, 3: 480
Butterflies
life cycle of, 3: 633 34, 4: 645, 656 (ill.)
mimicry by, 1: 62
pollination by, 3: 425 27
C layer (soil), 5: 1067, 1067 (ill.)

Cabbage, purple, 2: 304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Cactus, 5: 899 900, 908, 908 (ill.)
desert biome experiment, 1: 108 11, 109 (ill.),
110 (ill.), 111 (ill.)
saguaro, 1: 105, 5: 900
water storage by, 5: 884, 884 (ill.), 885
Calcite, 1: 129 30, 4: 862
Calcium
in bones, 1: 114
hard water sources experiment, 6: 1231 34,
1232 (ill.)
for nutrition, 4: 761, 6: 1226
periodic table location for, 4: 829
in soil, 5: 1064
in water, 6: 1225 26
Calcium carbonate
seashells of, 5: 1020, 1022
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
solubility of elements experiment, 4: 835 38,
835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
stalagmites and stalactite experiment, 1: 135 39,
137 (ill.)
Calcium chloride, 1: 157 59, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.),
159 (ill.)
Calories, 4: 766 69, 768 (ill.), 769 (ill.)
Cambium, 6: 1296, 1297 (ill.)
Camera lenses, 4: 795 (ill.)
Cameras, 6: 1125 28, 1126 (ill.), 1127 (ill.)
Camouflage, 1: 61 62, 63 65, 64 (ill.), 5: 1021
Canals, 2: 375
Cancellous bone, 1: 114
Canned food, 3: 452 53, 479, 479 (ill.)
Capillary action, 6: 1260
Carbohydrates
dietary carbohydrate sources experiment, 4:
761 64, 763 (ill.), 764 (ill.)
muscle strength and fatigue experiment, 1: 123
for nutrition, 4: 760, 761 (ill.)
Carbon, 2: 230, 246 (ill.), 4: 749, 829, 5: 912

Carbon carbon bonds, 5: 912
Carbon dating, 3: 525
Carbon dioxide
in air, 1: 33
in bread making, 2: 359
burning fossil fuels experiment, 3: 596 98, 596
(ill.), 597 (ill.)
in cave formation, 1: 127 29, 128 (ill.)
comet composition experiment, 2: 218 21, 220 (ill.)
in dry ice, 2: 220
from fish, 3: 402
greenhouse effect, 1: 46, 47 (ill.), 3: 589 90,
5: 941
from leavening agents, 3: 464
3: 470 73, 472 (ill.), 473 (ill.), 474
753 55, 754 (ill.), 755 (ill.)
in plant respiration, 4: 871, 872
from power plants, 1: 46
temperature for yeast growth experiment, 3:
544 49, 547 (ill.), 548 (ill.)
from yeast, 2: 359, 3: 540 41
Carbon monoxide, 1: 45, 2: 231
Carbon nanotubes, 4: 749
Carbonic acid, 1: 127 29, 128 (ill.), 132 35,
134 (ill.), 3: 544
Cardboard soundproofing, 5: 1102 5, 1104 (ill.)
Cardiac muscles, 1: 115, 115 (ill.)
Carlsbad Caverns, 1: 129
Carotene, 1: 192, 201 (ill.), 4: 872
Cars, 1: 3 4, 46, 3: 590
Carson, Rachel, 4: 846
Carson River, 5: 955
Cartier, Jacques, 4: 759
Cartilage, 1: 114
Cartilaginous fish, 3: 401
Casts, fossil, 3: 523, 526 29, 528 (ill.)
Catalase, 2: 361 (ill.), 362 65, 363 (ill.), 364 (ill.)
Catalysts, 2: 359 60, 360 (ill.)
Catalytic converters, 1: 3 4
Caterpillars, 3: 633 34, 4: 645
Caventou, Joseph Biernaime, 1: 191
Caverns. See Caves
cxxvii
Caves, 1: 127 40, 140 (ill.)

formation of, 1: 127 29, 128 (ill.)
life forms in, 1: 130 31, 131 (ill.)
sea, 1: 129, 129 (ill.)
137 (ill.)
stalagmites and stalactite formation, 1: 129 30,
130 (ill.)
Cell division, 1: 143 44
Cell membrane, 1: 142
bacteria, 1: 86, 87 (ill.)
diffusion through, 4: 797, 798 (ill.)
osmosis through, 4: 798, 5: 898
Cell nucleus, 1: 86, 142 43, 2: 285, 289 91,
289 (ill.), 290 (ill.)
Cell theory, 1: 141 42
Cells, 1: 141 50, 142 (ill.)
microscopes for, 1: 141, 141 (ill.)
monocot vs. dicot plant experiment, 1: 145 47,
145 (ill.), 146 (ill.), 147 (ill.), 148
multicellular/unicellular experiment, 1: 144 45,
144 (ill.)
osmosis, 5: 898 99, 898 (ill.), 899 (ill.)
reproduction of, 1: 143 44
structure of, 1: 142, 142 (ill.)
yeast reproduction experiment, 1: 147 48, 147
(ill.), 148 (ill.), 149 (ill.), 150
Cellulose, 4: 872
Cement, contact/rubber, 1: 20, 22 25
Centrifugal force, 5: 983 83, 983 (ill.), 989 92,
990 (ill.)
Centrifuge, 4: 724 25
Centripetal force, 3: 492 93, 493 (ill.)
distance/force relationship experiment, 3: 501 5,
503 (ill.)
helicopter and propeller experiment, 3: 418 21,
418 (ill.), 419 (ill.), 420 (ill.)
orbits and, 3: 493, 504 (ill.), 505
Ceramics, 4: 686
Cerebral cortex, 4: 698 99, 699 (ill.)
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons), 1: 46
Chain, Ernst, 3: 539 40
cxxviii
Chalk
acid rain damage to, 1: 12 15, 14 (ill.), 15 (ill.), 16
1232 (ill.)
835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Chanute, Octave, 3: 414
Chase, Martha, 2: 286
Chemical energy, 1: 151 61, 152 (ill.)
definition of, 1: 151, 5: 929
endothermic vs. exothermic experiment, 1:
156 60, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.), 159 (ill.)
production of, 1: 151 52
rusting experiment, 1: 152 56, 155 (ill.)
Chemical pesticides, 4: 843 44, 844 (ill.), 848 52,
851 (ill.)
Chemical properties, 1: 163 76, 164 (ill.), 165
(ill.), 4: 687
in chemical reactions, 1: 163 66, 164 (ill.)
175 (ill.)
mineral oil, water and iodine experiment, 1:
170 73, 170 (ill.), 171 (ill.), 172 (ill.)
white glue and borax experiment, 1: 167 70, 168
(ill.), 169 (ill.)
Chemical reactions
chemical properties in, 1: 163 66, 164 (ill.)
175 (ill.)
definition of, 1: 163
design an experiment for, 1: 160 61, 175 76
endothermic, 1: 151, 152, 165
156 60, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.), 159 (ill.)
energy from, 1: 151
enzymes in, 2: 359 60, 360 (ill.), 361 (ill.),
362 65, 363 (ill.), 364 (ill.)
examples of, 1: 164
exothermic, 1: 151 52, 152 (ill.), 165, 165 (ill.)
of leavening agents, 3: 464 65

170 73, 170 (ill.), 171 (ill.), 172 (ill.)
1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
753 55, 754 (ill.), 755 (ill.)
process of, 1: 164 65
safety for, 1: 158
synthesis, 1: 163
taste as, 1: 179
white glue and borax experiment, 1: 167 70,
168 (ill.), 169 (ill.)
Chemosenses, 1: 177 90
smell, 1: 177, 179 80, 179 (ill.), 180 (ill.)
smell taste relationship experiment, 1: 186 89,
187 (ill.)
supertaster experiment, 1: 180 86, 184 (ill.)
taste, 1: 177 79, 178 (ill.)
Chili peppers, 4: 848 52, 851 (ill.)
China, 2: 389, 6: 1123
Chitin exoskeleton, 5: 1020 21, 1022 25, 1023 (ill.),
1024 (ill.), 1025 (ill.)
Chloride, 5: 995, 6: 1226
Chlorine, 4: 812
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 1: 46
Chlorophyll, 1: 191 201, 191 (ill.)
color change from cooking, 3: 465 66
color change in leaves, 1: 192, 192 (ill.), 201 (ill.)
in cyanobacteria, 1: 74
light colors and plant growth experiment, 1:
197 200, 197 (ill.), 199 (ill.), 200 (ill.)
in photosynthesis, 1: 191 201, 191 (ill.), 4:
871 72, 5: 884 85
pigment separation experiment, 1: 193 97,
195 (ill.), 196 (ill.)
Chloroplasts, 1: 191, 4: 871 72
Chromatography, 5: 1032 33, 1034 (ill.)
paper chromatography and ink experiment, 5:
1034 39, 1036 (ill.), 1037 (ill.)
plant pigment separation experiment, 1: 193 97,
195 (ill.), 196 (ill.)
Chromium, 6: 1226
Chromosomes, 3: 553 54, 554 (ill.)

Chrysalis, 3: 634
Cilia, 1: 179
Circles, pi of, 4: 701 4, 701 (ill.), 702 (ill.), 703 (ill.)
Circular motion, 3: 492 93, 493 (ill.), 501 5,
503 (ill.)
Cirrocumulus clouds, 6: 1273
Cirrostratus clouds, 6: 1273
Cirrus clouds, 6: 1272, 1273
Citric acid, 2: 334, 340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
Clam shells, 5: 1022 25, 1023 (ill.), 1024 (ill.),
1025 (ill.)
Clay
density of, 2: 257, 258, 258 (ill.)
in soil, 5: 1065, 1066, 1066 (ill.)
soil horizon properties experiment, 5: 1067 73,
1071 (ill.), 1072 (ill.)
soil type and runoff experiment, 2: 377 80, 378
(ill.), 379 (ill.)
Clean Air Act, 1: 50
Clean Water Act, 1: 50
Cleaning products, 1: 164
Climate, 4: 741 44, 742 (ill.), 743 (ill.), 6: 1271
Climate change, 1: 46, 72, 3: 589
Climbing plants, 6: 1192, 1205 (ill.)
Clocks, 6: 1177 78
atomic, 6: 1180
pendulum, 6: 1178
water, 6: 1177, 1177 (ill.), 1185 88, 1187 (ill.)
Clostridium, 3: 478
Clouds, 6: 1271, 1272 73
formation of, 6: 1147 48, 1148 (ill.), 1272
funnel, 6: 1150 51, 1150 (ill.)
lightning formation in, 6: 1135
temperature and cloud formation experiment,
6: 1277 80
types of, 6: 1272 73, 1272 (ill.)
Coagulation, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.), 4: 724
Coal, 1: 1, 3, 46, 164
Coatings, 4: 749
Cohesion, 6: 1259 61, 1261 64, 1261 (ill.),
1263 (ill.), 1268 (ill.)
Coiling reeds, 2: 396 99, 398 (ill.), 399 (ill.)
Cold fronts, 1: 35, 6: 1285
Cold packs, 1: 152, 152 (ill.), 160, 161 (ill.)
cxxix
Cold temperature
adhesives experiment, 1: 26 30, 27 (ill.), 28 (ill.),
29 (ill.)
cool temperature and crystal growth experiment,
2: 250 53, 252 (ill.)
for food preservation, 3: 453, 453 (ill.), 479 80
magnetic strength effect experiment, 4: 674 78,
674 (ill.), 676 (ill.)
mountain altitude and, 4: 737
Coliform bacteria, 3: 485
Collagen, 1: 114, 2: 368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
Colloids, 4: 723 24, 724 (ill.), 725, 725 (ill.)
separation of, 4: 724 25
Tyndall effect experiment, 4: 730 32, 731
(ill.), 732 (ill.)
Colonies, bacteria, 1: 87
Color blindness, 2: 205 6
Colorfastness of dyes, 2: 300, 304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Colors, 2: 203 14, 203 (ill.), 204 (ill.), 205 (ill.)
as animal defenses, 1: 65 68, 66 (ill.), 67 (ill.)
animals perception of, 2: 214
camouflage, 1: 61 62, 63 65, 64 (ill.)
cooking changes in, 3: 465 66
copper color change experiment, 4: 820 23,
820 (ill.), 821 (ill.), 822 (ill.)
in dyes, 5: 1033
fiber type and dye color experiment, 2: 301 4,
302 (ill.), 303 (ill.)
heat absorption and reflection by, 3: 617
how we perceive them, 2: 205 6, 205 (ill.)
hue, saturation and brightness of, 2: 206 7, 214
interference fringes, 4: 660
leaves changing, 1: 192, 192 (ill.), 200 (ill.)
197 200, 197 (ill.), 198 (ill.), 199 (ill.), 4:
873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
make a rainbow experiment, 4: 664 65, 664
(ill.), 665 (ill.)
in nanotechnology, 4: 748
overview, 2: 203 7
1034 39, 1036 (ill.), 1037 (ill.)
pollinators attracted by, 3: 426, 431 35, 433 (ill.)
primary, 2: 205
in separation and identification, 5: 1033
cxxx
taste perception experiment, 2: 207 10, 208

(ill.), 209 (ill.)
temperature of different colors experiment, 2:
210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.), 213
testing mineral characteristics experiment, 5:
971 75, 973 (ill.), 974 (ill.)
of visible light, 6: 1112
See also Pigments
Columbus, Christopher, 3: 462
Coma (comet), 2: 216
Combustion, 1: 152, 3: 596 98, 596 (ill.), 597 (ill.)
Comets and meteors, 2: 215 27, 216 (ill.), 217
(ill.), 218 (ill.)
composition and properties experiment, 2:
218 21, 220 (ill.)
composition of, 2: 215, 216, 216 (ill.)
crater shape experiment, 2: 221 25, 224 (ill.)
craters from, 2: 217, 218 (ill.)
models of, 2: 227
orbital path of, 2: 215 16, 216 (ill.)
Complex craters, 2: 217, 218 (ill.)
Composting, 2: 229 41, 230 (ill.)
2: 232 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.)
organic waste for plant growth experiment, 2:
235 39, 236 (ill.), 238 (ill.), 239 (ill.)
process of, 2: 230, 230 (ill.), 231 (ill.)
Compound eyes, 3: 632
Compound microscopes, 1: 141, 141 (ill.)
Compressional strength, 4: 687, 687 (ill.)
Computers, 4: 750, 6: 1283, 1285
Concave lens, 4: 788 91, 788 (ill.), 6: 1110,
1113 17, 1114 (ill.), 1116 (ill.)
Condensation, 6: 1272
Conduction
conductivity of elements experiment, 4: 830 35,
833 (ill.)
of electricity, 4: 687, 6: 1133
of heat, 3: 615 16
621 (ill.)
Cones (eye), 2: 205, 205 (ill.)
Confined aquifers, 3: 601, 603 (ill.)
Conifers, 1: 103, 104 (ill.), 6: 1295

Conservation of energy, 5: 1047
Constellations, 6: 1124
Contact cement, 1: 20
Continental drift, 6: 1237 38
Contractions, muscle, 1: 115 16, 116 (ill.), 120 23,
122 (ill.)
Control experiment, 5: 1007
Convection box, 1: 44
Convection currents
in air, 1: 36, 36 (ill.)
air currents experiment, 1: 39 42, 41 (ill.)
for heat transfer, 3: 615, 616
ocean currents experiment, 4: 780 83, 782 (ill.)
in oceans, 4: 773, 774 (ill.)
in water, 1: 44
Convex lens, 4: 788 91, 788 (ill.), 6: 1110, 1113 17,
1114 (ill.), 1116 (ill.)
Cooking, 1: 194, 3: 463 64, 465 66
Cool air, 6: 1147 48, 1271
transpiration rate and environment experiment,
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
warm air vs. cool air experiment, 1: 36 39, 36 (ill.),
38 (ill.)
See also Cold temperature
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 5: 981, 6: 1178
Copper
814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
conductivity of, 6: 1133
construct a multicell battery experiment, 2:
340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
copper color change experiment, 4: 820 23, 820
(ill.), 821 (ill.), 822 (ill.)
electrons released by metals experiment, 4:
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
electroplating experiment, 2: 344 45, 344 (ill.),
345 (ill.)
621 (ill.)
hydrochloric acid reaction, 1: 165
for nutrition, 6: 1226
patina reaction experiment, 1: 173 75, 174 (ill.),
175 (ill.)
Copper Age, 5: 969

Coprolites, 3: 524
Coral snakes, 1: 62
Coriolis, Gustave Gaspard, 5: 984
Coriolis force, 5: 984 85
Corn, genetically engineered, 4: 845, 846 (ill.)
Corn oil, 5: 942
Cornstarch, 5: 1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.),
1013 (ill.)
Corona, 2: 326
Corrosion. See Rusting
Cotton, 3: 508
Cotyledons, 3: 566, 566 (ill.)
Counterweights, 3: 585 87, 585 (ill.), 586 (ill.),
587 (ill.), 588 (ill.)
Cowry shell, 5: 1021
Cows, 1: 48
Craters, meteor impact, 2: 217, 218 (ill.), 221 25,
224 (ill.), 227
Cream heat capacity, 3: 625 28, 626 (ill.), 627 (ill.),
628 (ill.)
Cream of tarter. See Tartaric acid
Crest, 4: 773, 774 (ill.)
Crick, Francis, 2: 286 87, 287 (ill.)
Crickets, 4: 651 55, 653 (ill.), 654 (ill.)
Crime scene
blood spatter analysis experiment, 3: 515 18,
516 (ill.), 517 (ill.)
DNA fingerprinting, 2: 296, 3: 509 10, 510 (ill.)
forensic techniques for, 3: 507 11
Cross pollination, 3: 424 25, 425 (ill.), 427 31,
430 (ill.)
Crust. See Earths crust
Crustaceans, 5: 1020 21, 1022 (ill.)
classifying seashells experiment, 5: 1025 27,
1027 (ill.)
strength of shells experiment, 5: 1022 25, 1023
(ill.), 1024 (ill.), 1025 (ill.)
Crustose lichens, 1: 52, 52 (ill.)
Crystal lattice, 2: 243
Crystals, 2: 243 55, 246 (ill.)
artificial, 2: 245 46
2: 250 53, 252 (ill.)
cxxxi
formation of, 2: 245 46

forming different crystal shapes experiment, 2:
246 50, 246 (ill.), 249 (ill.), 254 (ill.)
shape and structure of, 2: 243, 244 45, 244 (ill.),
245 (ill.), 254 (ill.)
uses for, 2: 243 44, 244 (ill.)
Cultures (social), 2: 389, 391
Cumulonimbus clouds, 6: 1148, 1273
See also Thunderstorms
Cumulus clouds, 6: 1272, 1273
Curing food, 3: 452
Currents. See Air currents; Convection currents;
Ocean currents
Curves, 5: 984 85
Cuttle fish, 1: 63
Cyanoacrylate glue, 1: 20, 21, 22 25, 24, 24 (ill.)
Cyanobacteria, 1: 74, 75 (ill.)
Cytology, 1: 142
Cytoplasms, 1: 86, 142
Cytosine, 2: 286 87
D cell batteries, 2: 334 35, 340 44, 341 (ill.),

342 (ill.)
da Vinci, Leonardo 3: 413, 422 (ill.), 6: 1247
Daily Value, 4: 767
Darwin, Charles, 6: 1191, 1191 (ill.), 1209
Data recording, 1: 16, 31, 43
Dating techniques, 3: 524 25
Days, 6: 1175, 1176
DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), 4: 846, 847
Dead zones, 2: 271, 273
Decanting, 4: 724
Decay. See Decomposition
Decibels, 5: 1096
Deciduous trees, 1: 107 8, 107 (ill.), 192
Decomposition
aerobic, 2: 231
anaerobic, 2: 231
bacteria for, 1: 85, 101 (ill.), 2: 273
BOD5 needed for, 2: 273
chemical reaction, 1: 163
in composting, 2: 229 30
cxxxii
decay and dissolved oxygen changes experiment,

2: 274 79, 276 (ill.), 277 (ill.)
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272 73,
273 74
in fossil formation, 3: 522 23, 522 (ill.)
fungi for, 3: 537, 538, 538 (ill.)
in landfills, 2: 231, 232 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.)
in radioactive decay, 3: 525, 6: 1238
yeast decomposition experiment, 3: 541 43,
543 (ill.)
Deep ocean currents, 4: 773
Deep sea life, 4: 775
Defense mechanisms. See Animal defenses
Deficiency diseases, 6: 1223, 1224
Defraction grating, 4: 664 65, 664 (ill.), 665 (ill.)
Democritus, 6: 1123
Denatured proteins, 3: 463
Density, 2: 257 69, 257 (ill.), 259 (ill.)
of air, 1: 34 36, 35 (ill.), 36 (ill.), 4: 737
of balsa wood, 2: 257, 258, 258 (ill.), 6: 1295
of clay, 2: 257, 258, 258 (ill.)
density ball measurement experiment, 5:
1000 1003, 1001 (ill.), 1002 (ill.)
of fluids, 3: 439
mountain altitude and, 4: 737
ocean convection currents experiment, 4:
780 83, 782 (ill.)
relative, 2: 258 59, 258 (ill.), 260 64, 262 (ill.),
263 (ill.)
260 64, 262 (ill.), 263 (ill.)
salinity and, 4: 772
salinity and stratification experiment, 4: 775 80,
778 (ill.)
of seawater, 4: 772
temperature and, 4: 772
warm air vs. cool air experiment, 1: 34 39, 35
(ill.), 36 (ill.)
water pressure and buoyancy experiment, 2:
264 67, 265 (ill.), 266 (ill.)
of wood, 6: 1295
Density ball, 5: 1000 1003, 1001 (ill.), 1002 (ill.)
Density driven currents. See Convection currents
Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA

Dependent variable, 5: 1008
Desert
biome, 1: 103, 104 5, 104 (ill.)
110 (ill.), 111 (ill.)
mountains and desert formation experiment, 4:
741 44, 742 (ill.), 743 (ill.)
Desert plants, 1: 105, 5: 898, 899 900, 908, 908 (ill.)
Detergents
action of, 6: 1260
borax in, 1: 167
DNA isolation and extraction experiment, 2:
289 91, 289 (ill.), 290 (ill.)
enzymes in, 2: 362
eutrophication from, 1: 55
species differences in DNA experiment, 2: 291
95, 293 (ill.)
Deveron River, 5: 956
Dewpoint temperature, 6: 1285 (ill.), 1286 89,
1287 (ill.), 1288 (ill.)
Diamonds, 2: 243, 244, 246 (ill.), 4: 747, 749,
750 (ill.)
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 4: 846, 847
Dicot plants, 1: 145 47, 145 (ill.), 146 (ill.),
147 (ill.), 148
Diesel vehicles, 1: 46
Diet
of bacteria, 1: 87 88
dietary carbohydrate and fat sources experiment,
4: 761 64, 763 (ill.), 764 (ill.)
dietary proteins and salt sources experiment, 4:
764 66, 765 (ill.), 766 (ill.)
how good is my diet experiment, 4: 766 69, 768
(ill.), 769 (ill.)
vitamins and minerals in, 6: 1226, 1235 (ill.)
See also Food; Nutrition
Diffraction of light, 4: 660
Diffusion. See Osmosis and diffusion
Digestion, 1: 85, 164, 2: 359, 360
Digital pH meter, 4: 860, 860 (ill.)
Dimples, 3: 554 55, 556 59, 558 (ill.), 559 (ill.)
Dinosaurs, 1: 85
Dioscorides, 2: 389
Dirt. See Soil
Diseases, 1: 85 86, 86, 88 90, 3: 539

Dishwasher detergents. See Detergents
Disinfection, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.)
Dissolved oxygen, 2: 271 84, 272 (ill.), 273 (ill.),
274 (ill.)
2: 274 79, 276 (ill.), 277 (ill.)
factors effecting levels of, 2: 271 73
goldfish breathing rate experiment, 2: 279 84,
281 (ill.), 282 (ill.), 283
Distance, 3: 501 5, 503 (ill.), 5: 1047
Distillation, 4: 724, 725 (ill.)
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), 2: 285 97, 286
(ill.), 295 (ill.), 3: 553 54
bacteria, 1: 86, 87
cell nucleus, 1: 142 43
of different species, 2: 287 88
isolation and extraction experiment, 2: 289 91,
289 (ill.), 290 (ill.)
mutations, 3: 555
replication of, 2: 287, 288 (ill.)
sequencing, 2: 287 88, 295 (ill.), 3: 553
291 95, 293 (ill.)
structure of, 2: 286 87, 287 (ill.), 3: 554 (ill.)
DNA fingerprinting, 2: 296, 3: 509 10, 510 (ill.), 562
DNA transformation, 2: 296
Dolphins, 3: 402
Dominant inheritance, 3: 554 55
Doppler effect, 6: 1111, 1112, 1112 (ill.), 1118 20,
1119 (ill.)
Double acting baking powder, 3: 464, 470 73,
472 (ill.), 473 (ill.), 474
Double helix structure, 2: 286 87, 287 (ill.), 3:
554 (ill.)
Dried food, 3: 451, 479, 479 (ill.)
food drying experiment, 3: 458 61, 458 (ill.),
459 (ill.), 460 (ill.)
process of, 3: 453
Drinking water, 3: 604, 605 9, 608 (ill.), 609 12,
610 (ill.)
Drugs, plant based, 2: 389 90, 390 (ill.)
See also Antibiotics
cxxxiii
Dry cell batteries, 2: 334

Dry environments, 5: 899 900
See also Desert
Dry ice, 2: 220, 6: 1158 61, 1159 (ill.), 1160 (ill.),
1161 (ill.), 1162
Dung, 3: 524
Dust
in cloud formation, 6: 1148
in comets, 2: 218 21, 220 (ill.)
in star formation, 6: 1123 24
Dust Bowl, 2: 375, 375 (ill.)
Dust tail (comet), 2: 216
Dutchmans pipe, 3: 427
Dyes, 2: 299 309, 299 (ill.), 300 (ill.)
colorfastness experiment, 2: 304 7, 306 (ill.)
fiber type and dye color experiment, 2: 301 4,
302 (ill.), 303 (ill.)
fixatives for, 2: 300 301, 300 (ill.), 304 7, 306
(ill.), 307 (ill.)
natural, 2: 299, 301 4, 302 (ill.), 303 (ill.),
304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.), 391
separation of colors in, 5: 1033
synthetic, 2: 299 300, 304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Dynamic equilibrium, 4: 798
Eardrum, 5: 1095, 1106 (ill.)

Earlobes, 3: 556 59, 558 (ill.), 559 (ill.)
Ears, 3: 403, 5: 1095, 1106 (ill.)
Earth
centrifugal force and gravity experiment, 5:
989 92, 990 (ill.)
circumference of, 5: 985
geologic history of, 5: 969 70, 970 (ill.)
gravity, 3: 579, 580
pendulum rotation experiment, 5: 985 89, 988 (ill.)
rotation and orbit of, 5: 981 85, 982 (ill.),
983 (ill.), 984 (ill.), 985 (ill.), 986 (ill.)
Earthquakes, 2: 311 23, 322 (ill.)
build a seismograph experiment, 2: 314 16, 315
(ill.), 316 (ill.)
cxxxiv

epicenter destruction experiment, 2: 317 21,
319 (ill.), 320 (ill.), 321 (ill.)
epicenter of, 2: 312
measurement of, 2: 312 13
Earths axis, 5: 982, 983
Earths core, 5: 969 70, 6: 1238
Earths crust, 5: 970
earthquake movement experiment, 2: 314 16,
315 (ill.), 316 (ill.)
in mountain formation, 4: 735 37, 737 (ill.)
mountain formation experiment, 4: 738 41,
739 (ill.), 740 (ill.)
Earths mantle, 5: 970, 6: 1238
Earthworms, 2: 230, 231 (ill.)
Echinoderms, 5: 1025 27, 1027 (ill.)
Eclipses, 2: 325 32, 325 (ill.)
eclipse model experiment, 2: 327 29, 328 (ill.),
329 (ill.)
history of, 2: 325 26
lunar, 2: 326, 326 (ill.), 327 29, 328 (ill.),
329 (ill.)
phases of the moon experiment, 2: 329 30,
330 (ill.), 331 (ill.)
solar, 2: 325 29, 325 (ill.), 328 (ill.), 329 (ill.)
Ecosystem, 2: 381, 4: 737 38
See also Biomes
Eels, electric, 1: 63, 63 (ill.)
Effort, 5: 1047
Egg whites, 3: 465, 465 (ill.)
Eggs, 4: 806 9, 808 (ill.), 809 (ill.)
Eggshells, 4: 806 9, 808 (ill.), 809 (ill.), 846, 5: 1019
Egyptians, 2: 389, 5: 1048, 6: 1175, 1177
Einstein, Albert, 6: 1179
Elasticity, 2: 321, 5: 912
Electric eels, 1: 63, 63 (ill.)
Electric motors, 2: 358 (ill.), 5: 1087 89, 1088 (ill.),
1089 (ill.)
Electric power plants, 1: 1, 46, 3: 590
Electricity, 2: 333 47, 334 (ill.)
conduction of, 4: 687, 6: 1133
833 (ill.)

340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
electrolyte solution experiment, 2: 335 40, 337
(ill.), 338 (ill.), 339 (ill.)
electromagnet creation experiment, 2: 354 57,
354 (ill.), 356 (ill.)
678 (ill.), 679 (ill.)
electroplating experiment, 2: 344 45, 344 (ill.),
345 (ill.)
magnetic field creation experiment, 2: 351 54,
353 (ill.)
in magnetism, 2: 349 50, 4: 672 73
production of, 2: 333 34, 349
from renewable sources, 5: 941 43
safety for, 2: 352, 358
from solar energy, 5: 1083
Volta Pile, 2: 335 (ill.), 344
See also Static electricity
Electrodes, 2: 333, 334
Electrolytes
340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
for electricity conduction, 2: 333 34
electrolyte solution experiment, 2: 335 40,
337 (ill.), 338 (ill.), 339 (ill.)
Volta Pile, 2: 344
Electromagnetic spectrum, 2: 203, 350, 350 (ill.), 4:
659, 660 (ill.), 787
Electromagnetic waves, 2: 203, 204 5, 204 (ill.),
350, 350 (ill.), 3: 616 17
Electromagnetism, 2: 349 58, 349 (ill.), 350 (ill.),
357 (ill.), 358 (ill.), 4: 672 73, 681 (ill.)
electricity in, 2: 349 50, 4: 672 73
354 (ill.), 356 (ill.)
678 (ill.), 679 (ill.)
magnetic field creation experiment, 2: 351 54,
353 (ill.)
Electronics, 4: 750
Electrons
in electricity, 2: 333, 349
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
in oxidation reduction reactions, 4: 811
in static electricity, 6: 1133 35, 1134 (ill.)
Electrophoresis, gel, 3: 562
Electroplating, 2: 335, 344 45, 344 (ill.), 345 (ill.)
Electroscope, 6: 1135 39, 1137 (ill.), 1138 (ill.),
1140
Electrostatic cleaners, 4: 724
Elements
833 (ill.)
periodic table of, 4: 827 42
properties of, 4: 828
835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Elevation. See Altitude
Elliptical orbits, 3: 579, 5: 981
Elongation, 5: 912 13, 915, 919
Embryos, plant, 3: 565
Emeralds, 2: 243
Endoskeleton, 3: 530
Endothermic reactions, 1: 151, 152, 165
from cold packs, 1: 152, 152 (ill.), 160, 161 (ill.)
vs. exothermic, 1: 156 60, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.),
159 (ill.)
Energy
conservation of, 5: 1047
food, 1: 160
laws of, 5: 929 32
See also Chemical energy; Heat; Kinetic energy;
Potential energy; Renewable energy; Solar
energy
Energy Information Administration, 2: 231
Entomology, 3: 631
Environmental conditions
29 (ill.)
camouflage experiment, 1: 63 65, 64 (ill.)
extreme, 1: 88, 101
pollution effects, 1: 45
cxxxv
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2: 271

Enzymes, 2: 359 73
367 (ill.)
in chemical reactions, 2: 359 60, 360 (ill.), 361
(ill.), 362 65, 363 (ill.), 364 (ill.)
in digestion, 2: 359, 360
discovery of, 2: 359 60
289 91, 289 (ill.), 290 (ill.)
hydrogen peroxide break down experiment, 2:
361 (ill.), 362 65, 363 (ill.), 364 (ill.)
291 95, 293 (ill.)
temperature and enzyme action experiment, 2:
368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 2: 271
Epicenter, 2: 312, 317 21, 319 (ill.), 320 (ill.),
321 (ill.)
Epiphytes, 5: 883 84
Epoxies, 1: 20
Epsom salts, 1: 135 39, 2: 246 50, 246 (ill.), 249 (ill.)
Equator, 5: 985
Equilibrium, 4: 798, 6: 1165 66
Erosion, 2: 375 88, 375 (ill.), 376 (ill.), 386 (ill.), 5:
1065
glacier erosion trench experiment, 5: 957 60,
958 (ill.), 959 (ill.)
of mountains, 4: 737
plants and the rate of erosion experiment, 2:
381 86, 382 (ill.), 383 (ill.), 384 (ill.)
river erosion experiment, 5: 962 65, 963 (ill.),
964 (ill.), 965 (ill.), 966
soil type and runoff experiment, 2: 377 80, 378
(ill.), 379 (ill.)
Eruptions. See Volcanoes
Ethics, 2: 296, 3: 562, 4: 750
Ethnobotany, 2: 389 400, 390 (ill.)
anti bacterial plant experiment, 2: 392 95, 394
(ill.), 395 (ill.)
coiling reeds experiment, 2: 396 99, 398 (ill.),
399 (ill.)
cxxxvi

plants as medicine, 2: 389 90, 390 (ill.), 400
tools from plants, 2: 390 92, 392 (ill.), 400
Eukaryotes, 3: 537 38
Euphotic zone, 4: 873
Eutrophication
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 273, 274
(ill.), 278 79
nutrients in, 1: 49 50, 50 (ill.)
Evaporation
evaporation and surface area experiment,
6: 1253 56, 1253 (ill.), 1254 (ill.),
1255 (ill.)
evaporation and temperature experiment, 6:
1248 53, 1250 (ill.), 1251 (ill.)
of mixtures, 5: 1032
in PVA glue, 1: 20 21
of seawater, 4: 724
137 (ill.)
suspensions vs. solutions experiment, 4: 725 30,
729 (ill.)
in the water cycle, 6: 1247
wind and, 6: 1252 53
Evidence, 3: 507 11, 508 9, 511 14, 511 (ill.), 512
(ill.), 513 (ill.)
Excavations, 2: 230 31
Exhaust, car. See Cars
Exoskeleton
chitin, 5: 1020 21, 1022 25, 1023 (ill.),
1024 (ill.), 1025 (ill.)
fossils of, 3: 530
of insects, 3: 631, 5: 1019
seashells as, 5: 1019 21, 1020 (ill.)
Exothermic reactions, 1: 151 52, 152 (ill.), 165,
165 (ill.)
vs. endothermic, 1: 156 60, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.),
159 (ill.)
Experiments, 5: 1006 8
Extinction, 3: 410 11
Extreme environments, 1: 88, 88 (ill.)
Extremophiles, 1: 88, 88 (ill.), 101
Eyes
color vision by, 2: 205 6, 205 (ill.)
compound, 3: 632
of fish, 3: 403
perception of light, 4: 787
791 (ill.), 792 (ill.), 793 (ill.)
Fabrics
fiber evidence from, 3: 508 9, 511 14, 511 (ill.),
512 (ill.), 513 (ill.)
nanotechnology for, 4: 749
natural vs. synthetic, 2: 301 4, 302 (ill.), 303 (ill.)
properties of, 4: 696
1104 (ill.)
Falling objects, 3: 579, 580, 581 84, 582 (ill.),
583 (ill.), 584 (ill.)
See also Gravity
False memory, 4: 699 700, 705 7, 707 (ill.)
Family genetics, 3: 556 59, 558 (ill.), 559 (ill.)
Farming, 2: 229 30, 4: 646
Fat soluble vitamins, 6: 1224 25, 1224 (ill.)
Fatigue, 1: 120 23, 122 (ill.)
Fats, 4: 760 64, 763 (ill.), 764 (ill.)
Faulds, Henry, 3: 507
Fault block mountains, 4: 736
Faults (earthquake), 2: 311, 322 (ill.)
Feathers, 3: 530 33, 532 (ill.)
Fermentation, 3: 540 41, 544 49, 547 (ill.), 548 (ill.)
Ferns, 1: 131
Fertilizer, 1: 49, 55, 2: 279, 386
Fiber evidence, 3: 508 9, 511 14, 511 (ill.), 512 (ill.),
513 (ill.)
Fibers, natural vs. synthetic, 2: 301 4, 302 (ill.),
303 (ill.)
Filtration
for separating mixtures, 4: 724, 5: 1032
729 (ill.)
water cleaning experiment, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.)
Fingerprinting, DNA, 2: 296, 3: 509 10, 510

(ill.), 562
Fingerprints, 3: 507 8, 508 (ill.), 509 (ill.), 519
Fins, 3: 402 3, 407 9, 409 (ill.), 410
Fir trees, 1: 103, 104 (ill.)
Fireballs, 2: 217
Fireflies, 3: 638 42, 640 (ill.)
Fireworks, 1: 165, 165 (ill.)
First class lever, 5: 1049 50
First law of motion, 3: 491 92, 494, 579
Fish, 3: 401 11, 402 (ill.)
bioluminescent, 4: 775, 784
characteristics of, 3: 401 2, 402 (ill.)
defense mechanisms of, 1: 61, 63
dissolved oxygen changes experiment, 2: 279 84,
281 (ill.), 282 (ill.), 283
dissolved oxygen levels for, 2: 271, 272, 273
fish breathing experiment, 3: 404 6, 405 (ill.)
how they breathe, 3: 402, 403 (ill.)
how they move, 3: 402 3, 403 (ill.)
movement of fish experiment, 3: 407 9, 410
ocean, 4: 774 75
senses of, 3: 403 4
water pollution and, 1: 50, 3: 411
Fish tank projects
110 (ill.), 111 (ill.)
281 (ill.), 282 (ill.), 283
fish breathing experiment, 3: 404 6, 405 (ill.)
movement of fish experiment, 3: 407 9, 409
(ill.), 410
temperate forest biome, 1: 106 8, 106 (ill.), 107
(ill.), 108 (ill.)
Fish tanks, care of, 3: 406
Fixatives for dyes, 2: 300 301, 300 (ill.), 304 7,
306 (ill.)
Flagella, 1: 87
Flammability, 1: 164
Flashlight fish, 4: 775
Flavor, 2: 207 10, 208 (ill.), 209 (ill.), 3: 463 64
See also Taste
cxxxvii
Fleas, 3: 633
Fleming, Alexander, 3: 539
Flight, 3: 413 22, 414 (ill.)
centripetal force experiment, 3: 418 21, 418
(ill.), 419 (ill.), 420 (ill.)
history of, 3: 413 15, 415 (ill.), 422 (ill.)
by insects, 3: 632 33
making gliders fly experiment, 3: 415 18, 416
(ill.), 417 (ill.)
Floating
density and buoyancy in, 2: 257 (ill.), 259,
259 (ill.)
260 64, 262 (ill.), 263 (ill.)
water pressure and buoyancy experiment, 2:
264 67, 265 (ill.), 266 (ill.)
water surface tension cohesion experiment, 6:
1261 64, 1261 (ill.), 1263 (ill.)
Florey, Howard, 3: 539 40
Flour
1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
Flowers, 3: 423 37, 424 (ill.)
attracting pollinators experiment, 3: 431 35,
433 (ill.)
parts of, 3: 423 24, 424 (ill.), 426 (ill.), 436 37
pollination of, 3: 423 27, 425 (ill.), 426 (ill.)
self pollination vs. cross pollination experiment,
3: 427 31, 430 (ill.)
Fluids, 3: 439 49
categories of, 3: 440 41
properties of, 3: 439 40, 439 (ill.), 440 (ill.)
spinning rod experiment, 3: 444 47, 446 (ill.),
447 (ill.)
viscosity and temperature experiment, 3: 441 44,
442 (ill.), 443 (ill.)
Fluorescence, 4: 660, 661 64, 662 (ill.), 663 (ill.)
Fluoride, 6: 1226
Fold mountains, 4: 736
Foliose lichens, 1: 52, 52 (ill.)
cxxxviii
Food
acidic, 1: 164
allergies, 1: 187
bacteria and, 1: 87 88, 101
canned, 3: 452 53, 452 (ill.), 479, 479 (ill.)
chlorophyll production of, 1: 192
curing, 3: 452
2: 274 79, 276 (ill.), 277 (ill.)
4: 761 64, 763 (ill.), 764 (ill.)
764 66, 765 (ill.), 766 (ill.)
dried, 3: 451, 453, 458 61, 458 (ill.), 459 (ill.),
460 (ill.), 479, 479 (ill.)
food supply and growth rate experiment, 4:
651 55, 653 (ill.), 654 (ill.)
frozen, 3: 451, 453
fungi as, 3: 537
heating, 3: 465 66
how good is my diet experiment, 4: 766 69,
768 (ill.), 769 (ill.)
organic, 4: 855 56
pesticides on, 4: 848
processed, 4: 760
salting, 3: 452, 452 (ill.)
187 (ill.)
taste of, 1: 177 79, 178 (ill.)
See also Diet; Nutrition; Taste
Food additives, 3: 453
Food coloring, 2: 207 10, 208 (ill.), 209 (ill.)
Food energy, 1: 160
Food poisoning, 3: 477
Food preservation, 3: 451 62
459 (ill.), 460 (ill.)
methods of, 3: 451 53, 452 (ill.), 453 (ill.)
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
sugar fruit preservation experiment, 3: 454 57,
455 (ill.), 456 (ill.)
vinegar for, 3: 452, 452 (ill.), 479
Food preservatives, 3: 452, 453, 462, 478 79, 481

85, 481 (ill.), 482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
Food science, 3: 463 75
heating food, 3: 465 66
jelly and pectin experiment, 3: 467 70, 468 (ill.),
469 (ill.)
leavening agents, 3: 464 65, 465 (ill.)
3: 470 73, 472 (ill.), 473 (ill.), 474
Maillard reaction in, 3: 463 64
Food spoilage, 3: 477 90
design an experiment for, 3: 461 62, 488 90
459 (ill.), 460 (ill.)
microorganisms in, 3: 451 53, 477 80, 478 (ill.)
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
prevention of, 3: 478 80, 479 (ill.), 480 (ill.)
process of, 3: 451, 477 78
485 88, 487 (ill.)
455 (ill.), 456 (ill.)
Food webs, 6: 1193
Footprints, 3: 524
Forces, 3: 491 505, 492 93, 504 (ill.)
arch distribution of, 6: 1166 67
498 (ill.), 499 (ill.), 500 (ill.)
centripetal force experiment, 3: 501 5, 503 (ill.)
effect on structures, 6: 1165 66, 1166 (ill.)
machines can change, 5: 1047
Newtonian laws of motion, 3: 491 93, 492 (ill.),
493 (ill.), 579 80
planetary orbits and, 3: 579 80
wheel size and effort experiment, 5: 1051 55,
1054 (ill.)
Forensic science, 3: 507 19
blood spatter analysis experiment, 3: 515 18,
516 (ill.), 517 (ill.)
DNA fingerprinting, 2: 298, 3: 509 10, 510
(ill.), 562
fiber evidence experiment, 3: 511 14, 511 (ill.),

512 (ill.), 513 (ill.)
techniques for, 3: 507 11, 508 (ill.), 509 (ill.),
510 (ill.)
Forests
acid rain damage to, 1: 2, 3 (ill.)
biomes, 1: 103 4
boreal, 1: 103 4, 104 (ill.)
carbon dioxide absorbed by, 3: 590
temperate forest experiment, 1: 106 (ill.), 107 8,
107 (ill.), 108 (ill.)
See also Rainforests; Trees
Fossil casts, 3: 523, 526 29, 528 (ill.)
Fossil fuels
acid rain from, 1: 1, 2 (ill.), 4
(ill.), 597 (ill.)
efficiency of, 5: 1083
greenhouse gases from, 3: 590, 5: 941
Fossil molds, 3: 523, 535
Fossils, 3: 521 36, 524 (ill.), 525 (ill.), 534 (ill.)
collection of, 3: 535
dating techniques for, 3: 524 25
formation of, 3: 521 24, 522 (ill.), 523 (ill.)
soils for fossil casts experiment, 3: 526 29,
528 (ill.)
Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon, 5: 985
Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 3: 589
Franklin, Benjamin, 6: 1134 (ill.), 1135
Franklin, Rosalind, 2: 287
Freeze drying, 3: 453
Frequency, 2: 350, 5: 1095 (ill.), 6: 1112, 1112 (ill.)
Fresh Kills landfill, 2: 231
Freshwater. See Water
Friction, 6: 1133
lightning sparks experiment, 6: 1152 55,
1154 (ill.)
static electricity from, 6: 1133 34, 1134 (ill.)
Frogs
leaf, 1: 61 62
life cycle of, 4: 645 46, 646 (ill.)
648 (ill.), 649 (ill.), 650 (ill.)
cxxxix
Fronts (weather), 1: 34 35
Frozen food, 3: 451, 453
Fruit
459 (ill.), 460 (ill.)
how fruit flies appear experiment, 5: 1013 16,
1015 (ill.), 1016 (ill.)
469 (ill.)
for scurvy, 4: 759, 760 (ill.)
sources of vitamin C experiment, 6: 1226 31,
1229 (ill.)
455 (ill.), 456 (ill.)
543 (ill.)
Fruit flies, 5: 1013 16, 1015 (ill.), 1016 (ill.)
Fruticose lichens, 1: 52, 52 (ill.)
Fulcrum, 5: 1049 51, 1050 (ill.), 1055 57,
1057 (ill.)
Full moon, 6: 1175
Fungal diseases, 3: 539
Fungi, 3: 537 51, 538 (ill.), 539 (ill.), 550 (ill.), 4:
712
as biopesticides, 4: 844 45
in caves, 1: 131
in lichens, 1: 51, 73 74, 75 (ill.)
microorganisms and decomposition
experiment, 2: 233 35, 234 (ill.), 235
(ill.), 236
reproduction by, 3: 539, 540 (ill.)
safety for, 1: 81
455 (ill.), 456 (ill.)
544 49, 547 (ill.), 548 (ill.)
types of, 3: 537, 538
uses for, 3: 537, 538, 539 41, 4: 712
543 (ill.)
Fungicides, 4: 843
Funk, Casimir, 4: 760
Funnel clouds, 6: 1150 51, 1150 (ill.)
cxl
Galaxies, 6: 1123, 1124 25

Galileo Galilei, 6: 1109, 1123, 1123 (ill.), 1178,
1178 (ill.)
Garbage, 2: 230 31, 232 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.)
See also Landfills
Garlic, 2: 392 95, 394 (ill.), 395 (ill.), 4: 848 52,
851 (ill.)
Gas chromatography, 5: 1033
Gases
in air, 1: 33
air pollution, 1: 45 46
in comets, 2: 216
as fluids, 3: 439 41
greenhouse, 1: 46, 47 (ill.), 48, 3: 589 91
noble, 4: 830
Gastropods, 5: 1019 20, 1025 27, 1027 (ill.)
Gecko, 1: 19, 20 (ill.)
Gel, 3: 467 70, 468 (ill.), 469 (ill.)
Gel electrophoresis, 3: 562
Gelatin, 1: 92, 97
how color affects taste experiment, 2: 207 10,
208 (ill.), 209 (ill.)
medium preparation experiment, 4: 716 20,
718 (ill.), 719 (ill.)
368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
Gemstones, 2: 243
Genes, 3: 553
Genetic engineering, 3: 555, 556 (ill.), 562, 4: 845,
846 (ill.), 848
Genetic traits, 3: 554 55, 556 59, 558 (ill.),
559 (ill.), 562
Genetics, 3: 553 63, 554 (ill.), 555 (ill.)
color blindness, 2: 206
cross pollination, 3: 425, 425 (ill.)
genetic traits experiment, 3: 556 59, 558 (ill.),
559 (ill.)
pedigree for taste experiment, 3: 559 61,
561 (ill.)
pollination, 3: 425, 425 (ill.), 6: 1207, 1207 (ill.),
1208 (ill.)
smell, 1: 179 80, 189

taste, 1: 180
vegetative propagation, 6: 1208, 1208 (ill.)
Geology, 5: 969 70, 970 (ill.)
Geometric patterns (crystals), 2: 243, 244 45, 244 (ill.)
Geothermal energy, 5: 943
Geotropism, 6: 1191, 1192, 1197 1201, 1198 (ill.),
1199 (ill.), 1200 (ill.)
Germ theory of disease, 1: 86, 4: 712
Germination, 3: 565 78, 566 (ill.)
germination time experiment, 3: 570 73, 572 (ill.)
seed scarification experiment, 3: 573 76, 574
(ill.), 575 (ill.), 576 (ill.)
temperature for germination experiment, 3:
566 70, 568 (ill.), 569 (ill.)
Gibberellic acid, 5: 886 90, 888 (ill.), 889 (ill.)
Gills, 3: 401, 402, 404 6, 405 (ill.)
Glaciers, 5: 957 60, 958 (ill.), 959 (ill.)
Glass, 2: 231, 3: 618 22, 620 (ill.), 621 (ill.), 4: 823
Glaubers salt, 5: 1090 92, 1092 (ill.), 1093
Gliders, 3: 414, 415 18, 416 (ill.), 417 (ill.)
Global warming, 1: 46, 3: 589, 590 (ill.)
Glucose, 4: 872
Glues, 1: 19 21
24 (ill.)
667 (ill.)
Glutamate, 1: 177
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), 6: 1179
Gnomon, 6: 1177
Gold, 4: 828
Goldfish, 2: 279 84, 281 (ill.), 282 (ill.), 283
Golgi bodies, 1: 142
Grain, wood, 6: 1297, 1298 (ill.)
Grapefruit, 6: 1226 31, 1229 (ill.)
Graphite, 2: 244, 246 (ill.), 4: 749, 750 (ill.)
Grasses, 2: 381 86, 382 (ill.), 383 (ill.), 390 91
Grasshoppers, 3: 633, 4: 651 55, 653 (ill.), 654 (ill.)
Gravity, 3: 579 88, 580 (ill.)
build a roller coaster experiment, 5: 934 38, 935
(ill.), 936 (ill.), 937 (ill.)
center of, 5: 983

989 92, 990 (ill.)
in density determination, 2: 259
geotropism effect, 6: 1191, 1192
height of objects experiment, 5: 931 34, 932 (ill.),
933 (ill.)
measuring mass experiment, 3: 585 87, 585 (ill.),
586 (ill.), 587 (ill.), 588 (ill.)
Newtonian laws of motion on, 3: 492, 579 80
orbits, 5: 982
root growth and gravity experiment, 6:
1197 1201, 1198 (ill.), 1199 (ill.), 1200 (ill.)
specific, 2: 258, 5: 997 1000, 998 (ill.), 999 (ill.)
speed of falling objects experiment, 3: 581 84,
582 (ill.), 583 (ill.), 584 (ill.)
star formation, 6: 1124
tides, 4: 774, 775 (ill.)
Grease, 6: 1260
Greeks, ancient, 2: 389, 3: 565, 4: 827, 5: 1006,
6: 1123
Green algae, 3: 538
Greenhouse effect, 3: 589 600, 590 (ill.), 591 (ill.),
599 (ill.)
burning fossil fuels experiment, 3: 596 98,
596 (ill.)
from fossil fuel combustion, 3: 590, 5: 941
gases in, 1: 46, 47 (ill.), 48, 3: 589 91
greenhouse temperature increase experiment, 3:
592 96, 593 (ill.), 594 (ill.)
how it works, 1: 46, 47 ll, 3: 589, 617 (ill.)
particulate matter in, 1: 46 47
Greenhouses, 5: 1082, 1084 87, 1084 (ill.),
1086 (ill.)
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), 6: 1179
Groundwater aquifers, 3: 601 13, 603 (ill.)
aquifer contamination experiment, 3: 605 9,
608 (ill.)
formation of, 3: 601, 602 (ill.), 603 (ill.)
pollution of, 3: 604 5, 605 (ill.), 606 (ill.)
water cleaning experiment, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.)
cxli
Growth
of bacteria, 1: 90 95, 92 (ill.), 93 (ill.)
of crystals, 2: 245 46, 250 53, 252 (ill.)
insect food supply and growth rate experiment, 4:
651 55, 653 (ill.), 654 (ill.)
See also Annual growth; Plant growth
Guanine, 2: 286 87
Guar gum, 5: 919 23, 921 (ill.), 922 (ill.)
Gulf Stream, 4: 773
Guppies, 3: 404 6, 405 (ill.)
Gymnosperms, 6: 1295
Hailstones, 6: 1151 52, 1151 (ill.), 1158 61, 1159

(ill.), 1160 (ill.), 1161 (ill.), 1162
Hair, mid finger, 3: 556 59, 559 (ill.)
Hair dyes, 2: 300
Hairline, straight, 3: 556 59, 556 (ill.), 559 (ill.)
Halley, Edmond, 2: 215 16, 216 (ill.), 326, 6: 1248
Halleys Comet, 2: 215 16, 216 (ill.)
Han Hsin, 3: 413
Hard water, 6: 1226, 1231 34, 1232 (ill.)
Hardness, 4: 748, 5: 971 75, 973 (ill.), 974 (ill.)
Hardwood, 6: 1295, 1302 6, 1304 (ill.), 1305 (ill.)
Hawkmoths, 3: 426
Health effects
of pesticides, 4: 844
of pollution, 1: 59
of vitamins and minerals, 4: 761, 6: 1223 36,
1224 (ill.), 1225 (ill.), 1226, 1227 (ill.),
1234 (ill.), 1235 (ill.)
Hearing, 5: 1095, 1106 (ill.)
Heartwood, 6: 1296
Heat, 1: 151 52, 3: 615 29, 615 (ill.), 616 (ill.)
conduction in solids experiment, 3: 618 22,
620 (ill.), 621 (ill.)
convection in liquids experiment, 3: 622 25,
623 (ill.), 624 (ill.)
for cooking food, 3: 465 66, 479 80
endothermic reactions, 1: 165
cxlii

156 60, 157 (ill.), 158 (ill.), 159 (ill.)
exothermic reactions, 1: 165
heat capacity experiment, 3: 625 28, 626 (ill.),
627 (ill.), 628 (ill.)
magnetic strength effect experiment, 4: 674 78,
676 (ill.)
movement of, 3: 615 17, 616 (ill.), 617 (ill.)
for separation and identification, 5: 1034
solar heat storage experiment, 5: 1090 92,
1092 (ill.), 1093
from sunlight, 3: 589
210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.), 213
thermal properties of materials, 4: 687
transfer of, 3: 615 16, 5: 930
wood for, 5: 942
Heat capacity, 3: 617, 625 28, 626 (ill.), 627 (ill.),
628 (ill.)
Heat energy. See Heat
Heat lamp safety, 1: 28
Heavy metals, 1: 49
Helicopters, 3: 413, 418 21, 418 (ill.), 419 (ill.),
420 (ill.)
Heliotropism, 6: 1201 4, 1202 (ill.), 1203 (ill.)
Helium, 4: 829, 6: 1123 24
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 5: 1096
Heng, Chang, 2: 312 13
Herbal medicine, 2: 389 90, 390 (ill.), 400
Herbicides, 1: 49, 4: 843
Heredity. See Genetics
Hershey, Alfred, 2: 286
Heterogeneous mixtures, 5: 1031 32, 1032 (ill.),
1033 (ill.)
High tide, 4: 774, 5: 984, 992 (ill.)
Hippocampus, 4: 698 99, 699 (ill.)
H.M.S. Challenger, 5: 995, 995 (ill.), 996
Homogenous mixtures, 5: 1032, 1033 (ill.)
Honey
637 (ill.)
442 (ill.), 443 (ill.)
Hooke, Robert, 1: 141
Hormones, plant. See Plant hormones
Horned lizards, 1: 63
Hot environments
29 (ill.)
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
Hot springs, 1: 88
Hours, 6: 1177
Household chemicals, 4: 861 65, 861 (ill.),
863 (ill.)
Howard, Albert, 2: 229
Howard, Luke, 6: 1272
Hubble Space Telescope, 6: 1110, 1110 (ill.)
Hue (color), 2: 206 7
Human Genome Project, 3: 555 56
Humans, 1: 85, 2: 287, 288, 3: 553 55, 555 56
Humidity
29 (ill.)
in weather, 6: 1271, 1284
Humonogous fungus, 3: 537
Humus, 2: 229, 230, 5: 1063, 1066, 1067 (ill.)
Hunting weapons, 2: 391
Hurricanes, 6: 1284 (ill.), 1286
Hutton, James, 5: 969, 970 (ill.)
Huygens, Christian, 4: 660
Hydrangea, 4: 860
Hydrocarbons, 3: 596
Hydrochloric acid, 1: 164, 165, 4: 865 68, 865 (ill.),
866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
Hydrogen
density of, 2: 257
nanotechnology, 4: 747
in polymers, 5: 912
in star formation, 6: 1123 24
in water molecules, 1: 20, 21 (ill.), 4: 747, 748
(ill.), 6: 1259
Hydrogen ions, 1: 1, 2: 334, 4: 859, 865
Hydrogen peroxide, 1: 163, 2: 361 (ill.), 362 65,
363 (ill.), 364 (ill.)
Hydrogen sulfide, 1: 129
Hydrologic cycle. See Water cycle
Hydrologists, 6: 1248
Hydrometers, 5: 997 1000, 998 (ill.), 999 (ill.)
Hydrophilic substances, 3: 465, 465 (ill.), 6: 1260

Hydrophobic substances
attraction to water, 6: 1260
proteins, 3: 465, 465 (ill.), 6: 1260
1264 68, 1265 (ill.), 1266 (ill.)
Hydroponics, 5: 895
Hydropower, 5: 943, 943 (ill.), 948 51, 948 (ill.),
949 (ill.), 950 (ill.)
Hydroxide ions, 4: 865
Hypertonic solutions, 4: 798
Hyphae, 3: 538, 539, 539 (ill.), 540
Hypothesis formation, 5: 1006, 1007 (ill.)
Hypotonic solutions, 4: 798
Ice
in comets, 2: 215, 216, 218 21, 220 (ill.)
dry, 2: 220
Ichthyosaur, 3: 521
Igneous rocks, 5: 970, 975 78, 975 (ill.), 976 (ill.),
977 (ill.)
Iguanodon, 3: 521
Imperfect flowers, 3: 424
Incandescent lights, 1: 198, 198 (ill.)
Inclined plane, 5: 1047 48, 1048 (ill.), 1049 (ill.)
Independent assortment, law of, 3: 554
Independent variables, 5: 1008
Indian Ocean, 4: 771
Indicators, pH. See Acid/base indicators
Indigo, 2: 299
Indoor air pollution, 1: 48
Indore method, 2: 229
Industrial chemicals, 1: 49
Inertia, 3: 491 92, 493, 494, 579, 581
Information gathering, 5: 1006
Infrared radiation, 3: 589, 616 17
Ingenhousz, Jan, 4: 871, 871 (ill.)
Inheritance, dominant vs. recessive, 3: 554 55
See also Genetics
Inhibition, zone of, 1: 90 91
Ink, 1: 63, 5: 1034 39, 1036 (ill.), 1037 (ill.)
Insecticides, 4: 843
cxliii
Insects, 3: 631 44
ant food experiment, 3: 635 38, 636 (ill.), 637 (ill.)
characteristics of, 3: 631 32, 632 (ill.)
dyes from, 2: 299
exoskeleton of, 3: 631, 5: 1019
651 55, 653 (ill.), 654 (ill.)
fossils of, 3: 523 24
life cycle of, 3: 633 34, 643 (ill.), 4: 645, 645
(ill.), 646
lightning bug experiment, 3: 638 42, 640 (ill.)
movement by, 3: 632 33, 633 (ill.)
natural adhesives from, 1: 19
pheromones, 4: 844
pollination by, 3: 425 27
social, 3: 634
taiga biome, 1: 104
temperate forest biome, 1: 108
Insulin, 3: 555
Interference fringes, 4: 660
International Hydrographic Organization, 4: 771
Invertebrates, 5: 1019
Involuntary muscles, 1: 115
Iodine
170 73, 170 (ill.), 171 (ill.), 172 (ill.)
1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
plastic bag membrane experiment, 4: 798 803,
799 (ill.), 800 (ill.), 801 (ill.), 802 (ill.)
1229 (ill.)
Ion tail, 2: 216
Ionic cleaners, 4: 724
Ionic conduction, 2: 333 34
Ions, 2: 244, 245 (ill.)
Iron
for bacteria, 1: 88
magnetized, 4: 671 72, 671 (ill.), 672 (ill.)
oxidation reduction reactions, 4: 812
rusting, 1: 151, 152 (ill.), 163, 165, 4: 812
in soil, 5: 1064
cxliv
steel wool rust experiment, 4: 817 20, 818 (ill.)

synthesis reactions, 1: 163
in water, 6: 1225 26
Iron Age, 5: 969
Iron oxide, 1: 151, 152 56, 155 (ill.), 4: 812
Irrigation, 2: 375
Isobars, 6: 1285
Isotonic solutions, 4: 798
Ivory, 5: 911
Janssen, Hans, 1: 141

Janssen, Zacharius, 1: 141
Jawless fish, 3: 401, 402 (ill.)
Jelly, 3: 467 70, 468 (ill.), 469 (ill.)
Jellyfish, 1: 149
Joints, 1: 113 14
Juices, fruit, 6: 1226 31, 1229 (ill.)
Jumping spiders, 1: 62
Jumps, 3: 633
Jupiter (planet), 6: 1109
Kangaroo rats, 1: 105

Kepler, Johannes, 3: 579, 5: 981
Kinetic energy, 5: 929 40, 930 (ill.)
build a roller coaster experiment, 5: 934 38,
935 (ill.), 936 (ill.), 937 (ill.)
933 (ill.)
laws of, 5: 929 31
Kingdoms, 3: 537
Kites, 3: 413
Koch, Robert, 1: 86
Kuhne, Willy, 2: 359 60
Labyrinth, 3: 404 6, 405 (ill.)

Lactic acid, 3: 485
Ladybugs, 1: 65 68, 66 (ill.), 67 (ill.)

Ladys Slipper, 3: 426, 427 (ill.)
Lakes
dissolved oxygen in, 2: 271 84
eutrophication of, 1: 49 50, 50 (ill.), 55 58,
57 (ill.)
neutralization of, 1: 4
water pollution, 1: 48
Landfills, 2: 229 41, 231 (ill.)
biomass energy from, 5: 942 43
decomposition in, 2: 231
2: 232 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.)
sanitary, 2: 231
Langley, Samuel Pierpont, 3: 414
Larva, 3: 633 34, 4: 645
Lattice, crystal, 2: 243
Laundry detergents. See Detergents
Lava, 5: 970
Lava caves, 1: 129
Lavoisier, Antoine, 4: 827
Law of independent assortment, 3: 554
Laws of motion. See Newtonian laws of motion
Leaching, 4: 847, 847 (ill.), 851 55, 854 (ill.)
Lead
air pollution, 1: 45, 46
atomic symbol for, 4: 828
density of, 2: 257, 258, 258 (ill.)
safety for handling, 6: 1167
Leaf cuttings, 6: 1208, 1209 16, 1213 (ill.), 1214 (ill.)
Leaf frog, 1: 61 62
Leaf litter, 2: 381 86, 382 (ill.), 383 (ill.)
Leather dyes, 2: 300
Leavening agents, 3: 464 65, 465 (ill.), 470 73,
472 (ill.), 473 (ill.), 474
See also Baking powder; Baking soda; Yeast
Leaves, 5: 885, 885 (ill.)
chlorophyll in, 1: 191 201, 191 (ill.)
color change by, 1: 192, 192 (ill.), 201 (ill.)
falling in autumn, 1: 192
in photosynthesis, 4: 871 72, 5: 884 85

195 (ill.), 196 (ill.)
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
water in, 5: 898
LED (Light emitting diode), 4: 666 69, 666 (ill.),
667 (ill.)
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 1: 85, 141, 4: 711
Legs (insect), 3: 631, 633
Lemon juice
814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
175 (ill.)
electrolyte function, 2: 334
electrolyte solution experiment, 2: 335 40, 337
(ill.), 338 (ill.), 339 (ill.)
469 (ill.)
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
pH of, 4: 859 (ill.)
pH of household chemicals experiment, 4: 861
65, 861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
Lenses
camera, 4: 795 (ill.)
focal length of lens experiment, 4: 788 91, 788
(ill.)
telescope, 6: 1110
telescope lenses experiment, 6: 1113 17, 1114
(ill.), 1116 (ill.)
Levers, 5: 1049 51, 1050 (ill.), 1055 57, 1057 (ill.)
Lichens
air pollution experiment, 1: 51 55, 54 (ill.)
annual growth of, 1: 72 74, 74 (ill.)
fungi in, 1: 51, 73 74, 75 (ill.), 3: 538
growth experiment, 1: 79 82, 81 (ill.)
structure of, 3: 538
types of, 1: 52, 52 (ill.)
Life cycle, 4: 645 57, 656 (ill.)
of amphibians, 4: 645 46, 646 (ill.)
cxlv

651 55, 653 (ill.), 654 (ill.)
of insects, 3: 633 34, 643 (ill.), 4: 645, 645 (ill.),
646
pesticide disruption of, 4: 843
648 (ill.), 649 (ill.), 650 (ill.)
Lift (airplane wing), 3: 413, 415 18, 416 (ill.),
417 (ill.)
Lifting loads
inclined plane for, 5: 1047 48, 1048 (ill.),
1049 (ill.)
lever lifting experiment, 5: 1055 57, 1057 (ill.)
levers for, 5: 1049 51, 1050 (ill.), 1051 (ill.)
1054 (ill.)
Ligaments, 1: 113 14
Light, 4: 659 70, 659 (ill.)
bending, 2: 203 5, 205 (ill.)
black, 4: 661 64, 662 (ill.), 663 (ill.)
black light experiment, 4: 661 64, 662 (ill.),
663 (ill.)
colors as, 2: 203 5
electromagnetic spectrum, 2: 203, 4: 659, 660
(ill.), 787
focal length of lens experiment, 4: 788 91,
788 (ill.)
how we view it, 4: 787
197 200, 197 (ill.), 199 (ill.), 200 (ill.), 4:
873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
lightning bug experiment, 3: 639 42, 640 (ill.)
(ill.), 665 (ill.)
passing through colloids, 4: 725, 725 (ill.)
in photosynthesis, 4: 871 73
phototropism effect, 6: 1191 93
properties of, 4: 659 60
red, 2: 203, 204 5, 210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.),
213, 4: 873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
refraction experiment, 4: 666 69, 666 (ill.),
667 (ill.)
in space, 6: 1109, 1111 12, 1112 (ill.)
speed of, 6: 1149, 1179
cxlvi
splitting, 2: 244 45
telescope magnification of, 6: 1110
210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.), 213
Tyndall effect experiment, 4: 730 32, 731 (ill.),
732 (ill.)
violet, 2: 203, 204 5, 210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.),
213, 4: 873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
visible, 4: 659, 660, 787, 6: 1112
white, 2: 203 5, 205 (ill.), 4: 873 77, 875 (ill.),
876 (ill.)
yellow, 4: 873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
Light bulbs
incandescent, 1: 198, 198 (ill.)
light intensity and plant growth experiment, 4:
877 80, 878 (ill.), 879 (ill.), 880 (ill.)
Light emitting diode (LED), 4: 666 69, 666 (ill.),
667 (ill.)
Light sensitivity, 1: 164
Light years, 6: 1124
Lightning
formation of, 6: 1135, 1135 (ill.), 1148 49,
1149 (ill.)
lightning sparks experiment, 6: 1152 55, 1154
(ill.)
Lightning bugs, 3: 638 42, 640 (ill.)
Lilienthal, Otto, 3: 414, 414 (ill.)
Lime, 1: 4, 4: 860, 5: 1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076
(ill.), 1079 (ill.)
Limestone
acid rain damage to, 1: 3, 12 15, 14 (ill.), 15 (ill.),
16, 17 (ill.)
caves, 1: 127 29, 128 (ill.), 132 35, 134 (ill.)
137 (ill.)
stalagmites and stalactite formation, 1: 129 30,
130 (ill.)
See also Chalk
Lind, James, 4: 759, 760 (ill.)
Linen, 3: 509
Lippershey, Hans, 1: 141
Liquid chromatography, 5: 1033
Liquids
density of, 2: 259
electricity conduction through, 2: 333 34
as fluids, 3: 439 41
627 (ill.), 628 (ill.)
heat convection experiment, 3: 622 25, 623
(ill.), 624 (ill.)
260 64, 262 (ill.), 263 (ill.)
442 (ill.), 443 (ill.)
Lisbon, Portugal earthquake of 1755, 2: 311 12,
312 (ill.)
Litmus paper, 4: 860
Litter, 1: 50
Liver, 2: 361 (ill.), 362 65, 363 (ill.), 364 (ill.)
Lizards, 1: 19, 20 (ill.), 63, 104 5
Lobsters, 5: 1022 25, 1022 (ill.), 1023 (ill.), 1024
(ill.), 1025 (ill.)
Lockyer, Joseph Norman, 2: 326 (ill.)
Long term memory, 4: 697 98, 698 (ill.)
Low tide, 4: 774, 5: 984, 992 (ill.)
Luciferin, 3: 639, 640 (ill.)
Luminol, 3: 508
Lunar eclipse, 2: 326, 326 (ill.), 327 29, 328 (ill.),
329 (ill.)
Lungfish, 3: 402
Luster of minerals, 5: 971 75, 973 (ill.),
974 (ill.)
Machines. See Simple machines

Macrominerals, 6: 1226
Macroorganisms, 2: 230, 231 (ill.)
Magma, 5: 970, 6: 1238, 1239
Magnesium
1232 (ill.)
in water, 6: 1225 26
Magnetism, 4: 671 83, 671 (ill.), 681 (ill.)
domain alignment for, 4: 671 72, 672 (ill.)
electricity in, 2: 349 50, 4: 672 73

354 (ill.), 356 (ill.)
678 (ill.), 679 (ill.)
magnetic strength experiment, 4: 674 78, 674 (ill.),
676 (ill.)
production of, 2: 349 50, 4: 672 73
See also Electromagnetism
Magnifying lens, 5: 1081
Maillard, Louis Camille, 3: 463 64
Maillard reaction, 3: 463 64
Malnutrition, 4: 759 60
Mammals, 1: 50, 104, 3: 524
See also Animals
Manganese, 6: 1226
Manure, 2: 229, 5: 943
Marble, 1: 12 15, 14 (ill.), 15 (ill.), 16
Marine mammals, 1: 50, 3: 524
Mariotte, Edme, 6: 1248
Mass
acceleration and, 3: 492
atomic, 4: 828, 829
center of, 5: 983
density determination, 2: 257, 259
of fluids, 3: 439
gravitys effect on, 3: 580, 581
inertia and, 3: 491 92
measuring mass experiment, 3: 585 87, 585
(ill.), 586 (ill.), 587 (ill.), 588 (ill.)
second law of motion on, 3: 579 80
Materials science, 4: 685 96, 686 (ill.)
nanosize and properties experiment, 4: 750 53,
752 (ill.)
nanotechnology in, 4: 749
properties of materials, 4: 686 87, 687 (ill.)
renewable packing material experiment, 4:
691 94, 693 (ill.), 694 (ill.)
1104 (ill.)
690 (ill.)
types of materials, 4: 685 86
Mauve, 2: 300
cxlvii
Meandering rivers
course of, 5: 956, 967 (ill.)
stream pattern experiment, 5: 960 62, 961 (ill.),
964 (ill.), 965 (ill.), 966
Meap tides, 3: 580
Meat
367 (ill.)
ant food experiment, 3: 635 38, 636 (ill.), 637 (ill.)
cooking, 3: 463 64
curing, 3: 452
safety for, 2: 366
Meat tenderizer
367 (ill.)
289 91, 289 (ill.), 290 (ill.)
291 95, 293 (ill.)
Mechanical bonding, 1: 20
Medicinal plants, 2: 389 90, 390 (ill.), 400
Medicine, 2: 389 90, 390 (ill.), 400, 4: 749
See also Health effects
Medium, for microorganisms, 4: 716 20, 718 (ill.),
719 (ill.)
Megalosaurus, 3: 521
Melanin, 1: 200
Melting point, 4: 748, 752 (ill.), 5: 1034
Membranes
cell, 1: 86, 87 (ill.), 142, 4: 797, 798, 798 (ill.), 5:
898
semipermeable, 3: 452, 4: 797, 798 803, 799
(ill.), 800 (ill.), 801 (ill.), 802 (ill.), 806 9, 808
(ill.), 809 (ill.)
Memory, 4: 697 709
false, 4: 699 700, 705 7, 707 (ill.)
how it works, 4: 698 99, 699 (ill.)
make a false memory experiment, 4: 705 7,
707 (ill.)
memory mnemonics experiment, 4: 701 4,
701 (ill.), 702 (ill.), 703 (ill.)
problems with, 4: 699 700, 699 (ill.)
techniques to help, 4: 700
types of, 4: 697 98, 698 (ill.)
cxlviii
Mendel, Gregor, 3: 554, 555 (ill.)

Mendeleev, Dmitri, 4: 827 28, 828 (ill.)
Meniscus, 6: 1260
Mercury, 4: 828
Mercury barometers, 1: 34
Mestral, George de, 4: 685, 686 (ill.)
Metals, 4: 686
833 (ill.)
electricity conduction through, 2: 333
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
glue adherence experiment, 1: 22 25, 23 (ill.), 24
(ill.)
heavy, 1: 49
oxidation reduction reactions in, 4: 811 (ill.)
See also Copper; Iron
Metamorphic rocks, 5: 971, 975 78, 975 (ill.), 976
(ill.), 977 (ill.)
Metamorphosis
amphibians, 4: 645 46, 645 (ill.)
insects, 3: 633 34
648 (ill.), 649 (ill.), 650 (ill.)
Meteor showers, 2: 218, 218 (ill.), 227
Meteorites, 2: 217, 217 ll, 218 (ill.)
Meteoroids, 2: 216 17, 217 (ill.)
Meteorologists, 1: 34, 6: 1284
Meteors. See Comets and meteors
Methane, 1: 46, 48, 2: 231, 5: 943
Mexican free tail bats, 1: 130
Michell, John, 2: 312
Microclimates, 3: 592 96, 593 (ill.), 594 (ill.)
Microorganisms, 4: 711 21, 711 (ill.)
as biopesticides, 4: 844 45
for composting, 2: 229
discovery of, 4: 711 12, 712 (ill.)
in food spoilage, 3: 451 53, 477 80, 478 (ill.)
growing penicillin experiment, 4: 713 16,
713 (ill.), 715 (ill.)
in landfills, 2: 231, 232 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.)
medium preparation experiment, 4: 716 20,
718 (ill.), 719 (ill.)
in soil, 2: 229, 5: 1063, 1067

types of, 4: 712
See also Bacteria; Fungi
Microscopes
compound, 1: 141, 141 (ill.)
development of, 1: 85, 141
for forensic science, 3: 507, 511
for microorganisms, 4: 711
for nanotechnology, 4: 748
scanning tunneling, 4: 748
Mid finger hair, 3: 556 59, 558 (ill.), 559 (ill.)
Milk
637 (ill.)
pasteurization of, 3: 480, 485
485 88, 487 (ill.)
Milky Way, 6: 1123, 1124
Mimicry, 1: 62
Mineral oil, 1: 170 73, 170 (ill.), 171 (ill.), 172 (ill.)
Minerals, 5: 969 79, 970 (ill.), 6: 1223 36, 1234
(ill.)
in bones, 1: 113, 114
crystalline, 2: 243, 244
design an experiment for, 5: 978, 6: 1234 36
dyes from, 2: 299
formation of, 5: 970
in fossil formation, 3: 523
1232 (ill.)
health effects of, 4: 761, 6: 1223 36, 1224 (ill.),
1225 (ill.), 1226 (ill.), 1227 (ill.), 1234 (ill.),
1235 (ill.)
in soil, 5: 1063, 1064, 1064 (ill.)
137 (ill.)
testing mineral characteristics experiment, 5:
971 75, 973 (ill.), 974 (ill.)
trace, 6: 1226
in water, 6: 1225 26
Mini biomes, 1: 106 8, 106 (ill.), 107 (ill.)
Miniaturization, 4: 750
Mirrors, 6: 1110 11
Mississippi River, 5: 955
Mixtures and solutions, 4: 723 34, 723 (ill.)

hypertonic vs. hypotonic, 4: 798
osmosis of, 4: 798
separation of, 4: 724 25, 725 (ill.), 5: 1031 34,
1032 (ill.)
729 (ill.)
732 (ill.)
types of, 4: 723 24, 724 (ill.), 5: 1031 32,
1033 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
Mnemonics, 4: 700, 701 4, 701 (ill.), 702 (ill.), 703 (ill.)
Mohs Hardness Scale, 5: 974
Molds
antibiotics from, 3: 539 40, 4: 712
diffusion of, 4: 797
food spoilage by, 3: 477 80, 478 (ill.)
growing penicillin experiment, 4: 713 16, 713
(ill.), 715 (ill.)
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
Molecules
carbon, 4: 749
crystals, 2: 244
molecule size and osmosis experiment, 4: 806 9,
808 (ill.), 809 (ill.)
in nanotechnology, 4: 747 48
salt, 4: 747
water, 1: 20, 21 (ill.), 4: 747, 748 (ill.), 6: 1259,
1259 (ill.)
Mollusks, 5: 1019 20, 1020 (ill.), 1021
Molting, 3: 631, 5: 1020 21
Monocot plants, 1: 145 47, 145 (ill.), 146 (ill.),
147 (ill.), 148
Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 1: 177
Months, 6: 1175
Moon
gravity and, 3: 579, 580
of Jupiter, 6: 1109
lunar eclipse, 2: 326, 326 (ill.), 327 29, 328 (ill.),
329 (ill.)
mountains on, 6: 1109
cxlix
orbit of, 5: 982, 986 (ill.)

phases of, 2: 329 30, 330 (ill.), 331 (ill.)
tides and, 4: 774, 775 (ill.), 5: 983 84
in timekeeping, 6: 1175
Mordants, 2: 300 301, 300 (ill.), 304 7, 306 (ill.),
307 (ill.)
Mosses, 1: 131
Motion
circular, 3: 492 93, 493 (ill.), 501 5, 503 (ill.)
three laws of, 3: 491 93, 492 (ill.), 493 (ill.)
Motors, electric, 2: 358 (ill.), 5: 1087 89, 1088 (ill.),
1089 (ill.)
Mount Everest, 4: 735, 736 (ill.)
Mount Vesuvius, 6: 1237, 1237 (ill.), 1239
Mountain range, 4: 735
Mountains, 4: 735 45, 736 (ill.)
air density and, 1: 36, 36 (ill.)
desert formation experiment, 4: 741 44, 742 (ill.),
743 (ill.)
ecosystem of, 4: 737 38
formation of, 4: 735 37, 736 (ill.), 737 (ill.)
on the moon, 6: 1109
739 (ill.), 740 (ill.)
Mouths (insect), 3: 632
Movement
by fish, 3: 402 3, 403 (ill.), 407 9, 409 (ill.), 410
of heat, 3: 615 17, 616 (ill.), 617 (ill.)
water bottle rocket experiment, 3: 493 501,
495 (ill.), 498 (ill.), 499 (ill.), 500 (ill.)
See also Motion
MSG (Monosodium glutamate), 1: 177
Mucus, 1: 179
Multicellular organisms, 1: 141, 144 (ill.)
Municipal water supply, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.)
Murray, John, 5: 995
Muscle contractions, 1: 115 16, 116 (ill.), 120 23,
122 (ill.)
Muscle fibers, 1: 115, 115 (ill.), 124
Muscle strength, 1: 115 16, 115 (ill.), 120 23, 122 (ill.)
Muscles, 1: 113 25
muscle strength and fatigue experiment, 1:
120 23, 122 (ill.)
strength of, 1: 115 16, 115 (ill.)
cl
Mushrooms, 1: 81, 108, 3: 540, 550 (ill.)

Music, 4: 700, 701 4, 701 (ill.), 702 (ill.), 703 (ill.)
Mutations, DNA, 3: 555
Mycelium, 3: 538, 539 (ill.)
Mystery powders experiment, 5: 1009 13, 1011 (ill.),
1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
Nails, magnetized, 4: 674 78, 674 (ill.), 676 (ill.)

Nanometers, 4: 787
Nanorobots (nanobots), 4: 749, 750
Nanotechnology, 4: 747 57, 748 (ill.), 749 (ill.)
building blocks of, 4: 747 48, 748 (ill.), 750 (ill.)
nanosize and properties of materials experiment,
4: 750 53, 752 (ill.)
753 55, 754 (ill.), 755 (ill.)
uses for, 4: 749 50
Nansen bottles, 5: 997
Napoleon Bonaparte, 3: 452, 479
Nares, 3: 403 4
National Weather Service, 6: 1273, 1275 (ill.)
Native American baskets, 2: 390 91, 396
Natural dyes, 2: 299, 301 4, 302 (ill.), 303 (ill.),
304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.), 391
Natural fibers, 2: 301 4, 302 (ill.), 303 (ill.)
Natural pesticides, 4: 843, 844 46, 847 52, 851 (ill.)
Natural pollutants, 1: 48
Nebula, 6: 1124, 1124 (ill.)
Nectar, 3: 425 26, 431 35, 433 (ill.)
Needles (tree), 1: 103
Nervous system, 4: 843 44, 844 (ill.)
Neutralization, 1: 4, 4: 860
Neutrons, 4: 828
Newton, Isaac
energy, 5: 930 31
gravity, 5: 982
laws of motion, 3: 491, 579, 580 (ill.), 6: 1165
light, 2: 203 5, 203 (ill.), 205 (ill.), 4: 659 60,
659 (ill.)
tides, 4: 774
Newtonian fluids, 3: 440 41, 444 47, 446 (ill.),

447 (ill.)
Newtonian laws of motion, 3: 491 93, 492 (ill.),
493 (ill.)
498 (ill.), 499 (ill.), 500 (ill.)
planetary orbits and, 3: 579 80
on structures, 6: 1165
Niagara River, 5: 955 (ill.), 956
Nickel electroplating, 2: 344 45, 344 (ill.),
345 (ill.)
Nile River, 5: 955, 956 (ill.)
Nimbostratus clouds, 6: 1273
Nimbus clouds, 6: 1272
Nitrates, 1: 49
Nitric acid, 1: 164
Nitrogen, 1: 33, 85, 2: 230, 386
Nitrogen dioxide, 1: 45
Nitrogen oxides, 1: 1, 46
Noble gases, 4: 830
Non Newtonian fluids, 3: 440 41, 444 47, 446 (ill.),
447 (ill.)
Nonpoint source pollution, 3: 604, 605 (ill.)
Nontarget organisms, 4: 846
Nontasters, 1: 180 86
North Star, 6: 1125 28, 1126 (ill.), 1127 (ill.)
Notes, sticky, 1: 22, 22 (ill.), 26 30, 27 (ill.), 28 (ill.),
29 (ill.)
Nuclear fusion, 6: 1124
Nucleation, 2: 246
Nucleotides, 2: 286 87, 291
Nucleus
cell, 1: 86, 142 43, 2: 285, 289 91, 289 (ill.),
290 (ill.)
comet, 2: 216
Number, atomic, 4: 828
Nutrients
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272 73,
279
in eutrophication, 1: 49 50, 50 (ill.)
how good is my diet experiment, 4: 766 69,
768 (ill.), 769 (ill.)
needed for health, 4: 760 61, 761 (ill.)
for plants, 5: 883, 895
role of, 4: 759
Nutrition, 4: 759 70, 760 (ill.)

4: 761 64, 763 (ill.), 764 (ill.)
764 66, 765 (ill.), 766 (ill.)
essential nutrients in, 4: 760 61, 761 (ill.)
how good is my diet experiment, 4: 766 69, 768
(ill.), 769 (ill.)
muscle strength and fatigue experiment, 1: 123,
124 (ill.)
vitamins and minerals in, 6: 1223 26, 1224 (ill.),
1225 (ill.), 1226 (ill.), 1227 (ill.), 1234 (ill.),
1235 (ill.)
Nutrition Fact Labels, 4: 767 69, 768 (ill.),
769 (ill.)
Nylon, 3: 509, 6: 1139 44, 1141 (ill.), 1143 (ill.)
Nymphs, 4: 645
O layer (soil), 5: 1066, 1067 (ill.)

Observation, controlled, 5: 1007
Occluded fronts, 1: 35
Ocean currents, 4: 772 74, 774 (ill.), 780 83,
782 (ill.)
Ocean water. See Seawater
Ocean waves, 4: 773, 774 (ill.), 784
Oceanographers, 4: 771
Oceans, 4: 771 85
biome, 1: 103
convection current experiment, 4: 780 83,
782 (ill.)
eutrophication experiment, 1: 55 58, 57 (ill.)
life in, 4: 774 75, 775 (ill.)
photosynthesis in, 4: 872 73, 873 (ill.)
778 (ill.)
seawater properties, 4: 771 72, 772 (ill.),
773 (ill.)
size of, 1: 48, 4: 772
See also Tides
cli
Octopi, 1: 63
Odors
as animal defenses, 1: 62 63, 62 (ill.), 65 68,
66 (ill.), 67 (ill.)
pollinators attracted by, 3: 426 27
187 (ill.)
See also Smell, sense of
Oersted, Hans Christian, 4: 672, 672 (ill.)
Ogallala aquifer, 3: 602
Oil pollution, 1: 48 49, 49 (ill.), 58
Oil power plants, 1: 1, 46
Oil spills, 1: 48 49, 49 (ill.), 50
Oils
627 (ill.), 628 (ill.)
442 (ill.), 443 (ill.)
Old Farmers Almanac, 6: 1284
Olfactory cells, 1: 179, 179 (ill.), 189
Olive oil, 3: 625 28, 626 (ill.), 627 (ill.), 628 (ill.)
Onions, 2: 392 95, 394 (ill.), 395 (ill.)
Oobleck, 3: 448
Oort cloud, 2: 215
Opossums, 1: 61
Optics and optical illusions, 4: 787 96, 787 (ill.),
795 (ill.)
focal length of lens experiment, 4: 788 91, 788 (ill.)
light and how we view it, 4: 787 88
791 (ill.), 792 (ill.), 793 (ill.)
See also Light
Orange juice
637 (ill.)
1229 (ill.)
Orbits, 5: 981 94, 982 (ill.), 983 (ill.), 984 (ill.),
985 (ill.), 992 (ill.)
989 92, 990 (ill.)
centripetal force in, 3: 493, 504 (ill.), 505
of comets, 2: 215 16, 216 (ill.)
design an experiment for, 3: 505, 5: 992 94
clii
discovery of, 5: 981 82, 6: 1109 10

elliptical, 3: 579, 5: 981
of the moon, 5: 982, 986 (ill.)
Newtonian laws of motion and, 3: 579 80
pendulum rotation experiment, 5: 985 89,
988 (ill.)
star movement and, 6: 1124
Organelles, 1: 86, 142
Organic farming, 2: 229 30
Organic food, 4: 855 56
Organic matter, 5: 1063, 1066
Organic waste, 2: 229, 230, 235 39, 236 (ill.),
238 (ill.), 239 (ill.)
Organisms, nontarget, 4: 846
Organophosphates, 4: 843 44, 844 (ill.)
Orion nebula, 6: 1124 (ill.)
Oscillation, 6: 1180 85, 1182 (ill.), 1183 (ill.)
Osmosis and diffusion, 4: 797 810, 797 (ill.)
molecule size experiment, 4: 806 9, 808 (ill.),
809 (ill.)
of nutrients, 5: 883
799 (ill.), 800 (ill.), 801 (ill.), 802 (ill.)
process of, 4: 797, 798
salt water osmosis experiment, 4: 803 6, 803 (ill.),
804 (ill.), 805 (ill.)
through semipermeable membranes, 3: 452, 4:
797
of water for plants, 4: 798, 5: 897 98, 898 (ill.),
899 (ill.)
Osteoporosis, 1: 114, 116 (ill.)
Overfishing, 3: 411
Oxidation-reduction reactions, 4: 811 25, 811
(ill.), 823 (ill.), 824 (ill.)
814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
copper color change experiment, 4: 820 23,
820 (ill.), 821 (ill.), 822 (ill.)
examples of, 4: 812 13
process of, 1: 164, 4: 811
rusting process as, 1: 151, 152 (ill.), 4: 812,
823 (ill.)
Oxygen
in air, 1: 33
altitude and, 1: 36
for composting, 2: 230
diffusion in blood, 4: 797, 798 (ill.)
for fish, 3: 402, 404 6, 405 (ill.)
in landfills, 2: 231
from photosynthesis, 5: 884 85
in plant respiration, 4: 871, 872, 5: 883
rust reaction, 1: 163, 165
in water molecules, 1: 20, 21 (ill.), 4: 747,
748 (ill.), 6: 1259, 1259 (ill.)
See also Dissolved oxygen
Ozone, 1: 46
Pacific Ocean, 4: 771

Packing peanuts, 4: 691 94, 693 (ill.), 694 (ill.)
Packing tape, 1: 21
Paleontologists, 3: 521, 534 (ill.), 535
Palmieri, Luigi, 2: 313
Papain, 2: 360, 365 68, 366 (ill.), 367 (ill.)
Papaya, 2: 360, 365 68, 366 (ill.), 367 (ill.)
Paper chromatography, 5: 1033, 1034 39, 1036 (ill.),
1037 (ill.)
Papillae, 1: 178, 179, 181
Papyrus, 1: 19
Parasites, 3: 538
Parents, genetics from, 3: 553 55
Parrot fish, 1: 61
Particulate matter, 1: 45, 46 47, 59
Pascal, Blaise, 1: 34
Pascal (unit of measure), 1: 34
Passive solar energy systems, 5: 1082, 1084 87,
1084 (ill.), 1086 (ill.)
Pasteur, Louis, 1: 86, 3: 452, 4: 711 12, 712 (ill.)
Pasteurization, 3: 480, 480 (ill.), 485, 4: 712
Patinas, 1: 173 75, 174 (ill.), 175 (ill.)
Patterns, camouflage, 1: 61 62
Pea plants, 3: 554
Pectin, 3: 467 70, 468 (ill.), 469 (ill.)
Pelletier, Pierre Joseph, 1: 191
Pencil lead. See Graphite
Pendulums
pendulum oscillation time experiment, 6:
1180 85, 1182 (ill.), 1183 (ill.)
988 (ill.)
in timekeeping, 6: 1178
Penicillin
discovery of, 3: 539 40, 4: 712, 712 (ill.)
growing penicillin experiment, 4: 713 16,
713 (ill.), 715 (ill.)
Pennies, 4: 813 17, 814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
Pepsin, 2: 360
Perception, 4: 791 94, 791 (ill.), 792 (ill.), 793 (ill.)
Perfect flowers, 3: 424
Periodic table, 4: 827 42, 831 (ill.)
833 (ill.)
development of, 4: 827 28, 828 (ill.)
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
how to read, 4: 828 30, 829 (ill.), 830 (ill.)
835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Perkin, William Henry, 2: 299 300, 299 (ill.)
Permineralization, 3: 522, 522 (ill.), 523, 523 (ill.)
Perrault, Claude, 5: 955
Perroult, Pierre, 6: 1247 48
Pesticides, 4: 843 57, 846 (ill.), 848 (ill.)
benefits and dangers of, 4: 845 48
chemical, 4: 843 44, 844 (ill.)
degradation of, 4: 847
natural, 4: 843, 844 46, 847 48
natural vs. chemical pesticides experiment, 4:
848 52, 851 (ill.)
safe handling of, 4: 851
water movement of pesticides experiment, 4:
851 55, 854 (ill.)
water pollution by, 1: 49, 4: 846 47, 847 (ill.)
Pests, definition of, 4: 843
Petals, 3: 424, 424 (ill.)
Petri dishes, 4: 716 20, 718 (ill.), 719 (ill.)
Petrifaction, 3: 523, 535
Petrified Forest, 3: 523
cliii
pH, 4: 859 69
of acid rain, 1: 1, 2 (ill.), 3 (ill.), 4: 860 61,
861 (ill.)
865 (ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
dye colorfastness and, 2: 307
household chemicals pH experiment, 4: 861 65,
861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
469 (ill.)
measurement of, 4: 859 60, 859 (ill.), 860 (ill.)
2: 233 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.), 236
neutral, 1: 9
rate of erosion experiment, 2: 386
for separation and identification, 5: 1033, 1034 (ill.)
soil, 4: 860, 5: 1064
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
pH indicators. See Acid/base indicators
pH meter, digital, 4: 860, 860 (ill.)
Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), 3: 559 61, 561 (ill.)
Pheromones, 4: 844
Phloem, 4: 872, 5: 884, 6: 1296
Phosphates, 1: 49, 55 58, 57 (ill.)
Phosphorescence, 4: 660
Phosphorus, 1: 55, 2: 386, 4: 761, 5: 1064
Photo chromic glass, 4: 823
Photosynthesis, 4: 871 82, 871 (ill.), 872 (ill.),
873 (ill.)
by algae, 1: 74, 75 (ill.)
chlorophyll in, 1: 191 201, 191 (ill.), 4: 871 72,
5: 884 85
discovery of, 4: 871
dissolved oxygen from, 2: 271 72
197 200, 197 (ill.), 199 (ill.), 200 (ill.), 4:
873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
cliv

877 80, 878 (ill.), 879 (ill.), 880 (ill.)
process of, 1: 191 201, 191 (ill.), 4: 871 72, 5:
884 85, 885 (ill.), 897
Phototropism, 6: 1191 93, 1192 (ill.), 1193 (ill.)
auxins in, 6: 1191 92, 1193, 1193 (ill.), 1209
phototropism maze experiment, 6: 1193 97,
1195 (ill.), 1196 (ill.)
Photovoltaic cells, 5: 1083, 1087 89, 1088 (ill.),
1089 (ill.)
Physical changes, 1: 163, 164 (ill.)
Physical properties, 1: 163
Phytoplankton, 4: 873, 873 (ill.)
Pi, 4: 701 4, 701 (ill.), 702 (ill.), 703 (ill.)
Pickling, 3: 452, 452 (ill.)
Pigments
colors, 2: 205
in leaves, 1: 192
197 200, 197 (ill.), 199 (ill.), 200 (ill.)
plant pigment separation experiment, 1: 193 97,
195 (ill.), 196 (ill.)
Pill bugs, 1: 68
Pineapple, 2: 368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
Pistil, 3: 423 24, 424 (ill.)
Pitch (sound), 5: 1095 (ill.), 1099 1102, 1100 (ill.),
1101 (ill.)
Planetary orbits. See Orbits
Plankton, 2: 279, 4: 774
Plant anatomy, 5: 883 95, 883 (ill.), 884 (ill.),
885 (ill.)
in photosynthesis, 5: 884 85, 885 (ill.)
plant hormones and growth experiment, 5:
886 90, 888 (ill.), 889 (ill.)
for pollination, 3: 423 27, 425 (ill.), 426 (ill.),
427 (ill.)
water uptake experiment, 5: 890 93, 892 (ill.),
893 (ill.)
Plant cells. See Cells
Plant growth, 5: 1084 87, 1084 (ill.), 1086 (ill.)
acid rain experiment, 1: 9 12, 11 (ill.)
annual, 1: 71 74, 72 (ill.), 73 (ill.), 74 (ill.)
auxins in, 6: 1191 92, 1209
heliotropism and plant movement experiment, 6:

1201 4, 1202 (ill.), 1203 (ill.)
lichen growth experiment, 1: 79 82, 81 (ill.)
by lichens, 1: 72 74, 74 (ill.)
197 200, 197 (ill.), 199 (ill.), 200 (ill.), 4:
873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
877 80, 878 (ill.), 879 (ill.), 880 (ill.)
236 39, 236 (ill.), 238 (ill.), 239 (ill.)
phototropism effect on, 6: 1191 93, 1192 (ill.),
1193 (ill.)
1195 (ill.), 1196 (ill.)
886 90, 888 (ill.), 889 (ill.)
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
tree growth experiment, 1: 74 79, 78 (ill.)
by trees, 1: 71 72, 72 (ill.), 73 (ill.)
851 55, 854 (ill.)
Plant hormones
1209 16, 1213 (ill.), 1214 (ill.)
in phototropism, 6: 1191 92, 1193, 1193 (ill.)
886 90, 888 (ill.), 889 (ill.)
in vegetative propagation, 6: 1208, 1209
Plants
acid rain damage to, 1: 2
394 (ill.), 395 (ill.)
cave, 1: 131
climbing, 6: 1192, 1205 (ill.)
color perception, 2: 214
cultural uses of, 2: 389, 390 92, 392 (ill.), 400, 5:
897
desert, 1: 105, 5: 898, 899 900, 908, 908 (ill.)
dicot, 1: 145 47, 145 (ill.), 146 (ill.), 147 (ill.), 148
fossils of, 3: 524 (ill.)
genetic engineering of, 4: 845, 846 (ill.), 848
heliotropic, 6: 1201 4, 1202 (ill.), 1203 (ill.)
how they stand up, 5: 898 99, 899 (ill.)

medicinal, 2: 389 90, 390 (ill.), 400
minerals absorbed by, 6: 1226
monocot vs. dicot, 1: 145 47, 145 (ill.), 146 (ill.),
147 (ill.), 148
nutrients for, 5: 883, 895
235 39, 236 (ill.), 238 (ill.)
195 (ill.), 196 (ill.)
rainforest, 1: 106
respiration by, 4: 871, 872, 5: 883, 898
shade, 5: 885, 6: 1191
wilting, 5: 899, 900 (ill.)
See also Flowers; Photosynthesis; Pollination;
Water plants
Plants and water, 5: 897 909, 897 (ill.), 900 (ill.),
908 (ill.)
in dry environments, 5: 899 900
osmosis for, 4: 798, 5: 897 98, 897 (ill.), 898 (ill.),
899 (ill.)
rate of erosion experiment, 2: 381 86, 382 (ill.),
383 (ill.), 384 (ill.)
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
turgor pressure experiment, 5: 900 904, 900 (ill.),
902 (ill.), 903 (ill.)
Plasmolysis, 5: 899
Plastics
adhesives from, 1: 19
decomposition of, 2: 231
24 (ill.)
667 (ill.)
litter, 1: 50
799 (ill.), 800 (ill.), 801 (ill.), 802 (ill.)
polymer strength experiment, 5: 914 15, 917 (ill.),
918 (ill.)
properties of different plastics experiment, 5:
923 25, 924 (ill.), 925 (ill.), 926
recycling, 5: 923
See also Polymers
clv
Plate tectonics
earthquakes, 2: 311
formation of, 5: 970
mountain formation, 4: 735 37, 736 (ill.),
737 (ill.)
739 (ill.), 740 (ill.)
volcanic eruptions, 6: 1238 39
Playing dead, 1: 61, 65 68, 66 (ill.), 67 (ill.)
Plywood, 6: 1298
Pnematocyst, 1: 149
Point source pollution, 3: 604, 605 (ill.)
Poisoning, food, 3: 477
Polaris (North Star), 6: 1125 28, 1126 (ill.),
1127 (ill.)
Poles, magnetic, 4: 671 72
Pollen, 3: 424, 425, 426, 437
Pollination
of flowers, 3: 423 27, 425 (ill.), 426 (ill.),
427 (ill.)
genetics of, 3: 425, 425 (ill.), 6: 1207, 1207 (ill.),
1208 (ill.)
self pollination vs. cross pollination experiment,
3: 427 31, 430 (ill.)
Pollinators, 3: 425 27, 431 35, 433 (ill.)
Pollution. See Air pollution; Water pollution
Polyester, 3: 509
Polyethylene, 5: 912, 914 15, 917 (ill.), 918 (ill.)
Polymerization, 5: 912
Polymers, 4: 686, 5: 911 27, 912 (ill.), 913 (ill.)
adhesives from, 1: 19, 21
chains of, 5: 911 12, 912 (ill.), 913, 913 (ill.),
914 15, 914 (ill.), 917 (ill.), 918 (ill.), 919
polymer slime experiment, 5: 919 23, 921 (ill.),
922 (ill.)
properties of different plastics experiment, 5:
923 25, 924 (ill.), 925 (ill.), 926
synthetic, 5: 911 12
tensile strength experiment, 5: 914 19, 917 (ill.),
918 (ill.)
Polysaccharides, 5: 919 23, 921 (ill.), 922 (ill.)
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA), 1: 20, 22 25, 23 (ill.),
167 70, 168 (ill.), 169 (ill.)
clvi
Pombal, Marquis de, 2: 312

Pomo Indians, 2: 390 91, 396
Pompeii, 6: 1237, 1237 (ill.), 1239
Pores, 3: 601
Potassium, 4: 761, 5: 1034, 1064, 6: 1226
Potassium carbonate, 4: 835 38, 835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Potatoes, 6: 1208, 1216 19, 1218 (ill.)
Potential energy, 5: 929 40, 929 (ill.)
build a roller coaster experiment, 5: 934 38,
935 (ill.), 936 (ill.), 937 (ill.)
933 (ill.)
Potometers, 5: 890 93, 892 (ill.), 893 (ill.)
Potter, Beatrix, 1: 73
Power plants, 1: 1, 46, 3: 590
Precipitation
mountain ecosystems, 4: 737
mountains and desert formation experiment, 4:
741 44, 742 (ill.), 743 (ill.)
in the water cycle, 5: 955, 6: 1247
in weather, 6: 1271
See also Rain
Predators, 1: 61 63
Preservation of food. See Food preservation
Pressure. See Air pressure; Turgor pressure; Water
pressure
Priestley, Joseph, 4: 871
Primary colors, 2: 205
Prisms, 2: 204, 205 (ill.), 210 12, 211 (ill.), 212
(ill.), 213
Processed food, 4: 760
Products, of chemical reactions, 1: 151, 164 65
Prokaryotes, 1: 86
Prominences, solar, 2: 326
Propagation. See Vegetative propagation
Propellers, 3: 418 21, 418 (ill.), 419 (ill.), 420 (ill.)
Proteins
denatured, 3: 463
dietary protein sources experiment, 4: 764 66,
765 (ill.), 766 (ill.)
DNA isolation experiment, 2: 289 91, 289 (ill.),
290 (ill.)
hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic, 3: 465, 465 (ill.)

368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
Protists, 4: 712
Protons, 2: 349, 4: 828
Protozoa, 4: 711, 712
PTC (Phenylthiocarbamide), 3: 559 61, 561 (ill.)
Puffer fish, 1: 63
Pulleys, 5: 1049, 1051 55, 1054 (ill.)
Pupa, 3: 633 34, 4: 645
Purple cabbage, 2: 304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Purple dyes, 2: 299
PVA (Polyvinyl acetate), 1: 20, 22 25, 23 (ill.)
Pyramids, 5: 1048
Pythagoras, 5: 1096
Quadricep muscles, 1: 120 23, 122 (ill.)

Quarters (coin), 2: 344 45, 344 (ill.), 345 (ill.)
Queen ants, 3: 633, 634
Radiation
of heat, 3: 615, 616 17
infrared, 3: 616 17
Radioactive decay, 3: 525, 6: 1238
Radioactivity (chemical reaction), 1: 164
Radioisotope dating, 3: 525
Radiometers, 1: 43
Radiosonde balloons, 6: 1283
Radish seeds, 3: 570 73, 572 (ill.)
Radon, 1: 48
Rain
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272
mountain effect on, 4: 737
normal pH level, 1: 1, 2 (ill.)
See also Acid rain
Rain shadow, 4: 741 44, 742 (ill.), 743 (ill.)
Rainbows, 2: 204 (ill.), 205, 4: 664 65, 664 (ill.),
665 (ill.)
Raindrops, 4: 659 60, 6: 1272

Rainforests, 1: 105 6, 105 (ill.), 2: 390
Ramps, 5: 1047 48, 1048 (ill.), 1049 (ill.)
Rats, kangaroo, 1: 105
Rayon, 3: 509, 5: 911
RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance), 6: 1223, 1226
Reactants, 1: 151, 164 65
Reactions, chemical. See Chemical reactions
Reactions, for every action, 3: 492, 494
Reaumur, Rene Antoine de, 2: 359
Recessive inheritance, 3: 554 55
Recombinant DNA technology, 3: 555
Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), 6: 1223,
1226
Recycling, 2: 231, 240, 5: 914, 915 (ill.), 923
Red cabbage juice
(ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
pH of household chemicals experiment, 4: 861
65, 861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
Red hair, 3: 555
Red light
bending, 2: 204 5
light colors and plant growth experiment, 4: 873
77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.), 213
wavelength of, 2: 203
Red Sea, 5: 996 97, 996 (ill.)
Redshift, 6: 1112, 1112 (ill.)
Reduction reactions. See Oxidation reduction
reactions
Reeds, 2: 390 91, 396 99, 398 (ill.), 399 (ill.)
Reflection, in raindrops, 4: 659 60
Reflector telescopes, 6: 1110 11, 1111 (ill.)
Reflectors, solar, 5: 1082 83
Refraction
667 (ill.)
(ill.), 665 (ill.)
in raindrops, 4: 659 60
Refractor telescopes, 6: 1110, 1111 (ill.)
clvii
Refrigeration, 3: 453, 479 80

Relative age dating, 3: 524
Relative density, 2: 260 64, 262 (ill.), 263 (ill.)
Relativity, special, 6: 1179, 1180 (ill.)
Renaissance age, 5: 981
Renewable energy, 5: 941 53
hydropower and water pressure experiment, 5:
948 51, 948 (ill.), 949 (ill.), 950 (ill.)
sources of, 5: 942 43, 942 (ill.), 943 (ill.)
wind energy experiment, 5: 944 48, 945 (ill.),
946 (ill.)
See also Solar energy
Renewable materials, 4: 691 94, 693 (ill.), 694 (ill.),
6: 1297 98
Rennin, 2: 360
Reproduction
asexual, 6: 1208
by bacteria, 1: 87
cellular, 1: 143 44
sexual, 6: 1207
by yeast, 1: 143 44, 147 48, 147 (ill.), 148 (ill.),
149 (ill.), 150
Resins, tree, 3: 523 24
Resistance, bacterial, 1: 88 90, 95 100, 97 (ill.)
Respiration
281 (ill.), 282 (ill.), 283
by fish, 3: 402, 403 (ill.), 404 6, 405 (ill.)
in germination, 3: 565 66
by plants, 4: 871, 872, 5: 883, 898
Resultants, 6: 1165
Results of experiments, 5: 1008
Retina, 2: 205, 205 (ill.), 4: 787
Retinal, 6: 1224
Revolving levers, 5: 1051, 1051 (ill.)
Ribosomes, 1: 86
Rice, 4: 760, 6: 1223 24, 1226 (ill.)
Richter, Charles F., 2: 312 (ill.), 313
Richter Scale, 2: 312 (ill.), 313
Rings, tree, 1: 71 72
Ringworm, 3: 538
Rivers, 5: 955 67, 955 (ill.), 967 (ill.)
course of, 5: 956, 967 (ill.)
clviii
dissolved oxygen in, 2: 271 84

958 (ill.), 959 (ill.)
river erosion experiment, 5: 962 65, 963 (ill.),
964 (ill.), 965 (ill.), 966
stream pattern experiment, 5: 960 62, 961 (ill.)
water pollution of, 1: 48
Rocket launcher, 3: 495 98, 498 (ill.), 499 (ill.), 500
(ill.)
Rockets, water bottle, 3: 493 501, 495 (ill.), 498
(ill.), 499 (ill.), 500 (ill.)
Rocks, 5: 969 79, 970 (ill.), 971 (ill.)
classification of, 5: 970 71
classifying rocks experiment, 5: 975 78, 975
(ill.), 976 (ill.), 977 (ill.)
crystalline, 2: 243, 244, 255
design an experiment for, 5: 978
igneous, 5: 970, 975 78, 975 (ill.), 976 (ill.),
977 (ill.)
lichen on, 1: 74, 79
metamorphic, 5: 971, 975 78, 975 (ill.), 976 (ill.),
977 (ill.)
molten, 6: 1238
sedimentary, 3: 522, 5: 971, 975 78, 975 (ill.),
976 (ill.), 977 (ill.)
in soil formation, 5: 1063 65, 1064 (ill.),
1065 (ill.)
weathering of, 5: 1063 65
Rocky Mountains, 4: 735
Rodale, J. I., 2: 229
Rodenticides, 4: 843
Rodents, desert, 1: 104 5
Rods (eye), 2: 205, 205 (ill.)
Rohrer, Heinrich, 4: 749 (ill.)
Roller coasters, 5: 934 38, 935 (ill.), 936 (ill.),
937 (ill.)
Romans, 2: 389
Rooting hormones, 6: 1209 16, 1213 (ill.), 1214 (ill.)
Roots
acid rain experiment, 1: 9 12, 11 (ill.)
annual growth of, 1: 71
886 90, 888 (ill.), 889 (ill.)
plant water uptake experiment, 5: 890 93,

892 (ill.), 893 (ill.)
plants and the rate of erosion experiment, 2:
381 86, 382 (ill.), 383 (ill.), 384 (ill.)
role of, 5: 883 84, 883 (ill.)
1197 1201, 1198 (ill.), 1199 (ill.), 1200 (ill.)
tropism effect on, 6: 1192
water absorbed by, 5: 897 98, 897 (ill.), 898 (ill.)
Rotation, 5: 981 94, 982 (ill.), 983 (ill.), 984 (ill.),
992 (ill.)
989 92, 990 (ill.)
Coriolis force, 5: 984 85, 985 (ill.)
effect on tides, 5: 983 84
988 (ill.)
in timekeeping, 6: 1176, 1178
velocity of, 5: 985, 985 (ill.)
Rubber adhesives, 1: 20, 22 25, 24 (ill.)
Rubbing. See Friction
Runoff of pesticides, 4: 847, 847 (ill.), 851 55,
854 (ill.)
Rusting
process of, 1: 151, 152 (ill.), 4: 812, 823 (ill.)
synthesis reaction, 1: 153 54, 155 (ill.), 163
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 3: 544 49, 547 (ill.), 548 (ill.)

Sachs, Julius von, 1: 191
Safe Water Drinking Act, 1: 50
Saguaro cactus, 1: 105, 5: 900
Sail boats, 5: 944 48, 945 (ill.), 946 (ill.)
Sailors, 4: 759, 6: 1223
Salinity, 5: 995 1004, 995 (ill.), 996 (ill.)
814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
175 (ill.)
density ball experiment, 5: 1000 1003, 1001 (ill.),
1002 (ill.)

dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
make a hydrometer experiment, 5: 997 1000,
998 (ill.), 999 (ill.)
780 83, 782 (ill.)
salinity and turgor pressure experiment, 5:
900 904, 900 (ill.), 902 (ill.), 903 (ill.)
salt water osmosis experiment, 4: 803 6, 803
(ill.), 804 (ill.), 805 (ill.)
of seawater, 4: 771 72, 772 (ill.), 5: 995 97, 995
(ill.), 996 (ill.)
solar heat storage experiment, 5: 1090 92, 1092
(ill.), 1093
Saliva, 1: 178
Salt
attraction to water, 6: 1260
249 (ill.), 254 (ill.)
dietary salt sources experiment, 4: 764 66,
765 (ill.), 766 (ill.)
for food preservation, 3: 452, 452 (ill.), 479, 480
formation of, 4: 812, 5: 996
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
molecules of, 4: 747
See also Salinity
Salt water. See Seawater
Salty taste, 1: 177, 179, 182 86
San Andreas Fault, 2: 322 (ill.)
Sand
in soil, 5: 1065, 1066 (ill.)
soil horizon properties experiment, 5: 1067 73,
1071 (ill.), 1072 (ill.)
soil type and runoff experiment, 2: 377 80,
378 (ill.), 379 (ill.)
soils for fossil casts experiment, 3: 526 29, 528 (ill.)
Sandy water, 4: 723, 723 (ill.)
Sanitary landfills, 2: 231
Sapwood, 6: 1296
Satellite images, 2: 376
Saturation of colors, 2: 206 7, 214
clix
Sauveur, Joseph, 5: 1096

Scallop shells, 5: 1028
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 4: 748
Scarification of seeds, 3: 573 76, 574 (ill.), 575 (ill.),
576 (ill.)
Scents. See Odors; Smell, sense of
Schleiden, Matthias, 1: 142
Schwann, Theodor, 1: 142
Scientific method, 5: 1005 18, 1006 (ill.), 1007
(ill.), 1008 (ill.)
how fruit flies appear experiment, 5: 1013 16,
1015 (ill.), 1016 (ill.)
1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
steps in, 5: 1005 8
Screws, 5: 1048 49, 1050 (ill.), 1057 60, 1058 (ill.),
1059 (ill.), 1060 (ill.)
Scurvy, 4: 759 60, 760 (ill.), 6: 1223
Sea anemones, 1: 149
Seabirds, 1: 50
Seashells, 5: 1019 29, 1020 (ill.), 1022 (ill.)
classifying seashells experiment, 5: 1025 27,
1027 (ill.)
fossil casts experiment, 3: 526 29, 528 (ill.)
strength of shells experiment, 5: 1022 25,
1023 (ill.), 1024 (ill.), 1025 (ill.)
Seasons, 5: 981, 983, 983 (ill.), 984 (ill.)
Seawater
amount on the Earth, 3: 602
density of, 4: 772
freshwater from, 4: 724 25
properties of, 4: 771 72, 772 (ill.), 773 (ill.)
778 (ill.)
salinity of, 4: 771 72, 772 (ill.), 5: 995 97,
995 (ill.), 996 (ill.)
stratification of, 4: 772
Second class lever, 5: 1051, 1051 (ill.)
Second law of motion, 3: 492, 492 (ill.), 494, 579 80
Sediment, 3: 522, 524, 526 29, 528 (ill.)
clx
Sedimentary rocks, 3: 522, 5: 971, 975 78, 975 (ill.),

976 (ill.), 977 (ill.)
Sedimentation, 3: 609 12, 610 (ill.)
Seed crystals, 2: 246
Seedlings, 3: 566, 566 (ill.), 5: 1084 87, 1084 (ill.),
1086 (ill.)
Seeds
development of, 3: 423
germination of, 3: 565 78, 566 (ill.)
germination time experiment, 3: 570 73, 572 (ill.)
seed scarification experiment, 3: 573 76, 574 (ill.),
575 (ill.), 576 (ill.)
shells of, 5: 1019
temperature for germination experiment, 3:
566 70, 568 (ill.), 569 (ill.)
Seesaws, 5: 1050 (ill.)
Seismic belts, 5: 970
Seismic waves, 2: 311
Seismographs
build a seismograph experiment, 2: 314 16,
315 (ill.), 316 (ill.)
detecting volcanic eruptions experiment, 6:
1242 44, 1242 (ill.), 1243 (ill.), 1244 (ill.)
for earthquakes, 2: 313
for volcanic eruptions, 6: 1239
Seismology, 2: 312
Selenium, 6: 1226
Self pollination, 3: 424, 425 (ill.), 427 31, 430 (ill.)
Semiconductors, 4: 686
Semipermeable membranes
808 (ill.), 809 (ill.)
osmosis through, 3: 452, 4: 797
799 (ill.), 800 (ill.), 801 (ill.), 802 (ill.)
Sensory memory, 4: 697, 698 (ill.)
Sepals, 3: 424, 424 (ill.)
Separation and identification, 4: 724 25, 725 (ill.),
5: 1031 45, 1032 (ill.), 1033 (ill.)
1034 39, 1036 (ill.), 1037 (ill.)
techniques for, 5: 1032 34, 1034 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
Settling (separation technique), 5: 1032

Sewage, 1: 49
Sexual reproduction, 6: 1207
Shade plants, 5: 885, 6: 1191
Sharks, 3: 402
Shear stress, 3: 441
Shells
of atoms, 4: 829, 830, 830 (ill.)
of eggs, 4: 806 9, 808 (ill.), 809 (ill.), 846, 5:
1019
of seeds, 5: 1019
See also Seashells
Shelter, 2: 391
Ships, 2: 257 (ill.), 259
See also Sail boats
Shooting stars. See Comets and meteors
Shoreline extension, 2: 231
Short term memory, 4: 697, 698 (ill.)
Shrimp, 1: 5 8, 7 (ill.), 4: 775
Shutters, 4: 659
Sickle cell anemia, 2: 287, 3: 555
Sidereal day, 5: 981, 6: 1176
Sieve, 5: 1032
Silent Spring (Carson), 4: 846
Silk, 3: 509, 4: 685, 686 (ill.)
Silkworms, 4: 712
Silt, 5: 1065, 1066 (ill.), 1067 73, 1071 (ill.),
1072 (ill.)
Silver, 6: 1133
Simple craters, 2: 217, 218 (ill.)
Simple machines, 5: 1047 62, 1061 (ill.)
examples of, 5: 1047 51, 1048 (ill.), 1049 (ill.),
1050 (ill.), 1051 (ill.)
lever lifting experiment, 5: 1055 57, 1057 (ill.)
screw thread size experiment, 5: 1057 60,
1058 (ill.), 1059 (ill.), 1060 (ill.)
1054 (ill.)
Single acting baking powder, 3: 464
Sirius (star), 6: 1124, 1124 (ill.)
Skeletal muscles, 1: 115, 115 (ill.), 120 23,
122 (ill.)
Skeletons, 1: 113, 114 (ill.), 5: 1019
Skunks, 1: 62 63, 62 (ill.)
Slugs, 5: 1019
Smell
in fish, 3: 403 4
how it works, 1: 177, 179 80, 179 (ill.), 180 (ill.)
187 (ill.)
vanilla, 4: 797
See also Odors
Smith, Robert Angus, 1: 3
Smog, 1: 47, 48 (ill.)
Smoke, 1: 165
Smooth muscles, 1: 115, 115 (ill.)
Snails, 2: 299, 5: 1019
Snakes, 1: 62, 104 5
Snow, 4: 737
Snowflakes, 2: 245
Soaps, 1: 95 100, 97 (ill.), 6: 1231 34, 1232 (ill.)
See also Detergents
Social insects, 3: 634
Sodium, 4: 812, 5: 995, 1034, 6: 1226
Sodium borate. See Borax
Sodium carbonate, 4: 835 38, 835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Sodium chloride. See Salinity; Salt
Sodium hydrocarbonate, 1: 157 59, 157 (ill.),
158 (ill.), 159 (ill.)
Sodium hydroxide, 4: 865 68, 865 (ill.), 866 (ill.),
867 (ill.)
Sodium sulfate decahydrate (Glaubers salt), 5:
1090 92, 1092 (ill.), 1093
Softwood, 6: 1295, 1302 6, 1304 (ill.), 1305 (ill.)
Soil, 2: 232 35, 5: 1063 79
bacteria in, 1: 85
composition of, 5: 1064, 1064 (ill.), 1065 66,
1066 (ill.)
formation of, 5: 1064 (ill.), 1065 (ill.)
humus in, 2: 229, 230, 5: 1063, 1066
layers of, 5: 1066 67, 1067 (ill.)
life in, 5: 1067, 1068 (ill.)
2: 232 35, 234 (ill.), 235 (ill.)
microorganisms in, 2: 229, 5: 1063, 1067
oxygen pockets in, 5: 883
clxi
pH and plant growth experiment, 5: 1074 77,

1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.)
pH of, 4: 860, 5: 1064
properties of soil horizons experiment, 5: 1067 73
soil horizon properties experiment, 5: 1071 (ill.),
1072 (ill.)
soil type and runoff experiment, 2: 377 80,
378 (ill.), 379 (ill.)
soils for fossil casts experiment, 3: 526 29, 528 (ill.)
terraces, 2: 386
uses of, 5: 1063
Soil erosion. See Erosion
Soil horizons, 5: 1066 67, 1067 73, 1067 (ill.),
1071 (ill.), 1072 (ill.)
Soil profile, 5: 1066, 1067 73, 1067 (ill.), 1071 (ill.),
1072 (ill.)
Soil test kit, 2: 386
Solar (photovoltaic) cells, 5: 1083, 1087 89,
1088 (ill.), 1089 (ill.)
Solar collectors, 5: 1082, 1082 (ill.)
Solar days, 6: 1176
Solar eclipse, 2: 325 29, 325 (ill.), 328 (ill.), 329 (ill.)
Solar energy, 5: 942, 1081 94, 1081 (ill.)
heat storage substances experiment, 5: 1090 92,
1092 (ill.), 1093
seedling growth in greenhouses experiment, 5:
1084 87, 1084 (ill.), 1086 (ill.)
solar cells to run a motor experiment, 5:
1087 89, 1088 (ill.), 1089 (ill.)
ways to collect it, 5: 1082 83, 1082 (ill.)
where it comes from, 5: 1081 82, 1081 (ill.)
Solar reflectors, 5: 1082 83
Solar system, 2: 215, 5: 982 83
Solids
density of, 2: 259
621 (ill.)
260 64, 262 (ill.), 263 (ill.)
Solubility
separation techniques for, 5: 1033
835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
clxii
Solutions. See Mixtures and solutions

Solvents, 5: 1032
Songs, 4: 700, 701 4, 701 (ill.), 702 (ill.), 703 (ill.)
Sorensen, Margarethe Hoyrup, 4: 859
Sorensen, Soren Peter Lauritz, 4: 859
Sound, 5: 1095 1107, 1095 (ill.), 1096 (ill.),
1106 (ill.)
Doppler effect experiment, 6: 1118 20, 1119 (ill.)
measurement of, 5: 1095 96, 1095 (ill.)
1104 (ill.)
speed of, 6: 1149
string length and sound experiment, 5: 1096 99,
1097 (ill.), 1098 (ill.)
string thickness and sound experiment, 5:
1099 1102, 1100 (ill.), 1101 (ill.)
Soundproofing, 5: 1102 5, 1104 (ill.)
Sour taste, 1: 177
Southern Ocean, 4: 771
Space observation, 6: 1109 22
bacteria in, 1: 88
Doppler effect experiment, 6: 1118 20,
1119 (ill.)
light in, 6: 1109, 1111 12, 1112 (ill.)
telescope lenses experiment, 6: 1113 17,
1114 (ill.), 1116 (ill.)
telescopes for, 6: 1109 10, 1110 (ill.), 1111 (ill.)
Space time, 6: 1179 80, 1180 (ill.)
Special relativity, theory of, 6: 1179, 1180 (ill.)
Species DNA differences, 2: 287 88, 291 95,
293 (ill.)
Specific gravity, 2: 258, 5: 997 1000, 998 (ill.),
999 (ill.)
Spectrum, electromagnetic, 2: 203, 350, 350 (ill.), 4:
659, 660 (ill.), 787
Speed
989 92, 990 (ill.)
in chromatography, 5: 1032 33
of fluids, 3: 441
of light, 6: 1149, 1179
measuring wind speed experiment, 6: 1273,

1275 (ill.)
Newtonian laws of motion on, 3: 491 92
of sound, 6: 1149
speed of falling objects experiment, 3: 581 84,
582 (ill.), 583 (ill.), 584 (ill.)
of wind, 6: 1273 (ill.), 1283 (ill.)
Speleology, 1: 127, 132
Spelunking, 1: 132
Sperm cells, 3: 423, 424
Spices, 3: 462
Spiders, 1: 62, 108, 4: 685, 686 (ill.)
Spinning rod experiment, 3: 444 47, 446 (ill.),
447 (ill.)
Spoiled food. See Food spoilage
Spores, 3: 481, 539
Sports equipment, 4: 749
Spring tides, 3: 580
Springs, hot, 1: 88
Spruce trees, 1: 103, 104 (ill.)
Squats (exercise), 1: 120 23, 122 (ill.)
Squid, giant, 4: 775 (ill.)
Stalactities, 1: 129 30, 130 (ill.), 135 39,
137 (ill.)
Stalagmites, 1: 129 30, 130 (ill.), 135 39,
137 (ill.)
Stamen, 3: 423, 424, 424 (ill.)
Staphylococcus bacteria, 3: 539
Starches
dietary carbohydrate sources experiment, 4:
761 64, 763 (ill.), 764 (ill.)
in photosynthesis, 4: 872
799 (ill.), 800 (ill.), 801 (ill.), 802 (ill.)
Stars, 6: 1123 31, 1124 (ill.)
discovery of, 6: 1123, 1123 (ill.)
for timekeeping, 6: 1177
tracking the North Star experiment, 6: 1125 28,
1126 (ill.), 1127 (ill.)
tracking the planets experiment, 6: 1128 30,
1128 (ill.), 1129 (ill.), 1130 (ill.)
Stars, shooting. See Comets and meteors
Static electricity, 6: 1133 46, 1135 (ill.)

build an electroscope experiment, 6: 1135 39,
1137 (ill.), 1138 (ill.)
how to make it, 6: 1133 34, 1134 (ill.)
in lightning, 6: 1135, 1135 (ill.), 1148 49
lightning sparks experiment, 6: 1152 55, 1154 (ill.)
measuring the charge experiment, 6: 1139 44,
1141 (ill.), 1143 (ill.)
Statues, 1: 12 15, 14 (ill.), 16, 17 (ill.)
Steel, 4: 812
621 (ill.)
Stems, 5: 884, 884 (ill.)
1209 16, 1213 (ill.), 1214 (ill.)
886 90, 888 (ill.), 889 (ill.)
water storage in, 5: 899
Stereo speakers, 4: 673
Stevenson screens, 6: 1283
Sticky notes, 1: 22, 22 (ill.), 26 30, 27 (ill.), 28 (ill.),
29 (ill.)
STM (Scanning tunneling microscope), 4: 748
Stomachs, expandable, 4: 775
Stomata, 5: 885, 898, 899
Storm chasers, 6: 1150 (ill.), 1151
Storms, 6: 1147 63
hail, 6: 1151 52, 1151 (ill.)
hailstone formation and temperature experiment,
6: 1158 61, 1159 (ill.), 1160 (ill.), 1161 (ill.),
1162
lightning sparks experiment, 6: 1152 55, 1154 (ill.)
thunderstorms, 6: 1147 49, 1149 (ill.)
tornadoes, 6: 1149 (ill.), .1150 (ill.), 1155 (ill.)
water vortex experiment, 6: 1155 58, 1157 (ill.)
Stratification, 4: 772, 775 80, 778 (ill.)
Stratocumulus clouds, 6: 1273
Stratus clouds, 6: 1272, 1273
Strawberries, 3: 454 57, 455 (ill.), 456 (ill.)
Streams, 1: 1 2, 4, 2: 271 84
See also Rivers
clxiii
Strength
of materials, 4: 687, 687 (ill.)
polymer strength experiment, 5: 914 19, 917
(ill.), 918 (ill.)
of polymers, 5: 912
seashell strength experiment, 5: 1022 25, 1023
(ill.), 1024 (ill.), 1025 (ill.)
tape strength experiment, 4: 687 (ill.), 688 91,
689 (ill.), 690 (ill.)
of wood, 6: 1297
String and sound experiments, 5: 1096 99, 1097 (ill.),
1098 (ill.), 1099 1102, 1100 (ill.), 1101 (ill.)
Structures, 6: 1165 74
acid rain damage to, 1: 3, 12 15, 14 (ill.), 15
(ill.), 16
arches in, 6: 1166 67, 1167 (ill.), 1173 (ill.)
building properties of wood experiment, 6:
1302 6, 1304 (ill.), 1305 (ill.)
earthquake destruction experiment, 2: 317 21,
319 (ill.), 320 (ill.), 321 (ill.)
forces acting on, 6: 1165 66, 1166 (ill.)
1171 (ill.)
1167 70, 1168 (ill.)
Styrofoam, 4: 691 94, 693 (ill.), 694 (ill.), 5:
1102 5, 1104 (ill.)
Subatomic particles, 2: 257
Subliming, 2: 216
Subsoil, 5: 1067, 1067 (ill.)
Substrate, 2: 360
Sugar
caramelization of, 3: 463 64
249 (ill.), 254 (ill.)
for food preservation, 3: 452
from photosynthesis, 5: 884 85
in solutions, 5: 1032
455 (ill.), 456 (ill.)
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
Sulfur, 1: 88, 4: 761
clxiv
Sulfur dioxide, 1: 1, 3, 17 (ill.), 45

Sulfuric acid
in acid rain, 1: 164
for cave formation, 1: 129
endothermic vs. exothermic reaction experiment,
1: 157 (ill.), 158 59, 158 (ill.), 159 (ill.)
Sumerians, 2: 375, 389
Summer season, 5: 983
Sun and sunlight
459 (ill.), 460 (ill.)
heat energy from, 3: 589
1201 4, 1202 (ill.), 1203 (ill.)
ocean penetration by, 4: 772
orbits around, 5: 982
in photosynthesis, 4: 871 73
solar eclipse, 2: 325 29, 325 (ill.), 328 (ill.),
329 (ill.)
solar energy from, 5: 1081 82, 1081 (ill.)
tides and, 5: 983 84, 993 94
for timekeeping, 6: 1175, 1176
in weather, 6: 1271, 1271 (ill.)
Sun prints, 2: 329 30, 330 (ill.), 331 (ill.)
Sundials, 6: 1177, 1177 (ill.), 1189
Sunflowers, 6: 1201 4, 1202 (ill.), 1203 (ill.)
Superglue. See Cyanoacrylate glue
Supersaturated solutions, 2: 246
Supertasters, 1: 180 86, 184 (ill.)
Surface area
evaporation and surface area experiment,
6: 1253 56, 1253 (ill.), 1254 (ill.),
1255 (ill.)
752 (ill.)
in nanotechnology, 4: 748
Surface currents, 4: 773
Surface tension, 3: 440 (ill.), 441, 448, 6: 1261 64,
1261 (ill.), 1263 (ill.)
Suspensions, 4: 723, 724, 725
729 (ill.)
732 (ill.)
Sweet taste, 1: 177, 182 86

Swim bladder, 3: 402, 403, 403 (ill.)
Synthesis reactions, 1: 163
Synthetic dyes, 2: 299 300, 304 7, 306 (ill.), 307 (ill.)
Synthetic fibers, 2: 301 4, 302 (ill.), 303 (ill.)
Synthetic polymers, 5: 911 12
Tadpoles, 4: 645 46, 646 (ill.), 647 51, 648 (ill.),

649 (ill.), 650 (ill.)
Taiga biome, 1: 103 4
Tails (comet), 2: 216
Tape (adhesive), 1: 21 22
environmental effects experiment, 1: 26 30,
27 (ill.), 28 (ill.), 29 (ill.)
690 (ill.)
Tartaric acid, 3: 464
Taste
in fish, 3: 403 4
genetics of, 1: 180
how color affects taste experiment, 2: 207 10,
208 (ill.), 209 (ill.)
how it works, 1: 177 79, 178 (ill.)
pedigree for taste experiment, 3: 559 61, 561 (ill.)
187 (ill.)
Taste buds, 1: 177 79, 178 (ill.), 180 86, 184 (ill.)
Taste cells, 1: 177 79
Tasters, 1: 180 86
Tectonic plates. See Plate tectonics
Telescopes, 6: 1110 11, 1111 (ill.)
combination of lenses experiment, 6: 1113 17,
1114 (ill.), 1116 (ill.)
development of, 6: 1109, 1123
for space observation, 6: 1109 10, 1110 (ill.),
1111 (ill.)
Temperate forest biome, 1: 106 8, 106 (ill.), 107 (ill.),
108 (ill.)
Temperature
29 (ill.)
cloud formation and temperature experiment, 6:

1277 80, 1280 (ill.)
2: 250 53, 252 (ill.)
110 (ill.), 111 (ill.)
dewpoint, 6: 1285 (ill.), 1286 89, 1287 (ill.),
1288 (ill.)
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272,
273 (ill.)
enzyme action and temperature experiment, 2:
368 72, 370 (ill.), 371 (ill.)
1248 53, 1250 (ill.), 1251 (ill.)
for germination, 3: 565
germination temperature experiment, 3: 566 70,
568 (ill.), 569 (ill.)
greenhouse temperature increase experiment, 3:
592 96, 593 (ill.), 594 (ill.)
hailstone formation and temperature experiment,
6: 1158 61, 1159 (ill.), 1160 (ill.), 1161 (ill.),
1162
780 83, 782 (ill.)
radiometers for, 1: 43
778 (ill.)
485 88, 487 (ill.)
648 (ill.), 649 (ill.), 650 (ill.)
temperate forest biome, 1: 108
210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.), 213
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
442 (ill.), 443 (ill.)
36 (ill.), 38 (ill.)
in weather, 6: 1271, 1284
See also Cold temperature
Tenderizer. See Meat tenderizer
Tendrils, 6: 1192
Tennis balls, 4: 749
clxv
Tensile strength
of materials, 4: 687
polymer strength experiment, 5: 914 19, 917 (ill.),
918 (ill.)
of polymers, 5: 912
tape strength experiment, 4: 687 (ill.), 688 91,
689 (ill.), 690 (ill.)
Terraces, soil, 2: 386
Tetra fish, 3: 407 9, 409 (ill.), 410
Textiles, 4: 686, 696
Thales of Miletus, 2: 325
Theophrastus, 3: 565, 6: 1283 84
Theory of special relativity, 6: 1179, 1180 (ill.)
Thermal energy. See Heat
Thermal inversion, 1: 47, 47 (ill.)
Thermal pollution, 1: 49
Thermal properties, 4: 687
Thermometers, 1: 151
Thiamine, 4: 760
Thickness, 5: 1099 1102, 1100 (ill.), 1101 (ill.)
Thigmotropism, 6: 1192, 1205 (ill.)
Third law of motion, 3: 492, 492 (ill.), 494, 580
Thomas, Robert Bailey, 6: 1284
Thorax, 3: 632
Threads, 5: 1048 49, 1050 (ill.), 1057 60, 1058 (ill.),
1059 (ill.), 1060 (ill.)
Thunder, 6: 1148 49
Thunderstorms, 6: 1147 49, 1149 (ill.), 1150, 1151,
1151 (ill.)
Thyme, 2: 392 95, 394 (ill.), 395 (ill.)
Thymine, 2: 286 87
Tides, 3: 580, 4: 777 (ill.), 784, 5: 992 (ill.)
Earths rotation effect, 5: 983 84
moons effect on, 4: 774, 775 (ill.), 5: 983 84
Suns impact on, 5: 983 84, 993 94
Time, 6: 1175 89, 1176 (ill.), 1178 (ill.)
devices for measuring, 6: 1177 78, 1177 (ill.)
pendulum oscillation time experiment, 6:
1180 85, 1182 (ill.), 1183 (ill.)
space time, 6: 1179 80, 1180 (ill.)
water clock experiment, 6: 1185 88, 1187 (ill.)
Time zones, 6: 1178 79, 1179 (ill.)
Titan Arum, 3: 423, 427
clxvi
Titration, 4: 860, 865 68, 865 (ill.), 866 (ill.),

867 (ill.)
Tomatoes, 1: 164
Tools, 2: 390 92, 400, 5: 969
Topsoil, 5: 1064, 1066 67, 1067 (ill.)
erosion of, 2: 375, 375 (ill.)
soils for fossil casts experiment, 3: 526 29,
528 (ill.)
See also Soil
Tornadoes, 6: 1149 51, 1149 (ill.), 1150 (ill.),
1155 (ill.), 1284 (ill.)
weather forecasting of, 6: 1286
Torricelli, Evangelista, 1: 34, 6: 1284
Tortoises, 5: 1019
Toughness of materials, 4: 687
Toxicity, 1: 164
Trace fossils, 3: 524
Trace minerals, 6: 1226
Traits, genetic, 3: 554 55, 556 59, 558 (ill.),
559 (ill.), 562
Transfer of energy, 5: 930, 930 (ill.)
Transformation of energy, 5: 929
Transforming factor (DNA), 2: 285 86
Transpiration
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
of water, 5: 885, 890, 892 (ill.), 893 (ill.),
898, 899
Tree resins, 3: 523 24
Trees
angiosperm, 6: 1295, 1296 (ill.)
annual growth of, 1: 71 72, 72 (ill.), 73 (ill.)
coniferous, 1: 103, 104 (ill.), 6: 1295
deciduous, 1: 107 8, 107 (ill.), 192
growth pattern experiment, 1: 74 79, 78 (ill.)
lichen on, 1: 79
rainforest, 1: 105 6
structure of, 6: 1295 96, 1297 (ill.)
wood from, 6: 1295
See also Forests
Troglobites, 1: 130
Troglophiles, 1: 130 31
Trogloxenes, 1: 130
Tropical forests, 2: 376
Tropisms, 6: 1191 1206

geotropism, 6: 1191
1201 4, 1202 (ill.), 1203 (ill.)
phototropism, 6: 1191 93, 1191 (ill.), 1192
(ill.), 1193 (ill.), 1209
1195 (ill.), 1196 (ill.)
1197 1201, 1198 (ill.), 1199 (ill.), 1200 (ill.)
thigmotropism, 6: 1192, 1205 (ill.)
Troposphere, 1: 33, 35 36, 3: 600, 6: 1271
Trough, 4: 773, 774 (ill.)
Troy (ancient city), 2: 230 31
Truffles, 3: 540
Tsunamis, 2: 322
Tube worms, 4: 775
Tulley, John, 6: 1284
Tundra, 1: 103
Tunnels, trace fossils of, 3: 524
Turgor pressure
role of, 5: 899, 899 (ill.), 900 (ill.)
salinity and turgor pressure experiment, 5:
900 904, 900 (ill.), 902 (ill.), 903 (ill.)
Turtles, 5: 1019
Twigs, 1: 72, 72 (ill.), 74 79
Tyndall, John, 3: 589
Tyndall effect, 4: 725, 725 (ill.), 730 32, 731 (ill.),
732 (ill.)
Ultraviolet rays, 1: 46, 4: 661 64, 662 (ill.), 663 (ill.)

Umami, 1: 177
Unconfined aquifers, 3: 601, 603 (ill.)
Unicellular organisms, 1: 141, 144 (ill.)
Unit cells, 2: 243
Upwelling, 4: 773
Vacuoles, 1: 142, 5: 898 99, 899 (ill.)

Vacuum seal, 3: 453
Van der Waals force, 1: 20, 21 (ill.)

Vanilla, 4: 797
Variables, 5: 1007 8
Vega (star), 6: 1123
Vegetables
color change by cooking, 3: 465 66
composting, 2: 230, 236 39, 236 (ill.), 238 (ill.),
239 (ill.)
for scurvy, 4: 759
Vegetative propagation, 6: 1207 21, 1207 (ill.),
1208 (ill.), 1209 (ill.)
genetics of, 6: 1208, 1208 (ill.)
1209 16, 1213 (ill.), 1214 (ill.)
potato reproduction experiment, 6: 1216 19,
1218 (ill.)
Vehicles. See Cars
Velcro, 4: 685, 686 (ill.)
Velocity, 3: 441, 491 92, 493, 5: 985, 985 (ill.)
See also Speed
Veneer, 6: 1297 98
Venomous snakes, 1: 62
Vibrations
for sound conduction, 3: 403, 5: 1095,
1096 (ill.)
1097 (ill.), 1098 (ill.)
string thickness and sound experiment, 5:
1099 1102, 1100 (ill.), 1101 (ill.)
Vinegar
814 (ill.), 815 (ill.)
baking soda reaction, 1: 165
865 (ill.), 866 (ill.), 867 (ill.)
175 (ill.)
337 (ill.), 338 (ill.), 339 (ill.)
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
for food preservation, 3: 452, 452 (ill.), 479
clxvii

482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
808 (ill.), 809 (ill.)
mystery powder identification experiment,
5: 1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.),
1013 (ill.)
861 65, 861 (ill.), 863 (ill.)
safety for, 1: 119
1074 77, 1074 (ill.), 1076 (ill.), 1079 (ill.)
structure damage experiment, 1: 12 15, 14 (ill.),
15 (ill.), 16
1041 (ill.), 1042 (ill.)
Vines, 6: 1192, 1205 (ill.)
Violet light
bending, 2: 204 5
873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
210 12, 211 (ill.), 212 (ill.), 213
wavelength of, 2: 203
Virchow, Rudolf, 1: 142
Viscosity, 3: 439 41, 441 44, 442 (ill.), 443 (ill.)
Visible light, 4: 659, 660, 787, 6: 1112
Vision, color, 2: 205 6, 205 (ill.)
Vitamin A, 6: 1224
Vitamin B, 6: 1224
Vitamin C
for food preservation, 3: 479
482 (ill.), 483 (ill.)
for scurvy, 4: 759, 6: 1223
1229 (ill.)
Vitamin D, 6: 1224, 1226
Vitamin K, 6: 1224
Vitamins, 4: 760, 6: 1223 36, 1224 (ill.), 1225 (ill.),
1226 (ill.), 1234 (ill.), 1235 (ill.)
discovery of, 6: 1223 24
clxviii
fat soluble vs. water soluble, 6: 1224 25,

1224 (ill.)
1229 (ill.)
Volatilization, 4: 847
Volcanoes, 6: 1237 45, 1237 (ill.), 1245 (ill.)
build a model volcano experiment, 6: 1240 42,
1240 (ill.), 1241 (ill.)
eruptions of, 5: 969 70, 970 (ill.), 6: 1237,
1238 39
natural pollutants from, 1: 48
seismographs for eruptions experiment, 6:
1242 44, 1242 (ill.), 1243 (ill.), 1244 (ill.)
Volta, Alessandro, 2: 334, 335 (ill.)
Volta Pile, 2: 335 (ill.), 344
Voltage, 2: 334
Voltmeters, 2: 334, 337 (ill.)
340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
337 (ill.)
Volume
in density determination, 2: 257
of fluids, 3: 439
752 (ill.)
surface area ratio, 4: 748, 750 53, 752 (ill.)
Voluntary muscles, 1: 115
Vortex, 6: 1150 51, 1150 (ill.), 1155 58, 1157 (ill.)
Waals, Johannes Diderik van der, 1: 20

Walking stick insect, 1: 62
Warm air
41 (ill.)
in storm formation, 6: 1147 48
thermal inversion, 1: 47, 47 (ill.)
38 (ill.)
Warm climate, 5: 1065
Warm fronts, 1: 35, 6: 1285

Washing soda, 4: 835 38, 835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
Waste, organic, 2: 229, 230, 235 39, 236 (ill.),
238 (ill.), 239 (ill.)
Water
adhesion and weight experiment, 6: 1264 68,
1265 (ill.), 1266 (ill.)
adhesion by, 6: 1259 61
cave formation, 1: 127 29, 128 (ill.), 135 39,
137 (ill.)
cohesion of, 6: 1259 61, 1268 (ill.)
comet composition experiment, 2: 218 21,
220 (ill.)
dead zones in, 2: 271, 273
drinking, 3: 604, 605 9, 608 (ill.), 609 12,
610 (ill.)
electricity conduction through, 2: 333
337 (ill.), 338 (ill.), 339 (ill.)
evaporation and surface area experiment, 6:
1253 56, 1253 (ill.), 1254 (ill.), 1255 (ill.)
evaporation of, 1: 20 21, 6: 1247
for germination, 3: 565 66
hard, 6: 1226, 1231 34, 1232 (ill.)
627 (ill.), 628 (ill.)
heat capacity of, 3: 617
heat convection experiment, 3: 622 25, 623 (ill.),
624 (ill.)
170 73, 170 (ill.), 171 (ill.), 172 (ill.)
minerals in, 6: 1225 26
molecules of, 1: 20, 21 (ill.), 4: 747, 748 (ill.), 6:
1259, 1259 (ill.)
1009 13, 1011 (ill.), 1012 (ill.), 1013 (ill.)
nanosize and properties experiment, 4: 748,
752 (ill.)
plant water uptake experiment, 5: 890 93,
892 (ill.), 893 (ill.)
properties of, 3: 440, 6: 1259 70, 1259 (ill.),
1260 (ill.)
relative density compared to, 2: 258

salt water osmosis experiment, 4: 803 6, 803 (ill.),
804 (ill.), 805 (ill.)
sandy, 4: 723, 723 (ill.)
from seawater, 4: 724 25
in soil, 5: 1063, 1064 (ill.)
solar heat storage experiment, 5: 1090 92,
1092 (ill.), 1093
solubility in, 5: 1033
835 (ill.), 837 (ill.)
specific gravity of, 5: 997 1000, 998 (ill.),
999 (ill.)
surface tension cohesion experiment, 6: 1261 64,
1261 (ill.), 1263 (ill.)
surface tension of, 3: 440 (ill.), 441, 448
transpiration of, 5: 885, 890, 892 (ill.), 893 (ill.),
898, 899
tree growth experiment, 1: 78 79
van der Waals force in, 1: 20, 21 (ill.)
water absorption by wood experiment, 6:
1298 1302, 1300 (ill.), 1301 (ill.)
See also Water properties
Water bottle rocket experiment, 3: 493 501, 495 (ill.),
498 (ill.), 499 (ill.), 500 (ill.)
Water clocks, 6: 1177, 1177 (ill.), 1185 88, 1187 (ill.)
Water cycle, 5: 955, 6: 1247 58, 1248 (ill.),
1249 (ill.)
evaporation and surface area experiment, 6:
1253 56, 1253 (ill.), 1254 (ill.), 1255 (ill.)
1248 53, 1250 (ill.), 1251 (ill.)
Water lilies, 3: 427
Water plants
dissolved oxygen levels for, 2: 271, 273 74,
278 79
eutrophication, 1: 49 50, 50 (ill.), 55 58, 57 (ill.)
photosynthesis by, 4: 872 73
Water pollution, 1: 45 60, 46 (ill.)
aquifer contamination experiment, 3: 605 9,
608 (ill.)
dissolved oxygen level changes from, 2: 272 73
clxix
eutrophication experiment, 1: 55 58, 57 (ill.)

fish effected by, 1: 50, 3: 411
of groundwater aquifers, 3: 604 5, 605 (ill.),
606 (ill.)
from nutrients, 1: 49 50, 50 (ill.)
from oil, 1: 48 49, 49 (ill.), 58
from pesticides, 1: 49, 4: 846 47, 847 (ill.)
prevention of, 1: 50
water cleaning experiment, 3: 609 12,
610 (ill.)
851 55, 854 (ill.)
Water pressure, 4: 772, 773 (ill.), 5: 948 51, 948
(ill.), 949 (ill.), 950 (ill.)
Water properties, 6: 1259 70, 1259 (ill.), 1260
(ill.), 1268 (ill.)
adhesion and weight experiment, 6: 1264 68,
1265 (ill.), 1266 (ill.)
of Newtonian fluids, 3: 440
surface tension cohesion experiment, 6: 1261 64,
1261 (ill.), 1263 (ill.)
Water soluble vitamins, 6: 1224 25, 1224 (ill.)
Water supply, 3: 602, 609 12, 610 (ill.), 4: 771
Water vapor
(ill.), 597 (ill.)
in cloud formation, 6: 1148, 1272
1248 53, 1250 (ill.), 1251 (ill.)
greenhouse effect from, 3: 590 91
temperature and cloud formation experiment, 6:
1277 80, 1280 (ill.)
in thunderstorms, 6: 1147 48
Water wheels, 5: 948 51, 948 (ill.), 949 (ill.),
950 (ill.)
Waterfalls, 5: 956
Watson, James D., 2: 286 87, 287 (ill.)
Wavelength
electromagnetic waves, 2: 349 (ill.), 350,
350 (ill.)
of light, 6: 1112, 1112 (ill.)
ocean waves, 4: 773, 774 (ill.)
clxx

1097 (ill.), 1098 (ill.)
Waves
electromagnetic, 2: 203, 204 5, 204 (ill.), 350,
350 (ill.), 3: 616 17
ocean, 4: 773, 774 (ill.), 784
sound, 5: 1095, 1095 (ill.)
Wax paper, 4: 666 69, 666 (ill.), 667 (ill.)
Weapons, 2: 391, 392 (ill.)
Weather, 6: 1271 81, 1273 (ill.), 1285 (ill.)
air masses in, 1: 34 36, 35 (ill.)
air pressure and, 1: 33 34, 6: 1271, 1272 (ill.)
causes of, 1: 33 36, 6: 1271 72
41 (ill.)
design an experiment for, 1: 42 44, 6: 1280 81
fronts, 1: 34 35, 6: 1285
measuring wind speed experiment, 6: 1273 77,
1275 (ill.)
sun in, 6: 1271, 1271 (ill.)
temperature and cloud formation experiment, 6:
1277 80
thermal inversions in, 1: 47, 47 (ill.)
36 (ill.), 38 (ill.)
See also Storms
Weather forecasting, 6: 1283 93, 1283 (ill.),
1284 (ill.)
1290 (ill.), 1291 (ill.)
computers and, 6: 1283, 1285
dewpoint temperature experiment, 6: 1286 89,
1287 (ill.), 1288 (ill.)
Weather maps, 6: 1285
Weather stations, 6: 1283
Weather vanes, 6: 1280 (ill.), 1284
Weathering
958 (ill.), 959 (ill.)
mountains, 4: 737
in soil formation, 5: 1063 65
Weaver ants, 1: 62
Weaving, 2: 399
Wedges, 5: 1048
Wegner, Alfred, 6: 1237 38, 1238 (ill.)
Weight
atomic, 4: 827 28
690 (ill.)
1264 68, 1265 (ill.), 1266 (ill.)
Weissenberg effect, 3: 444 47, 446 (ill.), 447 (ill.)
Wells, 3: 601, 604
Went, Fritz W., 6: 1191 92, 1209
Wetlands, 3: 604, 606 (ill.)
Whales, 3: 402
Wheel and axle machines, 5: 1051 55, 1051 (ill.),
1054 (ill.)
Wheelbarrows, 5: 1051, 1051 (ill.)
Whirlpools, 6: 1155
Whirly toys, 3: 418 21, 418 (ill.), 419 (ill.), 420 (ill.)
White glue, 1: 20, 22 25, 23 (ill.), 167 70, 168 (ill.),
169 (ill.)
White light, 2: 203 5, 205 (ill.), 4: 873 77, 875 (ill.),
876 (ill.)
WHO (World Health Organization), 2: 390
Widows peak, 3: 556 59, 556 (ill.), 559 (ill.)
Wilting plants, 5: 899, 900 (ill.)
Wind
air pressure and, 1: 33 34
anemometers for, 6: 1273 (ill.), 1283 (ill.)
direction of, 6: 1280 (ill.), 1284
evaporation and, 6: 1252 53
measuring wind speed experiment, 6: 1273 77,
1275 (ill.)
for pollination, 3: 425
in storm formation, 6: 1147
5: 904 7, 906 (ill.)
in weather, 6: 1271
Wind energy, 5: 942, 942 (ill.), 944 48, 945 (ill.),
946 (ill.)
Wind turbines, 5: 942
Windmills, 5: 942
Wings
airplane, 3: 413, 414, 414 (ill.)
insect, 3: 632 33, 633 (ill.)
Winter season, 5: 983, 984 (ill.)

Wolffia, 3: 423
Wood, 6: 1295 1307, 1296 (ill.), 1297 (ill.)
building properties experiment, 6: 1302 6,
1304 (ill.), 1305 (ill.)
density of, 6: 1295
elasticity of, 2: 321
24 (ill.)
grain, 6: 1297, 1298 (ill.)
for heat, 5: 942
621 (ill.)
petrifaction of, 3: 523
types of, 6: 1295
water absorption experiment, 6: 1298 1302,
1300 (ill.), 1301 (ill.)
1264 68, 1265 (ill.), 1266 (ill.)
Wood finishes, 6: 1307
Wool, 3: 509, 6: 1139 44, 1141 (ill.), 1143 (ill.)
Work, definition of, 5: 1047
World Health Organization (WHO), 2: 390
Worms, tube, 4: 775
Wright, Orville, 3: 413 15, 415 (ill.)
Wright, Wilbur, 3: 413 15, 415 (ill.)
Xanthophyll, 1: 192, 201 (ill.), 4: 872

Xerophytes, 1: 105
Xylem, 1: 71 72, 4: 872, 5: 884, 898
Years, 6: 1175, 1176 (ill.)

Yeast
in bread making, 2: 359, 360 (ill.), 3: 464 65,
465 (ill.), 540, 544
carbon dioxide from, 2: 359, 3: 540 41
in food spoilage, 3: 477 80, 478 (ill.)
production of, 2: 360, 362
clxxi
reproduction, 1: 143 44, 147 48, 147 (ill.),

148 (ill.), 149 (ill.), 150
544 49, 547 (ill.), 548 (ill.)
uses for, 3: 540 41
543 (ill.)
Yellow light, 4: 873 77, 875 (ill.), 876 (ill.)
Yellowstone National Park, 1: 88, 88 (ill.)
Yogurt, 1: 101
Young, Thomas, 4: 660
clxxii
Zinc
340 44, 341 (ill.), 342 (ill.)
838 40, 840 (ill.), 841 (ill.), 842
Zone of inhibition, 1: 90 91

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Experiment Central

Understanding Scientific Principles

For product information and technology assistance, contact us at

Project Editor: Kristine Krapp

Cover photographs: Images courtesy of Dreamstime, Photos.com, and

This title is also available as an e book.

Printed in the United States of America

Readers Guide xxi

Material Adhesion: How do various glues adhere to different

Pollutant Bioindicators: Can lichens provide clues to an areas

Camouflage: Does an animals living environment relate to the

Tree Growth: What can be learned from the growth patterns of

Bacterial Growth: How do certain substances inhibit or promote

Building a Temperate Forest Biome 107

Cave Formation: How does the acidity of a substance affect the

Investigating Cells: What are the differences between a

Rusting: Is the chemical reaction exothermic, endothermic, or

Experiment Central, 2nd edition

Exothermic or Endothermic: Determining whether various

Supertasters: Is there a correlation between the number of taste

Plant Pigments: Can pigments be separated? 193

Readers Guide xxi

Color and Flavor: How much does color affect flavor

Comet Nucleus: Linking a Comets Composition to its

Meteor Impact: How do the characteristics of a meteorite and its

Living Landfill: What effect do the microorganisms in soil have

Crystal Structure: Will varying shape crystals form from varying

Density: Can a scale of relative density predict whether one

Decay and Dissolved Oxygen: How does the amount of decaying

The Stuff of Life: Isolating DNA 289

Detecting an Earthquake: How can movement of Earths crust

Simulating Solar and Lunar Eclipses 327

Experiment Central, 2nd edition

26. Electricity 333

Electrolytes: Do some solutions conduct electricity better than

Magnetism: How can a magnetic field be created and detected? 351

Finding the Enzyme: Which enzyme breaks down hydrogen

Plants and Health: Which plants have anti-bacterial

Readers Guide xxi

31. Fish 401

Fish Breathing: How do different fish take in oxygen? 404

Lift-Off: How can a glider be made to fly higher? 415

Self versus Cross: Will there be a difference in reproduction

Viscosity: How can temperature affect the viscosity of

Sweet Preservatives: How does sugar affect the preservation of

Preservatives: How do different substances affect the growth of

Newtons Laws in Action: How do water bottle rockets

Experiment Central, 2nd edition

Centripetal Action: What is the relationship between distance

Fiber Evidence: How can scientific techniques be used to

Making an Impression: In which soil environment does a fossil

Decomposers: Food source for a common fungi 541

Effects of Temperature on Germination: What temperatures

Gravity: How fast do different objects fall? 581

Creating a Greenhouse: How much will the temperature rise

Aquifers: How do they become polluted? 605

47. Heat 615

Conduction: Which solid materials are the best conductors

Readers Guide xxi

Tadpoles: Does temperature affect the rate at which tadpoles

Magnets: How do heat, cold, jarring, and rubbing affect the

Experiment Central, 2nd edition

52. Materials Science 685

Testing Tape: Finding the properties that allow tape to support